12-14Q

-
-

I Y

v
 Cell the Unit of Life : Total 70 Important Points From NCERT

1 II
1. Cell is the fundamental structural & functional unit of all living
- -
organisms perform anfunction -
.

2. Organism Composed of → Single cell → Unicellular

I Il
→ Many Cell → Multicellular
3. Unicellular Organism are capable of :- a. Independent Existence
b. Essential functions of life.
4. All scientists Details:
a. Robert Hooke – Discovered first cell (Dead)
b. Anton von Leeuwenhoek – First Live cell
c. Robert Brown – Discovered Nucleus (1831)-

d. Fleming – Give the Name chromatin

-

e.Cell Theory –Matthias Schleiden & Theodore Schwann

f. Rudolf virchow – Omnis -cellula -cellulae (loss)
g. Singer & Nicolson – Fluid mosaic model (1972)
explainin
- - -
e
bram

h. Camillo Golgi – Golgi Bodies (1898)

-Palade particle.

i. George Palade – Ribosomes (1953)

-

5. Nuclear Membrane: → Absent : Prokaryotic cell -

→ Present : Eukaryotic cell -

 Chemical Reaction
↑
.

6. Cytoplasm – Main arena of cellular activities

P
-

V V
.
-
Imp
7. Membrane bound organelles present only in Eukaryotes but non –
membrane bound organelles present in both prokaryotes & Eukaryotes
us
-

eg :- Ribosomes.
v -

- s
8. Smallest Cells – Mycoplasma
-

9. Largest Cells – Ostrich egg

10. Longest cell – Nerve cell

gran
11. Size:
→ Mycoplasma – 0.3 µm
→ Bacteria – 3 to 5 µm ④
→ RBCs – 7.0 µm *
→ Typical Eukaryotic Cell – 10 – 20 µm
→ Typical Bacteria – 1– 2 µm *
→ Viruses – 0.02 – 0.2 µm
* ↓
n cellular
-
-

- -

- -
12. Prokaryotic cell:- Ribosome 70S → Polysome
-

13. Cell Envelope: 1) 7

a. Glycocalyx :- Differ in Composition and Thickness

-
-
→ Loose Sheath : Slime Layer
→ Thick Tough : Capsule
b. Cell Wall ...
Imp
-
c. Plasma Membrane (Selectively Permeable) -
d. Plasma Membrane: Infolding is Called : Mesosomes
→ 3 Forms: Vesicle, Tubule and Lamellae
→ Function: Cell Wall Formation
: DNA Replication
: Respiration >
-
for enzymatic
: Secretion I Reaction .

: Increase Surface are

14. Motile: Flagella present : 3 Parts
*a. Filament : Longest Portion
b. Hook
c: Basal Body
II in
15. Pili & fimbriae are also surface structure of bacteria but do not play role
in motility.
 Material
Genetic transport

16. Pili : → Elongated and Tubular Chromatophores

*
- -

→ Made up of Special Protein > P

-

-
↓

to
cyanobactria
-
.

17. Fimbriae: → Small. Bristle Like

attachment→ Help Bacteria to attach rock in Stream and also host tissue.
-
-

18. Several ribosomes may attach to a single mRNA & form a chain called
polyribosomes or Polysomes

19. Inclusion Bodies: → Reserve Material in Prokaryotes

→ Not bound to any membrane
→ Lies free in cytoplasm
O ·

→ Eg:- Phosphate granules, cyanophycean

granules, Glycogen granules.

20. Gas Vacuoles found in Blue green & purple & Green photosynthetic
bacteria #
 luck Animall
↑
.

21. Cell Wall: Non-Living and Rigid Structure

22. Cell Wall Composition:

→ Bacteria: Peptidoglycan
→ Algae: Galactans,Manas,cellulose,Mineral CaCo3
→ Plants: Cellulose,Hemicellulose,pectin,Protein
*
23. Types of Cell Wall:
→ Primary Wall : a. Capable of Growth
b. Cell wall of Young Plant Cells
c. Diminishes at cell mature
Imp
--
-
.

