GKD 350

SOIL HORIZONATION

Mrs Leushantha Mudaly

Soil Horizonation
Regolith, residuum and the weathering profile

• Regolith – loose, unconsolidated material at the Earth’s surface.

• Origins:
1. Formed in place as bedrock weathers (residuum / residual regolith).
➢ Common on stable uplands (unglaciated parts of world).
➢ In glaciated regions it is buried / eroded.
2. Transported to a site by gravity/wind/water/ice or other modes.

Google Images
Soil Horizonation
Regolith, residuum and the weathering profile

• Regolith is exposed to climate effects & influenced by biota – eroded, transported, deposited, &
weathered → components re-organized & translocated (in profile).
• Residual regolith weathered out of rock so all parts are considered weathered.
• Some transported regolith do not undergo a lot of weathering (deeply buried).
• Below the soil profile there might be zones in transported regolith that are slightly altered (leaching &/or
oxidation).
• At great depth certain parts may be unmodified (not neoformed).
Soil Horizonation
Regolith, residuum and the weathering profile

• Zones of weathered regolith above the unweathered horizon –the weathering profile.
• Three zones of weathering profile:
1. Oxidized & leached
2. Oxidized & unleached
3. Unoxidized & unleached
Soil Horizonation
Regolith, residuum and the weathering profile

• Weathering profiles grade downward into bedrock / unweathered sediment.

• Interface with the bedrock might be abrupt, intermittent or gradational
• In the weathering profile, zones closer to the surface are more weathered than deeper zones.
• Eventually sediments nearest the surface are so modified by near-surface processes that they are
considered soils.
Soil Horizonation
The soil profile, pedon, polypedon & mapping unit

• Soil scientists are concerned with the soil profile - (2D) side view of the soil from the surface down.
• A profile is exposed when a vertical cut is made through a few meters of the Earth’s surface.
• A soil profile allows viewing of genetic layers (horizons) & unaltered materials (if deep).

House excavation Road cutting Open grave

Google Images
Soil Horizonation
The soil profile, pedon, polypedon & mapping unit

• Soil pedon - 3D equivalent of soil profile.

• It’s the smallest soil body that retains all of the major variability of the soil.
• The pedon extends downward through all horizons & into the upper part of the underlying parent
material.
• Includes the rooting zone of plants.
• Lower limit of a pedon is bedrock / ± 2m (shallowest depth).
• A pedon is polygonal & ranges from 1 – 10 m2 in area.

Brady & Weil

Soil Horizonation
The soil profile, pedon, polypedon & mapping unit

• Pedons are too small to exhibit features associated

with landscape (e.g. slope).
• Polypedon concept became necessary.
• Polypedon is the basic unit of soil classification,
large enough to exhibit all soil characteristics
considered in description & classification.
• Minimum area 2 m2 (2 adjoining pedons).
• All pedons in the polypedon have same
classification.

Google Images
Soil Horizonation
The soil profile, pedon, polypedon & mapping unit

• A soil map unit - cartographic

representation of a polypedon.

Photo credit: Abdalsamad Aldabaa (MAHMOUD, E., SAYED, A. & ALDABAA, A. 2019. Land Capability Classification of
Wadi Jerafi Basin, North Sinai Egypt. Alexandria Science Exchange Journal, 40.)
Soil Horizonation
Soil horizon & the solum

• Soil horizon - A layer formed by pedogenic processes that is parallel to the soil surface.
• Most soils have horizons (genetic layering).
• Describes as the ‘working aggregates of the whole (soil) system, and, like the organs of an organism,
generally are adapted for the performance of specific functions’.

Illustration by Madeline Schill. 2021 in Soils-Iowa’s Nature Series.

Soil Horizonation
Soil horizon & the solum

• If a soil’s evolutionary pathway dictates that a horizon performs certain functions (e.g. OM accumulation)
for a long time, that zone will acquire characteristics that set it apart from other zones.
• This layer becomes different than the zones above & below, becoming a differentiable soil horizon.

c or bedrocl

Google images
Soil Horizonation
Soil horizon & the solum

• Solum: O, A, E & B horizons.

