ORIGINAL RESEARCH

published: 10 December 2018

doi: 10.3389/fbuil.2018.00075

Hybrid Micro-Modeling Approach for

the Analysis of the Cyclic Behavior of
RC Frames
Gianni Blasi 1,2 , Flavia De Luca 2* and Maria Antonietta Aiello 1
1
Department of Innovation for Engineering, University of Salento, Lecce, Italy, 2 Department of Civil Engineering, University of
Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom

The present study is aimed at developing a hybrid approach to consider the effect of
concrete cracking on the hysteretic response of RC frames. The mechanical behavior
of the concrete is defined according to the smeared cracking approach, while discrete
cracking surfaces are included in the geometrical model. The interface behavior of
the discrete cracking surfaces is defined by the combination of contact and cohesive
elements. The proposed approach is adopted in ABAQUS to simulate an experimental
test on a double cantilever column for the calibration of the numerical model. Therefore,
a test conducted on a RC portal and modeled numerically for the first time is
Edited by:
Vagelis Plevris,
simulated. Numerical and experimental results are compared in terms of hysteretic force-
OsloMet–Oslo Metropolitan University, displacement behavior and cumulative dissipated energy, in order to assess the reliability
Norway
of the proposed model in simulating the energy dissipation capacity of RC members
Reviewed by:
subjected to lateral cyclic loading. The hybrid modeling approach proposed allows an
Michalis Fragiadakis,
National Technical University of accurate description of the stress distribution and a fairly satisfactory matching of the
Athens, Greece hysteretic behavior with a reasonable compromise in terms of computational effort.
Francesco Tornabene,
Università degli Studi di Bologna, Italy Keywords: reinforced concrete frames, cyclic behavior, hysteretic response, micro-modeling, abaqus, hybrid
Zeljana Nikolic, micro-model
University of Split, Croatia
*Correspondence:
Flavia De Luca INTRODUCTION
[email protected]
Finite element (FE) analysis is widely adopted in earthquake engineering, particularly when dealing
Specialty section: with systems with a high number of degrees of freedom (DOF), representing the structural
This article was submitted to configuration of buildings. On the other hand the simulation of the seismic response of RC
Computational Methods in Structural structures through finite element analysis can be complex and challenging. This is mainly caused by
Engineering, the difference between the mechanical response of concrete and steel rebars and by their consequent
a section of the journal complex interaction. In numerical studies, either micro- or macro-modeling approaches are
Frontiers in Built Environment
usually adopted depending on the aim of the study, which can require the accurate simulation
Received: 08 August 2018 of several phenomena influencing the response of the frames. Macro-models generally adopt
Accepted: 22 November 2018 simplified formulation which implicitly consider the influence of the micro-mechanical interaction
Published: 10 December 2018
phenomena on the response of the elements/materials. This approach leads to a significant
Citation: simplification of the numerical problem. In micro-modeling approaches, the micro-mechanical
Blasi G, De Luca F and Aiello MA
interaction phenomena are explicitly modeled numerically (e.g., Karavelić et al., 2017; Sinaie
(2018) Hybrid Micro-Modeling
Approach for the Analysis of the
et al., 2018) and generally high computational efforts are required. Therefore, when the target
Cyclic Behavior of RC Frames. of the analysis is global behavior of RC structures, generally macro-models are preferred (e.g.,
Front. Built Environ. 4:75. Vamvatsikos and Fragiadakis, 2010; De Risi et al., 2017). This is mainly due to the substantial
doi: 10.3389/fbuil.2018.00075 reduction of the computational effort required with respect to micro- and meso-models. In the

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Blasi et al. Hybrid FEM for RC Frames

