PAPER 1: PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

Section A: The Challenge of Natural Hazards (Parts 1-5)

 Tectonic hazards: Chile and Nepal earthquakes
 Tropical storm: Typhoon Haiyan
 Extreme weather event: Somerset Floods

Section B: The Living World (Parts 1-5 )

 Small scale ecosystem: the pond
 Tropical rainforest: The Malaysian Rainforest
 Cold environments Svalbard

Section C: Physical Landscapes in the UK (Parts 1-6)

 Example of a coastline to show its landforms: Swanage Dorset
 Example of a coastal management scheme: Swanage Dorset and Medmerry
 Example of a river to show its landforms: River Tees
 Example of a flood management scheme: Boscastle flood
Section C: Physical Landscapes in the UK (Parts 1-6)
 Example of a coastline to show its landforms: Swanage Dorset
 Example of a coastal management scheme: Swanage Dorset
and Medmerry
 Example of a river to show its landforms: River Tees
 Example of a flood management scheme: Boscastle flood

2
 Y10 – The Geography Knowledge – PHYSICAL LANDSCAPES IN THE UK (part 1) Coastal Processes 11
Coastline The outline of the land. Where the land meets the sea Erosion The wearing away or removal of rocks. Erosion attacks the base of the cliff.

How are waves • Winds push the surface of the water in the direction it is blowing. Hydraulic The force of the waves hitting the cliffs removes material. Air bubbles in the water are
formed and • The water moves in a circular motion = waves. Action pushed into cracks in the cliff and remove material due to an increase in pressure.
how do they • As the waves move into shallow water, the rough sea bed = friction =
break? water travels slower at the base of Abrasion Material in the sea hits against the cliffs and removes rocks and soil, like sandpaper.
the circular wave = the top of the Corrosion Chemicals in the water dissolve the cliff.
wave moves faster than the base.
• Eventually the top of the wave breaks Attrition Material in the sea crash into each other and break into smaller pieces. Continued
attrition = smaller, smoother pebbles and sand particles.

Wave anatomy Weathering The breakdown of rocks caused by the day-to-day changes in the atmosphere.
Weathering attacks the top of the cliff.

Freeze-thaw Water collects in cracks. At night this water freezes and expands. The cracks get larger.
In the day the temperature rises and the ice melts (thaws). The repeated freezing and
thawing weakens the rock = breaks apart

Biological Plant roots grow in cracks in the rocks and break them apart. Animals burrow into weak
weathering rocks and break it apart.

Constructive • Long wavelength and low wave height Carbonation Carbon dioxide and sulphur dioxide mix with rainwater to produce acid rain. This reacts
Waves • Strong swash and gentle backwash = add with rocks. e.g. rainwater + CO2 = carbonic acid. Carbonic acid + calcium carbonate (in
material and create big beaches rocks such as limestone) = calcium bicarbonate which is soluble = rock dissolves.
• Very gentle, created in calm conditions
and a short fetch. Transportation The movement of sediment along the coastline.

Longshore The zig zag movement of transported material along the coastline. It is transported in
Destructive • Short wavelength and high wave height drift the direction of the prevailing wind.
Waves • Weak swash and strong backwash =
remove material and erode beaches
• Very powerful, created in storms and
with a long fetch.

Wave fetch The distance of water over which the wind blows (the size of the
sea/ocean)

Swash Breaking waves rush water and sediment up the beach.

Backwash The water that rushes flows back to the sea.

