Wood Sci Technol (2005) 39: 579600 DOI 10.

1007/s00226-005-0026-9

ORIGINAL

Jaroslav Mackerle

Finite element analyses in wood research: a bibliography

Received: 15 February 2005 / Published online: 22 September 2005 Springer-Verlag 2005

Abstract This paper gives a bibliographical review of the nite element methods (FEMs) applied in the analysis of wood. The added bibliography at the end of this article contains 300 references to papers and conference proceedings on the subject that were published between 1995 and 2004. The following topics are included: Wood as a construction materialmaterial and mechanical properties; wood joining and fastening; fracture mechanics problems; drying process, thermal properties; other topics. Wood products and structureslumber; glulam, panels, wood composites; trusses and frames; oors, roofs; bridges; other products/structures.

Introduction Wood can be characterized as a natural, cellular, polymer-based, hygrothermal viscoelastic material. As a construction material, it has been used very early next to stone, owing to its good material and mechanical properties. To name some of them: wood is strong in relation to its weight; good heat and electrical insulator; easily machinable; it can be fabricated to a variety of shapes and sizes; and not the least important- economically available. Wood is a renewable and biodegradable resource. Its main drawbacks are: wood is an anisotropic material with an array of defects in the form of irregular grains and knots; it is subject to decay if not kept dry, and it is ammable. In the last four decades, the nite element method, FEM, has become the prevalent technique used for analyzing physical phenomena in the eld of structural, solid and uid mechanics as well as for the solution of eld problems. This paper gives a review of the published papers dealing with nite element methods applied to wood. For a more ecient information retrieval, the list of
J. Mackerle (&) Department of Mechanical Engineering, Linkoping Institute of Technology, SE-58183, Linkoping, Sweden E-mail: [email protected]

580

references of papers published between 1995 and 2004 is classied into the following topics: Wood as a construction material Material and mechanical properties Wood joining and fastening Fracture mechanics problems Drying process, thermal properties Other topics Lumber Glulam, panels, wood composites Trusses and frames Floors, roofs Bridges Other products/structures

Wood products and structures

This bibliography is organized in two parts. In the rst, each topic is considered and current trends in the application of nite element techniques are mentioned, usually in form of keywords. The second part lists papers published in the open literature for the period 19952004 on subjects presented above. References have been retrieved from the authors database, MAKEBASE. Also the COMPENDEX database has been checked. Hopefully, This bibliography will save time for readers looking for information on wood and wood products/structures where nite elements are applied in the analysis/simulation process. Readers interested in the nite element literature in general are referred to the authors Internet Finite Element Books Bibliography (http://www.solid.ikp.liu.se/fe/index.html) where approximately 500 book titles are listed complete with bibliographical data, abstracts and book-contents. Wood as a construction material In this section, wood as a construction material is considered in the following subsections: material and mechanical properties; wood joining and fastening; fracture mechanics problems; drying process and thermal properties; and other topics. Material and mechanical properties Wood is an anisotropic material but under the appropriate set of conditions, is usually considered to be orthotropic (in numerical analysis). Wood is an orthotropic material with an array of defects in the form of irregular grains and knots. When it is used as a structural material, the accurate knowledge of its mechanical properties is necessary. Wood as an orthotropic material has three planes of symmetry dened by longitudinal direction along bers, radial direction parallel to the rays, and tangential direction to the growth rings. The complex stress-strain relationships referred to three planes of symmetry characterize the mechanical properties. Their knowledge is necessary for the design of wood structures or their members.

581

Wood is a material with a microstructure reected on the macroscale in its grain. Cell walls are layered and contain three organic components: cellulose, hemicellulose and natures adhesive, lignin. The lay-up of cellulose bers in the wall is complex but important because it accounts for the part of the great anisotropy of wood. Mechanical properties of wood are complex because they exhibit variable behavior with time, temperature, moisture or loading rate. The linear relationship is observed in longitudinal and transverse tension; in compression and shear, the stress-strain relationship is nonlinear. This section deals with constitutive models of wood materials that are implemented in linear/nonlinear nite element procedures. Studies of wood from a micro to a macrolevel are necessary for a more precise denition and understanding of material and mechanical behavior of wood. At the microlevel, the ber shape, cell wall thickness, etc. are included in modelling. Their continuum properties can be derived by use of a homogenization procedure and the nite element method. The stiness, shrinkage and, nally, the constitutive model is determined in various levels and then used in numerical simulations. Main topics include: 2D and 3D constitutive modelling; coupled material modelling; micro- and macromechanical studies; linear and nonlinear mechanical properties; identication of material and mechanical parameters; inuence of knots; inuence of geometrical distribution of cell-walls; eect of polar anisotropy; strain localization problems; evaluation of nonhomogeneities; estimation of shear moduli; internal stresses of a growing tree. Materials under consideration: wood, timber; cellular solids, ash wood; sugi lamina; pinus radiata; pinus pinaster ait. Wood joining and fastening Connections in wood structures are made with a variety of fasteners and other materials. To name some of them: nails, bolts, screws, staples, shear plate connectors, nail plates, metal connection hardware, split ring connectors. Wood members can be connected to each other or to another material, i.e., metal. Wood components are usually designed for uniaxial loading in grain direction. Unfortunately, all types of joining locally induce multiaxial state of stress. Wood joints can often be the weakest point in the structure resulting in a reduction of its global strength. The knowledge of mechanical properties of wood joints is therefore required. The nite element method is a suitable tool to study the mechanical performance of reinforced and non-reinforced wood joints aected by the various parameters. The singularity of joints is due to a combination of dierent materials and also due to the anisotropy of wood. The main source of ductility in wood structures is in the mechanically fastened joints, especially those with dowel-type fasteners such as nails and bolts. Nonlinear nite element method has been used to predict load-slip response of nailed joints under a monotonic as well as reversed cyclic loads. Nailed joint properties such as strength degradation, energy absorption, ductility, etc. have been determined. In wood bolted joints, the mechanical behavior is due to relatively low member thickness to bolt-diameter-ratio. It is very complex and studies of material, geometric and loading parameters are necessary. Friction, clearance

582

of bolts, and geometric parameters inuence the introduction of high localized stress concentration in the area of contact. Again, the nite element method is an ecient tool for the analysis. References to these studies can be found in the second part of this paper. Topics include: 2D and 3D nite element analysis of wood joints; analysis of multicontact problems; modelling the interface; inuence of geometry on strength; prediction of load carrying capacity; connections under re exposure. Type of joint: nger joint; tension-splice joint; dowel-type joint; nailed joint; bolted joint; cross-halved joint; through-tenon joint; glued joint; corner joints; truss joint; double lap joint; rigid and semi-rigid connections; plain and retrotted connections. Fracture mechanics problems In this section, fracture characteristics of wood as a construction material, wood joints, and wood products/structures are handled. The orthotropic behavior of wood means that for using the concepts of fracture mechanics, six planes of crack propagation exist. Wood is regarded as a brittle material, depending on stress direction, duration of loads and the moisture. Dierent wood species of softwoods as well as hardwoods due to the orthotropic nature have been studied by nite elements in various crack propagation systems. The maximum load is used to calculate the critical stress intensity factor considering the orthotropic nature of wood and this indicates the resistance against crack initiation. Softwoods and hardwoods are quite dierent in their microstructures. Studies in softwoods showed the stable crack propagation in contrast to hardwoods where the unstable crack propagation appears followed by crack arresting. Shear strength is the important parameter for the evaluation of adhesive bonds because it is the most common interfacial stress under service conditions. It is also the evaluation criterion for wood adhesives. Shear test methods can evaluate the shear moduli and shear strength of wood. Dierent methods and geometries for shear specimens are in existence but they are not yet standardized. Frequently made mechanical tests can be simulated by nite element method. Fracture mechanics studies of glulam beams with and without holes have been done where stress intensity factors are calculated for dierent loads by the nite element method. Then crack predictions are given for dierent combinations of loads forming the base for a design proposal. Another method to characterize interlaminar fracture is by energy approach, where the strain energy release rate is used as a measure of the fracture resistance. However, fracture of wood and wood structures still need more understanding. The following topics are listed: 2D and 3D nite element analysis of fracture mechanics problems; large deformation and fracturing process; mode I, II and III loading; tension strength; shear strength prediction; strength in compression; fracture toughness; interlaminar fracture toughness; orthotropic fracture toughness; crack growth; debration of wood; log-end cracks; crack tendency on surfaces; kink band formation; fracture formation on growing surfaces; mixed mode fracture; estimation of yield and ultimate strength; low cycle fatigue; failure in joints; inuence of impregnation on strength; prediction of