last decades, large numbers of macro-models have been (Koutromanos and Shing, 2012; Redmond et al., 2018), while the
developed, able to accurately reproduce the response of RC eXtended Finite Element Method (XFEM) requires the definition
members. On the other hand, for the accurate reproduction of a contact law along the cracking surfaces, which is not pre-
of stress/strain distribution in the elements subjected to cyclic defined in the geometrical model (Yu et al., 2016).
loads, micro- and meso-models still represent the best option. The present study is aimed at proposing a hybrid approach
The latter approach represents the compromise between micro- using ABAQUS (Dassault Systemes, 2016) which combines the
and macro-modeling, featuring a simplification of the numerical discrete cracking approach and the smeared cracking approach.
problem aimed at accurately evaluate only the phenomena which The cracking surfaces are pre-defined in the numerical model
are object of the analysis. For this reason, the difference between by splitting the geometry in different “macro blocks”; along the
macro- and meso-models can’t be unambiguously defined. In cracking surfaces, cohesive and contact laws are defined, in order
macro-models, RC frames are usually modeled through beam to simulate the crack opening and closure, respectively.
elements, while both micro- and meso-models generally feature This approach makes possible to simplify the definition
solid or shell elements to represent the concrete region, whereas of the mechanical response of the concrete, since the cyclic
the steel reinforcement is simulated with embedded beam/truss opening/closure is not implicitly taken into account in the tensile
elements (e.g., Viswanathan et al., 2014; Redmond et al., 2018). behavior definition. Furthermore, since the cracking paths are
Mechanical models for concrete and steel, available in most predefined in the geometry, the contact and cohesive laws are
of the FE platforms, allow reproducing the stress-strain response only defined for specific surfaces in the geometry, leading to a
under monotonic loading and the degradation of the strength significant reduction of the computational efforts.
and stiffness due to cyclic loading. The mechanical response of The proposed approach is aimed at reproducing the hysteretic
the steel is generally reproduced adopting a symmetric bi-linear response of RC members subjected to cyclic lateral loading. In
behavior, characterized by kinematic or isotropic hardening laws; order to assess the reliability of the proposed model, a test on
even if in some cases the compressive response is modified to take a double cantilever column was simulated (Ohue et al., 1985)
into account the buckling phenomenon on rebars. by proposing different modeling approaches. The monotonic
Although the simulation of the concrete response is and hysteretic response of the numerical simulations were
more challenging; as well-known, the compressive behavior is compared to the experimental results with a particular focus
characterized by a post peak softening slope, influenced by on the influence of the adopted model on the accuracy of the
different parameters, such as the confinement (Mander et al., reproduction of the shape of the hysteresis loops. Then, a recent
1988), while the tensile response is generally composed of an experimental test on a RC portal conducted by Verderame et al.
elastic branch up to the tensile strength of the concrete, followed (2016) is modeled numerically for the first time in order to assess
by concrete cracking. preliminarily the reliability of the proposed approach. Hysteretic
The post-cracking response of concrete can be simulated force-displacement response is evaluated and the numerical and
adopting the smeared cracking approach (Lotfi and Shing, 1991; experimental results are compared, in order to assess the accuracy
Lee and Fenves, 1998), where cracks are not explicitly defined in of the simulation of the cyclic loops.
the geometry of the model but they are implicitly considered in
the mechanical response of the material.
The smeared cracking approach has been widely adopted MICRO-MODELING OF RC
in numerical studies to reproduce the monotonic response of FRAMES—ISSUES IN THE SIMULATION OF
RC frames (Sinaei et al., 2012; Sümer and Aktaş, 2015; Ors THE CYCLIC BEHAVIOR
et al., 2016); although this mechanical model is not always able
to accurately reproduce the response of concrete under cyclic Most of the mechanical models available on FE platforms
loading. to simulate the behavior of the concrete take into account
The discrete cracking approach is an alternative method to the significant asymmetry of the response in compressive and
reproduce the crack opening in the concrete (Dolbow et al., 2001; tensile direction. The compressive stress-strain relationship of
Giner et al., 2009), it generally allows high simplifications of the concrete is represented through a non-linear formulation
the mechanical model adopted for the concrete. Discrete cracks (Figure 1A) whose parameters depend on the reinforcement
develop in the mesh once the tensile strength or the cracking details, as the post-peak softening response, being highly
energy is attained and they can be explicitly identified in the post influenced by the transverse reinforcement (Mander et al., 1988).
processing. On the other hand, the tensile behavior definition depends on the
The two methods discussed allow the accurate reproduction approach adopted to simulate the concrete cracking.
of the effects of crack development in concrete members, but, in The response of RC members under cyclic lateral loading
many cases, they are time consuming and lead to convergence is indeed highly influenced by the cracking of concrete, which
issues. modifies the energy dissipation capacity. The pinching effect
Furthermore, when dealing with the cyclic behavior of characterizing the flexural response of frames is caused by
the concrete members, the effects of the cyclic opening and the cyclic closure/opening of cracks, leading to a significant
closure of the cracks should be considered in the numerical reduction of the stiffness in the load-inversion phase, due to the
simulation; in the smeared cracking approaches, this leads to a closure of the cracks. Depending on the adopted approach, the
significant increase of the complexity of the mechanical model cyclic loops characterizing the lateral response of a RC frame

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Blasi et al. Hybrid FEM for RC Frames

FIGURE 1 | Example of mechanical model for concrete in compression (A) and tension stiffening (B).

