Mahayogi Gorakhnath University Gorakhpur

Arogya Dham, Balapar Road, Sonbarsa, Gorakhpur-

273007
Faculty Of Pharmaceutical Sciences

ASSIGNMENT ON-
DATA COLLECTION

SUBJECT-RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
SUBMITTED BY- DR. AKHILESH KUMAR DUBEY
PREPARED BY-MS. SHREYA MADDESIYA

DATA COLLECTION:
Data collection is a crucial step in research, business intelligence, and decision-making
processes. It involves systematically gathering and measuring information on variables of
interest, using established protocols to ensure accuracy and reliability.

Types of data collection:

1. Primary data collection: Gathering new data directly from first-hand sources.
- Surveys and questionnaires
- Interviews (structured, semi-structured, unstructured)
- Observations (participant and non-participant)
- Experiments
- Focus groups

2. Secondary data collection: Using existing data from previous studies or sources.
- Literature reviews
- Government records
- Census data
- Company reports
- Archived research data

3. Quantitative data collection: Gathering numerical data.

- Closed-ended surveys
- Structured observations
- Experiments with measurable outcomes

4. Qualitative data collection: Gathering non-numerical data.

- Open-ended interviews
- Field notes
- Document analysis
- Audio/video recordings
Methods of Analysis:

1. Descriptive Analysis:
This method summarizes and describes the main features of a dataset.

Techniques:
- Measures of central tendency (mean, median, mode)
- Measures of dispersion (range, variance, standard deviation)
- Frequency distributions
- Data visualization (histograms, bar charts, pie charts, scatter plots)

Example: Calculating the average age and income distribution of customers in a market
research study.

2. Inferential Analysis:
This method uses sample data to make predictions or inferences about a larger population.

Techniques:
- Hypothesis testing
- Confidence intervals
- Regression analysis
- Analysis of variance (ANOVA)

Example: Using a sample of voters to predict election outcomes for an entire state.

3. Qualitative Analysis:
This method interprets non-numerical data to uncover patterns, themes, and meanings.

Techniques:
- Thematic analysis
 - Content analysis
- Grounded theory
- Discourse analysis
- Narrative analysis

Example: Analyzing interview transcripts to identify common themes in employee

satisfaction.

4. Quantitative Analysis:
This method applies statistical techniques to numerical data to identify relationships and
trends.

Techniques:
- Correlation analysis
- Regression analysis (linear, multiple, logistic)
- Factor analysis
- Time series analysis
- Cluster analysis

Example: Examining the relationship between advertising spend and sales revenue over
time.

5. Exploratory Data Analysis (EDA):

This method is used to identify patterns, anomalies, and relationships in data, often as a
precursor to more formal analyses.

Techniques:
- Data visualization
- Summary statistics
- Dimensionality reduction (e.g., Principal Component Analysis)
- Outlier detection
 Example: Using scatter plots and correlation matrices to explore relationships between
multiple variables in a dataset.

6. Predictive Analysis:
This method uses historical data and statistical techniques to forecast future trends or
outcomes.

Techniques:
- Machine learning algorithms (e.g., decision trees, neural networks)
- Time series forecasting
- Regression models
- Classification models

Example: Using past sales data and economic indicators to forecast future sales for a retail
company.

7. Text Analysis:
This method extracts meaningful information from textual data.

Techniques:
- Sentiment analysis
- Topic modeling
- Named entity recognition
- Text classification
- Word frequency analysis

Example: Analyzing customer reviews to determine overall sentiment towards a product

and identify common topics of discussion.

8. Network Analysis:
This method examines relationships and connections within a dataset, often represented as
nodes and edges in a graph.
 Techniques:
- Centrality measures
- Community detection
- Link prediction
- Network visualization

Example: Analyzing social media connections to identify influencers and community

structures within a network.

Each of these methods of analysis provides different insights and is suitable for different
types of data and research questions. Often, a combination of these methods is used to gain a
comprehensive understanding of the data and to answer complex research questions.