583

long-term performance; material testing. Materials under consideration: wood; timber; lumber; wood composites; wood-wood; softwood; glulam lamellas; various wood species; hybrid materials. Drying process, thermal properties Wood is a hygroscopic material. A drying or wetting process simulation involves three fundamental phenomena: heat transfer, the movement of moisture, and mechanical deformation. Swelling and shrinkage creates internal stresses that can be followed by degradation and shape distortion. Wood exhibits orthotropic behavior as well as time-dependent deformations. These deformations are usually split into viscoelastic creep (constant moisture content) and mechano-sorptive creep (varying moisture). In addition to being overstressed, the wood products can be damaged by decay, re, insects, etc. To prevent decay, wood has to be kept continuously dry. The process of drying has been simulated by nite element method and a list of papers of constitutive models for wood, considering moisture content eects, can be found in respective part of the bibliography. Topics listed: nite element simulations of drying process; symmetric and nonsymmetric drying; vacuum drying; high temperature drying; heterogeneous wood drying; wood deformation in drying; stresses and strains in drying; creep problems; mechano-sorptive creep; wood under moisture change; performance of timber in variable climates; thermal re resistance. Materials: wood; timber; spruce; oak; pinus radiata; softwoods. Other topics Cutting mechanisms of wood where a hybrid cellular/macroscopic nite element method is applied is one of the main topic of this subsection. Other topics handled: nite element simulation of wood machining; chip formation; cutting force determination; wood cell collapse during cutting; residual stresses after cutting; laser ablation of wood surfaces; modelling of circular saws; saw blade vibrations; using resin to improve the hardness; acoustic properties of wood; wave propagation.

Wood products and structures There are many wood products available including solid lumber, glued laminated timber, plywood, orientated strand board, etc. Other products such as wood composite I-joists or structural composite lumber can today replace solid lumber. Wood structures have to resist vertical loads (gravity loads) and lateral forces (earthquake, wind). There are also other factors to be considered such as dead load, oor moving load, roof snow load, etc. By means of nite element methods, actual stresses in structural members/structures are evaluated and checked against the allowable stresses. Wood as a construction material is used rst of all in civil engineering structures/infrastructures subjected to static or dynamic loads. Wood under static or quasi-static loads is used for example in trusses, buildings, bridges;

584

wood under impact loading is used in roadside safety structures. Other applications: furniture, musical instruments, sport equipment, etc. This section contains the following topics: lumber; glulam, panels and wood composites; trusses and frames; oors and roofs; bridges; and other products. Lumber Sawn lumber of rectangular cross section is available from a variety of species, and a variety of stress grades is available for each species group. Topics listed: failure modelling of sawn lumber; material testing of lumber; torsion rigidity and lateral stability; reduction in tensile strength. Glulam, panels, wood composites Structural glued-laminated timber (glulam) is formed by gluing together small pieces of wood to form requested size of structural members. It is a versatile material that can be produced in many sizes and shapes. Glulam reduces the eect of imperfections in individual pieces and allows that large members can be produced economically. The problems are the joints, where failure may occur due to splitting parallel to the timber grain. Structural composite lumber is a reconstituted product and according to its manufacturing can be either laminated veneer lumber or parallel strand lumber. The rst named lumber is formed by gluing together thin sheets of wood, the second one is formed by gluing together thin narrow pieces. Structural-use panels are wood panels with directional properties, known as plywood or as oriented strand board. Fiber reinforced composites are often used to reinforce wood, specically glulam wood beams, because of their favorable properties such as light weight, high stiness and strength, and corrosion resistance. This arrangement decreases the volume of wood and increases the stiness and strength. Type of hybrid materials or wood structures listed: layered timber beams; glulam beams; glulam beams with holes; exural reinforcement of beams; archshaped beams; OSB webbed timber I-beams; panels; stiened panels; berboard; strandboard; plywood; carbon ber reinforced plywood; particleboard; chipboard; corrugated berboard; boards; OSB panels; glulam members; wood composites; laminated composite structures; cross-ply laminates; adaptive wood composites; strand-based wood composites; layered wood composites; composite cored trapezoidal sections; timber/concrete composites. Trusses and frames Another group of wood products are composite structural products such as prefabricated wood trusses, I-joists or wall panels. Most wood frames combines horizontal diaphragms and shear walls. Finite element method has been used for 2D and 3D nonlinear studies of wood frame structures under static and dynamic loadings. These studies make it possible to better understand some important issues such as load sharing among structural components and load paths within the entire system. Also various connection congurations have been simulated.

585

Not only the individual components, but also the static and dynamic nite element studies of light-frame wood buildings have been done. These buildings consist of an assembly of vertical, horizontal and diagonal diaphragms connected along their edges. The low weight-high stiness ratio, the exibility and the redundancy are main reasons for the wood usage in the construction of buildings. Wood structures/members listed: wood trusses; timber girder trusses; composite space trusses; wood truss joints; compression webs in wood trusses; glulam truss structures; truss webs and chords; wood frames; light-frame timber structures; light wood-framed buildings; timber buildings; wood diaphragms; wood-framed diaphragms; wooden domes; timber lattice domes; reticulated timber domes; wood-framed shear walls; shear walls; shear walls with openings. Floors, roofs Finite element method has been used for predicting static and dynamic response of wood-based oor structures with and without lateral reinforcements. In the analysis also other structural features can be considered such as dierent connector elements, gaps perpendicular to joists in the suboor, additional objects on oor and exible supports. The nite element method examines the load-sharing properties of wood-joist oor systems subjected to a concentrated load. Then moment and deection design equations are developed to account for load sharing. Factors contributing to load sharing are partial composite action, variability of material properties. Finite element parametric studies have been done to determine shear and exural deection components of the maximum deection of joisted oriented strand board (OSB) oor panels with edge support, subjected to concentrated load. Wood systems considered: wood-based oors; wood-based oors with lateral reinforcements; oor decking; OSB oor decking; joisted decking; wood-joist oor systems; wood-concrete oor/deck systems; hardwood athletic ooring systems; timber roofs; wood-frame roofs; strengthened frame roofs. Bridges Development and construction of wood bridges requires the static, but rst of all the dynamic analysis, where the bridge is subjected to trac and wind loadings. Nonlinear and damping properties of these structures can initiate signicant dynamic displacements resulting in instabilities. The nite element technique is an ecient method to provide these computations. Type of bridges listed: timber bridges; arch bridges; T-system timber bridges; slender wood bridges; timber-concrete bridges. Other products/structures The following wood products/structures are handled: wood pole structures; historic timber structures; wooden bell-towers; wood-based stair stringers; wooden spiral staircases; musical instruments; furniture; box-type furniture;

586

furniture joints; corrugated boxes; baseball bats; wood railroad crosstie; composite-reinforced wood railroad crosstie; guardrails timber posts; W-beam guardrails; bamboo scaolds.