Infiltration Water enters the ground

Saturation Rock that is full of liquid

Impermeable Rocks that do not allow liquid to pass through

rock (non- Deposition The dropping of material carried by the water.
porous rock) It takes place in areas where the flow of water slows down. Waves lose energy and can
no longer carry sediment and is therefore dropped. This occurs in:
Permeable rock Rocks that allow liquid to pass through • Sheltered bays when the wave’s energy decreases.
(porous rock) • Areas where there are constructive waves (strong swash/weak backwash)
• Coastlines with groynes. These are wooden walls that are built out to sea, along the
Slip plane A line of weakness along which movement occurs beach. They trap sediment being transported by longshore drift.
 Y10 – The Geography Knowledge – PHYSICAL LANDSCAPES IN THE UK (part 2) Coastal features 12
LANDFORMS: EROSION AND WEATHERING LANDFORMS: TRANSPORTATION AND DEPOSITION
MASS MOVEMENT Mass movement is the downhill movement of material SPIT e.g. Sandbanks 1. Longshore drift transport material along the coastline
caused by gravity. in a zigzag pattern.
Rotational slump and Landslide: 2. Where there is a sudden bend in the coastline, the
• Heavy rain infiltrates the permeable rock = saturated and waves lose energy = material is deposited.
heavier. The rocks become unstable and a line of weakness 3. Continued longshore drift and deposition, deposits
(slip plane) forms. material out to sea = spit.
• Land moves downhill along the line of weakness. 4. Strong winds and waves curve the end of the spit =
• Rotational slumps – a CURVED line of weakness forms. recurved end.
• Landslides – a STRAIGHT line of weakness forms. 5. The area behind the spit is sheltered from waves =
Rock Fall – where rocks fall down a cliff face due to gravity low energy = deposition. Saltmarshes and mud flats
• Freeze-thaw weakens the rocks at the top of the cliff. are common here. They attract lots of wildlife.
• These weakened rocks fall to the base of the cliff.
• The material that collects at the bottom of the cliff is called a
scree slope.

WAVE CUT PLATFORM • Waves erode the base of the cliff between the high and
low tide levels due to hydraulic action and abrasion.
• This creates a wave cut ntch and overhanging cliff.
• Further erosion = the notch gets larger = overhanging A BAR is formed when a spit joins two headlands together.
cliff becomes unstable. A lagoon forms behind the bar.
• Eventually the overhanging cliff collapses leaving a flat
area of rock (wave cut platform). A TOMBOLO is formed when a spit joins to an island.
• The cliff retreat.
BEACH e.g. Swanage Bay Deposits of sand and shingle (pebbles) at the coast.
Beaches are found on the coast between the high water
HEADLAND AND BAY e.g. A headland is a cliff that sticks out into the sea. mark (high tide line) and low water mark (low tide line).
Swanage Bay and the Foreland A bay is an indentation in the coastline between headlands They are formed by constructive waves depositing
• Discordant coastlines, with different rock types, will material, such as sand and shingle.
erode at different speeds.  Sand beach – wide, and flat.
• Hard rock (granite) will erode more slowly, creating  Shingle beach – steep and narrow.
headlands. Beaches are made up of the offshore (out to sea), foreshore
• Soft rock (clay) will erode more quickly, creating bays. (between high and low tide lines) and backshore (high up the
• Bays are sheltered = deposition = beaches are formed. beach, near the sand dunes).

SAND DUNE e.g. Studland SAND DUNES – mounds of sand at the back of the beach.
• Sand is moved up the beach by the wind.
CAVE, ARCH, STACK • Erosion (hydraulic action, abrasion) attacks a line of • It gets trapped by obstacles (e.g. driftwood) and the sand
e.g. Old Harry weakness n the cliff = cave. is deposited. Overtime it gets vegetated and larger =
• Continued erosion, erodes the back of the cave = arch. embryo dune.
• Weathering (freeze-thaw, animals, salt) weakens the top • As you travel inland from the sea, the sand dunes get:
of the arch = unstable. It eventually collapses = stack. taller, larger, darker, more vegetated.
• The stack is eroded from the base by the sea and INLAND
weakened at the top by weathering = stump.
 Y10 – The Geography Knowledge – PHYSICAL LANDSCAPES IN THE UK (part 3) Coastal protection 13
The UK’s coastline is at risk of erosion. For a section of coastline to be protected, the cost of the Hard Using manmade, artificial structures to prevent erosion and flooding..
scheme must be less than the value of the land, property and infrastructure (e.g. roads) saved, engineering  More effective, long lasting and need less maintaining than soft engineering,
and the scheme must have no negative ‘knock-on’ environmental effects, for example making however more expensive and less natural/environmentally friendly.
erosion worse somewhere else. The British Government creates shoreline management plans
(SMPs) that outline how our coastline will be protected. There are four strategies. Sea Wall A strong concrete wall built in front of the cliff/settlement that absorbs the wave’s energy. A
curved sea wall reflects the wave back to sea.
Advance the line Build new defence structures (v. high land value) • Effective, long lifespan, tourists like to walk along it.
• Expensive to build and maintain, looks unnatural.
Hold the line Maintain/improve existing coastal defences (high land value)