→ Secondary Wall: a. Formed innerside to cell membrane

↓
Y
24. Function of Cell Wall: Middle Lamella (mainly of Ca Pectate) → Glue
: Give Shape to cell
: Protect From Mechanical damage + functions
: Help cell to interaction
: Provide barrier to underiable macromolecules
 1) 1)
25. Cell Membrane: Selectively Permeable Which Help in:
-

→ Passive Transport
NAT→ Polar Molecule = Facilitated diffusion
-

→ Water = Osmosis
→ Neutral Solute = Simple Diffusion
→ Active Transport = Na+ - K+ Pump
↳ USE AID

26. Cell Membrane Composition:

water loving
a. Lipid Bilayer : Phosphoglycerides H-
.

O
-

: Polar Head : Outer side → Hydrophilic

: Non Polar tail : inner Side → Hydrophobic
b. Protein
c. Carbohydrates Present: 2 Types Depending upon Ease of Extraction
→ Integral: Partially/totally Buried in Membrane.
> Singer
and
→ Peripheral: Lie on Surface
-

↓ Nicolson
- >
1972
27. Fluid Mosaic Model: Quasi Fluid nature of lipids enables lateral
movement of protein within lipid bilayer (Fluidity) .
-
28. Fluids Nature of membrane help in :
→ Cell Growth
→ Secretion
→ Endocytosis
↳[
→ Cell Division 1) II

→ Formation of intercellular junction.

-

29. Endomembrane System: Different organelles with Coordinated Functions.

30. Included: a. Endoplasmic Reticulum

b. Golgi complex
c. Lysosomes
d. Vacuoles
work

Ribosome
31. Endoplasmic Reticulum :- Divide Intracellular Space in 2 Part
* → Luminal : Inside ER
E
↓
+ St
→ Extra Luminal
V mature
: Cytoplasm
a. Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum: Protein Synthesis & Secretion
b. Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum: Major site for Lipid
K
Synthesis
Steroid Hormone.
32. Golgi Apparatus: Consists of Flat, Disc-Shaped Structure Called
Cisternae &

33. Cisternae : a. Convex (Cis Face) : Forming Face

b. Concave (Trans face) : maturing Face mature
>
Imp
-

Protein
...
=
-
-

34. Function: → Packaging of Materials after modification

→ Major site for formation of Glycolipids + Glycoproteins
- cate

35. Lysosome : Membrane Bound Vesicular structure

: Formed by Packaging in the golgi apparatus IC 1)

: Rich in Hydrolytic Enzyme (Optimally active at Acidic pH)

36. Lysosome Function: Capable of Digesting

(Carbohydrates,Protein,Lipids and Nucleic acid)
II I

37. Cis & Trans faces of the organelles are entirely different, but
--

Interconnected → Golgi Bodies

38. Golgi apparatus remain in close association with the endoplasmic

reticulum.
 39. Mitochondria: Visible under the Microscope only after staining.: -
-

: No. per cell is variable, depending on the physiological

activity of the cells
: Diameter → 0.2 to 1 µm (Avg 0.5 µm)
: Length → 1.0 to 4.1 µm
: Shape → Sausage/cylindrical
: Double Membrane Bounded *
: Two aqueous compartment > Homogenous
-

: Inner → Matrix
: Inner membrane with folding called cristae
-

: Cristae Increase Surface are.

: Matrix contain: [ds circular DNAJand
Few RNA Molecules
: 70s Ribosome
: Function: → Aerobic Respiration (Produce ATP)
→ Powerhouse of the cell
* vacuole : - Membrace bounded (tonoplast)
-

: Occupies guy Volume as sell

e
y
-

Amucha :
: Tenoplast facilitates in against concentration ent
product
-
-

Contractive
·
: - Contain : Water Cell Sap Excretory
, ,
Vazulule
-
Protisti-food vacuoles .
40. Plastids: Found in all plant cells & in Euglenoids
: They are large
-
↳
M
-

