Teaching and Researching Language Learning Strategies

AP P LI ED LI NGU I STIC S I N AC TION

General Editors:

Christopher N. Candlin and David R. Hall

Books published and forthcoming in this series include:

Teaching and Researching Computer-Assisted Language Learning Ken Beatty

Teaching and Researching Autonomy in Language Learning Philip Benson
Teaching and Researching Motivation Zoltán Dörnyei and
Ema Ushioda
Teaching and Researching Reading William Grabe and
Fredricka Stoller
Teaching and Researching Lexicography R. K. K. Hartmann
Teaching and Researching Translation Basil Hatim
Teaching and Researching Speaking Rebecca Hughes
Teaching and Researching Writing Ken Hyland
Teaching and Researching Language and Culture Joan Kelly Hall
Teaching and Researching Language Learning Strategies Rebecca Oxford
Teaching and Researching Listening Michael Rost
Teaching and Researching
Language Learning Strategies

Rebecca L. Oxford
First published 2011 by Pearson Education Limited

Published 2013 by Routledge

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Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

Copyright © 2011, Taylor & Francis.

The right of Rebecca L. Oxford to be identified as author

of this work has been asserted by her in accordance
with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or
by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including
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in writing from the publishers.

Notices
Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience
broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical
treatment may become necessary.

Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in
evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In
using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of
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To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors,
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instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.

ISBN 13: 978-0-582-38129-2 (pbk)

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A CIP catalogue record for this book can be obtained from the Library of Congress

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Oxford, Rebecca L.
Teaching and researching language learning strategies / Rebecca L. Oxford.
p. cm. — (Applied linguistics in action)
ISBN 978-0-582-38129-2 (pbk.)
1. Language and languages—Study and teaching. 2. Second language acquisition.
I. Title.
P53.O94 2010
418.0071—dc22
2010034352

Typeset in 10.5/12pt Janson by Graphicraft Limited, Hong Kong

I believe that we owe it to our learners to get the theory right. I see too
many failing young people in UK language classrooms to risk getting the
theory wrong. So, yes, we do need to define more precisely what a strategy
is. Yes, we do need to sort out the relationship between strategy use and
success by finding out why people use strategies differently. Yes, we do need
to relate strategies to specific tasks and then see how learners feel about those
tasks (self-efficacy). And yes, we do need to get our strategy instruction
programmes right and show, consistently, that they work.
Ernesto Macaro, 2007
This page intentionally left blank
 Contents

General Editors’ Preface xi

Acknowledgements xiii
Publisher’s Acknowledgements xiv

Introduction 1

Section I The Strategic Self-Regulation (S2R) Model of

Language Learning 5

1 Introducing the Strategic Self-Regulation (S2R) Model of

language learning 7
1.1 Overview of this book 8
1.2 Why this book is needed now 10
1.3 The S2R Model 11
1.4 Nine ways the S2R Model is different 40
1.5 Conclusion 41
Further reading 42

2 Dimension 1 (cognitive): Strategies for remembering

and processing language 43
2.1 Linked metaphors for metacognitive and cognitive
strategies: construction manager and construction workers 44
2.2 Metacognitive knowledge, metacognitive strategies, and
metacognition 45
2.3 Cognitive strategies 46
2.4 Relevant theories and concepts 47
2.5 Conclusion 60
Further reading 60

vii
viii TEACHING AND RESEARCHING LANGUAGE LEARNING STRATEGIES

3 Dimension 2 (affective): Strategies linked with emotions,

beliefs, attitudes, and motivation 61
3.1 Linked metaphors for meta-affective and affective
strategies: electricity manager and electricity workers 62
3.2 Meta-affective knowledge, meta-affective strategies,
and meta-affect 63
3.3 Affective strategies 64
3.4 Relevant theories and concepts 65
3.5 Conclusion 83
Further reading 83

4 Dimension 3 (sociocultural-interactive): Strategies for

contexts, communication, and culture 85
4.1 Linked metaphors for meta-SI strategies and SI strategies:
community manager and community workers 87
4.2 Meta-SI knowledge, meta-SI strategies, and the “meta”
level of sociocultural interaction 87
4.3 SI strategies 88
4.4 Relevant theories and concepts 89
4.5 Conclusion 99
Further reading 100

Section I Appendices 101

Section II Authentic Uses of Strategy Assessment and

Strategy Assistance 137

5 Strategy assessment in the S2R Model 139

5.1 Purposes of strategy assessment 140
5.2 Key issues at the outset 140
5.3 Strategy observations 145
5.4 Actual-task verbal reports 147
5.5 Colour-coding of actual-task strategies 151
5.6 Learner portfolios that include task-related strategy
assessment 152
5.7 Individual interviews for strategy assessment
(not based on immediate tasks) 153
5.8 Group strategy assessment interviews or discussions 155
5.9 Discourse analysis for strategy assessment 155
5.10 Strategy questionnaires 156
 CONTENTS ix

5.11 Narratives for strategy assessment 166

5.12 Quality of strategy assessment tools 167
5.13 Conclusion 171
Further reading 173

6 Strategy instruction and other forms of strategy assistance 174

6.1 Key terms 175
6.2 Culture as a factor in excellent strategy assistance 176
6.3 Strategy instruction in separate learning-to-learn courses
or programmes 177
6.4 Direct strategy instruction integrated into regular L2
courses 179
6.5 Integrating strategy instruction into L2 textbooks and
course materials 192
6.6 The learning consultation service model 193
6.7 Strategy instruction through learner guidebooks 195
6.8 Strategy instruction in distance learning 195
6.9 Conclusion 197
Further reading 197