• Includes parts of profile altered by pedogenic processes, i.e. all of the profile above the C horizon.

• Horizons may not have formed in very young sediments / inert material lacking vegetative cover /
extremely dry (hyperarid) climates.
• On steep slopes soil horizons form slowly (high erosion rates, surface instability).

Google Images
Soil Horizonation
Types of soil horizons
• Soil horizons form in unconsolidated materials on surfaces that have been exposed on/near Earth’s
surface for sufficient time as material is added/lost from PM.
• Also from material translocated within profile / transformed in place.
• Processes form distinct horizons in upper mantle of unconsolidated materials.

• Divided into master horizons: O, A, E, B, C & R

1st subsoil

Google Images
r = bedrock
Soil Horizonation
Types of soil horizons – Table of master soil horizons
Master Characteristics
horizon
O Layer dominated by OM (litter & humus) in various stages of decomposition

A Mineral horizon that formed at the surface/below an O horizon & (1) are characterized by an accumulation of humified
OM mixed with the mineral fraction or (2) have properties resulting from cultivation, pasturing or similar kinds of
disturbance.
E Light-coloured mineral horizons in which the main feature is loss of weatherable minerals, silicate clay, Fe, Al, humus, or
some combination, leaving a concentration of mostly uncoated quartz grains or other resistant materials.
B Subsurface mineral horizons dominated by (1) illuvial accumulations of clay, Fe, Al, humus, etc., (2) removal of primary
carbonates, (3) residual concentrations of sesquioxides, (4) distinctive, non-geologic structure, &/or (5) brittleness.
C Mineral horizons, excluding hard bedrock, that have been little affected by pedogenic processes & lack properties of O, A,
E or B horizons. Most C horizons are mineral soil layers & retain some rock structure (if developed in residuum) or
sedimentary structure (if developed in transported regolith). Included as C horizons are deeply weathered, soft saprolite.
D Deep horizons that show virtually no evidence of pedogenic alteration, such as leaching of carbonates or oxidation. D
horizons regain geologic structure & are often dense & slowly permeable. Like C horizons, D horizons are formed in
unconsolidated sediments.
R Hard, continuous bedrock that is sufficiently coherent to make digging by hand impractical.
Soil Horizonation
Types of soil horizons

• Master horizons can have descriptive suffixes that provide additional information about their
characteristics, e.g. presence of illuviated substances, degree of decomposition, or density.
fragipan
• Capital letters denote master horizons, lower case letters used for suffixes, e.g. Ap, Bx, & Cd.
cemented by sequioxides and humification
• Horizons can have many suffixes, e.g. Btx, Bhsm, & Bctg. clay, carbonates plowed limited root dev
allu accum od silicate clays and fragi

gleying

Google images Nature and Properties of Soil, Brady & Weil

Soil Horizonation very NB

Types of soil horizons – Table of suffixes for master soil horizons

Suffix Used with Characteristics/comments

which master
horizon
O horizon suffixes

a O Highly decomposed organic material, ‘sapric’ material.

e O Organic material of intermediate decomposition, ‘hemic’ material.

i O Slightly decomposed organic material, ‘fibric’ material.

A horizon suffixes

p A Plowed, tilled, or otherwise disturbed surface layer.

v A Porous, vesicular horizon, common to desert regions.

Suffix Used with Characteristics/comments
which master
horizon
B horizon suffixes
associated with illuviation
c B, C Presence of concretions / hard non-concretionary nodules, usually of Fe, Al, Mn or Ti.

h B Dark, illuvial accumulations of OM & humus. The moist Munsell value & chroma of the horizon must
be 3 or less.
j B Accumulation of jarosite, either as ped coatings or nodules.

k B, C Accumulation of pedogenic carbonates, commonly CaCO3, as ped coatings, filaments or nodules.

(From German kalk – lime).
n B, C Accumulation of pedogenic, exchangeable Na, commonly known as sodium salts. (From German
natrium - sodium).
q B, C Accumulation of pedogenic, secondary silica (quartz).

s B Accumulation of sesquioxides of Fe & Al.

t B, C Accumulation of silicate clay, as evidenced by argillans on ped faces or lamalleae (clay bands). (From
German ton – potter’s clay).
y B Accumulation of pedogenic gypsum. From Spanish yeso – gypsum.

z B Accumulation (pedogenic) of salt more soluble than gypsum.