: On the basis of presence or absence of pigments & types of

pigments, plastids are of 3 types.
: 1. Chloroplast
2. Chromoplast
3. Leucoplast

41. Chromoplast : Fat Soluble Carotenoid pigments like

carotene, Xanthophyll etc
: This Gives Plant part Yellow, Orange or red color

42. Leucoplast : Colorless Plastid (Pigment absent)

: Function as Storage of Nutrients (Food)

43. Types of Leucoplast:

a. Amyloplast : Store Carbohydrate(Starch) e.g Potato
b. Elaioplast: Store Oils and Fats
c. Aleuroplast: Store Protein
44. Chloroplast: Shape: Lens, Oval,Spherical,Discoid,Ribbon like.
- -

: Number: In Chlamydomonas = 1
-

: In Mesophyll Cell = 20-40

-

: Size :- Length : 5-10 µm

-

:- Width : 2-4 µm

45. Chloroplast is Double membrane bounded.Il 1)

Note: Inner chloroplast Membrane is relatively less permeable.

-

-Dark Reaction
46. Space limited by inner membrane called stroma.
-

C photosynthesis)

↓
47. Stroma : It Contain Enzymes Required for Synthesis of Carbohydrates
-
: ds Circular DNA
: 70s Ribosome

48. Thylakoids: Flattened membranous sacs arranged in stack like piles.

-
49. Ribosome: Protein Factory
14 u: Types - a. Eukaryotes 80S (60S+40S) 3
b. Prokaryotes 70S (50S+30S)

: S = Svedberg unit/Sedimentation Coefficient

(Indirectly Measure Size & Density)
-

50. Cytoskeleton : Elaborate network of Filamentous

Proteinaceous Structure.
: Consist of : Microtubule
L : Microfilaments
: Intermediate Filaments
: Functions: Mechanical Support
: Motality
:Maintain Shape fell .

51. Cilia: Hair Like Outgrowth of cell membrane

: Small Structure, work like oars.
: Causing the movement of with cell or surrounding fluids.
52. Flagella : Hair Like Outgrowth of cell membrane
: Responsible for cell movement
: Longer than cilia.
53. Cilia & flagella : Emerge From Centriole like
-

Vyvilma structure called basal body. vivimp

-- : Core or Filament is Called Axoneme.
00 -linker
>- : Arrangement of microtubule = 9+2
a
-
I
0 0
= 8 : 9 Microtubule = Peripheral (Doublet)

vood : 2 Microtubule = Central (Singlet) O

: Central microtubule connected by bridges
: 9 radial spokes
A
-
-

: Peripheral doublets connected by linkers.

↑
54. Centriole: Cylindrical structure without membrane
-

: absent in almost all plant cells.

-

55. Centriole appears as Cartwheel:

→ 9 peripheral microtubule (tubulin protein)
→ peripheral tubules = Triplets.
→ Central Proteinaceous part = hub
→ hub & peripheral tubules connected by Radial Spokes.
→ Arrangement of microtubules = 9+0
56. Functions of Centriole:
→ Forms basal Body of cilia and flagella.
→ Help in Formation of spindle fibres during cell division in
--

animal cells

f
14 II

v.
Imp→ Centrosome containing 2 cylindrical structure called
-
v
-
- centrioles (Lies perpendicular to other)

57. Nucleus: Consist of two parallel membrane & space between both the
membrane is called Perinuclear space.(10–50nm)
Nuclear por
↑
58. Nuclear envelope in intrupted by minute pores formed by fusion of both
the membrane.
II II

59. Movement of RNA & Protein takes place between cytoplasm & Nucleus
through pores.

60. Outer membrane remain continuous with ER.

61. Normally one nucleus per cell but in some organism more than one
nucleus per cell eg:- Paramecium, Liquid endosperm of coconut etc.
Syncf
-
-

I
62. Some mature cell lack nucleus. eg:- RBCs of many mammals
-

Sieve tube cells of vascular plants

-

I'
12
63. Nucleus of a cell when it is not dividing = Interphase Nucleus
-

64. Nucleus Matrix or Nucleoplasm Contain :

→ Nucleoli : a. Spherical, Non-membranous V I P
b. Site for rRNA synthesis.
c. Large & more in Number
d. Carryout protein synthesis.