Section III Researching Learning Strategies 199

7 A guide to conducting research on self-regulated L2

learning strategies 201
7.1 Worldviews underlying various research methods 203
7.2 Overview of methods for research on self-regulated L2
learning strategies 203
7.3 Quantitative research methods, models of quantitative L2
studies, and validity of quantitative studies 205
7.4 Qualitative research methods, models of qualitative L2
studies, and validity of qualitative studies 218
7.5 Mixed methods, a model of a mixed method L2 study,
and validity of mixed method studies 231
7.6 Action research, a model of an action research L2 study,
and validity of action research studies 234
7.7 General thoughts about research quality 237
7.8 Ethics in L2 learning strategy research 239
7.9 Conclusion 239
Further reading 240
x TEACHING AND RESEARCHING LANGUAGE LEARNING STRATEGIES

8 What we know from L2 learning strategy research 241

8.1 L2 reading strategies 243
8.2 L2 writing strategies 247
8.3 L2 listening strategies 251
8.4 L2 speaking strategies 253
8.5 L2 vocabulary learning strategies 254
8.6 L2 grammar learning strategies 256
8.7 Comparisons across L2 areas 258
8.8 Findings across more general strategy studies 258
8.9 Conclusion 261
Further reading 262

Section IV Resources 263

9 Strategic “intellectual geography” and resources for

further exploration 265
9.1 Part I of the geography lesson: review of landmarks
of the S2R Model 266
9.2 Part II of the geography lesson: the terrain of
self-regulated L2 learning strategies 267
9.3 Resources to guide the next part of the journey 269
9.4 Strengthening relationships while expanding strategy
research and instruction 272
9.5 Conclusion 273
Further reading 274

Glossary of Key Terms 275

References 303
Index 333
 General Editors’ Preface

Applied Linguistics in Action, as its name suggests, is a Series which

focuses on the issues and challenge to teachers and researchers in a range
of fields in Applied Linguistics and provides readers and users with the
tools they need to carry out their own practice-related research.
The books in the Series provide the reader with clear, up-to-date,
accessible and authoritative accounts of their chosen field within Applied
Linguistics. Starting from a map of the landscape of the field, each book
provides information on its main ideas and concepts, competing issues
and unsolved questions. From there, readers can explore a range of practical
applications of research into those issues and questions, and then take up
the challenge of undertaking their own research, guided by the detailed
and explicit research guides provided. Finally, each book has a section that
provides a rich array of resources, information sources and further reading,
as well as a key to the principal concepts of the field.
Questions the books in this innovative Series ask are those familiar to all
teachers and researchers, whether very experienced, or new to the fields of
Applied Linguistics.

• What does research tell us, what doesn’t it tell us and what should it tell
us about the field? How is the field mapped and landscaped? What is its
geography?
• How has research been applied and what interesting research possibilities
does practice raise? What are the issues we need to explore and explain?
• What are the key researchable topics that practitioners can undertake?
How can the research be turned into practical action?
• Where are the important resources that teachers and researchers need?
Who has the information? How can it be accessed?

xi
xii TEACHING AND RESEARCHING LANGUAGE LEARNING STRATEGIES

Each book in the Series has been carefully designed to be as accessible as

possible, with built-in features to enable readers to find what they want
quickly and to home in on the key issues and themes that concern them.
The structure is to move from practice to theory and back to practice in a
cycle of development of understanding of the field in question.
Each of the authors of books in the Series is an acknowledged authority,
able to bring broad knowledge and experience to engage teachers and
researchers in following up their own ideas, working with them to build
further on their own experience.
The first editions of books in this series have attracted widespread praise
for their authorship, their design, and their content, and have been widely
used to support practice and research. The success of the series, and the
realization that it needs to stay relevant in a world where new research is
being conducted and published at a rapid rate, have prompted the com-
missioning of this second edition. This new edition has been thoroughly
updated, with accounts of research that has appeared since the first edition
and with the addition of other relevant additional material. We trust that
students, teachers and researchers will continue to discover inspiration in
these pages to underpin their own investigations.
Chris Candlin and David Hall
General Editors
 Acknowledgements

During the long gestation period of this book, I received the support of many
people. I wish to thank first and foremost the series editors, Christopher
Candlin and David Hall. Their patience, brilliance, and dedication helped
to foster this book at every stage. The great staff at Pearson Longman,
especially Kate Ahl, Josie O’Donoghue, and Liz Johnson, deserve my greatest
thanks as well. My thanks also go to Kathy Auger of Graphicraft.
My colleagues in the strategy field, such as Ernesto Macaro, Pamela
Gunning, Roberta Lavine, Anna Uhl Chamot, Peter Gu, Joan Rubin, Vee
Harris, Kyoung Rang Lee, Karen Schramm, Carol Griffiths, Ma Xiaomei,
Meng Yaru, and others, offered me many materials and ideas along the
way. I particularly thank Andrew D. Cohen, my dear friend and colleague,
for having faith in me when I truly needed it.
I am grateful to my students, especially Ma Rui and Lin Chien-Yu, for
all those Saturdays spent reading and commenting on this book’s chapters
over hot chocolate or tea. I thank Yesim Yilmazel-Sahin, Yoni Siegel, Tasha
Parrish, and Rebecca Boggs for their suggestions.
My greatest gratitude is owed to my husband Clifford Stocking and to
dear Sophia. They uncomplainingly and graciously dealt with my obsession
with this book, and their support was beyond measure.
Rebecca L. Oxford
December 2010

xiii
 Publisher’s Acknowledgements

We are grateful to the following for permission to reproduce copyright material:

Figures
Figures 6.3 and 6.4 from Pamela Gunning. Reproduced by authorization
of Lidec, Inc. © Lidec, Inc.

Photos
The publisher would like to thank the following for their kind permission
to reproduce their photographs:

Pearson Education Ltd: Figure 1.3, p. 18, (top) Ellen Massey, (bottom)
POD/Photodisc. C Squared Studios, Tony Gable; Figure 6.2, p. 192, POD/
Digital Vision.