can be reproduced in different ways, explained in the following The monotonic surfaces are active when either only
section. monotonic loading has occurred or the stress point reaches the
monotonic yielding surfaces during an unloading process. The
proposed model was validated by comparisons with experimental
The Smeared Cracking Approach results of uniaxial tests on concrete and was assessed to be highly
In the smeared cracking approach, the development of cracks reliable to simulate all the phenomena characterizing the cyclic
in the concrete is considered by defining a post-peak tensile response of asymmetric materials as concrete.
response of the material. Thus, rather than tracking individual In some cases, mechanical models available in finite-
“macro” cracks in the geometrical model, the presence of element software packages are unable to simulate the response
cracks is considered implicitly by modifying the stress and the under cyclic loads, particularly in case of large tensile
material stiffness associated with the integration point. After the strain/displacement (Figure 2A); compression stiffness recovery
attainment of the tensile strength of the concrete (fct ), a post-peak in the reloading phase can occur earlier than expected, depending
softening branch (tension stiffening) simulates the progressive on the criterion adopted in the model to discern the transition
degradation due to the crack openings. Tension stiffening is from tension. As observed by Nikaido et al. (2015), if the
reported in Figure 1B and can follow either linear or exponential compression stiffness recovery is detected at zero stress point,
laws. the pinching effect simulation can be challenging, since the crack
In this approach, the simulation of the crack closure, closure cannot be accurately reproduced in the numerical model
requires an increase of the complexity of the material model (as shown in Figure 2B).
(Koutromanos and Shing, 2012) and, as said before, highly In other cases, the auxiliary yielding surfaces are not even
influences the dissipation capacity of the frame members. defined and the stiffness degradation, representing the cracking
As reported in Figure 1B, once unloading takes place, after closure, does not take place.
the crack has opened, the unloading branch stiffness is equal If the mechanical model is unable to produce a satisfactory
to the elastic stiffness, reduced by a factor δt that takes into simulation of the pinching effect, a significant mismatch is
account the degradation due to damage. As soon as the elastic obtained in the numerical simulation of the flexural response of
displacement is restored, the crack closure stage begins and a RC members in terms of energy dissipation, since cracking of the
significant reduction of the stiffness up to the complete closure of concrete leads to a noticeable decrease of the energy dissipated.
the crack is observed. At this point, the elastic stiffness is restored
and compression takes place; the variation of the stiffness during
the load inversion phase (pinching) is more marked in case of The Discrete Cracking Approach
relevant crack patterns in RC members. In the discrete cracking approach, the cracking process is ruled
The analytical formulation to simulate the monotonic by cracks developed in the geometrical model; the most used
response of concrete usually requires the definition of two modeling approaches are the extended finite element method and
yielding surfaces; the first one is referred to the end of the elastic the adoption of cohesive elements to express the post-cracking
branch in compression, at which the linear stress-strain law turns response of the concrete.
into an exponential one. The second yielding surface is referred The XFEM was developed by Moës and Belytschko (2002);
to the end of the elastic slope in tension, where tension stiffening it allows to significantly simplify the definition of the tensile
takes place. response in the mechanical model of the material. The
The model proposed by Oliveira and Lourenço (2004) was cracking path is generated by adding discontinuous basis
adopted in finite-element analysis of masonry structures to functions to standard basis functions for nodes where cracking
simulate the cyclic behavior of interface elements; although the energy/displacement is computed, in order account for the
same formulation can be used for concrete. The cyclic response displacements due to crack opening. The main advantage in the
is defined by the adoption of two auxiliary yielding surfaces XFEM is that no update of the mesh is required to track the crack
moving within the monotonic yielding surface, representing the path, thus, the mesh-dependency of the results is significantly
unloading/reloading phase. reduced with respect to a smeared cracking approach.

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Blasi et al. Hybrid FEM for RC Frames

FIGURE 2 | Effect of the cracking closure simulation (A) in the mechanical model and (B) in the global response showing the pinching effect.

Since the XFEM allows to model the discontinuity in a developed through combination of the XFEM, to detect the crack
displacement field along the crack path, the simulation of the paths in concrete, traction-separation cohesive laws to simulate
crack growth requires an accurate definition of the fracture the post-cracking response, and contact elements to take into
modes; generally, the cracking path is computed adopting the account the clack closure process. A satisfactory simulation of the
mixed mode in order to consider not only the response under experimental response of RC frame members was obtained and
uniaxial traction (Ballatore et al., 1990). Dolbow et al. (2001) also the comparison between experimental and numerical hysteretic
incorporated friction laws in order to simulate more accurately loops demonstrated the high reliability of the model in simulating
the crack growth under compression, which is an important the pinching effect.
feature when dealing with cyclic response of the frame members. An alternative discrete cracking approach for the simulation
Since the crack path is not pre-defined, the accurate of the lateral response of RC members was proposed by Stavridis
simulation of the cyclic response of reinforced concrete members and Shing (2010). Triangular elements were connected with
requires the inclusion of contact laws in order to consider the double-node interface elements, simulating the post cracking
effect of the crack closure. This assumption generally leads behavior of the concrete. The model was validated by comparing
to high computational effort, and in many cases can cause numerical results with experimental tests on infilled frames,
convergence issues, particularly when dealing with RC members showing a good match with the experimental backbone curve
with embedded rebars, for which multiple crack paths are (Stavridis and Shing, 2010; Redmond et al., 2018).
expected to develop under cyclic lateral loading. A similar approach was recently developed from Zivaljic
Discrete cracking approaches adopting cohesive elements et al., 2013, combining triangular plane-stress elements with
rather than XFEM have been also widely adopted in the literature discrete cracking interfaces to reproduce concrete cracking and
(Bocca et al., 1991). The so-called discrete interelement cracks embedded one-dimensional elements simulating steel rebars. The
require remeshing in the model after the generation of the bar slip was also considered by defining a pre- and post-cracking
cracks, since the path is defined between the elements. This mechanical model for steel. The proposed model was adopted
method is similar to the XFEM since the crack path is not pre- for the simulation of several reinforced concrete elements and
defined and can lead to high computational efforts as well as was assessed to be very reliable in reproducing the crack paths in
convergence issues. Notwithstanding the discussed issues, it was concrete (Zivaljic et al., 2013; Živaljić and Nikolić, 2014; Nikolić
used specifically to simulate the lateral response of reinforced et al., 2017).
concrete members as well as crack growth in ductile materials Also in this cases, a satisfactory simulation of the pinching
(Tvergaard and Hutchinson, 1996; Gullerud et al., 2000). required a complex mechanical model for interfaces elements,
The so-called intraelement approach features the increasing the computational efforts.
incorporation of embedded discontinuities in the geometry
(Belytschko et al., 1988), to simulate the post cracking response
of the material. This approach allows the pre-definition of THE SIMULATION OF THE HYSTERETIC
the crack paths, identified by a preliminary analysis of the RESPONSE IN THE PROPOSED
stress distribution along the member, in order to define the APPROACH
regions where cracks are most likely to develop. Despite this
approach reduces the complexity of the model, in some cases the As discussed in section Micro-Modeling of RC Frames—Issues
preliminary definition of the crack paths may be difficult, as in in the Simulation of the Cyclic Behavior, the main issues in the
the case of RC members subjected to cyclic loading. simulation of the cyclic response of RC members under lateral
In the study proposed by Yu et al. (2016), the simulation of the loading are related to the pinching effect; when the post cracking
pinching effect characterizing the flexural cyclic response of a RC behavior is defined in the mechanical model of the material,
column, was conducted providing a novel modeling approach, the process of crack closure requires a significant increase of