Bibliography: wood as a construction material Material and mechanical properties Aicher S et al (2001) Eect of polar anisotropy of wood loaded perpendicular to grain. J Mater Civil Eng 13(1):29 Cofer WF et al (1999) Development of a simple three dimensional constitutive model for the analysis of wood. ASME Joint Mech Mater Div Meet AMD 231, ASME, pp 107124 Eberhardsteiner J et al (2003) Coupled material modelling and multield structural analyses in civil engineering. Engng Comput 20 (5/6):524558 Fourcaud T, Lac P (1996) Mechanical analysis of the form and internal stresses of a growing tree by the nite element method. 3rd Joint Conf Eng Syst Des Anal PD 77, ASME, pp 213220 Fourcaud T, Lac P (2003) Numerical modelling of shape regulation and growth stresses in trees: I- An incremental static nite element formulation. Trees- Struct Funct 17(1):2330 Gustafsson S I (1999) Solid mechanics for ash wood. Holz Roh Werkst 57(5):373377 Hardtke HJ, Grimsel M (1996) Identikation von Materialparametern fur Holz. ZAMM 76 (S5):195196 Holmberg S et al (1999) Nonlinear mechanical behaviour and analysis of wood and bre materials. Comput Struct 72 (4/5):459480 Houska M, Koc P (2000) Sorptive stress estimation: an important key to the mechano-sorptive eect in wood. Mech Time-Depend Mater 4(1):8198 Itagaki N et al (1999) Inuence of knots on tensile strength of sugi lamina. J Jpn Wood Res Soc 45(5):367374 Kifetew G (1999) Inuence of the geometrical distribution of cell-wall tissues on the transverse anisotropic dimensional changes of softwood. Holzforschung 53(4):347349 Lyons C K (2001) Mechanical stresses in trees resulting from strain compatibility in an anisotropic material. PhD Thesis, Oregon State Univ Mackenzie-Helnwein et al (2003) A multi-surface plasticity model for clear wood and its application to the nite element analysis of structural details. Comput Mech 31 (1/2):204218 McEwan M I et al (1998) Comparison of the directional elastic modulus of pinus radiata with orthotropic theory. J Inst Wood Sci 14(6):272276 Moore J R (2002) Mechanical behavior of coniferous trees subjected to wind loading. PhD Thesis, Oregon State University Moses D M, Prion H G L (2002) Anisotropic plasticity and the notched wood shear block. Forest Prod J 52(6):4354 Naruse K (2003) Estimation of shear moduli of wood by quasi-simple shear tests. J Wood Sci 49(6):479484 Pedersen M U et al (2003) A simple size eect model for tension perpendicular to the grain. Wood Sci Tech 37(2):125140

587

Petersson H et al (1998) Non-linear mechanical behaviour of cellular solids. 4th World Cong Comput Mech, Buenos Aires, p 500 Poulsen J S (1996) Prediction of bending response of wood experiencing compressive strain localization. 9th Nordic Seminar Comp Mech, Lyngby, Denmark, pp 129132 Shiari B, Wild P M (2004) Finite element analysis of individual wood-pulp bers subjected to transverse compression. Wood Fiber Sci 36(2):135142 Sretenovic A et al (2004) New shear assay for the simultaneous determination of shear strength and shear modulus in solid wood: nite element modeling and experimental results. Wood Fiber Sci 36(3):302310 Tabiei A, Wu J (2000) Three-dimensional nonlinear orthotropic nite element material model for wood. Composite Struct 50(2):143149 Tonnesen M et al (1995) Strain localization in clear wood compression. In: Rajendran AM, Batra RC (eds) Constit Laws. CIMNE, pp 252260 Tonosaki M et al (2001) Evaluation of non-homogeneity in wood by longitudinal and exural vibration tests II- Distribution of vibrational properties and FEM simulation. J Jpn Wood Res Soc 47(2):9296 Xavier JC et al (2004) A comparison between the Iosipescu and o-axis shear test method for the characterization of pinus pinaster ait. Composites Part A 35 (7/8):827840 Yoshihara H, Kubojima Y (2002) Measurement of the shear modulus of wood by asymmetric four-point bending tests. J Wood Sci 48(1):1419 Wood joining and fastening Aicher S, Radovic B (1999) Investigations on the inuence of nger-joint geometry on tension strength of nger-jointed glulam lamellas. Holz Roh Werkst 57(1):111 Alart P et al (2004) A numerical modelling of non linear 2D-frictional multicontact problems: application to post-buckling in cellular media. Comput Mech 34(4):298309 Amanuel S et al (2000) Modeling the interface of metal-plate-connected tension-splice joint by nite element method. Trans ASAE 43(5):12691277 Chen C J et al (2003) Finite element modeling for the mechanical behavior of dowel-type timber joints. Comput Struct 81 (30):27312738 Chui Y H et al (1998) Finite element model for nailed wood joints under reversed cyclic load. J Struct Eng, ASCE 124(1):96102 Daudeville L et al (1999) Prediction of the load carrying capacity of bolted timber joints. Wood Sci Tech 33(1):1529 Erdodi B I (2004) Experimental and numerical analysis of timber joints. In: High Perform Struct Mater II, WIT Press, Southampton, pp 201210 Guan Z, Rodd P (2003) Modelling of timber joints made with steel dowels and locally reinforced by DVW discs. Struct Eng Mech 16(4):391404 Guan Z W, Rodd P D (2000) Three-dimensional nite element model for locally reinforced timber joints made with hollow dowel fasteners. Canad J Civil Eng 27(4):785797 Guan Z W, Rodd P D (2001) Hollow steel dowelsa new application in semi-rigid timber connections. Engng Struct 23(1):110119 Guntekin E (2002) Experimental and theoretical analysis of the performance of ready-to-assemble furniture joints constructed with medium density berboard. PhD Thesis, State Univ of New York