Text
Concept 7.9 adapted from Creswell, J. (2008) Research Design: Qualitative,
Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches. Third edition. Thousand Oaks,
CA: Sage.

Every effort has been made to trace the copyright holders and we apo-
logise in advance for any unintentional omissions. We would be pleased to
insert the appropriate acknowledgement in any subsequent edition of this
publication.

xiv
 Introduction to This Book

Section I encompasses Chapters 1–4. It outlines the conceptual foundation for

language learning strategies and for the rest of the book. Chapter 1 presents
the Strategic Self-Regulation (S2R) Model of language learning by offering
definitions, terminology, key features, the role of the learner, the differ-
ences between strategies and metastrategies, the nature of “metaknowledge,”
flexible use of strategies for different purposes, and task-phases in the model.
Chapter 1 also explains the role of mediated learning, the value of deep
processing strategies, the double utility of strategies for ordinary learning
and for severe problems, the role of tactics, the relationship between learn-
ing styles and learning strategies, and nine ways in which the S2R Model
differs from other models of learning strategies.
Chapter 2 focuses on the model’s cognitive dimension, which includes
cognitive strategies for remembering and processing language and meta-
cognitive strategies for enabling such processing to occur. Chapter 2 explores
a larger range of highly relevant theories than found in most books on learn-
ing strategies: schema theory, cognitive information-processing theory,
activity theory, cognitive load theory, and theories of the relationship of
neurobiology to cognition. In practical, understandable terms, the chapter
shows how these theories shed light on learning strategies and why they
are important.
Chapter 3 concerns the second dimension, the affective realm, which
includes emotions, beliefs, attitudes, and motivation. This dimension has
been largely ignored by many learning strategy specialists, although it
has a tremendous influence on language learning and on strategy use.
The chapter introduces the concept of linking affective strategies with
meta-affective strategies. The relationships among strategies, emotions,
beliefs, and attitudes are a key component of this chapter. A special fea-
ture is the explanation of how strategies are linked to multiple facets of
motivation (motivational orientation and intensity, volition, and willingness

1
2 TEACHING AND RESEARCHING LANGUAGE LEARNING STRATEGIES

to communicate). The subject of goals is an important factor in motivation

and is at the heart of strategies. The final topic in this chapter is the close
association among neurobiology, affect, and strategies.
Chapter 4 presents novel and innovative arguments for language learning
strategy research in the third dimension, sociocultural-interactive (SI), which
involves strategies for contexts, communication, and culture. The chapter
explains SI strategies and the meta-SI strategies that guide their use. This
chapter demonstrates how learning strategies relate to communication.
Extending beyond most strategy research and theory, the chapter reveals
how strategies align with discourse, contexts, cultural models, identity, and
power relations, as well as discussing the crucial theme of investment.
Moving still further into the sociocultural realm, the chapter then explores
how learners tie their learning strategies to counter-stories, resistance,
non–participation, opposition, and accommodation, hitherto unexamined
in detail by strategy researchers.
Section II, including Chapters 5 and 6, focuses on very practical appli-
cations of the S2R Model. Chapter 5 opens with the purposes of strategy
assessment and then immediately discusses key issues, such as self-report
versus other report, degree of task authenticity, cultural appropriateness,
and degree of quantification. The range of strategy assessment possibilities
in this chapter is immense, from simple, live observations to computerized
trace measures, from verbal reports to task-strategy colour coding, from
portfolios to interviews, and from questionnaires to learner narratives. The
chapter provides a highly practical discussion of measurement validity and
reliability for qualitative assessment tools and an explanation of quality
criteria for qualitative measurement instruments. Advantages and dis-
advantages of each tool are explained.
Chapter 6 explains strategy assistance in an understandable and useful
fashion. The chapter contends that direct strategy instruction by the teacher,
while very important, is just one of many modes for assisting learners in
developing optimal strategies. Regarding direct strategy instruction, the
chapter explores features that can make it successful, learner variables to
consider, practical classroom models and guidebooks for strategy instruction,
and the use of portfolios and metascripts. All of these tools are managed by
the teacher in direct strategy instruction. However, beyond direct strategy
instruction by the teacher, the chapter offers ways to integrate strategy
instruction into textbooks, course materials, learner counselling/consultation,
and distance learning. Benefits and limitations of these strategy assistance
techniques are important.
Section III, consisting of Chapters 7 and 8, concerns research on language
learning strategies. Chapter 7 introduces and discusses strategy research
tools, methodologies, and ideas. It focuses on quantitative research methods,
including experimental, quasi-experimental, and non-experimental (survey)
research. The chapter then explains how the following qualitative approaches
 I NT R O DU C T I O N T O T HI S B O O K 3

can be useful for strategy research: phenomenology, grounded theory,

case study, ethnography, and narrative research. Mixed methods approaches,
which combine quantitative and qualitative perspectives and tools, are also
presented here for strategy research applications. The chapter offers abundant
illustrations of strategy studies to portray different research modes. Validity
of studies and research ethics are significant themes in Chapter 7. For new
researchers interested in strategies, as well as experienced researchers, this
chapter provides rich, detailed assistance in research methodology and ideas.
Chapter 8 synthesizes existing research results on learning strategies
with the aim of uncovering what we currently know and what we still need
to know. The chapter presents strategy research on reading, writing, listen-
ing, speaking, vocabulary, and grammar and then compares the status of
strategy research across these areas. It also offers findings across studies
that encompass multiple areas simultaneously. Included are discussions of
linearity or curvilinearity, causality, factors in strategy use, distance learning
strategies, and effectiveness of strategy instruction.
Section IV, which includes Chapter 9, concludes the book by situating
learning strategies within the various disciplines and offering advice and
resources for further reading and exploration. Chapter 9 is an “intellectual
geography” that reviews the landmarks of the S2R Model and explores the
terrain of self-regulated learning strategies in applied linguistics, educational
psychology, and educational research. This chapter presents information
on professional associations, conferences, journals, online bibliographies,
and databases for further strategy exploration. The main point made in
Chapter 9 is that this book is a beginning, not an ending, to discovering
more about language learning strategies and fostering excellent learning
for language students.
This page intentionally left blank
Section