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Blasi et al. Hybrid FEM for RC Frames

the complexity of the formulation, while in discrete cracking was implemented by direct input of the stress-strain backbone
approaches, the cracking closure must be simulated by the curve in the mechanical model available in the software (Concrete
inclusion of contact laws, which can lead to convergence issues. damaged plasticity); the parameters required for the definition of
XFEM method was assessed to be reliable when simulating the the plastic flow and the yield function are assumed considering
lateral response of RC members under monotonic lateral loads values suggested from the literature (Lubliner et al., 1989; Lee and
even if the post-cracking behavior of the concrete is not defined in Fenves, 1998).
the material model (Zi and Belytschko, 2003). On the other hand,
the adoption of this method requires an oversimplification of the The Interface Interaction
response of the material in compression, which in many cases According to different experimental and numerical studies
was assumed to be linear elastic (Dolbow et al., 2001; Liao and (Sneed et al., 2016; Duan et al., 2017), flexural cracks are most
Huang, 2015). When analyzing the non-linear response of frame likely to develop along the discontinuity surfaces, represented by
members experiencing displacements far beyond the yielding the transversal rebars running through the concrete. Thus, in the
point, the simplified assumption on the compressional behavior proposed model, discrete crack paths are preliminarily defined in
of the material becomes questionable and the post-peak actual the geometry.
response of the element can be mismatched. The path initiation position corresponds to the stirrups in
the frame (Figure 3B), while the inclination is defined according
Description of the Numerical Model to the variable strut inclination truss model (EN 1992-1-1,
In the numerical model developed using ABAQUS, an equivalent 2004; Fardis, 2009), assuming an angle of inclination of the
bi-dimensional system is proposed to simulate the cyclic lateral compression stress field equal to 21.8◦ . Moreover, in order reduce
behavior of a RC portal. 4-node bilinear shell elements with the computational efforts, the paths are only included in the
reduced integration (CPE4R) are adopted for concrete, while zones with the highest value of flexural moment. The geometry of
both longitudinal and transverse rebars are modeled using linear concrete members is divided in different “macro-blocks,” whose
truss elements (T2D2), embedded in the concrete geometry interaction is defined through cohesive and contact relationships.
(Figure 3A). The interface zone between the macro blocks is divided in
The mechanical behavior of the concrete is defined adopting three parts, as shown in Figure 3B; the external parts represent
a Concrete smeared cracking model available in the software. the crack paths, while the central part is a rough connection
As evidenced by Nikaido et al. (2015), the latter is unable assumed as the center of the rotation of each block. The
to accurately simulate the crack closure process, since earlier assumption of a central rough connection means that cracks in
compressive stiffness restore occurs in the unloading phase when the members can only evolve up to the external boundaries of
the tensile deformation is relevant. Thus, a combination of the the central zone; as consequence, the latter must be adequately
smeared and discrete cracking approach is adopted to simulate restricted, in order to assume that the collapse of the member is
the pinching effect. attained before cracks develop up to the central zone.
A bilinear kinematic hardening relationship was adopted for Depending on the direction of the load, the two external zones
the definition of the mechanical behavior of the steel rebars, are characterized by compression and tension stress regime,
assuming a symmetric response in tension and compression. respectively (Figure 3B); thus, either cohesive or contact laws are
In order to accurately define the compressive response of the activated along the surfaces, on the basis of the stress regime.
concrete, the well-consolidated and widely adopted formulation The contact law is defined in order to simulate the complete
proposed by Mander et al. (1988) was considered; which takes closure of the crack, when the elastic compression stiffness
into account the transversal reinforcement ratio to define the is restored. The augmented Lagrange method (Powell, 1969)
ductility and strength capacity of the material. The tensile is adopted to compute the contact stress, while the contact
response was assumed to be elastic-perfectly-plastic with no stiffness is automatically defined depending on the stiffness of the
tension stiffening, since the crack opening was modeled following elements experiencing the contact. This approach also allows to
a discrete approach by the adoption of cohesive laws. The model take into account the compressive stiffness reduction due to cyclic