Managed retreat Allow the sea to flood the land and build new sea defences inland (low land Rock Amour Large rocks placed in front of the cliff or settlement, that absorb the wave’s energy.
value) • Effective, long lifespan, cheaper, more natural and easier to build/maintain than a sea wall.
• Expensive, access to the beach can be difficult, can become slippery and dangerous.
Do nothing Leave land to erode/flood (v.low land value)
Gabions A wire cage filled with rocks that are placed in front of the cliff or seaside settlement, that absorb
the wave’s energy.
Example: North Norfolk is located on the east coast of England. Historic records show that • Effective, long lifespan, cheaper and easier to build/maintain than rock armour/sea walls.
between 1600 and 1850, >250m of land was eroded by the sea. This is due to soft rock (clay), • Wire cages have short lifespan (5-10 years). Sea water corrodes metal cages = broken
large wave fetch (4000 miles from Arctic) and strong weather. Along the coastline they have a gabions which can be dangerous to tourists. More expensive than soft engineering.
number of Shoreline Management Plans (SMPs).
Groynes Wood or rock fences built out into the sea. They trap sediment transported by longshore drift
Happisburgh Very low land value. SMP: do nothing. and make the beach larger.
 Old sea defences are not repaired and the cliff is left to erode. Owners were • Groynes - Beach becomes wider = waves lose energy as they rush up the beach = less
given 40% of their homes full value (non-risk value) as compensation. erosion. Big beaches boosts tourism.
• They prevent sediment reaching beaches further along the coastline = problem is shifted and
Sea Palling Mid land value (homes, few shops, pub). SMP: hold the line. not solved. More expensive than soft engineering.
 They have a concrete sea wall and offshore breakwaters.
Off-shore Stone walls built up in the ocean parallel to the coastline. They reduce the energy of the waves
Sheringham High land value (lots of homes and businesses). SMP: hold the line.
Break-water and help deposition to occur = beach gets larger (e.g. Sea Palling), however they can also be very
 They have a sea wall, groynes, rock armour and beach nourishment.
expensive and can interfere with boats.

A deliberate decision to allow the sea to floor an area of low-value land. Soft Using natural, environmentally friendly methods to prevent flooding.
 People are evacuated, buildings demolished and any existing sea engineering  Often cheaper than hard engineering however need more maintaining and have a
Managed shorter lifespan
defences removed. The sea floods the land and salt marshes develop
retreat
which absorb the energy of future waves. New flood defences can be Beach Adds sediment to the beach to make it wider = acts as a barrier from the waves = reduces
built in high-value land behind the salt marshes Nourishment erosion and flooding.
• Cheap and easy to maintain, natural looking, bigger beaches = more tourism
• Short lifespan, constant maintenance, beach is closed due it is being done.
Medmerry Managed Retreat, Chichester, South England.
The flat, low-lying land had a low value (used for farming and caravan parks). Beach Material removed by longshore drift or destructive waves is returned to the beach = prevents
The sea wall that protected the area needed repairing, but the decision was to Reprofiling the beach getting smaller.
not repair it and allow the land to flood as it was cheaper than repairing the • Cheap and easy to maintain, natural appearance, bigger beach = more tourists
sea wall. The managed retreat took place in November 2013. • Short lifespan, constant maintenance, beach is closed due it is being done.
Example of Dune Sand dunes are repaired and made larger using fences or marram grass = barrier from the waves.
managed ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES Regeneration • Cheap, very natural, popular with wildlife (creates habitats).
retreat • While being repaired, dunes are closed = less tourists, constant maintenance as dunes are
Created large saltmarsh that People and businesses were flooded constantly changing.
protected the most expensive inland and relocated. It cost the
areas from flooding. government £28 million. Dune Fences are built on sandy beaches to collect sand and create new sand dunes = act as a barrier
Created wildlife habitats Fencing from the waves
Large areas of agricultural land was
• Cheap, natural, help make dunes larger, minimal impact on wildlife.
Cheaper than repairing sea wall lost. • Can be dangerous if the fences break, need regular maintenance after storms
 Y10 – The Geography Knowledge – PHYSICAL LANDSCAPES IN THE UK (part 4) River processes 14
Evaporation The sun heats up water. The water turns into a gas which rises up
into the atmosphere (air).
Transpiration The sun heats up water on the leaves of trees. The water turns
into a gas which rises up into the atmosphere (air).
Condensation As the water in the atmosphere rises, it cools and condenses to
form clouds.
Precipitation Water in the cloud falls to the earth’s surface as rain, hail, sleet
and snow.
Long profile Shows the gradient of a river along its course (from its source to its mouth).
Surface run-off When the water runs off the surface of the ground as a river or
stream. Cross profile Shows the shape of the river channel and valley. It shows a cross section of the river.
Groundwater When water flows through the rocks and soil underground.
flow Upper course:  Long profile: very steep gradient.
 Cross profile: Vertical erosion has created steep V shape valleys. Narrow and shallow river
Infiltration When water enters a rock.
channel.
 Landforms: V shape valleys, waterfalls, gorge.