I The Strategic
Self-Regulation (S2R)
Model of Language
Learning
This page intentionally left blank
Chapter 1

Introducing the Strategic

Self-Regulation (S2R) Model
of language learning

You can’t cross the sea merely by standing and staring at the water.
Rabindranath Tagore

Preview questions
1. What are the dimensions in the Strategic Self-Regulation (S2R)
Model of language learning?
2. How do “metastrategies” and other strategies contribute differently
to strategic self-regulation?
3. What are the six types of metaknowledge, and why are they
important for learning languages?
4. Why are tactics necessary in self-regulated learning?
5. In what ways do models of self-regulated learning differ?

Self-regulation is one of the most exciting developments in second or

foreign language (L2) learning. Models of learner self-regulation applied
to L2 learning have been called by many names, such as “learner-self-
management” (Rubin, 2001), “learner self-direction” (Dickinson, 1987),
“self-regulated or autonomous L2 learning” (Oxford, 1999a), and “mediated
learning” (Scarcella and Oxford, 1992, based on Vygotsky, 1978). This book
presents the Strategic Self-Regulation (S2R) Model of language learning.
In this model, learners actively and constructively use strategies to manage
their own learning.
Self-regulated L2 learning strategies are important throughout the world.
The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (Council of

7
8 TEACHING AND RESEARCHING LANGUAGE LEARNING STRATEGIES

Europe, 2001) promotes “learning how to learn” and the use of learning
strategies (Little, 2006; Mariani, 2004). Key research handbooks (e.g.,
Alexander and Winne, 2006; Flippo and Caverly, 2008; Hinkel, 2005; see
also Chapter 9) discuss the significance of strategies in learners’ self-
regulation in many fields, including L2 learning. In the last few years
publishers have offered several important, edited volumes (e.g., Cohen and
Macaro, 2007; Griffiths, 2008) focused wholly or largely on L2 learning
strategies. Every year journals around the globe publish articles on topics
such as learning strategies, metacognitive strategies, and strategies for
various L2 areas (reading, writing, speaking, listening, pragmatics, grammar,
and vocabulary). Many teachers attend conference sessions on how to help
their students become more strategic, self-regulated, and successful. As
important contributors to self-regulated learning, L2 learning strategies
deserve attention. Table 1.1 provides a preview of this chapter.

1.1 Overview of this book

Figure 1.1 presents an overview of this book. Section I, consisting of the first
four chapters, is devoted to the S2R Model of language learning and the
factors and theories underlying the model. Chapter 1 introduces the model
in terms of factors and integrated theories. Chapter 2 presents strategies

Table 1.1 Overview of this chapter

1.1 Overview of this book

1.2 Why this book is needed now
1.3 The S2R Model
1.3.1 Definitions, terminology and concepts in the S2R Model
1.3.2 Key features of strategies in the S2R Model
1.3.3 The learner in the S2R Model
1.3.4 Strategies and metastrategies in the S2R Model
1.3.5 Metaknowledge underlying metastrategies in the S2R Model
1.3.6 Flexible use of strategies in the S2R Model
1.3.7 Task-phases in the S2R Model
1.3.8 Mediated learning in the S2R Model
1.3.9 Deep processing strategies in the S2R Model
1.3.10 Inclusion of tactics in the S2R Model
1.3.11 Double utility of strategies in the S2R Model
1.3.12 Relationship of styles and strategies in the S2R Model
1.4 Nine ways the S2R Model is different
1.5 Conclusion
Further reading
 INTRODUCING THE S T R A T E G I C SE L F - R EGULATION (S 2 R ) M O DE L 9

Figure 1.1 Preview of the chapters in this book

and theories in the cognitive dimension for remembering and processing

language. Chapters 3 and 4 offer strategies and theories in relation to two
dimensions that have received inadequate attention from many strategy
researchers: the affective dimension for emotion, beliefs, attitudes, and
motivation and the sociocultural-interactive dimension for contexts, com-
munication, and culture. Section II includes important practical applications
within the S2R Model: strategy assessment (Chapter 5) and strategy assist-
ance (Chapter 6). The two chapters in Section III deal with strategy research.
Chapter 7 explores an array of research approaches that readers can use for
investigating strategies for self-regulated L2 learning. Chapter 8 synthesizes
existing L2 strategy research findings by language area, e.g., reading or
vocabulary learning. Section IV contains Chapter 9, which reviews the land-
marks of the S2R Model, maps self-regulated L2 learning strategies in relation
to various disciplines, and offers further resources for exploration.
10 TEACHING AND RESEARCHING LANGUAGE LEARNING STRATEGIES

1.2 Why this book is needed now

In an advance review of this book, Gu (2010) summarized the state of the
art in language learning strategies and explained why this book is needed
now. See Concept 1.1.

Concept 1.1 State of the art in language learning strategies and

why this book is needed now (Review comments by
Dr. Yongqi Gu, 2010)
• State of the Art
After 30 years, language learning strategy (LLS) researchers have accumulated
a critical mass of knowledge. It is now timely and critical to identify and
reflect upon the various issues that have emerged across decades. We need
systematic and coherent efforts to chart the field and map out the issues.
Unfortunately, the intensity of interest in language learning strategies in
the 1980s and the 1990s and the high expectations from theorists, researchers,
teachers and learners have left many people frustrated, especially because of the
conceptual fuzziness and elusiveness of the LLS construct. Classroom teachers
are rightly concerned that LLS researchers have not provided enough applica-
tions for classroom teaching and learning. As those most concerned about
strategic learning, learners and teachers cannot and should not have to wait.
We do not need the same old research questions asked time and again; we
need new, innovative research paths that lead to help for learners and teachers.

