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NTA- UGC NET/JRF
ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES - COMPLETE GUIDE
Author: Madhuraj P K
Madhurendu, Mandur PO, Kannur, 670501
Mob: 8547867160, 8943671971
Language: English
Publisher: Envirobooks
Cover Design: Jyotish V M
ISBN: 978-93-5396-804-5
Edition: First
Price: 400
Printer Details: Printing park, Thalassery

Copyright © 2020 Madhuraj P K

All rights reserved, including the right of reproduction in whole or in part in any form. The
copyrights of diagrams and tables provided in the book belong to respective creators.
 Preface
NTA- UGC NET/JRF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE (89) - COMPLETE GUIDE is written for students who
aspire to build a career in teaching and research in the field of environmental sciences. The discussion
throughout the book has been supported by updated facts, figures, and diagrams obtained from
various online sources as per the latest examination patterns. The sole purpose of this book is to
provide students a comprehensive study material covering all aspects of Environmental Science. The
broad syllabus has been divided into seventeen chapters and all-Important points are highlighted in
bold font for a better reading experience. A mammoth effort has taken to scrutinize past ten years’
question papers for developing relevant content in a simple, short, and crisp language. Each section of
the book was compiled with utmost care to avoid errors. However, despite taking all care, some
printing and other mistakes might be there in this book. Hence valuable suggestions and comments of
the readers are solicited. You may write to [email protected].

8547867160
madhurajpk
 Contents
Syllabus -
1. Geology 1-9
2. Soil Chemistry 10-12
3. Global Circulation 13-16
4. Air Pollution 17-24
5. Atmospheric Chemistry 25-31
6. Noise Pollution 32-34
7. Water Pollution 35-46
8. Pesticides 47-52
9. Municipal Solid Waste Management (MSWM) 53-61
10. Remote Sensing and GIS 62-69
11. Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) 70-81
12. Environmental Analytical Chemistry 82-87
13. Environmental Laws, Conventions, and Agreements 88-100
14. Environmental Issues 101-107
15. Energy and Environment 108-120
16. Environmental Biology 121-157
17. Statistics 158-178
18. Previous Year Questions and Answers 179- 209
 UNIVERSITY GRANTS COMMISSION
SYLLABUS
ENVIRONMENTALSCIENCE (89)
The syllabus contains ten units:

Unit-I: Fundamentals of Environmental Sciences

Unit-II: Environmental Chemistry

Unit-III: Environmental Biology

Unit-IV: Environmental Geosciences

Unit-V: Energy and Environment

Unit-VI: Environmental Pollution and Control

Unit-VII: Solid and Hazardous Waste Management

Unit-VIII: Environmental Assessment, Management and Legislation

Unit-IX: Statistical Approaches and Modelling in Environmental Sciences

Unit-X: Contemporary Environmental Issues

 1

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 2

GEOLOGY
The Earth was formed by a gravity-driven process known as Accretion. Originally homogenous earth
developed a dense core and a light crust by Differentiation, which resulted in the formation of three
distinct geological layers: Crust (Rich in Silicon, Aluminium, and Oxygen), Mantle (Rich in Magnesium,
Silicon, and Oxygen), and Core (Rich in iron).

Emission of Radiation by Earth

The internal energy of earth increases when short wave radiations from the sun are absorbed by the
Earth’s surface. To balance the excess energy, the Earth emits longwave infrared radiation back to the
atmosphere.

Geothermal Gradient
It is the rate of increase in temperature with an increase in depth of the earth’s interior (~1°C/40 meter).
Much of the heat inside the Earth’s interior is created by the decay of radioactive elements. Continental
crust has a higher density of radioactive elements than oceanic crust.

Geochemical Classification of Elements

1. Lithophile or Rock- loving elements

These elements readily combine with oxygen (e.g., Aluminium, Boron, and Lithium)

2. Siderophile or Iron- loving elements

These elements readily dissolve in iron either as solid solutions or in the molten state (e.g., Osmium,
Gold, and Platinum)

3. Chalcophile or Chalcogen- loving elements

These elements combine rapidly with chalcogens other than oxygen (E.g., Silver, Arsenic, Cadmium,
Lead, and Mercury)
4. Atmophile or Volatile elements
These are elements with low boiling point (E.g., Nitrogen and Hydrogen)

Seismic discontinuities
1. Moho discontinuity is the boundary between the crust and the mantle. The term “Discontinuity” is
used refer the surface at which seismic waves change its velocity and undergo acceleration.
2. Conorod discontinuity occurs between upper and lower crust
3. Repiti discontinuity is between the upper and lower mantle

4. Guttenberg discontinuity is found between the mantle and outer core

5. Lehmann discontinuity occurs between the outer and inner core

 3

Bowen’s Reaction Series

The series shows the sequence of crystallization of common silicate minerals from magma. Minerals
near the top of the series are furthest from equilibrium with the earth's surface and will chemically
weather at a faster rate.