Middle course:  Long profile: medium gradient.

 Cross profile: Gentle sloping valley sides – formed by lateral erosion. Wider and deeper river
channel.

Lower course:  Long profile: very steep gradient.

 Cross profile: Lateral erosion widens the river valley = very wide, almost flat valley. Widest
and deepest river channel
 Landforms = estuaries, floodplain, levees, meanders, ox bow lakes
Drainage Basin The area of land in which water drains into a specific river.
Erosion The removal of rock by the river
Watershed The boundary of a drainage basin. It separates one drainage basin
from another. It is usually high land. Hydraulic The force of water hits against the river channel and removes material. It is common with fast
Source The point where the river begins. Action moving, high energy water.
Tributary A stream or small river that joins a larger stream or big river.
Confluence A point where two streams or rivers meet. Abrasion Sediment carried by the river hits the river channel and removes material.
Mouth The point where the river meets the sea or ocean.
Corrosion Chemicals in the water dissolve rocks (e.g. limestone)
Long Profile Shows the gradient of a river from its source to mouth.
Attrition Stones carried by the river hit into each other, gradually making the rocks smaller and smoother.
Cross Profile Shows the shape of the river channel and valley. It is an Rocks in the upper course are large and more angular than rocks in the lower course.
imaginary ‘slice’ across a river channel/valley at a specific point.
Weathering The breakdown of rocks caused by the day-to-day changes in the atmosphere.
Embankments Raised river banks on either side of a river
Freeze-thaw Water collects in cracks. At night this water freezes and expands. The cracks get larger. In the day
Contour Line Brown lines on an OS map that join up points of equal height. the temperature rises and the ice melts (thaws). The repeated freezing and thawing weakens the
They allow us to determine slope gradient. rock = breaks apart.
Flood A flood occurs when there is too much water in the river Transportation Eroded material is carried by the river downstream.
channel. As a result water spills out onto the floodplain.
Traction Large particles roll along the river bed.
Flash Flood Rapidly rising river levels leading to greater
Saltation Pebble-sized particles bounce along the river bed.
Storm Shows how a river changes after a storm and is used to predict
Hydrograph floods Suspension Small particles (silt and clay) are carried in the water.