588

Gutkowski R M et al (1996) Formulation of a bondline element for modeling glued joints in wood. J Theor Appl Mech 34(1):101128 Jauslin C et al (1995) Finite element analysis of wood joints. J Mater Civil Eng 7(1):5058 Kharouf N et al (2003) Elasto-plastic modeling of wood bolted connections. Comput Struct 81 (8/11):747754 Lang E M, Fodor T (2002) Finite element analysis of cross-halved joints for structural composites. Wood Fiber Sci 34(2):251265 Moses D M, Prion H G L (2003) A three-dimensional model for bolted connections in wood. Canad J Civil Eng 30(3):555567 Nakai T, Takemura T (1996) Stress analysis of the through-tenon joint of wood under torsion. 2- Shear stress analysis of the male using the nite element method. J Jpn Wood Res Soc 42(4):369375 Nicholls T, Crisan R (2002) Study of the stress-strain state in corner joints and box-type furniture using nite element analysis. Holz Roh Werkst 60(1):6671 Nishiyama N, Ando N (2003) Analysis of load-slip characteristics of nailed wood joints: application of a two-dimensional geometric nonlinear analysis. J Wood Sci 49(6):505512 Parisi M A (2000) Mechanics of plain and retrotted traditional timber connections. J Struct Eng, ASCE 126 (12):13951403 Patton-Mallory M (1996) The three-dimensional mechanics and failure of single bolt wood connections. PhD Thesis, Colorado State University, Fort Collins Patton-Mallory M (1997) Improving analysis of bolted wood connections: a three-dimensional model. 15th Struct Cong, Portland, ASCE, pp 934938 Patton-Mallory M et al (1997) Bolted joints in wood: a review. J Struct Eng, ASCE 123(8):10541062 Patton-Mallory M et al (1997) Nonlinear material models for analysis of bolted wood connections. J Struct Eng, ASCE 123(8):10631070 Patton-Mallory M et al (1998) Modeling bolted connections in wood: a three-dimensional nite element approach. J Test Eval 26(2):115124 Patton-Mallory M et al (1998) Qualitative assessment of failure in bolted connections: maximum stress criterion. J Test Eval 26(5):489496 Pellicane P J et al (1995) Comparison of optically and mechanically measured deformations in a nger-jointed wood tension specimen. J Test Eval 23(2):136 140 Pizzo B et al (2003) Measuring the shear strength ratio of glued joints within the same specimen. Holz Roh Werkst 61(4):273280 Povel D (2003) Connections in timber structures under re exposure. Bautechnik 80(8):497505 Sawata K, Yasamura M (2003) Estimation of yield and ultimate strengths of bolted timber joints by nonlinear analysis and yield theory. J Wood Sci 49(5):383391 Serrano E (2001) Glued-in rods for timber structures- A 3D model and nite element parameter studies. Int J Adhesion Adhesives 21(2):115127 Souza A J, Chahud E (1998) Study of connectors by nite element method. 4th World Cong Comput Mech, Buenos Aires, p 178 Vatovec M et al (1996) Testing and evaluation of metal-plate-connected wood truss joints. J Test Eval 24(2):6372

589

Vatovec M et al (1997) Modeling of metal-plate-connected wood truss joints: Part II- Application to overall truss model. Trans ASAE 40(6):16671675 Zink A G et al (1996) Finite element modeling of double lap wood joints. J. Adhesion 56 (1/4):217228 Fracture mechanics problems Aicher S, Radovic B (1999) Investigations on the inuence of nger-joint geometry on tension strength of nger-jointed glulam lamellas. Holz Roh Werkst 57(1):111 Byskov E et al (2002) Kinkband formation in wood and ber compositesmorphology and analysis. Int J Solids Struct 39 (13):36493673 Cofer W F et al (1997) Prediction of the shear strength of wood beams using nite element analysis. Joint ASME/ASCE/SES Summer Meet, AMD 221, ASME, pp 6978 Davalos J F et al (1996) Mode I fracture toughness of composite/wood interface bond. 4th Mater Eng Conf, Washington, ASCE, pp 14691478 Davalos J F et al (1997) Characterization of mode-I fracture of hybrid material interface bonds by contoured DCB specimens. Eng Fract Mech 58(3):173192 Davalos J F et al (1998) Mode I fracture toughness of ber reinforced composite-wood bonded interface. J Composite Mater 32 (10):9871013 Dubois C, Petit C (2002) Viscoelastic crack growth process in wood timbers: an approach by the nite element method for mode I fracture. Int J Fract 113(4):367388 Ehart R J A et al (1998) Crack face interaction and mixed mode fracture of wood composites during mode III loading. Eng Fract Mech 61(2):253278 Federl P (2003) Modeling fracture formation on growing surfaces. PhD Thesis, University of Calgary, Canada Green D W et al (2003) On fracture-related causes for reduction in tensile strength of southern pine lumber at low moisture content. Wood Fiber Sci 35(1):90101 Hanhijarvi A (2000) Computational method for predicting the long-term performance of timber beams in variable climates. Mater Struct/Mater Constr 33 (226):127134 Holmberg S, Peterson H (1996) Numerical simulation of initial debration of wood. 9th Nordic Seminar Comp Mech, Lyngby, Denmark, pp 133136 Holmberg S, Petersson H (1997) Numerical simulations and experimental studies of large deformation and fracturing processes in wood. 5th Int Conf Comput Plast, Owen DRJ (ed), CIMNE, pp 929936 Itagaki N et al (1999) Inuence of knots on tensile strength of sugi lamina. J Jpn Wood Res Soc 45(5):367374 Jose S et al (2001) Interlaminar fracture toughness of a cross-ply laminate and its constituent sub-laminates. Compos Sci Tech 61(8):11151122 Jullien D et al (2003) Modelling log-end cracks due to growth stresses: calculation of the elastic energy release rate. Holzforschung 57(4):407414 Konas P, Horacek P (2004) Inuence of selected impregnation matters on spruce strength in compression. Wood Res 49(3):18 Leichti RJ, Nakhata T (1999) Role of bearing plates in the ve-point bending tests of structural-size lumber. J Test Eval 27(3):183190

590

Moses DM, Prion HGL (2002) Anisotropic plasticity and the notched wood shear block. Forest Products J 52(6):4354 Naruse K et al (1999) Low cycle fatigue test of LVL under longitudinal compression. J Soc Mater Sci Jpn 48(3):240244 Patton-Mallory M et al (1998) Qualitative assessment of failure in bolted connections: maximum stress criterion. J Test Eval 26(5):489496 Pedersen MU et al (1999) Strength of glued-in bolts after full-scale loading. J Perf Constr Facil 13(3):107113 Pizzo B et al (2003) Measuring the shear strength ratio of glued joints within the same specimen. Holz Roh Werkst 61(4):273280 Qiao P, Wang J (2003) Characterization of mode-II fracture of bi-material bonded interfaces using tapered ENF-specimen. 44th Str Str Dyn Mater Conf, Norfolk, AIAA, pp 47354745 Qiao P et al (2003) Tapered beam on elastic foundation model for compliance rate change of TDCB specimen. Eng Fract Mech 70(2):339353 Qiao P et al (2003) Analysis of tapered ENF specimen and characterization of bonded interface fracture under mode-II loading. Int J Solids Struct 40(8):18651884 Reiterer A et al (2002) Fracture characteristics of dierent wood species under mode I loading perpendicular to the grain. Mater Sci Eng A 332 (1/2):29 36 Saravi A et al (2004) Implementation of a mechanics-based system for estimating the strength of timber. IEEE Trans Instrum Meas 53(2):284292 Saravi AA et al (2002) Implementation of a mechanics-based system for estimating the strength of a board. 19th IEEE Instrument Measur Tech Conf, Anchorage, IEEE, pp 11791182 Saravi AA et al (2003) Identifying strength of boards using mechanical modeling and a Weibull-based feature. IEEE Conf Control Appl, Istanbul, pp 5459 Sawata K, Yasamura M (2003) Estimation of yield and ultimate strengths of bolted timber joints by nonlinear analysis and yield theory. J Wood Sci 49(5):383391 Schachner H et al (2000) Orthotropic fracture toughness of wood. J Mater Sci Lett 19 (20):17831785 Scheer C, Haase K (2000) Glued-laminated beams with holes, Part 2: Investigations based on fracture mechanics. Holz Roh Werkst 58(4):217228 Serrano E (2004) A numerical study of the shear-strength-predicting capabilities of test specimens for wood-adhesive bonds. Int J Adhesion Adhesives 24(1):2335 Serrano E et al (2001) Modeling of nger-joint failure in glued-laminated timber beams. J Struct Eng, ASCE 127(8):914921 Serrano E, Gustafsson PJ (1999) Inuence of bondline brittleness and defects on the strength of timber nger joints. Int J Adhesion Adhesives 19(1):917 Smith I, Vasic S (2003) Fracture behaviour of softwood. Mech Mater 35(8):803815 Sretenovic A et al (2004) New shear assay for the simultaneous determination of shear strength and shear modulus in solid wood: nite element modeling and experimental results. Wood Fiber Sci 36(3):302310 Stehr M, Ostlund S (2000) An investigation of the crack tendency on wood surfaces after dierent machining operations. Holzforschung 54(4):427436