FIGURE 3 | (A) Numerical model and (B) interface interaction.

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Blasi et al. Hybrid FEM for RC Frames

loading, by including compressive degradation in the mechanical

model of the concrete.
The stiffness factor for the contact surfaces is assumed to be
unitary, both for external and central surfaces.
In the initial stage, no gap exists between the blocks, and all
the contact surfaces are in a closed status; since for the external
zones separation of the surfaces is expected, the contact detention
is ruled by the definition of a minimum gap between the nodes,
this assumption assures contact elements being active every time
that surfaces cyclically experience contact.
Once traction takes places along the surface, the separation
between the surfaces follows a stress-displacement law, obtained
as a function of the post-cracking stress-strain relationship of
concrete, reported in Figure 2A.
FIGURE 4 | Description of the NDC specimen tested by Ohue et al. (1985).
The first elastic branch is defined considering the stiffness
of the shell elements, thus, it takes into account the stiffness
degradation by including a degrading tensile law in the
mechanical model of the concrete.
The stress limit at the end of the elastic branch is equal of them characterized by two fully reversed cycles at the same
to the tensile strength of the concrete. The post-peak behavior displacement amplitude.
is ruled by an exponential law, according to analytical models A mixed shear-flexural failure mode of the specimen was
expressing the tensile response of concrete available in the observed in the test, featuring major shear cracks at a
literature (Pramono and Willam, 1989; Mehta and Monteiro, displacement amplitude equal to 17.5 mm (drift equal to 2.2%).
2006). In this study, an exponent equal to three is assumed to In order to assess the reliability of the proposed model in
define the softening branch after the attainment of the tensile predicting the lateral behavior of RC portals, a campaign available
stress. Once the displacement between the surfaces reaches the in literature and never modeled numerically, was considered
residual limit, the cohesive law is inactive, meaning that no to carry out a numerical simulation. The reinforced concrete
stress-displacement relationship exists between the surfaces. At frame (named ductile frame or DF) tested by Verderame et al.
this stage, once the load is reversed, the closure of the crack is (2016) was designed according to provisions of the Italian seismic
represented by a displacement with zero-stress variation along code NTC08 (2008), in order to simulate the behavior of seismic
the elements, making possible to simulate the pinching effect in designed frames.
the global response of the frame. As said before, once the crack In DF (Figure 5), the longitudinal reinforcement of the beam
is completely closed, the elastic compressive stiffness is partially is symmetric and made of three top and three bottom 10 mm
restored, according to the compressive degradation law defined bars. 12 mm bars were used for the column reinforcement,
in the mechanical model of the material. in order to follow the capacity design approach. Transverse
By this procedure, the pinching effect is “lumped” in the reinforcement of the beam and the columns was composed of
cracking interfaces; beside this, the effect of the cracking of the 6 mm stirrups, whose spacing was equal to 100 mm in all the
concrete on the flexural response in terms of strength is still three elements and 50 mm in the “critical zones,” i.e., the end
considered in the whole model, by the definition of a tensile regions of columns and beams and in the mid span of the
strength limit for the concrete, as well as tension stiffening. beam.
The experimental test was carried out by the application of
cyclic lateral load at the mid-span of the beam; the loading
NUMERICAL SIMULATION OF protocol was composed of fully reversed displacement-controlled
QUASI-STATIC CYCLIC TEST ON RC load cycles, whose displacement amplitude was increased at each
PORTAL load step up to the failure of the specimen. For each load step,
three fully reversed cycles were executed.
The numerical model developed was firstly validated considering The axial load was applied on top of the column during
the experimental test conducted on a double-cantilever column the quasi-static cyclic tests, to simulate gravity loads due to the
by Ohue et al. (1985). The column tested (named non-ductile presence of higher floors in a five-story building.
column or NDC), reported in Figure 4 featured a cross section In the test, the first damage was characterized by flexural
equal to 200 × 200 mm and a height equal to 800 mm. The cracking at the beam ends. By increasing the displacement
longitudinal reinforcement was composed of 2 + 2 rebars with amplitude, flexural cracks developed in the column ends, too.
16 mm diameter, while transverse reinforcement was realized The peak lateral strength was attained after the widening of the
adopting 5.5 mm stirrups with spacing equal to 50 mm. flexural cracks in beam ends and in the bottom of the columns.
Axial load was applied on the top of the column to simulate the As expected for seismic designed frames, the collapse mechanism
presence of the gravity loads. The cyclic lateral load was applied in was caused by major cracking in beams, according to a strong
displacement-control and it was composed of 9 load steps, each column/weak beam mechanism behavior. The failure of the