→ Chromatin: a Highly extended & elaborate nucleoprotein fibres.

b. Condense & form chromosome during cell
division.
c. Contain DNA, Some Basic protein(Histone),
Some Non-Histone Protein & RNA
65. Chromosome Structure:-
→ Primary constriction or centromere.
2
→ Each centromere has a disc shaped structure called
kinetochores
-
↑ Non-staining .
→ fragment or part of chromosome after secondary constriction
1) c) -
called satellite.
- Y

66. Types: on the basis of position of centromere:

→ Metacentric: Centromere in middle
→ Submetacentric : Centromere slightly away from middle
→ acrocentric : Centromere close to one end
→ Telocentric: Centromere at terminal

67. Microbodies: → Membrane bound minute vesides.

→ Contain various enzyme
→ Present in both Plant & Animal cell
 Biomolecule : Total 65 Important Points From NCERT

1)
r
I
1. Relative abundance of carbon & Hydrogen with respect to other
-

elements is higher in any living organism than in earth’s crust.

2. All the carbon compound that present in living tissue is called

Biomolecules.

3. Average Composition of cell:

V
Imp
.
Inorganidementend
--
.-

4. Living tissue + Trichloroacetic acid (ccl3-cooh) → Thick Slurry obtained

5. Thick Slurry : → a. Filtrate: Acid Soluble Pool and Biomicromolecules.
→b. Retentate or Acid Insoluble pool → Biomacromolecules
6. Amino acid → Substituted methane
7. Structure of Amino acid: Carbon
↓ -

n -
U
I

cyy
>
-

o
g

-
>
-
x-aminocid
-
.

↳ Basic ↑
COUN ↑ >
-
cidic AA
↳ I =
-

AA
-

-
N2
-

Y
8. Based on nature of “R” group:
→ If – R group is : –H : Glycine
: – CH3 : Alanine
: – CH2OH : Serine

→ There are many amino acids but those which occurs in proteins are
only of twenty types.

9. Amino acid:-
→ Acidic : Glutamic acid
→Basic: Lysine
→ Neutral: Valine
→ Aromatic: Tyrosine, Tryptophan, phenylalanine.
10. Amino acid:
→ Essential Amino acid: Cannot be Synthesized in Our Body.
→ Non-essential : Can be Synthesized by our body.

11. Lipids:
→ Generally Water Insoluble.
→ Not Strictly bio-macromolecules (mol. Wt <800 dalton)
→ They Could be Simple Fatty acid.
LOOM-R .

12. Fatty acid has a carboxyl group attached to an R-group.

13. R–group have 1 carbon to 19 carbon

E.g: a. Palmitic acid : 16 Carbon (Including Carboxyl Carbon)
b. Arachidonic acid: 20 Carbon (Including Carboxyl Carbon)
Single + =,
=

14. Fatty acid could be saturated OR unsaturated

15. Fatty acid are esterified with glycerol, can be mono, di, triglyceride.

16. Fatty acid also called Fats & oils based on their melting point.
E.g: eg:- Gingely Oil - lower melting point, hence remain oil in winter
17. Lecithin – Phospholipids – Found in cell membrane.

18. Zwitterionic form

19. Phospholipid (Lecithin)

20. Cholesterol

21. Metabolites:

→ Primary : a. Present in Animal Tissue

b. Play role in normal physiological process
c. e.g Sugar,Amino acid,Fats & Oils, Nitrogen Bases,
Nucleotide.