Continental Crust
It is a layer of granitic, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks that form the continents. Continental crust
is less dense than oceanic crust but is considerably thicker (35-40Km). This layer is sometimes called sial
because its bulk composition is richer in silicates and aluminum minerals and has a lower density
compared to the oceanic crust, called sima. The average density of continental crust is about 2.83 g/cm3.
The area of shallow seabed close to shores is known as continental shelves.

Types of Rocks
1. Igneous rocks are crystalline solids that form when magma cools down quickly. Intrusive igneous rocks
such as diorite, gabbro, granite, and pegmatite are formed when magma solidifies below the Earth’s crust,
whereas Extrusive igneous rocks such as rhyolite, andesite, basalt, obsidian, and pumice are formed when
lava solidifies on or above the Earth surface.

2. Metamorphic Rocks form as a result of the transformation of existing rock types under extreme
conditions. Foliated metamorphic rocks such as gneiss, phyllite, schist, and slate have a layered or banded
appearance, whereas Non-foliated metamorphic rocks such as marble and quartzite do not appear
banded or layered.

Metamorphosis
Limestone Marble or Travertine
Shale Slate
Sandstone Quartzite

3. Sedimentary rocks, such as sandstone, limestone, and shale are formed by the accumulation and
lithification of sediments. The sedimentary rock cover of the continents of the Earth's crust is extensive
(73% of the Earth's current land surface), but the total contribution of sedimentary rocks is estimated to
be only 8% of the total volume of the crust. Sedimentary rocks are only a thin veneer over a crust
consisting mainly of igneous and metamorphic rocks.
 4

Mechanical Weathering of Rocks

1. Exfoliation
The Process by which pressure in a rock is released along parallel alignments near the surface of the
bedrock. These alignments eventually break off and move downhill due to the force of gravity.

2. Frost Wedging
Caused by freeze-thaw action of water which is trapped inside the cracks on the rock.
3. Temperature changes
Weathering due to temperature changes is most common in deserts, where temperature can change
drastically from day to night. This extreme variation in temperature causes expansion and contraction of
rock, which will lead to gradual weathering of the material.
4. Salt Wedging
It occurs when the salt crystallizes out of solution as the water evaporates out of cracks on the rocks. The
process exerts pressure on the surroundings and weakens the rock.

5. Abrasion
Abrasion occurs when rocks collide against one another while they are being transported by water, glacial
ice, etc.

Spheroidal Weathering/ Onion Skin Weathering

This is a type of chemical weathering that affects jointed bedrocks and results in the formation of
concentric or spherical layers of highly decayed rock within the weathered bedrock or saprolite. The
chemical alteration of the rock results in the formation of abundant secondary minerals such as kaolinite,
sericite, serpentine, montmorillonite, and chlorite. Thereby causing a corresponding increase in the
volume of the altered rock. Within saprolite, spheroidal weathering often creates rounded boulders,
known as corestones.

Mass wasting/ Slope Movement

The geomorphic process by which soil, sand, regolith, and rock move downslope typically as a solid,
continuous or discontinuous mass, largely under the force of gravity, but frequently with characteristics
of flow as in debris flows and mudflows. A slump is a form of mass wasting that occurs when a coherent
mass of loosely consolidated material of rock layers move a short distance down a slope which consists
of curved and planar shear surfaces.

Faults
Faults are fractures or crack in Earth’s crust where rocks on either side of the crack have slid past each
other. In an active fault, the pieces of the Earth's crust along a fault move over time and can cause
earthquakes. Inactive faults used to have movement at some time in the past, but they no longer move.
There are three major types of faults found on the earth crust: Normal fault, Reverse fault, and Strike-
slip fault
 5

Normal Fault Reverse Fault Strike-Slip fault

1. Strike-Slip faults
These faults are formed when rocks slide past each other horizontally with little to no vertical movement.
Strike-slip faults do not make cliffs or fault scarps because the blocks of rocks are not moving up or down
relative to each other.

2. Normal faults
Normal faults are formed when two blocks of crusts pull apart by stretching into a valley. Normal faults
will not make an overhanging rock ledge.

3. Reverse / Thrust faults

These are commonly found in the collision zone of tectonic plates where one block slides over the top
of another. In a reverse fault, the exposed area of the fault is often an overhang. A thrust fault is a special
type of reverse fault having a low fault angle.