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Blasi et al. Hybrid FEM for RC Frames

FIGURE 5 | Description of the DF specimen tested by Verderame et al. (2016).

specimen was attained at a drift 1f equal to 5.3% (see Verderame through linear elastic connectors between trusses representing
et al., 2016 for further details). longitudinal rebars and shell elements. The mechanical behavior
of the connectors is defined according to CEB-FIP (2010).
Numerical Simulation of the Tests in It is worth mentioning that the same approach was adopted
for each of the experimental tests simulated, even if Figure 6 is
ABAQUS
referred to the model adopted for the portal tested by Verderame
In the numerical simulation in ABAQUS, different
et al. (2016). The double-cantilever model for the simulation of
configurations of the finite element model are analyzed, in
the test by Ohue et al. (1985) featured an encastre restraint for
order to evaluate the influence of the proposed modeling
both the bottom and the top nodes of the column.
approach on the numerical results. A Finite-Element “standard”
A dynamic analysis adopting implicit method was carried
(FES) model is firstly developed, with the aim of assessing
out; monotonic and cyclic displacements were applied on top of
the accuracy of the material model available in ABAQUS in
the frame and the column as boundary condition to reproduce
simulating the pinching effect. The only difference between FES
the loading protocol applied in the experimental tests, while
model (reported in Figure 6A) and the Finite-Element model
the base shear at the fixed supports was computed during
with macro Blocks (FEB) model proposed in section Description
post-processing in order to plot monotonic and cyclic load-
of the Numerical Model is the absence of the macro blocks in
displacement relationships.
the geometry, meaning that a fully smeared cracking approach
is adopted, without the definition of contact and cohesive laws
to simulate the cyclic opening and closure of cracks, leading to a Comparison Between Numerical and
high simplification of the numerical problem. Experimental Results
In FES model, the size of shell elements is assumed equal to The numerical simulation of the test on the NDC confirms the
50 mm in the whole geometry, while, in FEB model, it is gradually low reliability of the mechanical model of the concrete available
reduced from 50 to 10 mm in proximity to the interfaces between in the software in simulating the cyclic response of reinforced
the macro blocks. Referring to the truss elements adopted to concrete columns. Firstly a monotonic push-over analysis was
simulate longitudinal rebars, a length equal to the stirrups carried out, in order to obtain the monotonic response of each
spacing is assumed. model developed (Figure 7). No significant variation in observed
Furthermore, referring to FEB model, two different in terms of yielding strength and pre-yielding stiffness for FES
configurations were developed (Figures 6B,C) for the test and FEB1 , confirming the equivalence of the two models in the
considered; in order to analyse the influence of the simulation simulation of monotonic behavior.
of bond between concrete and steel rebars on the accuracy of On the other hand, FEB2 model featured a lower stiffness due
the simulation of the hysteretic loops characterizing the lateral to the bar slip. The variation of the yielding strength with respect
response of the portal. to the experimental test is equal to +1.5, +.2%, and +1.1% for
In the first configuration (FEB1 ), the end zones of beams FES, FEB1 , and FEB2 , respectively. The elastic stiffness increased
and columns are divided in two macro blocks, meaning that by 13% for both FES and FEB1 while a decrease of 36% was
two discrete cracking surfaces are included. Bar slip is not observed for FEB2 . The FES and FEB1 featured a hardening
considered and the truss elements are embedded in the concrete response leading to an increase of the ultimate strength with
region. In the second configuration (FEB2 ), which features the respect of the experimental results. This feature suggests that the
same number of blocks adopted for FEB1 , bar slip is modeled strength degradation obtained in the experimental test could be

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Blasi et al. Hybrid FEM for RC Frames

FIGURE 6 | Illustration of (A) FES model, (B) FEB1 model, and (C) FEB2 model.

