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RAILWAYS, AIRPORT AND TUNNELING

3 GEOMETRIC DESIGN

1. GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF RAILWAY TRACK

1.1. Maximum speed on a railway track:

It is the minimum of,
(i) Speed decided by Railway board
(ii) Speed decided by Martin’s formula
(iii) Speed calculated by super elevation formula
(iv) Speed calculated by length of transition curve formula
• Martin’s formula : a) On a Transition Curve
i. For BG/MG
Vmax= 4.35 √(R-67)
ii. For NG
Vmax= 3.6 √(R-61)
b) On a Non- Transition Curve
Vmax= 0.8 (Vmax of transition curve)
c) For High Speed Trains
Vmax= 4.58 √(R)
1.2. Radius of the curve,

[For 1 chain length = 30 m]

1.3. Super elevation:

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In the above figure, if Ө is the angle that the inclined plane makes with the horizontal
line, then
tan Ө = Super Elevation/ Gauge = e/G
Also, tan Ө = Centrifugal Force/ Weight = F/W
From these equations
e/G = F/W
e= F. (G/W)
e= (W/g). (V2/R). (G/W) = G V2 / gR
Where e is the equilibrium super elevation, G is the gauge, V is the velocity, g is the
acceleration due to gravity, and R is the radius of the curve. In the metric system
equilibrium super elevation is given by the formula
e= G V2/ 127R
Where e is the super elevation in millimetres, V is the speed in km/h, R is the radius of
the curve in metres, and G is the dynamic gauge in millimetres, which is equal to the sum
of the gauge and the width of the rail head in millimetres. This is equal to 1750 mm for
BG tracks and 1058 mm for MG tracks.
Equilibrium Super Elevation:

Here G = gauge in ‘meter’

V = velocity in km/h
R = radius in 'meter'
e = is in 'meter'
Different trains have different speed on the railway track and actual cant is provided for
average speed and that is also called as equilibrium cant.

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1.3.1. Permissible value of actual cant

Gauge Speed ≤ 120 km/h Speed > 120 km/h

BG 16.5 cm 18.5 cm

MG 10.0 cm —

NG 7.6 cm —

2. CANT DEFICIENCY

For high speed train cant requirement will be more than actual cant provided so the train will
be forced to move on a lower value of cant. This deficiency of cant for high speed train
movement is called cant deficiency.
etheoretical = eactual + cant deficiency

2.1. Limits of cant deficiency

Cm Speed ≤ 100 km/hr Speed > 100 km/hr
BG 7.6 10
MG 5.1 —
NG 3.8 —

3. VERTICAL CURVES

3.1. Types of gradients

(i) Ruling Gradient: It is the maximum gradient that can be provided in the most
general condition and that determines maximum load that a locomotive can carry on that
particular section.
(ii) Momentum gradient: For a practical situation as shown in figure, gradient may be
increased more than ruling gradient (with no stoppage)

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(iii) Pulling/helper/pusher gradient: When gradient is greater than ruling gradient
then extra locomotive is provided for that particular section.
Note: Greater gradient reduce the cutting cost
Minimum gradient at station yard: 1/100
Maximum gradient at station yard: 1/400
3.2. Grade compensation: If the gradient is provided on a curved location then gradient
value is reduced to compensate curve resistance. Reduction in gradient for broad gauge
is 0.04% per degree of the curve.

4. TRANSITION CURVE

It is required for
(i) Introduction the super elevation in a gradual manner within the length of transition curve
in outer railway track.
(ii) Reducing the radius of the curve from infinite to some value
(iii) Curve should be perfectly tangential at joining points
(iv) If the centrifugal force is to be increased at a constant rate, centrifugal force must
vary with time.
(v) The ideal condition for transition curve is:

(vi) Cubical parabola equation for transition curve:

h = in ‘m’
e = actual cant in ‘cm’
Vmax = in km/hr
CD = in cm

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Spiral and Deflection Angles:

shift → because of transition curve, the path shifted w.r.t. circular curve

L = length of transition curve

5. WIDENING OF GAUGE ON CURVES

A vehicle normally assumes the central position on a straight track and the flanges of the
wheels stay clear of the rails. The situation, however, changes on a curved track. As soon as
the vehicle moves onto a curve, the flange of the outside wheel of the leading axle continues
to travel in a straight line till it rubs against the rail. Due to the coning of wheels, the outside
wheel travels a longer distance compared to the inner wheel. This, however, becomes
impossible for the vehicle as a whole since the rigidity of the wheel base causes the trailing
axle to occupy a different position. In an effort to make up for the difference in the distance
travelled by the outer wheel and the inner wheel, the inside wheels slip backward and the outer
wheels skid forward. A close study of the running of vehicles on curves indicates that the wear
of flanges eases the passage of the vehicle round curves, as it has the effect of increasing the

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gauge. The widening of the gauge on a curve has, in fact, the same effect and tends to decrease
the wear and tear on both the wheel and the track.
The widening of the gauge on curves can be calculated using the formula:
Extra Width on curves=w = 13 (B+L)2/ R
Where B is the wheel base of the vehicle in metres, R is the radius of the curve in metres,
L = 0.02 (h2 + D.h)0.5 is the lap of the flange in metres, h is the depth of flange below top of
the rail, and D is the diameter of the wheel of the vehicle.
Example: The wheel base of a vehicle moving on a BG track is 6 m. The diameter of the wheels
is 1524 mm and the flanges project 32 mm below the top of the rail. Determine the extra width
of the gauge required if the radius of the curve is 168 m. Also indicate the extra width of gauge
actually provided as per Indian Railways standards.
Solution:

(i) Lap of flange

Where h = 3.2 cm is the depth of the flange below the top of the rail and
D = 152.4 cm is the diameter of the wheel. Therefore,

(ii) Extra width of gauge (w)

(iii) As per Indian Railways standards, an extra width of 5 mm is provided for curves with a
radius less than 400 in actual practice.

6. NEGATIVE SUPER ELEVATION

When the main line lies on a curve and has a turnout of contrary flexure leading to a branch
line, the super elevation necessary for the average speed of trains running over the main line
curve cannot be provided. In the figure below, AB, which is the outer rail of the main line curve,
must be higher than CD. For the branch line, however, CF should be higher than AE or point C
should be higher than point A. These two contradictory conditions cannot be met within one
layout. In such cases, the branch line curve has a negative super elevation and, therefore,
speeds on both tracks must be restricted, particularly on the branch line.

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The provision of negative super elevation for the branch line and the reduction in speed over
the main line can be calculated as follows:
(i)The equilibrium super elevation for the branch line curve is first calculated using the formula:

(ii) The equilibrium super elevation e is reduced by the permissible cant deficiency CD and the
resultant super elevation to be provided is
x = e - CD
Where, x is the super elevation, e is the equilibrium super elevation, and CD is 75 mm for BG
and 50 mm for MG. The value of Cd is generally higher than that of e, and, therefore, x is
normally negative. The branch line thus has a negative super elevation of x.
(iii) The maximum permissible speed on the main line, which has a super elevation of x, is
then calculated by adding the allowable cant deficiency (x + CD). The safe speed is also
calculated and smaller of the two values is taken as the maximum permissible speed on the
main line curve.

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