Lag time The time (in hours) between the peak rainfall and peak Solution Soluble materials dissolve in the water and are carried along.
discharge
Deposition Deposition takes place where a river does not have enough energy to carry sediment (its load). As a
Discharge The volume of water in a river channel (measured in cumecs) result it is dropped.
 Y10 – The Geography Knowledge – PHYSICAL LANDSCAPES IN THE UK (part 5) River features and causes of flooding 15
LANDFORMS: EROSION AND WEATHERING LANDFORMS: TRANSPORTATION AND DEPOSITION
Waterfall A steep fall of water in the upper course of a river. Floodplain A wide, flat area of marshy land on either side of a river in the lower
• Waterfalls are formed when hard rock overlays softer rock. course of a river.
• The softer rock is eroded more quickly than the harder rock = • Flooding is common in the lower course of a river. When a river
plunge pool and overhanging rock. floods, velocity decreases = energy decreases = deposition occurs.
• Continued erosion makes the plunge pool deeper and • Layers of deposited fine sediment (e.g. silt/alluvium) build up.
overhanging rock unstable. • The floodplain is made wider due to large meanders that wind
• The overhanging rock collapses and the waterfall retreats across the floodplain.
upstream.
Gorge Levee A raised river bank found alongside a river in the lower course, caused
A narrow steep sided valley that is usually found immediately by repeated flooding. They are natural embankments.
downstream from a waterfall.
Flooding is common in the lower course of a river. When a river
It is formed by the gradual retreat of a waterfall over hundreds or floods, velocity decreases = energy decreases = deposition occurs.
thousands of years. • Heavier, larger material is deposited first, next to the river bank.
• Lighter silt/alluvium is deposited further across the floodplain.
• Over time the height of the banks are raised by a build up of
coarser sand deposits = levees.
Interlocking Spurs • In the upper course, the river erodes vertically (downwards) =
Estuary Is the wide part of a river, where the river meets the sea (mouth)
steep valley sides.
• Weathering of the valley sides = deep V shape valleys. Estuaries are the transitional zone between the river & sea.
• The river in the upper course does not have enough energy to • The water flowing down the river meets water flowing up the
erode laterally and so flows around bands of more resistant rock river from the sea (during high tides) = velocity decreases=
• These resistant hard rock creates ridges with jut out = spurs. They energy decreases = lots of deposition.
overlap = interlocking spurs. • Due to deposition, salt marshes form = habitats for wildlife.
In some estuaries humans have made ports for industry.

STORM HYDROGRAPH
LANDFORMS: EROSION AND DEPOSITION
Storm A graph that Shows how a river
Meander A bend in the river on the valley floor.
Hydrograph changes after a storm and can be
1. It starts with a slight bend. used to predict floods.
2. Water moves faster on the outside of the bend and slower on the
inside. Lag time The time between the peak rainfall
3. The fast water erodes the outside of the bend. The slower water and peak discharge
A deposits material on the inside of the bend.
Discharge The volume of water in a river
4. Continued erosion and deposition makes the bend bigger.
channel (measured in cumecs)