591

Thuvander F et al (2000) Inuence of repetitive stiness variation on crack growth behavior in wood. J Mater Sci 35 (24):62596266 Ukyo S, Masuda M (2002) Fracture analysis of wood in moment-resisting joints with four drift-pins using digital image correlation method (DIC). J Soc Mater Sci Jpn 51(4):367372 Vasic S, Smith I (2002) Bridging crack model for fracture of spruce. Eng Fract Mech 69(6):745760 Wang J, Qiao P (2003) Fracture toughness of wood-wood and wood-FRP bonded interface under mode II loading. J Composite Mater 37 (10):875898 Williams J M et al (2000) Failure modeling of sawn lumber with a fastener hole. Finite Elem Anal Design 36(1):8398 Xu S et al (1996) Mode II fracture testing method for highly orthotropic materials like wood. Int J Fract 75(3):185214 Yamauchi H et al (2001) Eect of external pressure on the strength of hollow cylindrical wood columns. 4th Int Conf Mater Eng Resources, Akita, pp 100103 Drying process, thermal properties Audebert P, Temmar A (1997) Comparison of experimental results with analytical solutions and two dimensional model of oak drying in an evacuated kiln. Drying Technol 15(5):16331652 Audebert P et al (1997) Vacuum drying of oakwood: moisture, strains and drying process. Drying Technol 15(9):22812302 Awadalla HSF et al (2004) Mathematical modelling and experimental verication of wood drying process. Energy Conver Managem 45(2):197207 Brooke AS, Langrish TAG (1997) Simulation of stresses and strains in the drying of pinus radiata sapwood: the eects of board geometry. Comp Chem Eng 21 (11):12711281 Carlsson P, Esping B (1997) Optimization of the wood drying process. Struct Optim 14(4):232241 Chow WK, Chan YY (1996) Computer simulation of the thermal re resistance of building materials and structural elements. Constr Build Mater 10(2):131140 Dahlblom O (1996) Simulation of wood deformation processes in drying and other types of environmental loading. Ann Sci For 53:857866 Defo M et al (2000) Modeling vacuum-contact drying of wood: the water potential approach. Drying Technol 18(8):17371778 Doltsinis IS (1997) Solution of coupled systems by distinct operators. Eng Comput 14(8):829868 Ferguson WJ (1995) A control volume nite element numerical simulation of the high temperature drying of spruce. Drying Technol 13(3):607634 Ferguson WJ (1997) A control volume nite element numerical solution of creep problems. Int J Num Meth Eng 40 (18):34633475 Ferguson WJ (1997) Numerical simulation of drying stresses in wood: nonsymmetric drying compared to symmetric drying. Comput Model Simul Eng 2(4):401418 Ferguson WJ (1998) The control volume nite element numerical solution technique applied to creep in softwoods. Int J Solids Struct 35 (13):13251338 Ferguson WJ, Turner IW (1996) Control volume nite element model of mechano-sorptive creep in timber. Numer Heat Transf, Part A 29(2):147164

592

Ferguson WJ, Turner IW (1995) A comparison of the nite element and control volume numerical solution techniques applied to timber drying problems below the boiling point. Int J Num Meth Eng 38(3):451467 Ferguson WJ, Turner IW (1995) A study of two-dimensional cell-centred and vertex-centred control volume schemes applied to high temperature timber drying. Numer Heat Transf B 27:393415 Haitian Y (1999) A new approach of time stepping for solving transfer problems. Commun Num Meth Eng 15(5):325334 Hammoum F, Audebert P (1999) Modeling and simulation of (visco)plastic behavior of wood under moisture change. Mech Res Commun 26(2):203208 Hanhijarvi A (2000) Computational method for predicting the long-term performance of timber beams in variable climates. Mater Struct/Mater Constr 33(226):127134 Hardtke HJ et al (1999) Rissenstehung bei der Holtztrocknung. ZAMM 79 (S2):505506 Irudayaraj J et al (1996) Application of simultaneous heat, mass and pressure transfer equations to timber drying. Numer Heat Transf A 30(3):233247 Kamaguchi A et al (2000) Non-destructive measurement of heartwood moisture content in sugi standing tree by lateral impact vibration method. J Jpn Wood Res Soc 46(1):1319 Kowalski SJ, Musielak G (1999) Deformations and stresses in dried wood. Transp Porous Media 34(1):239248 Mackenzie-Helnwein, Hanhijarvi A (2003) Computational analysis of quality reduction during drying of lumber due to irrecoverable deformation. II: Aspects and practical application. J Eng Mech, ASCE 129(9):10061016 Naito S et al (2000) Thermographic measurement of slope of grain using the thermal anisotropy of wood. J Jpn Wood Res Soc 46(4):320325 Ormarsson S (1999) Numerical analysis of moisture-related distortions in sawn timber. PhD Thesis, Chalmers Tekniska Hogskola, Goteborg Ormarsson S et al (1998) Numerical study of the shape stability of sawn timber subjected to moisture variation Part 1: Theory. Wood Sci Tech 32(5):325334 Ormarsson S et al (1999) Numerical study of the shape stability of sawn timber subjected to moisture variation Part 2: Simulation of drying board. Wood Sci Tech 33(5):407423 Ormarsson S et al (2000) Numerical and experimental studies on inuence of compression wood timber distortion. Drying Technol 18(8):18971919 Perre P, Passard J (1995) A control volume procedure coupled with the nite element method for calculating stress and strain during wood drying. Drying Technol 13(3):635660 Perre P, Turner IW (2002) A heterogeneous wood drying computational model that accounts for material property variation across growth rings. Chemical Eng J 86 (1/2):117131 Petersson H et al (1997) Moisture distortion modelling of wood and structural timber. In: Mechanical Performance of Wood and Wood Products, Copenhagen, COST action E8. Povel D (2003) Connections in timber structures under re exposure. Bautechnik 80(8):497505