Coal
In the process of coalification, peat or organic matter is altered to lignite, lignite is altered to sub-
bituminous, sub-bituminous coal is altered to bituminous coal, and bituminous coal is altered to
anthracite.
1. Anthracite
Anthracite is the highest rank of coal which is black and lustrous, often referred to as hard coal. It contains
a high percentage of fixed carbon (80-95%) and low volatile matter. It ignites slowly with blue flames,
indicating high efficiency and little or no pollutants. In India, a small deposition of anthracite coal is
found in Jammu and Kashmir.
2. Bituminous
Bituminous coal usually has a high heating value and is widely used for electricity generation. It contains
40-80% carbon with very high calorific value due to the high proportion of carbon and low moisture.

3. Lignite
Lignite is also known as “Brown coal”, which contains 40-55% carbon with high moisture content (over
35%). It undergoes spontaneous combustion causing fire accidents in mines.
 6

4. Peat
Peat or organic matter is the first stage of the coalification process. It contains a high percentage of
impurities and less than 50% of carbon. Sufficient moisture content and high volatile matter produce
smoke while burning.

Types of Magma
Type Silicon Dioxide Iron content Temperature Viscosity
Content % °C
Basaltic 45-55 High 1000-1200 Low
Andesitic 55-65 Intermediate 800-1000 Intermediate
Rhyolitic 65-75 Low 650-800 High

Longitudinal Profile of River

Source
Knick point Potamon zone
Rhitron zone (High DO) (Sandy, low DO)
Mouth

Longitudinal Profile of Reservoir

Riverine zone

Transitional zone

Lacustrine Zone Dam

Riverine zone Transitional zone Lacustrine zone

Relatively high flow Broader and deeper basin Broad, deep, lake-like basin
High suspended solids Reduced suspended solids Relative clear
Allochthonous, P<R Intermediate Autochthonous, P>R
Groundwater

1. Aquifer

An aquifer is a saturated formation of earth material that not only stores water but also yields it in
sufficient quantities. This layer of rocks transmits water easily due to its high-water permeability.
Unconsolidated deposits of sand and gravel form good aquifers.
 7

2. Aquitard
The underground formation through which only seepage is possible due to its low permeability. Water
may leak into the aquifer through the aquitards, such as sand, clay, etc.

3. Aquiclude
Aquiclude is a geological formation that is porous but not permeable. Such rocks may bear water but do
not yield the same as they are impermeable.

4. Aquifuge
The underground formations, such as Granite and Quartzite belong to this category of rocks that are
neither porous nor permeable.

Types of Lakes
1. Monomictic lake
Monomictic lakes are holomictic lakes that mix from top to bottom during one mixing period every year.
Monomictic lakes may be subdivided into cold and warm types.

2. Dimictic lake
Dimictic lakes mix from the surface to the bottom twice every year. Dimictic lakes are holomictic, a
category which includes all lakes which mix one or more times per year. This type of mixing happens
in temperate regions during spring and autumn.

3. Meromictic lake
The meromictic lake has layers of water that never intermix. The accumulation of dissolved CO2 in such
lakes is potentially dangerous due to the limnic eruption which releases a large quantity of carbon dioxide
to the lake surroundings replacing oxygen needed for life.

4. Amictic lake
Amictic lakes are commonly referred to as lakes that never mix, and are perennially sealed off by ice
from most of the annual seasonal variations in temperature.

5. Kettle lake
A kettle is a depression or hole in an outwash plain formed by retreating glaciers or by draining
floodwaters. Many are filled with water, and are then called "kettle lakes".

6. Garben lake
When adjacent tectonic plates separate at fault lines, the steep narrow gap between them can result in
the formation of Garben lake.

7. Maar lake
A maar is a broad, low-relief volcanic crater caused by a phreatomagmatic eruption (an explosion that
occurs when groundwater comes into contact with hot lava or magma).
 8

Estuary
An estuary is a partially enclosed coastal body of brackish water with one or more rivers or streams
flowing into it. Estuaries form a transition zone between river environments and maritime environments.
There are different types of estuaries, each of which is created differently. The four main types of
estuaries are coastal plain estuaries/drowned river valleys, tectonic estuaries, bar-built estuaries and fjords.
Coastal plain estuaries form from rising sea level, which fills an already existing river valley with water,
creating an estuary. Tectonic estuaries form on faults, where tectonic activity has created a space that can
be filled in with water. The San Francisco Bay is an example of a tectonic estuary. Bar built estuaries are
behind some sort of natural bar between the estuary and the ocean, such as a spit. Fjords are valleys that
were, at one time, carved out by glaciers and were then filled in with water.

Deltas
A river delta is a landform created by the deposition of sediments carried by a river as the flow leaves its
mouth and enters slower-moving or stagnant water. This occurs where a river enters an ocean, sea,
estuary, lake, reservoir, etc.