• Why This Book Is Needed Now

At this time, we urgently need this book’s conceptual cross-fertilization and its
concerted effort in theory-building so that more useful research avenues can
be explored and more practical findings can be made available to the language
classroom. This book opens the way to more research on the self-regulated
learner’s active involvement and the way strategies influence learning ability,
proficiency, and the learner’s identity as a self-initiating, reflective, responsible
social agent.
This book is therefore definitely coming out at the right time. In fact, few
would be more suitable than Rebecca Oxford, who has inspired so many
in the field, to write a book on teaching and researching language learning
strategies at this point in time. This book is the best attempt in recent years
to face the existing challenges and issues. For researchers and teachers alike,
the book provides a feast of theoretical perspectives, smoothly integrated and
clearly addressed, as well as practical suggestions. It also discusses criticisms,
queries, and misconceptions of language learning strategies.
To me, the book points to a renewed agenda for LLS as a worthwhile line
of research. This agenda involves: (a) closer integration of LLS research into
the mainstream of applied linguistics and educational psychology in terms of
 INTRODUCING THE S T R A T E G I C SE L F - R EGULATION (S 2 R ) M O DE L 11

theorizing and empirical research; (b) closer integration of LLS into the
teacher’s metapedagogical awareness, reflection, and classroom instruction;
and (c) closer examination of individual strategies and tactics for learning
effectiveness. With this book, Rebecca Oxford has redesigned the LLS garden,
redrawn the LLS landscape. I call for a re-injection of research energy and
labour. Let a hundred strategy flowers bloom for the cultivation of a theoret-
ically colourful and practically useful garden, nourished by diverse ideas.
Note: Dr. Gu is co-editor of The Asian Journal of English Language Teaching and a
strategy research expert.

1.3 The S2R Model

This section highlights key aspects of the S2R Model. It begins with defini-
tion, terminology, and concepts, followed by key features of strategies
in the model and a description of strategically self-regulated learners. It
presents strategies, metastrategies, and the metaknowledge that underlies
metastrategies; details the flexible use of strategies; and explains strategies
in relation to three task-phases. Next it portrays mediated learning, deep
processing strategies, double utility of strategies, and strategy orchestration.
Finally, this section explains strategies and tactics and shows linkages among
strategies, tactics, and learning styles.

1.3.1 Definitions, terminology, and concepts in the S2R Model

The quotation below defines self-regulation as applied to learning.

Quote 1.1 Self-regulation in learning

Self-regulation comprises such processes as setting goals for learning, attend-

ing to and concentrating on instruction, using effective strategies to organize,
code, and rehearse information to be remembered, establishing a productive
work environment, using resources effectively, monitoring performance,
managing time effectively, seeking assistance when needed, holding positive
beliefs about one’s capabilities, the value of learning, the factors influencing
learning, and the anticipated outcomes of actions, and experiencing pride and
satisfaction with one’s efforts.
Dale H. Schunk and Peggy A. Ertmer (2000, p. 631)

Concept 1.2 presents a definition of self-regulated L2 learning strategies

in the S2R Model. These strategies help learners regulate or control their
12 TEACHING AND RESEARCHING LANGUAGE LEARNING STRATEGIES

own learning, thus making it easier and more effective. Self-regulation,

according to its Latin roots, involves not only self-management but also
“self-righting,” i.e., self-adjustment or self-adaptation if something goes
off track or needs improvement. See Concept 1.2 for an important dis-
tinction between skills and self-regulated L2 learning strategies, and look
to Chapter 2 for information on how skills develop.

Concept 1.2 Definition of self-regulated L2 learning strategies

• In the S2R Model, self-regulated L2 learning strategies are defined as
deliberate, goal-directed attempts to manage and control efforts to learn
the L2 (based on Afflerbach, Pearson, and Paris, 2008). These strategies
are broad, teachable actions that learners choose from among alternatives
and employ for L2 learning purposes (e.g., constructing, internalizing,
storing, retrieving, and using information; completing short-term tasks;
and/or developing L2 proficiency and self-efficacy in the long term).
Examples: Planning, Evaluating, Obtaining and Using Resources, Reasoning,
Going Beyond the Immediate Data, Generating and Maintaining Motiva-
tion, and Overcoming Knowledge Gaps in Communicating.
• Learning strategies are sometimes confused with skills. Skills are automatic
and out of awareness, whereas strategies are intentional and deliberate.
• It is impossible to tell whether an action is a strategy or a skill without find-
ing out whether it is under the learner’s automatic or deliberate control.

Strategic, self-regulated language learning is crucial, as explained below.