593

Turner IW, Perre P (1995) A comparison of the drying simulation codes TRANSPORE and WOOD2D which are used for the modelling of twodimensional wood drying processes. Drying Technol 13:695736 Yamada N et al (1999) Estimation of drying stresses in hollowed log using FEM. I: The linear FEA of the drying stress were substituted by the thermal stress. J Jpn Wood Res Soc 45(5):403408 Other topics Abayakoon SBS (2001) Finite element analysis of saw blade vibrations under in-plane lateral loading. J Inst Wood Sci 15(5):253260 Bouzakis KD, Koutoupas G (2003) Bending and indentation tests to determine chipboards mechanical strength critical stresses and their correlation to the specic cutting force. Wood Sci Tech 37(2):141159 Buchar J et al (2000) Reection of stress pulse at the interface between elastic bar and wood block. Drevarsky Vyskum/Wood Res 45(3):3546 Caughley AJ, King MJ (2003) Modelling the collapse of wood cells during the cutting process. Holz Roh Werkst 61(6):403408 Gindl W et al (2004) Using a water-soluble melamine-formaldehyde resin to improve the hardness of Norway spruce wood. J Appl Polymer Sci 93(4):1900 1907 Ioras H et al (2000) Parametric modelling of circular saws with uniform thickness using nite element analysis. J Inst Wood Sci 15(1):2831 Isaksson A et al (1995) Inuence of enclosed air on vibration modes of a shell structure. J Sound Vib 187(3):451466 Jullien D, Gril J (1996) Numerical analysis of residual stresses remaining in a green wood crosscut after V-cutting and heating. 3rd Joint Conf Eng Syst Des Anal, PD 77, ASME, pp 205212 Laternser R et al (2003) Chip formation in cellular materials. J Eng Mater Technol, ASME 125(1):4449 Le-Ngoc L, McCallion H (2000) A cellular nite element model for the cutting of softwood across the grain. Int J Mech Sci 42 (12):22832301 Maluski S, Gibbs BM (2004) The eect of construction material, contents and room geometry on the sound eld in dwellings at low frequencies. Appl Acoustics 65(1):3144 Nicoletti N et al (1996) Using nite elements to model circular saw roll tensioning. Holz Roh Werkst 54(2):99104 Scheer M et al (2002) Numerical simulation of sound propagation in wood in presence of defects. Holz Roh Werkst 60(6):397404 Skatter S, Archer RR (2001) Residual stresses caused by growth stresses within a stem with radially varying spiral grain angle- two numerical solution approaches. Wood Sci Tech 35 (1/2):5771 Stehr M, Ostlund S (2000) An investigation of the crack tendency on wood surfaces after dierent machining operations. Holzforschung 54(4):427436 Stehr M et al (1999) Laser ablation of machined wood surfaces. 1- Eect on end-grain gluing of pine (pinus silvestris l) and spruce (picea abies karst). Holzforschung 53(1):93103 Veres IA, Sayir MB (2004) Wave propagation in a wooden bar. Ultrasonics 42 (1/9):495499

594

Wang XG et al (1999) Estimation and control of vibrations of circular saws. IEEE Int Conf Control Appl, pp 514520

Bibliography: wood products and structures Lumber Green D W et al (2003) On fracture-related causes for reduction in tensile strength of southern pine lumber at low moisture content. Wood Fiber Sci 35(1):90101 Gupta R et al (2002) Finite element analysis of the stress distribution in a torsion test of full-size, structural lumber. J Test Eval 30(4):291302 Hindman DP (2003) Torsional rigidity and lateral stability of structural composite lumber and I-joist members. PhD Thesis, The Pennsylvania State University Leichti RJ, Nakhata T (1999) Role of bearing plates in the ve-point bending tests of structural-size lumber. J Test Eval 27(3):183190 Williams J M et al (2000) Failure modeling of sawn lumber with a fastener hole. Finite Elem Anal Design 36(1):8398 Glulam, panels, wood composites Aicher S, Radovic B (1999) Investigations on the inuence of nger-joint geometry on tension strength of nger-jointed glulam lamellas. Holz Roh Werkst 57(1):111 Aicher S et al (2003) Verication of damage relevant strain distributions at round holes in glulam members. Bautechnik 80(8):523533 Ario I et al (2003) Mechanical considerations of the laminated composite structure modelled on the anisotropic organization of a bamboo. Trans Japan Soc Mech Eng, Ser A 69(1):148153 Bell R et al (1998) Design and fabrication of hat-shaped stiened panel by resin transfer molding method. ASME Energy Sources Tech Conf, Houston, ASME, p 4575 Borri A et al (2005) A method for exural reinforcement of old wood beams with CFRP materials. Composites Part B 36(2):143153 Bouzakis KD, Koutoupas G (2003) Bending and indentation tests to determine chipboards mechanical strength critical stresses and their correlation to the specic cutting force. Wood Sci Tech 37(2):141159 Bozo AM (2002) Spatial variation of wood composites. PhD Thesis, Washington State University Byskov E et al (2002) Kinkband formation in wood and ber compositesmorphology and analysis. Int J Solids Struct 39 (13):36493673 Clouston PL, Lam F (2001) Computational modeling of strand-based wood composites. J Eng Mech, ASCE 127(8):844851 Clouston PL, Lam F (2002) A stochastic plasticity approach to strength modeling of strand-based wood composites. Compos Sci Tech 62 (10):13811395 Cloutier A et al (2001) Finite element modeling of dimensional stability in layered wood composites . 35th Int Particleboard/Compos Mat, Pullman, WA, pp 6372

595

Constant T et al (2003) Dimensional stability of Douglas r and mixed beech-poplar plywood: experimental measurements and simulations. Wood Sci Tech 37(1):1128 Davalos JF et al (1996) Mode I fracture toughness of composite/wood interface bond. 4th Mater Eng Conf, Washington, ASCE, pp 14691478 Davalos JF et al (1997) Characterization of mode-I fracture of hybrid material interface bonds by contoured DCB specimens. Eng Fract Mech 58(3):173192 Davalos JF et al (1998) Mode I fracture toughness of ber reinforced composite-wood bonded interface. J Composite Mater 32 (10):9871013 De Magistris F, Salmen L (2003) Combined shear and compression analysis using the Iosipescu device: analytical and experimental studies of medium density berboard. Wood Sci Tech 37(6):509521 Ehart RJA et al (1998) Crack face interaction and mixed mode fracture of wood composites during mode III loading. Eng Fract Mech 61(2):253278 Gliniorz KU et al (2002) Modeling of layered timber beams and ribbed shell frameworks. Composites Part B 33(5):367381 Guan ZW et al (2003) Finite element modelling of glulam beams prestressed with pultruded GRP. 9th Int Conf Civil Str Eng Comput, Civil-Comp, Edinburgh, pp 7576 Her SC (2002) Stress analysis of ply drop-o in composite structures. Composite Struct 57 (1/4):235244 Hindman DP (2003) Torsional rigidity and lateral stability of structural composite lumber and I-joist members. PhD Thesis, The Pennsylvania State University Jodin P et al (1997) Optimization of the stiness of glued laminated timber beams with respect to the technology of fabrication and creep parameters. Appl Mech Eng 2(3):433443 Jonsson J, Svensson S (2004) A contact free measurement method to determine internal stress states in glulam. Holzforschung 58(2):148153 Jose S et al (2001) Interlaminar fracture toughness of a cross-ply laminate and its constituent sub-laminates. Compos Sci Tech 61(8):11151122 Lang EM, Fodor T (2002) Finite element analysis of cross-halved joints for structural composites. Wood Fiber Sci 34(2):251265 Luggin WF, Bergmeister K (2001) Vorspannung mit karbonfaserverstarkten kunststoen im konstruktiven holzbau. Bautechnik 78(8):556570 Mittelstadt C, Bruningho H (2002) Torsional-exural buckling of an archshaped beam made of glued-laminated timber. Bautechnik 79(5):285296 Mladen B et al (2003) Bending properties of carbon ber reinforced plywood. Wood Res 48(4):1324 Moarcas O et al (2000) Bending properties of particleboard determined in three and four-point bending tests (Part I). J Inst Wood Sci 15(2):8791 Naruse K et al (1999) Low cycle fatigue test of LVL under longitudinal compression. J Soc Mater Sci Jpn 48(3):240244 Neogi D et al (1996) Composite cored trapezoidal sections- design for enhanced energy absorption . 41st Int SAMPE Symp Exhib, Anaheim, pp 785 799 Rahman AA, Abubakr S (2004) A nite element investigation of the role of adhesive in the buckling failure of corrugated berboard. Wood Fiber Sci 36(2):260268