→ Secondary: a. Present in Plants, Fungus, Microbes

b. Role or Function not known.
c. e.g Rubber, Drugs, Spices, Scents and Pigemnts
useful to human welfare.
22. Some secondary metabolites –

- -

↓ +

- -

* - -

# - - - -

④ --

23. Biomolecules :
→ Biomicromolecules:
a. Molecular Wt. 18-800 Dalton.
b. E.g Monosaccharides, Nucleotides, Aminoacids

→ Biomacromolecules:
a. Molecular Weight >10,000 Da
b. e.g Proteins, Nucleic acid, Polysaccharides
24. Protein : Heteropolymer of Amino Acid linked by peptide bonds.
-

25. Collagen is the most abundant protein in Animal world.

26. RuBisco is the most abundant in whole Biosphere .

27. Structure of Protein:- -

→ Primary structure : Linear chain of polypeptide

Imp: Left end : 1st Amino Acid, N– terminal
V V-
- : Right end : Last Amino Acid , C–terminal
-

→ Secondary structure : α–Helix & β–plated sheet

> active site
Henzyne
-

→ Tertiary structure : 2° structure folded to form hollow woolen ball.

→ Quaternary structure : Structure like cube or Plate

: Eg: Adult Human Haemoglobin 4 sub units
: 2α-type & 2β-type
-
28. Tertiary structure of protein absolutely necessary for the many biological
activities of protein.
29. Some proteins & their functions –

Invlin :
-
Carbohydrates
-
I 1) -

*
- -

30. Polysaccharides : Long chains of sugar

: Building blocks of monosaccharides.
: Cellulose (Polymer of Glucose)
: Starch (Polymer of Glucose)
: Inuline (Polymer of Fructose) ④

31. Glycogen: Right end : Reducing

: Left end : Non-reducing
32. Starch: Helical secondary structure. v
-Imp : Hold I2 Molecules in Helical portion.
- : Starch-I2 is Blue in Colour.

↳
33. Exoskeletons of Arthropods have a complex polysaccharides called
chitin.

34. Chitin are mostly Homopolymer.

35. Nucleic acid: Exhibit wise variety of 2° Structure.

: Three Component of Nucleotides.
: Nitrogen Base: Heterocyclic

dinin
a. Purines : Adenine and Guanine.
b. Pyrimidines: Cytosine, Uracil and Thymine
: Sugar: Monosaccharides
: Phosphate or Phosphoric acid

36. Double Helical structure – Given by “Watson–Crick”

37. More than a dozen form of DNA named after English alphabets with
unique structural features.
38. Peptide bond, Glycosidic bond etc. are formed by Dehydration
(Elimination of water molecules)

·
39. Enzyme Almost all enzyme are protein, some are nucleic acid
Eg:- Ribozyme
⑧
40. Tertiary structure of enzyme held upon itself, chain criss-cross itself
hence many crevices or pockets are made. Such pockets are called
“Active site”

41. Substrate fits in Active site

°

40 C
-
-

42. Inorganic catalyst work efficiently at high temperatures (Above 400C)

-
-

43. Enzyme isolated from organisms who normally live under extremely
high temperature (Eg:- Hot vents & Sulphur springs) are stable & retain
·
catalytic power even at high temperature (upto 800–900C).
⑧
X

1) /

44. Rate can also be called velocity if the direction is specified

45. A general rule of thumb is that rate double or decrease by half for
every 10°C change in either direction..
46. Catalysed reactions proceed at rates higher than that of uncatalysed
ones. Fus ↓
-

-
II ↓ 11
Slow

47. Carbonic anhydrase: Absent: 200 molecules/hour

: Present: 600,000 molecules/second

48. Enzyme accelerated the reaction rate by about 10 million times

49. Concept of Activation energy–

table

W
50. ES–Complex are unstable & Transient small
-
-

51. Formation of the ES complex is essential for catalysis und

do not
Enzume -
-

52. Factors affecting Enzyme activity:

→ Temperature
→ pH
→ Change in substrate Concentration
Optimally
53. Enzyme normally function in a narrow range of temperature & pH.

54. Activity decline below & Above the optimum value.

55. Low temperature – Enzyme temporarily inactive

56.High temperature – Denaturation of protein (Destroys enzymatic activity)

57. Vmax → Maximum rate of reaction when the enzyme is saturated with
substrate.
58. When the binding of the chemical shuts off enzyme activity, the process
is called Inhibition & the chemical is called on Inhibitor.