Quote 1.2 The importance of strategic, self-regulated learning and

of strategy instruction

Strategic, self-regulated learning lies at the heart of second/foreign language

acquisition. Over the decades, we have seen applied linguists suggesting the
right amount of comprehensible input, opportunities for output, corrective
feedback, task-based presentation, and contextual scaffolding in the classroom.
But after all this, the only thing teachers can do is to wait and hope that
learners will notice the patterns or automatically activate their implicit learning
mechanisms. While this might happen, the central thesis behind language
learning strategy research is that learners, supported by teachers and curricula,
can play a much more active role in managing and controlling the learning
process, thereby maximising the outcomes of learning. Instruction in strategic
learning can result in better learners.
Yongqi Gu (2010, p. 1)
 INTRODUCING THE S T R A T E G I C SE L F - R EGULATION (S 2 R ) M O DE L 13

Gu (2010) defined strategic, self-regulated learning as “ways of tack-

ling the learning task at hand and managing the self in overseeing the
learning process . . . under the constraints of the learning situation and
learning context for the purpose of learning success” (p. 2). In other words,
the learner must not only effectively do the task and manage himself
or herself but must also deal with (and make the most of ) the learning
environment.
When learning strategies became well known in the 1980s and 1990s,
some people might have believed that strategies would remove all the hard
work from language learning and teaching. However, “Strategies are not a
‘super-drug’ ” (Gu, 2010, p. 2). “A simplistic, static, and gimmick-oriented
expectation,” as if strategies “could offer quick fixes . . . , is unrealistic”
(Gu, 2010, p. 1). Though learning strategies do make learning easier in
some senses, their purpose is much more significant: strategies make learn-
ing deeper, more productive, and more lasting (Cohen and Macaro, 2007;
Holschuh and Altman, 2008; Winne and Perry, 2000).

Quote 1.3 Strategically self-regulated learners

“Strategic” describes the way in which these [self-regulated] learners approach

challenging tasks and problems by choosing from a repertoire of tactics those
they believe best suited to the situation, and applying those tactics appropri-
ately. . . . The labels of tactic and strategy also reflect differences in grain size,
the latter being larger . . .
Philip H. Winne and Nancy E. Perry (2000, pp. 533–534, 557)

This book uses the term learning strategies rather than the term learner
strategies (see Wenden and Rubin, 1987; Cohen and Macaro, 2007) for
two key reasons. First, the focus here is on strategies for learning, although
communication often occurs at the same time. People often learn as
they communicate and vice versa. Second, learning-focused researchers in
virtually all other fields employ the term learning strategies. For discussions
about the terminology of strategies, see Cohen (2007) and Oxford and
Cohen (1992).

1.3.2 Key features of strategies in the S2R Model

Concept 1.3 describes the features of strategies in the S2R Model. In a
nutshell, these strategies involve various types of consciousness, facilitate
learning, involve the whole learner rather than just the cognitive side, and
are used flexibly.
14 TEACHING AND RESEARCHING LANGUAGE LEARNING STRATEGIES

Concept 1.3 Features of self-regulated L2 learning strategies

• Self-regulated L2 learning strategies . . .
• are employed consciously, involving four elements of consciousness
(awareness, attention, intention, and effort, Schmidt, 1995);
• make learning easier, faster, more enjoyable, and more effective;
• are manifested through specific tactics in different contexts and for
different purposes;
• reflect the whole, multidimensional learner, not just the learner’s
cognitive or metacognitive aspects;
• are often combined into strategy chains, i.e., groups of strategies working
together (see later in this chapter); and
• are applied in a given situation but can be transferred to other situations
when relevant.
• Some strategies, such as Planning or Monitoring, are deployed for learning
many subjects and for problem-solving in general throughout one’s life.
• Other strategies, such as Overcoming Knowledge Gaps in Communicat-
ing (e.g., through making up new words or switching back to the home
language briefly), are often tied to language learning.

1.3.3 The learner in the S2R Model

The S2R Model draws upon research on strategically self-regulated
learners (see Concept 1.4). The research is strikingly consistent on these
learners’ active control of learning through the effective use of learning
strategies. A key for such learners is choosing appropriate strategies for
the purpose and situation and evaluating the success of these strategies.
Learners can use strategies to regulate many aspects of their learning:
their internal mental states, beliefs, observable behaviours, and the learn-
ing environment.

1.3.4 Strategies and metastrategies in the S2R Model

The S2R Model includes strategies for three major, mutually influential
dimensions of L2 learning: cognitive, affective, and sociocultural-interactive.
Cognitive strategies help the learner construct, transform, and apply L2
knowledge. An example of a cognitive strategy is Activating Knowledge
(when needed for a language task). Affective strategies help the learner
create positive emotions and attitudes and stay motivated. An example of an
affective strategy is Generating and Maintaining Motivation. Sociocultural-
interactive (SI) strategies help the learner with communication, sociocultural
contexts, and identity. An example of an SI strategy is Interacting to Learn
 INTRODUCING THE S T R A T E G I C SE L F - R EGULATION (S 2 R ) M O DE L 15

Concept 1.4 What we know about strategically self-regulated learners

Strategically self-regulated learners . . .
• actively participate in their own learning (Griffiths, 2008; Malpass,
O’Neil, and Hocevar, 1999, 2006).
• achieve learning goals by controlling various aspects of their learning
(Malpass, O’Neil, and Hocevar, 1999; Oxford, 1990).
• regulate their cognitive and affective states (covert self-regulation), their
observable performance (behavioural self-regulation), and the environmental
conditions for learning (environmental self-regulation) (Zimmerman, 2000).
• use strategies to control their own beliefs about learning and themselves
(Schunk and Zimmerman, 1998).
• cognitively move from declarative (conscious) knowledge to procedural
(automatic) knowledge with the use of strategies (Anderson, 1976, 1985;
O’Malley and Chamot, 1990).
• choose appropriate strategies for different conditions, purposes, situations,
and settings (Ehrman, Leaver, and Oxford, 2003). An appropriate strategy is
one that (a) addresses the learner’s goal or need, (b) fits the learning circum-
stances and the sociocultural context, (c) works well with the student’s
learning styles, i.e., general learning preferences, or in some cases helps bring
greater flexibility to those preferences; and (d) positively influences learning.
• understand that no strategy is necessarily appropriate under every
circumstance or for every purpose (Hsiao and Oxford, 2002; Cohen and
Macaro, 2007). For instance, a strategy that a learner uses effectively
to read a airport timetable in Russian does necessarily not work when he
or she is reading an editorial in the Russian newspaper Izvestiya.
• show awareness of the relationship between strategy use and learning out-
comes; i.e., these learners consider whether a given strategy is associated
with successful performance (Malpass, O’Neil, and Hocevar, 1999).