596

Saboksayr H et al (2003) Implementation of a neural network based system for estimating the strength of a board using mixed signals. PACRIM 2003, Victoria, BC, Canada, pp 342347 Saliklis EP, Mussen AL (2000) Investigating the buckling behavior of OSB panels. Wood Fiber Sci 32(3):259268 Saravi AA et al (2002) Implementation of a mechanics-based system for estimating the strength of a board. 19th IEEE Instrument Measur Tech Conf, Anchorage, IEEE, pp 11791182 Saravi AA et al (2003) Identifying strength of boards using mechanical modeling and a Weibull-based feature. IEEE Conf Control Appl, Istanbul, pp 5459 Scheer C, Haase K (2000) Glued-laminated beams with holes, Part 2: Investigations based on fracture mechanics. Holz Roh Werkst 58(4):217228 Scheer C, Haase K (2000) Glued-laminated beams with holes. Part 1: Stress investigations. Holz Roh Werkst 58(3):153161 Schmidt J et al (2002) Load-bearing behaviour of timber composite beams. Bautechnik 79 (11):727736 Schmidt J et al (2003) Creep of timber/concrete composite structures. Betonund Stahlbetonbau 98(7):399407 Schmidt J et al (2004) Design proposal for timber/concrete composite beams with graded connector distances. Bautechnik 81(3):172179 Sebastian WM (2003) Ductility requirements in connections of composite exural structures. Int J Mech Sci 45(2):235251 Serrano E et al (2001) Modeling of nger-joint failure in glued-laminated timber beams. J Struct Eng, ASCE 127(8):914921 Smittakorn W (2001) A theoretical and experimental study of adaptive wood composites. PhD Thesis, Colorado State University Smittakorn W, Heyliger P R (2001) An adaptive wood composite: theory. Wood Fiber Sci 33(4):595608 Srpcic S et al (2002) The eect of changing environmental conditions on behaviour of glulam beams. 6th Int Conf Comput Struct Tech, Prague, CivilComp, Edinburgh, pp 295296 Tohgo K et al (2001) Ply-cracking damage theory for cross-ply laminate and its application to nite element method. JSME Inter J, Ser A 44(2):282290 Van der Linden M (1999) Timber-concrete composite beams. Heron 44(3):215239 Wang J, Qiao P (2003) Fracture toughness of wood-wood and wood-FRP bonded interface under mode II loading. J Composite Mater 37 (10):875 898 Wong ED et al (2003) Analysis and the eects of density prole on the bending properties of particleboard using nite element method. Holz Roh Werkst 61(1):6672 Wu Q et al (2004) The inuence of voids on the engineering constants of oriented strandboard: a nite element model. Wood Fiber Sci 36(1):7183 Zhang M et al (1996) Manufacture and properties of composite berboard, 3- Properties of three-layered bamboo-wood composite boards and stress analysis by the FEM. J Jpn Wood Res Soc 42(9):854861 Zhang M et al (1997) Manufacture of wood composites using lignocellulosic materials and their properties, 2- High performance bagasse composite boards analysis by FEM. J Jpn Wood Res Soc 43(4):310317

597

Zhu EC et al (2003) Finite element modelling of interactions between openings in OSB webbed timber I-beams. 9th Int Conf Civil Str Eng Comput, Civil-Comp, Edinburgh, pp 7374 Trusses and frames Andreasson S et al (2002) Sensitivity study of the nite element model for wood-framed shear walls. J Wood Sci 48(3):171178 Burdzik WMG (2004) Analysis of timber girder trusses for eccentric loading. J South Afric Inst Civil Eng 46(2):1522 Carson JM (1997) FEM analysis of wood column post foundation. ASAE Ann Int Meet, Minneapolis, 3, pp 15 Du Y (2003) The development and use of a novel FE for the evaluation of embedded uid dampers within light-frame timber structures with seismic loading. PhD Thesis, Washington State University El-Sheikh A, Shaaban H (1999) Experimental study of composite space trusses with continuous chords. Adv Struct Eng 2(3):219232 He M (2002) Numerical modeling of three-dimensional light wood-framed buildings. PhD Thesis, The University of British Columbia, Canada He M et al (2001) Modeling three-dimensional timber light-frame buildings. J Struct Eng, ASCE 127(8):901913 Leichti R et al (2002) T-bracing for stability of compression webs in wood trusses. J Struct Eng, ASCE 128(3):374381 Marini A, Riva P (2003) Nonlinear analysis as a diagnostic tool for the strengthening of an old wooden dome. J Struct Eng, ASCE 129 (10):14121421 Nishimura T et al (1998) Numerical analysis of rotational buckling in gusset plate type joints of timber lattice dome under several loading conditions. J Int Assoc Shell Spatial Struct 39 (127):97103 Pan DH, Girhammar UA (2002) Geometrical parameter inuence on behaviour of reticulated timber domes. 6th Int Conf Comput Struct Tech, Prague, Civil-Comp, Edinburgh, pp 293294 Pan DH, Girhammar UA (2002) Ring beam stiness eect on behaviour of reticulated timber domes. 6th Int Conf Comput Struct Tech, Prague, CivilComp, Edinburgh, pp 297298 Peralta-Gonzalez D (2003) Seismic performance of rehabilitated wood diaphragms. PhD Thesis, Texas A&M Univ Peterson ST et al (2001) Application of dynamic system identication to timber beams. I. J Struct Eng, ASCE 127(4):418425 Peterson ST et al (2001) Application of dynamic system identication to timber beams. II. J Struct Eng, ASCE 127(4):426432 Richard N et al (2002) Timber shear walls with large openings: experimental and numerical prediction of the structural behaviour. Canad J Civil Eng 29(5):713724 Richard N et al (2003) Prediction of seismic behavior of wood-framed shear walls with openings by pseudodynamic test and FE model. J Wood Sci 49(2):145151 Riley GJ, Gebremedhin KG (1999) Axial and rotational stiness model of metal-plate-connected wood truss joints. Trans ASAE 42(3):761770 Silih S et al (2005) Optimum design of plane timber trusses considering joint exibility. Engng Struct 27(1):145154