59. Competitive Inhibitor:

→ When inhibitor closely resembles the substrate in its
molecular structure.
→ Inhibit the activity of the enzyme ↓
→e.g Inhibition of Succinic dehydrogenase by Malonate.
-

60. Some competitive inhibitor are often used in the control of Bacterial
pathogens

61. Enzymes are divided by into 6 classes each with 4–13 subclasses &
named accordingly by a four digit number.
-
62. Enzymes Classes:

1. Oxidoreductase/dehydrogenase → Catalyse oxidoreduction

2. Transferases → Catalysing a transfer of a group (others than

Hydrogen)

3. Hydrolases→ Catalysing hydrolysis.

4. Lyases → Catalyze removal of group leaving double bond.

5. Isomerases → Catalyze inter-conversion of optical, geometrical

or Position Isomers

6. Ligases → Catalysing the linking together of 2 compound.

63. Enzyme : Simple : Made up of protein only
: Complex: Made up of protein + Non-protein Part
-
64. Holoenzyme : a. Cofactor → Non-Protein Part
: b. Apoenzyme → Protein part

65. Cofactor:
a. Prosthetic Groups:
→ Organic Compound
→ Tightly bound to Apoenzyme

⑧
→ E.g Peroxidase Catalase
→ Heme is Prosthetic group

b. Coenzymes:
→ Organic Compound
→ Association to apoenzyme is only transient
→ Many Coenzymes are Vitamins.V
→ E.g NAD & NADP contain Vitamin Niacin

c. Metal Ions:
d
→ Attach with coordinate bound with side chain at the active site.
→ Cofactor for carboxypeptidase is Zn.
I
66. Catalytic activity lost when the cofactor is removed from the
enzyme. ⑪
 Cell Cycle and Cell Division : Total 65 Important Points From NCERT

1. The sequence of events by which a cell duplicates its genome,

synthesis the other constituent of cell & divide into two daughter cells is
called Cell Cycle.
-

2. Typical Eukaryotic cell (Human cell) cell cycle complete in 24 hours

& yeast takes about 90 minutes.

3. Cell Cycle: a. Interphase b. M-phase

a. Interphase: Resting Phase

→ Lasts more than 95% Duration
→ Cell is preparing for division
→Phase Between two successive M-phase
→ 3 Phases: → G1 Phase
→ S-Phase
→ G2 Phase
b. M-Phase (Mitosis Phase)
→ Lasts less than 5% duration
→ Actual phase when division
→ Most dramatic period -
→ Reorganisation of virtually all component of the cell
→ Two Phase : Karyokinesis Nuclear division
>
-

: Cytokinesis >
-

cutoplasmic
-

4. G1-Phase: M S

→ Phase b/w mitosis & DNA replication

→ Cell is metabolically active
Nucleos
5. S-Phase: H - -

→ DNA replication but no. of Chromosome remain Same.

→ Centriole Duplicate in Cytoplasm

6. G2-Phase
→ Protein Formed for Mitosis.
→ Cell Growth continues.
7. GO -Phase
→ Cell which do not divide further eg.-Heart cell
→ Metabolically active but no longer proliferate.
8. In Animals, mitotic cell division is only seen in the diploid somatic
cells. There are few exceptions in which haploid cells divide by mitosis
eg. Male Honey bees. Cons

9. The number of chromosomes in the parents & progeny cells is the

sme.

10. Karyokinesis (Division of Nucleus)

→ Prophase
→ Metaphase
→ Anaphase

*
→ Telophase

11. Prophase:
→ Follows S & G2 phases of interphase
→ Initiation of condensation of chromosomal material
→ Chromosomes are seen to be two chromatids attached together at
centre more begins to move towards opposite pole.
→ [Two asters + spindle fibres = mitotic apparatus.
→ Cells at the end of prophase, do not show golgi complex, endoplasmic
reticulum, Nucleus & Nuclear envelope.
12. Metaphase: * Anphase :

I
-

I 7

→ Complete disintegration of Nuclear envelope Centromer Split

>
-

Y
→ Condensation of chromosomes completed. and chromatic
-

→ Morphology of chromosomes studied. Separate

-chromatic he
moves
→ Spindle fibre attached with kinetochore (small disc-shaped structure) opp
→ Chromosomes lies at equation. equator
-

-
-

13. Telophase:
→ Chromosomes decondense & lose their individuality
-

→ ER, GC, Nucleolus & Nuclear envelope reformed.