and Communicate. Crucial mental processes or tools, called metastrategies

(such as Planning, Organizing, Monitoring, and Evaluating), help the
learner control and manage the use of strategies in each dimension:
cognitive, affective, and sociocultural-interactive. Concept 1.5 lists the
strategies and metastrategies in the S2R Model. Metastrategies are shown
first, because they powerfully influence the three dimensions and are part
of each dimension.
As shown in Concept 1.5, three types of metastrategies exist. Meta-
cognitive strategies (the best known type of metastrategies, as described by
O’Malley and Chamot, 1990 and Oxford, 1990) help the learner control
cognitive strategy use, while meta-affective strategies facilitate learner con-
trol of affective strategy use, and meta-SI strategies enable the learner to
16 TEACHING AND RESEARCHING LANGUAGE LEARNING STRATEGIES

Concept 1.5 Metastrategies and strategies in the Strategic

Self-Regulation (S2R) Model of L2 learning
Metastrategies and strategies Purpose
8 metastrategies
(metacognitive, meta-affective, and
metasociocultural-interactive):
Paying Attention Managing and controlling L2
Planning learning in a general sense,
Obtaining and Using Resources with a focus on understanding
Organizing one’s own needs and using
Implementing Plans and adjusting the other
Orchestrating Strategy Use strategies to meet those needs
Monitoring
Evaluating

6 strategies in the cognitive dimension:

Using the Senses to Understand and Remembering and processing
Remember the L2 (constructing,
Activating Knowledge transforming, and applying
Reasoning L2 knowledge)
Conceptualizing with Details
Conceptualizing Broadly
Going Beyond the Immediate Data

2 strategies in the affective dimension:

Activating Supportive Emotions, Beliefs, Handling emotions, beliefs,
and Attitudes attitudes, and motivation in
Generating and Maintaining Motivation L2 learning
3 strategies in the sociocultural-interactive
dimension:
Interacting to Learn and Communicate Dealing with issues of
Overcoming Knowledge Gaps in contexts, communication, and
Communicating culture in L2 learning
Dealing with Sociocultural Contexts
and Identities

control SI strategy use. Why is it helpful to talk about metastrategies, a

broader category, as opposed to only metacognitive strategies? Why should
we think about meta-affective and meta-SI strategies in addition to meta-
cognitive strategies? Here are the reasons. Metacognitive simply means “beyond
the cognitive” and includes strategies that provide general management
(control) of cognitive strategies. Unfortunately, prior taxonomies of strategies
had no term to describe control of two other key dimensions of L2 learning
 INTRODUCING THE S T R A T E G I C SE L F - R EGULATION (S 2 R ) M O DE L 17

strategies: (a) the affective dimension and (b) the social dimension. Hence,
until now the term metacognitive was (confusingly, in my view) applied to
the control of strategies in the affective and social realms, not just to the
control of cognitive strategies. The S2R Model fills this major gap by
including meta-affective strategies and meta-SI strategies, respectively. The
importance of filling this gap is revealed especially in Chapters 3 and 4,
which explore these strategies in detail. Many effective L2 learners have used
such strategies for years, though there was no official name for them.
The concept of metastrategies – more than just that of metacognitive
strategies alone – reflects the multidimensional reality of the L2 learner.
Support for more than just one category of metastrategy comes from
Alexander, Graham, and Harris (1998), who stated that self-regulation
pertains not just to the learner’s management of cognition but also to
regulation of affective states and the social environment, in which com-
munication occurs. Additional support comes from Wolters (2003), who
highlighted the need for strategies to manage affect (emotions, motivation,
etc.) at the “meta” or general level.
Figure 1.2 shows cognitive, affective, and sociocultural-interactive strategies
as interlocking cogs and depicts metastrategies as the arrows that surround

Figure 1.2 Dynamic interaction of strategies and metastrategies for L2

learning (cogs and arrows metaphor) in the S2R Model
Note 1: Metastrategies include metacognitive, meta-affective, and metasocial strategies.
Note 2: Certain strategies are more important than others in various situations. The size of
a strategy type in this figure does not indicate importance in all situations.
18 TEACHING AND RESEARCHING LANGUAGE LEARNING STRATEGIES

the cogs. Of course, actual L2 learning is not as mechanistic as cogs in a

wheel, but Figure 1.2 is a useful metaphor of (a) multiple, interrelated aspects
of learning and (b) the way metastrategies (metacognitive, meta-affective, and
meta-SI) control the use of cognitive, affective, and SI strategies. Figure 1.3
shows the same idea in a different way. The metastrategies (metacognitive,
meta-affective, and meta-SI) serve as the orchestra conductor, and various
sections of the orchestra (wind, string, and percussion instruments) are
cognitive, affective, and SI strategies, guided by the conductor.
Metastrategies, by virtue of their executive-control and management
function, help the learner know whether and how to deploy a given
strategy and aid in determining whether the strategy is working or has
worked as intended. Strategies and metastrategies in the model are highly

Figure 1.3 Metastrategies guide the use of cognitive, affective, and

sociocultural-interactive (SI) strategies (orchestra–conductor metaphor) in
the S2R Model
Note: In the past, metacognitive strategies were viewed as guiding the use of all other
strategies. However, in a more articulated and more precise manner, metastrategies
(metacognitive, meta-affective, and meta-SI strategies) guide the use of cognitive,
affective, and sociocultural-interactive strategies, respectively.
Source: (top) Ellen Massey, (bottom) POD/Photodisc. C Squared Studios, Tony Gable.
 INTRODUCING THE S T R A T E G I C SE L F - R EGULATION (S 2 R ) M O DE L 19

dynamic, because they respond to changing needs of the learner for varying
purposes in different sociocultural contexts. Metastrategic regulation is the
learner’s use of metastrategies of any kind (metacognitive, meta-affective,
and/or meta-SI) with the purpose of self-regulated learning. This is an
expansion of Flavell’s (1978, 1979) term metacognitive regulation, which
identified the use of metacognitive strategies in Flavell’s system.