598

Smith I, Kasal B (2004) Monitoring of environmental loads on timber buildings. 2004 Struct Cong, Nashville, pp 603612 Stehn L, Borjes K (2004) The inuence of nail ductility on the load capacity of a glulam truss structure. Engng Struct 26(6):809816 Symans MD et al (2004) Seismic behavior of wood-framed structures with viscous uid dampers. Earthquake Spectra 20(2):451482 Tarabia AM, Itani RY (1997) Static and dynamic modeling of light-frame wood buildings. Comput Struct 63(2):319334 Underwood CR et al (2001) Permanent bracing design for MPC wood roof truss webs and chords. Forest Product J 51(7/8):7381 Vatovec M et al (1996) Testing and evaluation of metal-plate-connected wood truss joints. J Test Eval 24(2):6372 Vatovec M et al (1997) Modeling of metal-plate-connected wood truss joints: Part II- Application to overall truss model. Trans ASAE 40(6):16671675 Vermeer PA et al (2001) Arching eects behind a soldier pile wall. Comp Geotechnics 28(6/7):379396 White MW, Dolan JD (1995) Nonlinear shear-wall analysis. J Struct Eng, ASCE 121(11):16291635 Williams GD, Bohnho DR (1997) Modeling metal-clad wood-framed diaphragm behavior. ASAE Ann Int Meet, Minneapolis, 3, pp 974088 Williams GD, Bohnho DR (2000) Load-displacement characteristics of metal-clad wood-framed diaphragm joints. ASAE Int Meet, Milwaukee, ASAE, pp 35813599 Wu L et al (2002) Non-linear nite element analyses of sheathed timber diaphragms. 6th Int Conf Comput Struct Tech, Prague, Civil-Comp, Edinburgh, pp 6970 Young SA, Clancy P (2001) Structural modelling of light-timber framed walls in re. Fire Safety J 36(3):241268 Floors, roofs Elliot PW et al (1997) Static, modal and transient analysis of a hardwood athletic ooring system using nite elements. ASAE Ann Int Meet, Minneapolis, 1, pp 973122 Gutkowski R et al (2003) Analysis and testing of composite wood-concrete oor/deck systems. In: Comput Meth Exper Measur XI, WIT Press, Southampton, pp 631640 Jiang L, Chui YH (2004) Finite element model for wood-based oors with lateral reinforcements. J Struct Eng, ASCE 130(7):10971107 Judd JP, Fonseca FS (2003) FRP strengthened wood-frame roofs. Int SAMPE Symp Exhib, 48, pp 21292135 Lee P et al (2002) Note prediction of early age curling in thin concrete topping over wood oor systems. Canad J Civil Eng 29(4):622626 Moarcas O, Nicholls T (2000) Concentrated loads on oor deckings. Part 1:Parametric study. J Inst Wood Sci 15(4):194203 Parisi MA, Piazza M (2002) Seismic behavior and retrotting of joints in traditional timber roof structures. Soil Dyn Earthquake Eng 22 (9/12):1183 1191 Thomas WH (2002) Shear and exural deection equations for OSB oor decking with point load. Holz Roh Werkst 60(3):175180

599

Thomas WH et al (2001) Design calculation method for joisted decking of moderate orthotropy subjected to concentrated load. J Inst Wood Sci 15(6):318326 Thomas WH et al (2001) Bending and shear formulae for joisted isotropic decking with concentrated load. J Inst Wood Sci 15(6):297306 Thomas WH et al (2002) Design calculation method for joisted decking under concentrated load. J Inst Wood Sci 16(2):119128 Tonosaki M, Sueyoshi S (1998) Vibrational modes of a light frame modelized oor. J Jpn Wood Res Soc 44(1):3340 Tucker BJ, Fridley KJ (1999) Concentrated load design procedures for woodjoist oor systems. J Struct Eng, ASCE 125(7):706712 Underwood CR et al (2001) Permanent bracing design for MPC wood roof truss webs and chords. Forest Product J 51(7/8):7381 Bridges Davalos JF, Salim HA (1995) Local deck eects in stress-laminated T-system timber bridges. Struct Eng Rev 7(4):267276 Jutila A, Tesar A (1996) Non-linear damping of slender wood bridges. Comput Struct 61(4):657664 Mascia NT, Soriano J (2004) Benets of timber-concrete composite action in rural bridges. Mater Struct/Mater Constr 37 (266):122128 Prentice DJ, Ponniah DA (1996) New techniques in the elastic analysis of arch bridges using image processing. Strain 32(4):139144 Rong A (2004) Structural analysis of an ancient arch bridge using modern technology. 2004 Struct Cong, Nashville, pp 303310 Other products/structures Andre N et al (2003) Structural assessment of a wooden bell-tower. In: Adv Architect 15, WIT Press, Southampton, pp 317326 Atahan AO, Cansiz OF (2004) Design and simulation of two wooden-post W-beam guardrails to eliminate wheel snagging. Heavy Vehicle Syst 11(1):47 66 Bhuyan GS (1998) Condition based serviceability and reliability assessment of wood pole structures. 8th Int Conf, ESMO, Orlando, pp 333339 Bretos J et al (1999) Finite element analysis and experimental measurements of natural eigenmodes and random responses of wooden bars used in musical instrument. Appl Acoustics 56(3):141156 Cestari CB et al (1997) Use of nondestructive tests on historic timber structures. In: STREMAH 3, CMP, Southampton, pp 6982 Davalos JF et al (1999) Feasibility study of prototype GFRP-reinforced wood railroad crosstie. J Compos Constr, ASCE 3(2):92100 Eckelman CA et al (2002) A technique for structural modeling of front rail for sofas. Holz Roh Werkst 60(1):6065 Ezcurra A (1996) Inuence of the material constants on the low frequency modes of a free guitar plate. J Sound Vib 194(4):640644 Fang DP et al (2001) Ancient Chinese timber architecture, II: Dynamic characteristics. J Struct Eng, ASCE 127 (11):13581364

600

Guntekin E (2002) Experimental and theoretical analysis of the performance of ready-to-assemble furniture joints constructed with medium density berboard. PhD Thesis, State Univ of New York Gustafsson SI (1995) Furniture design by use of the nite element method. Holz Roh Werkst 53(4):257261 Gustafsson SI (1996) Finite element modeling versus reality for birch chairs. Holz Roh Werkst 54(5):355359 Gustafsson SI (1997) Indetermined chair frames of ash wood. Holz Roh Werkst 55(4):255259 Hong SH et al (2002) Three-dimensional pile-soil interaction in soldier-piled excavations. Comp Geotechnics 30(1):81107 Kent RW, Stroher CE (1998) Wooden pole fracture energy in vehicle impacts. SAE Spec Publ 1321, pp 3346 Krabbenhoft K et al (2004) Finite element analysis of boron diusion in wooden poles. Wood Fiber Sci 36(4):573584 Lam F et al (2004) Structural performance of wood-based stair stringers. Forest Prod J 54(4):3944 Martikka H, Taitokari E (2004) Compression and heat treat strengthened wood as a novel construction component for innovative products. In: High Perform Struct Mater II, WIT Press, Southampton, pp 537550 Nicholls T, Crisan R (2002) Study of the stress-strain state in corner joints and box-type furniture using nite element analysis. Holz Roh Werkst 60(1):6671 Nicoletti N et al (1997) A nite element model for the analysis of roll burnishing. Holz Roh Werkst 55(3):183187 Plaxico CA et al (1998) Finite element modeling of guardrail timber posts and the post-soil interaction. Transp Res Rec No 1647, pp 139146 Pousette A (2003) Full-scale test and nite element analysis of a wooden spiral staircase. Holz Roh Werkst 61(1):17 Qiao P et al (1998) Modeling and optimal design of composite-reinforced wood railroad crosstie. Composite Struct 41(1):8796 Shenoy MM et al (2001) Performance assessment of wood, metal and composite baseball bats. Composite Struct 52 (3/4):397404 Smith LV et al (1999) Dynamic nite element analysis of wood baseball bats. 1999 Bioeng Conf, BED 42, ASME, pp 629630 Thomas G (2002) Thermal properties of gypsum plasterboard at high temperatures. Fire Mater 26(1):3745 Urbanik TJ, Saliklis EP (2003) Finite element corroboration of buckling phenomena observed in corrugated boxes. Wood Fiber Sci 35(3):322333 Yu WK et al (2005) Axial buckling of bamboo columns in bamboo scaolds. Engng Struct 27(1):6173 Zhang J et al (2000) Structural design model for sofa seat frames equipped with sinusoidal-type springs. Forest Prod J 50(3):4957
Acknowledgements The bibliography presented is by no means complete but it gives a comprehensive representation of dierent nite element applications on the subjects. The author wishes to apologize for the unintentional exclusion of missing references and would appreciate receiving comments and pointers to other relevant literature for a future update. This bibliography can assist researchers interested in the subjects described but not having the access to large databases or not willing spend their time on their own, for time-consuming information retrieval.