14. Cytokinesis : Division of cytoplasm ↳ deing

→ Animal cell-cell furrow method
→ Plant cell cell plate method
>
-

15. Cell plate represents the middle lamella between the walls of two
-
adjacent cell and plastids.

16. At the end of cytoplasmic division, organelles like mitochondria get

distributed b/w two daughter cells.
17. In some organism karyokinesis is not followed by cytokinesis. So
- - -

multinucleated condition arises called system e.g. Liquid endosperm of

- -

coconut. synsticum
-

18. Significance of mitosis : II I

→ Production of diploid daughter cells with identical genetic complement.
→ Growth of multicellular organisms.
→ Cell growth result in disturbing the ratio b/w nucleus & cytoplasm.
→ Cell repair e.g., Cells of upper layer of the epidermis.
: Cells of the lining of Gut
: Blood cells
→ Mitotic division in the meristematic tissue- the Apical & Lateral cambium

19. Meiosis:
→ Kinds of cell division that reduces the chromosomes number by
half result in production of Haploid daughter cells.
⑭ -

→ Meiosis → Production of haploid phase

⑭
→ Fertilisation → Restore diploid phase
→ Cytokinesis & Karyokinesis → Two times but DNA replication → single
20. Meiosis - I
→ Prophase-I : Subdivided into five phases based on chromosomal
-

behaviour.
-

→ Leptotene : Chromosomes become visible under light microscope.

: Compaction of chromosomes continue.

→ Zygotene: Chromosomes start pairing together synapsis

: Synaptonemal complex formed called Bivalent or Tetrad

→ Pachytene: Bivalent or Tetrad clearly visible

: Appearance of recombination nodules
: Crossing over occurs b/w non-sister chromatids of
homologous chromosomes.
: Recombination completed at the end of this phase, leaving
the chromosomes linked at the site of crossing over.

→ Diplotene : Recognised by dissolution of synaptonemal complex

: Homologous chromosomes of bivalent separate
: X–shaped structures, chiasmata formed.
: Diplotene last for months or year in Oocytes of some
vertebrates.
-
→ Diakinesis : Final stage of prophase-I
: Terminalisation of chiasmata occurs
: Chromosomes are fully condensed
: Mitotic spindle prepare the homologous chromosomes for
seperation.
: Nucleolus & Nuclear envelope disappear at the end.
: Represents transition to metaphase.

21. Metaphase- I:
→ Bivalent chromosomes align on equatorial plate
→ Spindle fibre attached to the kinetochore of homologous chromosomes.
V Imp
V- -

22. Anaphase- I : -
.

→ Homologous chromosomes separate while sister chromatids remains

-
associated at the centromeres.

23. Telophase- I :
→ Nuclear envelope and nucleolus reappear.
→ Cytokinesis follows & called as dyad of cells.
→ Stage between two meiotic division called Interkinesis
(DNA replication absent).v Imp
-

-
24. Meiosis- II : same like mitosis
-
-
~

a. Prophase- II :
→ Chromosomes become condensed & Nuclear envelope disappear.

b. Metaphase- II:
→ Chromosomes lies at equator and microtubules from opposite poles of
spindle get attached to the kinetochores of sister chromatids.
-UIMP
-
c. Anaphase- II: -
→ Splitting of centromere of each daughter chromosomes.
-

→Daughter chromosomes moves towards opposite poles.

d. Telophase- II:
→ Meiosis ends with telophase II
→ Two groups of chromosomes once again get enclosed by nuclear enve-
lope.
→ Four haploid daughter cell formed at end.
25. Significance of Meiosis:

→ Conservation of specific chromosomes number of each species is

achieved across generation in sexually reproducing organism.

→ Increase the genetic variability in the population from one

generation to next.

→ Variation are very important for the process of evolution.

Tho
V
V
Biologyline
-
Y