The choice of analysis method depends on the nature of the data collected, the research
questions being addressed, and the goals of the study. It's crucial to select appropriate
methods that align with the data type and research objectives to ensure valid and meaningful
results.

METHOD OF ANALYSIS

CHI-SQUARE TEST AND t-TEST.

Hypothesis Testing:

Hypothesis testing is a statistical method used to make inferences about a population based
on sample data. It involves formulating two competing hypotheses: the null hypothesis (H0)
and the alternative hypothesis (H1 or Ha).

General steps in hypothesis testing:

1. Formulate the null and alternative hypotheses
2. Choose a significance level (α)
3. Select the appropriate test statistic
4. Calculate the test statistic
5. Determine the critical value or p-value
6. Make a decision to reject or fail to reject the null hypothesis
7. Interpret the results

1. Chi-Square Test:

The chi-square test is used to determine if there is a significant association between two
categorical variables or to test the goodness of fit between observed and expected
frequencies.

Types of Chi-Square Tests:

a) Chi-Square Test of Independence
b) Chi-Square Goodness of Fit Test

Chi-Square Test of Independence:

Purpose: To determine if there is a significant relationship between two categorical variables.

Steps:
1. Formulate hypotheses:
H0: There is no association between the variables
H1: There is an association between the variables

2. Create a contingency table of observed frequencies

3. Calculate expected frequencies for each cell:

Expected frequency = (row total × column total) / grand total

4. Calculate the chi-square statistic:

χ² = Σ [(O - E)² / E]
 Where O is the observed frequency and E is the expected frequency

5. Determine degrees of freedom:

df = (number of rows - 1) × (number of columns - 1)

6. Compare the calculated χ² value with the critical value from the chi-square distribution
table or use p-value

7. Make a decision and interpret results

Example: Testing if there's an association between gender and preference for a particular
product.

Chi-Square Goodness of Fit Test:

Purpose: To determine if the observed frequency distribution fits a theoretical distribution.

Steps are similar to the test of independence, but you compare observed frequencies to
expected frequencies based on a hypothesized distribution.

2. t-Test:

The t-test is used to determine if there is a significant difference between the means of two
groups or between a sample mean and a known population mean.

Types of t-tests:
a) One-sample t-test
b) Independent samples t-test
c) Paired samples t-test

Independent Samples T-Test:

Purpose: To compare the means of two independent groups.

Steps:
1. Formulate hypotheses:
H0: μ1 = μ2 (The means of the two groups are equal)
H1: μ1 ≠ μ2 (The means of the two groups are not equal)

2. Calculate the t-statistic:

t = (x̄ 1 - x̄ 2) / √[(s1²/n1) + (s2²/n2)]
Where x̄ is the sample mean, s² is the sample variance, and n is the sample size

3. Determine degrees of freedom:

For equal variances: df = n1 + n2 - 2
For unequal variances: use Welch's approximation

4. Compare the calculated t-value with the critical value from the t-distribution table or use p-
value

5. Make a decision and interpret results

Example: Comparing the mean test scores of two different teaching methods.

One-Sample T-Test:

Purpose: To compare a sample mean to a known population mean.

Steps are similar to the independent samples t-test, but you compare one sample mean to a
known or hypothesized population mean.

Paired Samples T-Test:

Purpose: To compare two related samples, typically before and after measurements on the
same group.

Steps are similar to the independent samples t-test, but you use the differences between paired
observations.

Considerations:

1. Assumptions:
- Chi-square test: Expected frequencies should be at least 5 in each cell
- T-test: Normality of data, equality of variances (for independent samples t-test)

2. Effect size: Consider calculating effect size (e.g., Cohen's d for t-tests, Cramer's V for chi-
square) to understand the practical significance of results.

3. Power analysis: Determine the sample size needed to detect a specific effect size with
desired power.

4. Multiple comparisons: When conducting multiple tests, consider adjusting the

significance level (e.g., Bonferroni correction) to control for Type I error.

5. Alternatives: Non-parametric tests (e.g., Mann-Whitney U test instead of t-test) when

assumptions are violated.