1.3.5 Metaknowledge underlying metastrategies in the S2R Model

Underlying the use of metastrategies in the S2R Model are six types of
metaknowledge, defined in Concept 1.6: person knowledge, which is con-
trasted with broader knowledge of cultural or group norms (group/culture
knowledge); task knowledge, which is contrasted with broader, whole-process
knowledge; strategy knowledge; and conditional knowledge, which draws on any
of the other types of knowledge. In an earlier theory, Wenden (1991), build-
ing on Flavell (1978, 1979), mentioned only three types of metaknowledge
(person, task, and strategy knowledge) and called all three metacognitive
knowledge.

Concept 1.6 Six types of metaknowledge

• Person knowledge concerns learning styles, goals, strengths, and weaknesses
of the learner (or someone else). Focus is on the individual.
• Group or culture knowledge deals with norms and expectations in the group/
culture – either the home group/culture or the “target” group/culture to
which the learner wants to gain entry. Focus is on the collective group,
not on a single individual.
• Task knowledge relates largely to the characteristics and requirements of
the immediate L2 learning task.
• In contrast, whole-process knowledge goes beyond task knowledge to embrace
the characteristics and requirements of the long-term process of learning
the language. Whole-process knowledge is often necessary for learners
who seek to develop high proficiency and who have a “future orientation”
to learning (Simons, Vansteenkiste, Lens, and Lacante, 2004).
• Strategy knowledge is knowledge of available learning strategies and meta-
strategies and how they work. Strategy knowledge can be examined in
terms of strategies for “doing” and metastrategies for executive control
and management.
• Conditional knowledge of when, why, and where to use a given learning
strategy. Conditional knowledge can draw on any or all of the other five
types of metaknowledge.
• For example, knowing when and why to use a given strategy is facilitated
by being aware of: (a) person knowledge about oneself, e.g., one’s
learning style, goals, strengths, and weaknesses; (b) group or culture
20 TEACHING AND RESEARCHING LANGUAGE LEARNING STRATEGIES

knowledge, e.g., norms, values, and expectations of the group or culture;

(c) task knowledge, e.g., demands and characteristics of the immediate
task; (d) whole-process knowledge, e.g., probable requirements and
features of long-term L2 learning; and (e) strategy knowledge, e.g.,
available strategies and metastrategies and how they work.
• Pintrich (2002) classified conditional knowledge as being only part of
“task knowledge,” but this is too limited, because some learners can
apply conditional knowledge well beyond single tasks.
• Learners with a future time orientation often apply conditional know-
ledge over longer periods containing multiple tasks.

I argue that metacognitive knowledge, as applied by prior researchers to

encompass person, task, and strategy knowledge, is far too restricted a term.
The term metacognitive knowledge literally points only to knowledge help-
ful for controlling the cognitive dimension of learning, but in actuality the
learner’s metaknowledge must include but go beyond the cognitive arena.
Such knowledge must also address the affective and sociocultural-interactive
dimensions of L2 learning. Therefore, it is more accurate to speak of meta-
knowledge rather than just metacognitive knowledge when considering the
knowledge types that underlie metastrategies in general.
Wenden’s and Flavell’s knowledge types – person, task, and strategy
knowledge – are necessary but not sufficient for explaining the learner’s
control and management of L2 learning. For instance, person knowledge
does not imply knowledge of expectations of the group or culture in which
the learner is located or which the learner wishes to enter, though such
knowledge is needed for self-regulated L2 learning. Task knowledge refers
to understanding the demands and features of the immediate task but
does not imply long-term, whole-process knowledge, which is especially
valuable for learners who hope to reach distinguished levels of proficiency
and/or whose self-regulation involves taking a “long view” or future-time
perspective. Knowledge of strategies does not necessarily indicate that the
learner knows how, when, or why to use a particular strategy to fulfill a
specific purpose in the flux and complexity of a given sociocultural setting
(conditional knowledge). Therefore it was necessary for me to create
names for two heretofore missing types of metaknowledge, group/culture
knowledge and whole-process knowledge, and to include conditional knowledge
(Pintrich, 2002) as the sixth type of metaknowledge. See Figure 1.4.
Concept 1.7 on pages 22–23 shows how each type of metaknowledge
(person knowledge, group/culture knowledge, task knowledge, whole-
process knowledge, strategy knowledge, and conditional knowledge) is
applied in more concrete detail to cognitive, affective, and sociocultural-
interactive dimensions.
 INTRODUCING THE S T R A T E G I C SE L F - R EGULATION (S 2 R ) M O DE L 21

Figure 1.4 Types of metaknowledge underlying metastrategies in the

S2R Model

Figure 1.5 on page 24 outlines in brief the structure of the S2R Model,
emphasizing strategies and metastrategies. These elements interact to
improve L2 learning and move students to higher levels of proficiency.

1.3.6 Flexible use of strategies in the S2R Model

Not every learner needs to use every type of strategy at all times. For instance,
if a learner, Brian, is demotivated, stressed, or feeling overly challenged, he
might need affective strategies, but at other times, when he feels motivated,
calm, and sufficiently but not overly challenged, such strategies might be
unnecessary. Highly advanced L2 learners who have reached distinguished
levels of proficiency tend not to need affective strategies any longer, accord-
ing to Leaver (2003a), though this might depend somewhat on the learner’s
personality or general (non-L2) level of anxiety.