Suffix Used with Characteristics/comments
which master
horizon
Other B horizon suffixes

w B Development of colour or structure in a horizon but with little/no apparent illuvial accumulation of
materials
x E, B Presence of fragipan characteristics (genetically developed firmness, brittleness, &/or high bulk
density). Fragipans are generally root restrictive
Suffixes associated with
cold soils
f Any except Frozen subsoil horizon which contains permanent, continuous ice (permafrost). Not used for layers
uppermost that are only frozen seasonally
ff Any except Frozen subsoil horizon which contains ‘dry’ permanent, continuous ice (‘dry permafrost’). Not used
uppermost for layers that are only frozen seasonally
Suffixes indicating
pedoturbation
ss A, B, C Presence of slickensides

jj Any Horizon showing evidence of cryoturbation

Suffix Used with Characteristics/comments
which master
horizon
Other suffixes

g E, B, C Strong gleying in which Fe has been reduced &/or removed or in which Fe has been preserved in a
reduced state because of saturation with stagnant water. Most gleyed layers have a moist Munsell
chroma of 2 or less
o B, C Residual, pedogenic accumulation of sesquioxides

v B Plinithite (Fe-rich, humus-poor, reddish material that is firm/very firm when moist & hardens
irreversibly when exposed to the atmosphere). Not used in A horizons
r C Weathered or soft bedrock, including saprolite or dense till, that roots can easily penetrate along
joint planes. Sufficiently incoherent to permit hand-digging with a spade
d A, B, C ‘Dense’ horizon with high bulk density & physical root restriction. Low numbers of connected
pores. E.g. dense basal till (Cd) o plow pans (Ad)
m B Continuously or nearly continuous cementation or induration of the soil matrix by, for example,
carbonates (km), silica (qm), sesquioxides (sm) or carbonates & silica (kqm)
b A, E, B Buried horizon of a mineral soil. Implies that the horizon is part of a paleosol
Soil Horizonation
NBBBBB
Types of soil horizons

• Transition horizons (between master horizons) can take two forms:

1. Gradational horizons occur when one horizon smoothly grades / transitions into another. The
transitional horizon (designated with 2 capital letters) is characteristically more like the horizon
designated first, e.g. AB, BC.

2. Mixed/interrupted - A transitional horizon where 2 intermingled individual parts of 2 horizons exist within
one layer. When the 2 horizons are so ‘congested’ that separation of each into individual horizons is not
justified, the capital letters of the 2 master horizons are separated by a slash, e.g. E/B.
Characteristically more like horizon designated first.
Soil Horizonation
Types of soil horizons

clay, fragipan

standing water
gleying

Photo credit: Stefaan Dondeyne (: DONDEYNE, S. & DECKERS, J. 2019. The Abc
soil types: Podzoluvisols, Albeluvisols or Retisols? A review.)
Soil Horizonation
Types of soil horizons – Transitional horizons

Type of transitional Characteristics Examples Possible types

horizon
Gradational Used when one horizon grades or AE: Transitional between A AB, AE, AC
transitions into another. The transitional and E, but more like the A EA, EB
horizon is characteristically more like the horizon BA, BE, BC
horizon designated first. BC: Transitional between B CA, CB
and C, but more like the B
horizon
Mixed/interrupted Used when discrete, intermingled bodies E/B: composed of individual A/E, A/C, A/B
(individual parts) of two horizons exist parts of E and B horizon E/A, E/B,
within one layer. Intermingling is so components in which the E B/A, B/E, B/C
‘congested’ that separation of the bodies component is dominant and C/B
into individual horizons is not justified. surrounds the B materials
Soil Horizonation
Types of soil horizons

• Numerals suffixes indicate vertical sub-divisions within a horizon, &

indicate changes in morphology/chemistry within horizon
Sandy
(e.g. Bt1, Bt2, / Eg1, Eg2). no 1A or 1B
alluvium
• Also used as prefixes to indicate lithological discontinuities, e.g. 2C, 3C.
• Lithological discontinuities separate different parent materials
based on e.g. mineralogy / texture. Gravelly
• By convention, horizons formed in the uppermost parent material are glacial
outwash
not preceded by 1.
• All horizons in lower parent material must be preceded with 2. If a 3rd
parent material is present, horizons formed in it must be preceded with 3.