the maximum strength obtained increased by 14% with respect

to the experimental result (+7% with respect to the monotonic
response), Also in FEB1 model the isotropic hardening affected
the global response in the first cycles, as evidenced by the
different shape of the hysteretic loops comparing numerical
and experimental response for low displacement amplitude.
The increase in maximum strength observed for FEB1 was
11% comparing to experimental test (+3% with respect to the
monotonic response). Despite being affected by the isotropic
hardening model of the reinforcement steel, the cyclic response of
FEB1 featured pinching effect and a satisfactory simulation of the
experimental response was obtained comparing to experimental
curve.
The introduction of the bond between steel rebars and
concrete led to a significant increase of the accuracy of the
FIGURE 7 | Comparison between the monotonic response of the three FE experimental response simulation (Figure 9). The pinching effect
model developed and the cyclic experimental response of NDC. simulation caused by the bar slip significantly affected the shape
of hysteretic loops and led to a reliable simulation of the total
energy dissipated (−19% with respect to the experimental test).
an effect of the cyclic loading, therefore it couldn’t be reproduced A good correspondence in terms of maximum strength was
through a push-over analysis. On the other hand, the strength also observed, with a difference of 4.1% between numerical and
degradation obtained in FEB2 simulation, was caused by the bar experimental results. On the other hand, the inclusion of the
slip, leading to a softening behavior and a higher accuracy of the bond in the numerical model affected the elastic stiffness, which
simulation in terms of strength. was 45% lower in the numerical simulation.
The comparison between the hysteretic response of FES The total energy dissipated, ED is reported in Table 1. In
and FEB1 and the experimental test is reported in Figure 8. the FES a significantly higher value is obtained with respect to
The introduction of the macro-block in the model leads to a the ED of the experimental test (+252%), due to the absence
significant reduction of the energy dissipation and the elastic of pinching and the isotropic hardening effect obtained in the
stiffness of the backbone curve with respect to the FES model. model. For FEB1 and FEB2 , a higher accuracy in the simulation
Furthermore, the pinching effect observed in the experimental of the crack opening/closure due to the presence of the macro-
response is only simulated in FEB1 , confirming the limit of blocks led to a satisfactory matching of the experimental curve
the original model for the concrete in accurately simulate the and, consequently, the ED. Furthermore, the bar slip simulation
cracking closure process. Lastly, the isotropic hardening of characterizing the FEB2 approach reduced the influence of the
the reinforcement steel observed in FES simulation led to a cyclic response of the reinforcement steel on the global behavior
significant increase of the maximum strength with respect to of the column.
the experimental test as well as to the corresponding maximum The numerical simulation of the test on the DF specimen
strength obtained from the push-over analysis. Referring to FES, shows a significant variation of the results depending on the

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Blasi et al. Hybrid FEM for RC Frames

FIGURE 8 | Numerical simulation of NDC adopting (A) FES model and (B) FEB1 model.

the shell elements, and the crack opening is not adequately

simulated. On the other hand, higher quality of the matching of
the experimental test can be observed in terms of strength and
stiffness, even if the pinching effect is not simulated.
Comparing FES results to experimental ones, an increase of
199 and 24% is obtained in terms of elastic stiffness, Ek , and
yielding strength, Fy , respectively. Considering FEB1 , the Fy is
11% higher than the value obtained from the test, while Ek
increases by 111%.
For FEB2 model (Figure 11), a better matching of the
experimental results is obtained both in terms of strength and
stiffness. The simulation of the bond leads to a significant
reduction of the elastic stiffness with respect to FEB1 (−64%),
while bar slip was found to have a sensible influence on the
pinching effect.
FIGURE 9 | Numerical simulation of NDC adopting FEB2 model.
Comparing experimental to numerical results, an increase of
10% is obtained for Fy considering FEB2 , while the elastic stiffness
TABLE 1 | Total energy dissipated for experimental test and numerical models decreases by 23%. It is worth saying that FEB2 simulation is the
referring to NDC. only one which features a decrease of the elastic stiffness with
Experimental ABAQUS FES ABAQUS ABAQUS
respect to the experimental test.
test FEB1 FEB2 Lastly, the energy dissipation capacity is also computed for
the analyzed frame. The cumulative dissipated energy (CDE),
ED [kNm] 9.59 33.72 12.22 7.81 evaluated as the sum of the areas of the hysteretic loops in the F-d
response, is reported in Figure 12. Considering FES and FEB1 , a
significant increase of energy dissipated is observed even for low
modeling approach adopted. The hysteretic force-displacement displacement amplitude, while in case of FEB2 , a very satisfactory
(F-d) behavior obtained considering the FES model (Figure 10A) match is obtained in the early stage.
confirms the assessments made in previous sections. No pinching This assessment is confirmed by the comparison of the
effect is observed in the cyclic response of the frame, leading to hysteretic loops of Figures 10, 11.
a significant increase of the energy dissipated in the numerical The pinching effect is more noticeable in the first loops
model with respect to the experimental test. Furthermore, in case of FEB2 , while the more the displacement amplitude
isotropic hardening effect is observed in hysteretic loops obtained increases, the more the difference between the experimental and
from the numerical simulation, caused by the influence of the the numerical CDE increases.
cyclic behavior of steel rebars on the lateral response of the frame. This effect could be caused by the increase of the strain in shell
In FEB1 (Figure 10B), the bar slip is not simulated since elements adjacent to the cracking surface for high displacement
embedded constraints were adopted between the nodes of shell amplitudes.
and truss elements. For this reason, an increase of the maximum For high displacements, the interaction between the stress
lateral stiffness is obtained in the numerical model compared components in shell elements adjacent to the crack leads to
to the experimental test. The absence of bar slip increases the a significant increase of the strain, causing a distortion of the
influence of the rebar deformation on the strain developed in geometry in the crack closure phase. For this reason, the cyclic

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Blasi et al. Hybrid FEM for RC Frames

FIGURE 10 | Numerical simulation of DF adopting (A) FES model and (B) FEB1 model.