NO FLOOD • Trees in drainage basin that intercept rainfall = longer lag time.
Ox bow lake U-shaped lakes formed when a meander is no longer connected to a • Gentle rain = more water infiltrated = takes longer to reach river channel
river • Permeable rock = more water infiltrated = takes longer to reach river.
• Dry soils = more water can infiltrate = takes longer to reach river channel
5. Continued erosion and deposition = meander bigger and the
• Large drainage basins = water has to travel further to reach river = slower
neck (A) narrows.
6. Eventually the neck breaks through and the water takes the FLOOD • Deforestation – no trees to intercept rainfall = shorter lag time
most direct route, avoiding the meander
• Intense rain = too fast to infiltrate = more surface runoff = quicker to river
7. As less water is flowing through the meander, the energy is
• Impermeable rock = rain not infiltrated = more surface runoff = quicker to
reduced = deposition. The meander is blocked off and an oxbow
river. Impermeable surfaces created when areas are urbanised (concrete).
lake is created.
• Steep slopes = quick transfer of water to river channel = short lag time
 Y10 – The Geography Knowledge – PHYSICAL LANDSCAPES IN THE UK (part 6) Flood prevention and Boscastle 16
Hard Man-made structures built to control the flow or water and reduce flood risk. BOSCASTLE FLOODS
engineering  More effective, long lasting and need less maintaining than soft engineering, Where: Boscastle, Cornwall
however more expensive and less natural/environmentally friendly. Physical landscape: Boscastle is a village located in a steep V shaped valley. The river Valency
Dam & A large wall is built across a river and a reservoir forms behind the dam. It is used
flows through the centre of the village
Reservoir to regulate river flow. The flow of water can be ‘turned off’ during periods of When: August, 2014
heavy rain.
Natural/Physical causes Human causes Social and economic effects
• Effective, long lifespan, used for irrigation, water supply, recreation and HEP.
• Expensive, damage habitats, people have to relocate due to flooding. Economic
There had been heavy £25 million lost in tourism business
Channel Rivers are straightened by cutting through meanders to create a straight river
rainfall in the previous over the summer season
Straightening channel. This speeds up the flow of water along the river.
week, saturating the 20 B&B’s closed for the whole
• Effective as water does not have time to build up, long lifespan.
drainage basin tourist season
• Expensive, unnatural, damage habitats, result in flooding downstream.
Boscastle is built on a 80 buildings severely flooded and
Embankment A raised riverbank (levee) which allows the river to channel to hold more water. 200 mm of rainfall fell in narrow floodplain next to damaged
• Effective, long lifespan, can look natural if covered in vegetation 4 hours, saturating the the river so is easily flooded Local jobs in tourism were lost
• Expensive, if concrete is used it is unnatural and unattractive. drainage basin. Surface Price of building and contents
run-off and throughflow Impermeable roads and insurance increased
Flood Relief A man-made river channel constructed to divert water in a river channel away
rapidly filled the river surfaces rapidly channelled Social
Channel from urban areas.
causing a flash flood. more water into the river 3 houses completely destroyed
• Effective as regulate river discharge (in heavy rain, relief channels are opened)
• Expensive Roads bridges and car park were
The village is in a steep Bridges over the river and destroyed
Soft Using natural, environmentally friendly methods to prevent flooding. It aims to V shaped valley so culverts under the roads Road surfaces were ripped up by
engineering reduce & slow down the transfer of water to the channel to prevent flooding. surface run-off filled became blocked with cars the floodwater
 Often cheaper than hard engineering however need more maintaining and
the river rapidly and fallen trees, blocking Electricity supplies cut off for
have a shorter lifespan
the flow of the river several days
Afforestation Planting trees to create a woodland/forest The tide in the harbour Repair and rebuilding took six
• Trees slow down the movement of water into channels (longer lag time) = less was in, blocking the months
likely to flood. Provides habitats. Cheap. flow of river water out Sewage pipes burst in the village
• Less effective than hard engineering. to sea 100 cars swept in to the harbour
150 people airlifted to safety
Wetlands Where land next to wetlands is left to flood.
• Cheap, easy to maintain, create habitats, stores water so less in river channel. Boscastle flood prevention scheme. Cost £4.5 million
• Short lifespan, constant maintenance, beach is closed due it is being done.
Hard engineering
Floodplain Land is allocated for different uses according to its flood risk. Land closest to the
Zoning river is used as parkland and land further from rivers is used for housing and
• The river was channelized so that it would hold more discharge in the future
industries.
• The car park was raised by 2 metres to stop it getting flooded again
• Doesn’t’ stop the flood but reduces cost as infrastructure is not destroyed.
• Flood is not stopped, is difficult to if the land has already been built on. • Stone walls were built to strengthen the banks of the river to stop them eroding
• Bridges over the river and culverts under roads were widened and strengthened to allow
River Returns a river to its natural state (e.g. remove channel straightening or a dam). more discharge to pass through
Restoration • Cheap, easy to maintain, creates habitats, natural. • The main sewage pipe was re-built under the river so It wouldn’t be effected in a future
• Flooding still occurs, less effective. flood
Planning & Rivers are monitored to measure flood risk using satellites, instruments and
Soft engineering
Preparation computer models. The Environmental Agency issue alarms if a flood will happen.
• People can prepare – sandbags around home, move valuable upstairs,
evacuate, create emergency kits, • Old and unstable trees growing on the river banks were removed so that they would not
• Flood still occurs, house prices can drop if deemed ‘at risk’ be knocked over in a flood, blocking the river channel