Photo credit: R.J. Schaetzl (AHR, S. W., NORDT, L. & SCHAETZL, R. J. Lithologic Discontinuities in Soils. 2017)
Soil Horizonation
Types of soil horizons

Fe rich

fluc WT
mottle

same charac diff PM

same parent

VAAO.org
FAO.org
Soil Horizonation
very NBBB
Types of soil horizons
both tests

• A prime symbol (′) used to indicate second occurrence of a horizon within same profile.
• If the second occurrence is directly below the first, an Arabic numeral suffix is used, but if both are
separated by different horizons, the prime is used to distinguish the two horizons (see table below).
• Prime is used for horizons that have genetic links, or are forming in the same profile; if the lower E (this
e.g.) is from a buried soil profile from earlier soil formation, the prime would not be used. It would be an
Eb (buried E).

E1 E Bt E
E2 Bs Bs Bs
Bs E’ E Eb
Bx Bx B’s Bx
Soil Horizonation
Types of soil horizons

USDA_NRCS
Soil Horizonation
Types of soil horizons – O horizons

• O horizons are dominated by organic material.

• Include all organic materials & decomposing debris on surface & located as uppermost horizon if there.
• O horizons are usually missing if plowed because they have incorporated in the plow (Ap) horizon.
• O horizons may be missing during periods of the year because they have decompose when OM
production is low / decomposition rates high.

• O horizons are a buffer between mineral soil & atmosphere.

• Insulate the soil from temperature & moisture extremes, & provide mechanical protection (raindrop
impact, runoff, other erosional forces).
• Facilitate infiltration.
Soil Horizonation
Types of soil horizons – O horizons

• O horizons form as organic debris/litter accumulates on soil surface.

• Debris produced more rapidly in warm & wet climates.
• Inputs of debris are continuous throughout the year but the main inputs is before a dry/cold season.
• Therefore most O horizons are thickness immediately after leaf fall.
• Leaf fall is seasonally predictable but other additions (e.g. twigs & other woody debris) are not – occur
randomly throughout the year.
• Wind is responsible for additions of litter – varies throughout year.
Soil Horizonation
Types of soil horizons – O horizons

• Inputs of OM in O horizon is balanced by decomposition/turnover, which also has seasonal biorhythms.

• Decomposition is high in warm, wet climates – O horizon is thin there.
• O horizon is thickest in cool, dry climates.
• Also thick where acid litter conditions prevent/inhibit decomposition & thick in standing water, e.g. bogs –
O horizon can be metres thick (histosols).

Direct sun from aspect = less OM, dries out

Inc of decomp = Dec in OM

Google images
Soil Horizonation
Types of soil horizons – O horizons

• O horizons can form & be lost quickly.

• In fertile forests with lots of water & microorganisms, O can be completely decomposed & incorporated
into soil below by mid-summer the next year.
• O horizons can recover from disturbances, e.g. fire, quickly on some sites.

• There is little data on endpoints of O horizon development, include:

1. Its potential thickness when undisturbed.
2. Its thickness at steady-state end point.
• O horizons in cooler climates probably take longer to reach a steady-state & are thicker than in tropical &
sub-tropical areas.
Soil Horizonation
O horizons – Types and sub-divisions of O horizons

Types and sub-divisions of O horizons

• O horizon suffixes refer to the degree of decomposition of the OM within.
• Raw or nearly raw OM is called fibric - dominance of plant fibres.

Suffix Master horizon Characteristics/comments

O horizon suffixes
a O Highly decomposed organic material, ‘sapric’ material.
e O Organic material of intermediate decomposition, ‘hemic’ material.
i O Slightly decomposed organic material, ‘fibric’ material.
Soil Horizonation
O horizons – Types and sub-divisions of O horizons

• OM litter layers divided into mull & mor.