FIGURE 13 | CPU time comparison between FES, FEB1 , and FEB2 .

FIGURE 11 | Numerical simulation of DF adopting FEB2 model.

TABLE 2 | Total energy dissipated for experimental test and numerical models
referring to DF.

Experimental ABAQUS FES ABAQUS ABAQUS

test FEB1 FEB2

ED [kNm] 73.02 228.16 159.58 118.25

to the absence of pinching and because of the higher stiffness

obtained in these simulations. For FEB2 , a better simulation is
obtained, confirming the need of accounting for the bar slip
in the simulation of the hysteretic response when dealing with
reinforced concrete members.
FIGURE 12 | Cumulative dissipated energy obtained for experimental test and The efficacy of the proposed model was also assessed by
numerical models. comparing CPU time of the numerical analysis (Figure 13). Since
the time is significantly influenced by the processor clock rate, the
comparison is provided in terms normalized CPU time (CPUn )
loops obtained for high displacement amplitude are significantly referring to the FES model, which is the simplest configuration
influenced by the hysteretic behavior of the steel, which is not developed.
characterized by pinching. As expected, the absence of the discrete cracks in the FES
The total energy dissipated, ED, is reported in Table 2. As model led to a significant reduction of the CPU time with respect
expected, ED in the FES and FEB1 models is significantly of both FEB1 and FEB2 . The presence of the macro blocks
higher with respect to the ED of the experimental test, due and, consequently, the inclusion of contact and cohesive laws

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Blasi et al. Hybrid FEM for RC Frames

increased by 307% the solver time, while by including the bond concrete in simulating the pinching effect. A better result was
between concrete and steel rebars the increase was 405%. obtained adopting the proposed modeling approaches, although
Even if more complex and more computationally demanding, the simulation of the bond significantly affected the elastic
the FEB2 model is still an appealing and simply-to-model stiffness. The comparison with a portal frame experimental test
alternative for FE analyses with reduced effort with respect to available in the literature also showed that the adoption of
more complex approaches (e.g., Stavridis and Shing, 2010; Yu the smeared cracking approach results in a numerical model
et al., 2016). unable to accurately reproduce the hysteretic response, while the
introduction of discrete cracking paths leads to a better fit of the
CONCLUSIONS experimental results in terms of strength and stiffness.
Also in this case, again, the simulation of the bond was found
Different numerical studies focussed on the seismic response to be fundamental to better reproduce the pinching effect and to
of reinforced concrete members pointed out the issues when obtain a fair matching in terms of energy dissipation capacity.
attempting to accurately reproduce the effects of the cyclic Despite the significant improvement in the simulation,
opening and closure of the cracks in concrete when adopting results of the most sophisticated model with bond showed
meso- and micro-modeling approaches. In different finite that for high drift amplitudes the stress developed in shell
element platforms, mechanical models simulating the concrete elements along the cracking surface led to a distortion of the
tensile response as well as extended finite element methods geometry of the concrete region. Consequently, the hysteretic
available allow to accurately reproduce the crack opening process loops corresponding to higher imposed displacement are mostly
but lead to a significant increase of the computational efforts influenced by the behavior of the steel and pinching becomes less
as well as convergence issues when simulating the effects of the pronounced.
crack opening on the cyclic response of the frames. Furthermore, The results obtained are useful to lay the basis for the
in some cases the results obtained adopting a smeared cracking development of hybrid models to be adopted for the numerical
approaches show a significant difference compared to the actual simulation of the cyclic behavior of reinforced concrete members
behavior observed in experimental tests. having fairly sustainable computational efforts. Further studies
The hybrid modeling approach proposed in the present will be conducted in order to increase the accuracy of the
study was assessed to significantly improve the accuracy of simulation even for higher displacement amplitudes.
the simulation of the hysteretic loops characterizing the lateral
behavior of reinforced concrete members. The smeared cracking AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS
approach adopted to define the mechanical response of the
concrete was combined with a discrete cracking approach GB, FD, and MA conceived of the presented idea. All of the
through the introduction of pre-defined cracking path in the authors contributed to the development of the numerical model
regions subjected to higher values of tensile stress. and carried out a literature review. All authors discussed the
Contact and cohesive interaction laws were adopted to define results and contributed to the final manuscript.
the mechanical response along the cracking paths in order to
simulate the cyclic crack opening and closure. Two different FUNDING
configurations of the proposed model were developed, in order
to evaluate the influence of the simulation of the bond on This work was supported by the Royal Society International
the accuracy of the matching of the experimental hysteresis Exchange Scheme. Award Number: IE161016. Project:
loops. The simulation of the test on the double cantilever Cumulative damage of masonry infills caused by anthropogenic
column evidenced the major limits of the existing model of the earthquakes.

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