• Litter of intermediate character is moder or duff mull.

• Mull humus is dominated by bacterial decomposition at the microscale & worm activity at macroscales.
• Earthworms & arthropods are NB in development of mull humus from Ca-rich broad leaf litter/ broad
lead-forests - ∴ Has significant incorporations of mineral matter.
• Typical of higher pH (> 5.0), base-rich soils.
• Has crumb-like structure - worms mix raw OM with mineral materials from A horizon (below). As this is
excreted, it forms the crumb-like structure typical of mull.
Soil Horizonation
O horizons – Types and sub-divisions of O horizons

• Mor humus is associated with fungi-dominated decomposition & lack of macrofauna.

• More acidic (some pH values < 4.0) - characteristic of acidic coniferous environments (forms in
pine needle
coniferous litter).
• Mor is all OM, with less mixing between the O horizon & mineral soil.
• Thick mats of mor humus can be stratified into layers of varying degrees of decomposition.
little biological mat
• Mor is slower to decompose than mull.
• Phenolic substances may form protective coatings on plant cellulose material - retarding decomposition.
• Large amounts of these substances can make litter unpalatable to earthworms, limiting their role in the
decomposition.
• Fungi, protozoa, collembolan (insect) & mites are responsible for the breakdown of acid litter into mor
humus.
Soil Horizonation
O horizons – Biological degradation of raw litter in O horizons

Biological degradation of raw litter in O horizons

• Humification, is continuously ongoing in O horizons.
• Breakdown & decomposition carried out by macro & microorganisms - activity depends on temperature
& moisture.
• Warm, moist environments favour litter decomposition & humus formation, & facilitate productivity of
terrestrial plants (produce litter).
• Macro & microorganisms feed on the litter simultaneously - most palatable & easily decomposed
material first, & larger more resistant materials first fragmented by macrofauna.
• Over time, organic material becomes more decomposed until completely humified.
Soil Horizonation
O horizons – Biological degradation of raw litter in O horizons

• After fibric material falls to surface, it is consumed by organisms as a food source; fungi are 1st.
• Soil macrofauna also ingest the litter &, fragmenting it.
• Fragmentation conditions litter for further decomposition by microbes (increases surface area & mixes it
with soil materials & other microorganisms).

Photo credit:Jean-François Ponge (ZANELLA, A., JABIOL, B., PONGE, J.-F., SARTORI, G., WAAL, R., DELFT, B., GRAEFE, U., COOLS, N., KATZENSTEINER, K., HAGER, H.,
ENGLISCH, M., BRÊTHES, A., BROLL, G., GOBAT, J.-M., BRUN, J.-J., MILBERT, G., KOLB, E., WOLF, U., FRIZZERA, L. & LANGOHR, R. 2010. HUMUS FORMS ERB 2010, a
European reference base for humus forms: proposal for a morpho-functional classification.)
Soil Horizonation
O horizons – Biological degradation of raw litter in O horizons

• Earthworms are good at fragmentation; litter decomposes faster with them.

• Worms break down OM into smaller sizes - when ingesting & mix it with mineral soil; casts are fertile
ground for microorganisms - sites of high microbial activity (upper profile).
• Actinomycetes & bacteria multiply within earthworms.
• Earthworm casts are NB - in O horizons they bury other litter & create a favourable micro-environment
for decomposition.

Google images
Soil Horizonation
O horizons – Biological degradation of raw litter in O horizons

• Millipedes, collembola, mites & isopods are also NB in the fragmentation process.
• Fragmented & partially digested litter that passed through guts of larger soil fauna is favoured by soil
bacteria.
• In tropical areas (soil termites abundant) soils have low OM content - termites are effective in digesting
cellulose, leaving less for the soil.
• Contrasts with environments where macrofauna pass most OM through their guts with most material
remaining in organic form; O & A horizons have a large amount of humus.

digest cellulose which become OM

Google images
 Soil Horizonation
O horizons – Biological degradation of raw litter in O horizons

• Excrement from soil meso- & macrofauna accumulate.

• Fecal matter, fed on again, which reduces to humus.
• ∴ multiple cycles of ingestion, fragmentation, mixing & excretion must occur for all litter to be finely
divided & well-decomposed.

Photo credit: Paul-Alain Nana (ZÉPHYRIN, F., NANA, P.-A., BRICHEUX, G., VIGUES, B., BOUCHARD, P. & SIME-NGANDO, T. 2016. Correlation between some environmental
variables and abundance of Almophrya mediovacuolata (Ciliophora: Anoplophryidae) endocommensal ciliate of an anecic earthworms (Oligochaeta: Annelida) in Bambui
(North West Cameroon). Int. J. Biol. Chem. Sci., 10, 1983-1997.)
Soil Horizonation
O horizons – Biological degradation of raw litter in O horizons

• Eventually litter must be decomposed biochemically to break C-H bonds.

• Hemicelluloses & celluloses get broken down by microbes; lignin, cuticle, chitin & resistant substances
persist. Lignin & chitin are broken down by fungi.

• When litter is isolated from macrofauna, e,g. when soil is shallow to bedrock, the decomposition process
is much slower & dominated by microfauna.
• Litter will accumulate & thicken to the point that organic soils over bedrock /gravel will develop.

Photo credit: Danushka S. Tennakoon (TENNAKOON, D., GENTEKAKI, E., JEEWON, R., KUO, C.-H., PROMPUTTHA, I. & HYDE, K. 2021. Life in leaf litter: Fungal community
succession during decomposition. mycosphere, 12.)
Soil Horizonation
O horizons – Biological degradation of raw litter in O horizons

• Soil organisms use litter as a C & energy source.

• Decomposition increases when the soil is warmer & wetter & active soil fauna.
• Litter is a primary source of food for many soil organisms - numbers & mass of organisms varies
throughout the year.
• Organisms numbers highest in the warm season, & by autumn, the previous year’s litter is largely
consumed.
• Most organisms migrate into the soil to become dormant or lay eggs before the cold/dry season.

GEISEN, S., WALL, D. H. & VAN DER PUTTEN, W. H. 2019. Challenges and Opportunities for Soil Biodiversity in the Anthropocene. Current Biology, 29, R1036-R1044.
Soil Horizonation
Types of soil horizons – A horizons

• The A horizon (topsoil) is the dark, uppermost mineral soil horizon.

• Mineral particles in the A have dark coatings of humus & OM in advanced stages of decomposition.
• OM, dead plants & animal, fecal pellets, seeds & pollen grains are found here.
• A horizons form below an O (if present) - contributes OM to the A horizon.
• Organic materials mixed into the A horizons decompose into humus (brown-black material coats soil
particles).

Washington.edu
 Soil Horizonation
Types of soil horizons – A horizons

• Mixing of humus & OM into the mineral soil happens when animals drag plant matter into burrows.
• Also when small plant fragments move into pores & cracks & along root channels.
• Burrowing animals deposit casts of mineral soil on & in the O, which incorporate parts of the O into the A
& mixes them - mixed zone reverts to A as materials decompose.
• Darkening of the mineral material (OM & humus) is melanization.

A. Kölbl, S. Schweizer, C. Mueller, C. Hoeschen, D. Said-Pullicino, M.

Romani, et al, Legacy of Rice Roots as Encoded in Distinctive Microsites
of Oxides, Silicates, and Organic Matter, Soils 2017 Vol. 1 Pages 2
Soil Horizonation
Types of soil horizons – A horizons

• The amount of OM in the A horizon depends on balance between additions & losses.
• Additions come from above ground (leaves) & below ground (roots & soil fauna).
• Losses include translocation of OM deeper in profile, erosion of organic-rich materials, &
oxidation/mineralization of OM (CO2).
• A horizons characteristics vary due to different processes of additions & losses in different locations over
time.
• A horizons are darkest where OM additions exceed losses (cold/wet sites - oxidation is slow).
 Soil Horizonation
Types of soil horizons – A horizons

• Grassland soils have thick, dark A horizons - large, additions of OM by roots.

• Some forest soils also show these characteristics,
e.g. where the forest is thin & grasses occur / forest replaced grassland veg /
where forest soil is rocky.
• Coarse fragments cause soils to have thicker &/or darker A horizons –
large volume of coarse clasts limits volume of soil where OM can be distributed.

concentrates OM in soil

Mollisol – USDA.gov

V. Belyaev, E. Garankina, I. Shorkunov, E. Konstantinov, A. Rusakov, I. Shishkina, et al., Holocene erosion and
deposition within a small catchment of the northeastern Borisoglebsk Upland (Central European Russia), IOP
Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science 2020 Vol. 438 Pages 012002
Soil Horizonation
Types of soil horizons – A horizons

• Plowed A horizons - Ap.

• Ap have a sharp, lower boundary at the base of the plow zone.
• Where the A is thin, the Ap has incorporated some parts of the
lower horizons within it.

uwec.edu
Soil Horizonation
Types of soil horizons

BCcampus
Soil Horizonation
Types of soil horizons – E horizons

• E horizons - light coloured mineral horizons showing evidence loss (OM, clay,
oxides); usually by downward translocation by infiltrating water. can have lateral losses
• Loss of constituents (eluviation) means grains stripped clean & dark weatherable
minerals have decomposed.
• ∴ E horizons are light-coloured - dominated by uncoated quartz & feldspar grains.

FAO.org
 Soil Horizonation
Types of soil horizons – E horizons
Reduced forms very easily
• E horizons form when water strips coating off sand & silt grains & weathers dark minerals.
translocated
• ∴ E horizons form mainly in humid climates on freely draining soils. moves to B or C

• In soils where water stands on a slowly permeable layer, there is chemical reduction of Fe & Mn.
• Reduced forms are easily translocated in laterally flowing soil water.
• Results in Fe- & Mn-depleted horizons with morphological features of a clay-poor E horizon.

HANLON, E., MUCHOVEJ, R., OZORES-HAMPTON, M., SHUKLA, S., ROKA, F. & YAMATAKI, H. 2019. Sugarcane Production in Southwest Florida: Mineral Soils and Amendments 1. EDIS, 2005
Soil Horizonation
Types of soil horizons – E horizons

• E can be conceptually considered as downward/lower extension of A horizons.

• Sometimes absent where A horizons are thick (grassland soils).
• Common in forested soils (humid climates), where translocation is frequent & intense.
• In soils with minimal pedoturbation, the A underlies the O horizon - OM very slowly mixed into mineral
soil.
• As litter decomposes in O, organic molecules wash into mineral soil & can bypass the E; deposition
occurs in the B below.

unl.edu
Soil Horizonation
Types of soil horizons – E horizons

• E horizons can grow at the expense of the B horizon.

• This E is considered a degraded B - evidence of profile deepening & development.
• Degraded B horizons appear like an E but contain fragments of B material.

RODZIK, J., MROCZEK, P. & WIŚNIEWSKI, T. 2014. Pedological analysis as a HANLON, E., MUCHOVEJ, R., OZORES-HAMPTON, M.,
key for reconstructing primary loess relief — A case study from the SHUKLA, S., ROKA, F. & YAMATAKI, H. 2019. Sugarcane
Magdalenian site in Klementowice (eastern Poland). CATENA, 117, 50–59. Production in Southwest Florida: Mineral Soils and
Amendments 1. EDIS, 2005
Soil Horizonation
Types of soil horizons – B horizons

• B horizons show evidence of illuviation. orthic A

over B
• Translocation of material in (Latin il, in, & luv, washed). rich in Fe,
Heamatite
• Illuvial substances / weathering by-products carried downward by percolating
water & deposited in B as water soaks in the peds.
• Results in illuvial substances getting plastered onto ped face as coatings/cutans.

FAO.org
Soil Horizonation
Types of illuvial cutans (ped coating) & cemented zones
not know
Component Cutan name Cemented name

Clay Argillan, clay skin, clay film, Tonhautchen

Silt Silan, siltan

Humus Organ, organan

Manganese Mangan

Crystalline salts, e.g. carbonates, chlorides Soluan

& sulphates
Skeleton grains such as silt & very fine Skeleton, neoskeleton
sand
Sesquioxides Sesquan Ortstein, placic

Calcium & magnesium carbonates Calcan, calcitan Caliche, calcrete, nari, kankar, croute
calcaire
Soil Horizonation
Types of illuvial cutans (ped coating) & cemented zones

Component Cutan name Cemented name

Iron Ferran Iron pan, laterite, plinthite, ferricrete,

ironstone
Goethite Goethan

Allophane Allan

Sodium salts, esp. halite Halan Salcrete

Gypsum Gypsan Gypcrete

Silica Silcrete, duripan

Various combinations of materials E.g. ferri-argillan, organo-argillan

Soil Horizonation
Types of soil horizons – B horizons

• Illuvial materials also deposited in B by other processes (desiccation, adsorption, precipitation) but not
all of these result in cutans.
• Suffixes used to indicate nature of illuvial materials in B e.g. Fe, Al, clay, carbonates, Na, humus,
Bt = clay
gypsum, S, & Si) either alone or in combination. Bk = Carb
• If the observer sees evidence of illuvial coatings, the suffix can be added as B horizon descriptor.
Soil Horizonation
Types of soil horizons – B horizons

• Illuvial coatings can thicken.

• Thicker cutans are evidence of increased soil development.
• Conversely, there are processes that destroy soil order & break cutans.

sliding of clay create cutan

latebloomershow
Soil Horizonation
Types of soil horizons – B horizons

• Weak B horizons (Bw) are expressed by slight reddening associated with weathering & the accumulation
of residual weathering products (oxides) or the development of soil structure & loss of rock structure.
• In soils formed from carbonate-rich parent materials, the lower limit of the B horizon is taken as the
depth of carbonate leaching.

orthic a

gypsum accum
carbonates

young b over bedrock

PLAZA-BONILLA, D. 2013. Greenhouse gases emissions and soil organic carbon

Nature Education (2013)
protection in rainfed Mediterranean: tillage and fertilization strategy effects.
Soil Horizonation
Types of soil horizons – B horizons

• B horizons referred to as subsoil materials.

• Many classification systems place emphasis on B characteristics - take longer to be created &
destroyed, & less likely to be eroded than A & E horizons due to location in the subsoil.
• The burial process can erode the uppermost horizons, leaving only the B as evidence of the soil that
existed prior to burial.
Soil Horizonation
B horizons – The sequum concept

The sequum concept

• A sequum is a couplet of an eluvial horizon above an illuvial horizon, usually E over B horizon.
• Many soils in humid regions have an E-B sequum.
• Soils with two sequa are bisequal soils.
• Bisequal soils form when two different sets of eluvial-illuvial processes are ongoing in the same pedon,
e.g. clay translocation at depth, forming a E-Bt sequum, & Fe/Al translocation, forming an E-Bs sequum.
• The 2nd E horizon is denoted as a prime E′.
E
Bt bisequal

E’
Bs
Soil Horizonation
Types of soil horizons – C horizons
OAEB
• C horizon - material between the solum & bedrock.
• Parent material from which mineral horizons above formed.
• Shallow profiles that rest directly on rock do not usually have C horizons.

FAO.org
Soil Horizonation
Buried soils

• Soils that have been buried are referred to as paleosols, geosols or fossil soils.
• Horizons are described the same way as surface soils, except that b follows the horizon designation,
e.g. Ab, Bab, Btb & C horizons

b suffix not go with C

Openoregon – D. Grimley
Soil Horizonation
Buried soils

• The use of the b suffix depends on whether the soil is buried.

• A buried soil is defined as one that is covered with a surface mantle of new soil material that is either
≥50 cm thick or is 30-50 cm thick & is at least half as thick as the buried soil.
• The 50 cm minimum limit has precedence.
• It is assumed that the surface mantle is minimally altered by pedogenesis.
• In cases where the covering over buried soil is thin, pedogenic processes will incorporate new mantle
into the buried soil - ‘unbury’ it.
• This process is soil welding.

• If sediment exists on top of the profile & is not genetically part of the profile, the soil below should be
considered buried & the b suffix used on its horizons.