1. Arcuate or fan-shaped
The land around the river mouth arches out into the sea and the river splits many times on the way to
the sea, thus creating a fan effect. Both Nile and Ganges deltas are examples of the arcuate delta.

2. Cuspate
Cuspate delta is formed when the material brought down by a river is spread out evenly on either side of
its channel. An example of a cuspate delta is the Tiber.
3. Bird's foot
When the river splits on the way to the sea, each part of the river juts out into the sea resembling the
bird’s foot. The Mississippi delta of the US is an example of Bird’s foot delta.

Moraine
A moraine is any glacially formed accumulation of unconsolidated glacial debris that occurs in glaciated
regions on earth. There are five types of moraine formations:

Terminal moraine - Found at the endpoint reached by the glacier

Lateral moraine - Found deposited along the sides of the glacier
Medial moraine - Found at the junction between two glaciers
Ground moraine - Disorganized piles of rocks of various shapes and sizes
Recessional moraine - It is formed perpendicular to the lateral moraines when the glacier makes a m
temporary halt while retreating
 9

Miscellaneous

• Stability of minerals during the weathering of igneous rock is in the order of

Quartz> Muscovite> Potash feldspar> Biotite
• The shells and skeletons of many marine organisms are made from either calcite or aragonite.
Lysocline is the depth in the ocean below which dissolution of calcite increases rapidly. Lysocline
is followed by a depth known as carbon compensation depth (CCD) where the rate of supply of
calcium carbonate from the surface is equal to the rate of its dissolution.
• Talus is the pile of rocks that accumulate at the base of a cliff. Talus slope is formed by talus
accumulation.
A- Crest

B- Cliff

C- Talus slope

D- Pediment slope

• Karst topography is a feature of the limestone region. It is characterized by underground

drainage systems with sinkholes and caves.
• The outer core is the source of Earth’s magnetic field
• Mohs’ scale is used to measure the hardness of minerals based on the ability of one natural
sample of mineral to scratch another mineral visibly.

Mineral Hardness
Talc 1
Gypsum 2
Calcite 3
Fluorite 4
Apatite 5
Feldspar 6
Quartz 7
Topaz 8
Corundum 9
Diamond 10

• Hamada is a type of desert landscape consisting of high and barren rocks where most of the sand
has been removed by deflation.
• The black soil or regur soil is formed by the weathering of igneous rocks and the cooling of lava
after a volcanic eruption. The soil in the Deccan Plateau consists of black basalt soil rich in
humus, iron and also contains a high quantity of magnesia, lime, and alumina. Columnar jointing
 10

is a characteristic of basalt rocks. Basalt and Gabbro have the same mineral composition. Gabbro
is also known as black granite.
• Pycnocline is the layer where the density gradient is greatest within a body of water
• In open oceans, the temperature falls rapidly in the thermocline (500-800m) layer
• A structural trap is a type of geological trap which forms as a result of changes in the structure of
the subsurface, due to tectonic, diapiric, gravitational and compactional processes. These
changes block the upward migration of hydrocarbons and can lead to the formation of a
petroleum reservoir.
• Frequency of occurrence of earthquakes

• Solifluction is the gradual movement of wet soil or other materials down a slope, especially in
places where frozen subsoil acts as a barrier to the percolation of water.
• Permafrost is a ground of rock and soil with a temperature that remains at or below 0°C for two
or more years. Most of the permafrost regions are located at high latitudes. At low latitudes,
alpine permafrost occurs at higher elevations.
• A caldera is a large cauldron-like hollow that forms shortly after the emptying of a magma
chamber or reservoir in a volcanic eruption.
• Cirque is the amphitheater-like valley formed by glacial erosion.
• Esker is a long winding ridge of stratified sand and gravel that generally occurs in glaciated or
formerly glaciated areas.
• Lahar is the destructive mudflow or debris flow from volcanoes along a river valley.
• A kame is a glacial landform of an irregularly shaped hill or mound composed of sand and gravel
that have been formed by glacial deposition.
• Subduction is a geological process that takes place at convergent boundaries of tectonic plates
where one plate moves under the other and is forced to sink due to gravity.
• Islands arcs are long chains of active volcanoes having intense seismic activity. They are situated
along convergent plate boundaries such as the ring of fire.
• Mantle convection is the source of energy for large scale tectonic movements.
• A fold is an undulating or wave-like structure that forms when rocks deform due to stress and
pressure. The formation of folds can be of two types: syncline (youngest rock occurs at the core
of the fold) and anticline (oldest rock occurs at the core of the fold)
 11

SOIL CHEMISTRY
Humic substances (HS) are a group of organic materials present in the soil whose major components are
humin, humic acid, and fulvic acid. Humin is the insoluble component of soil organic matter whose main
function is to improve the water holding capacity of the soil. Humic acids are a mixture of weak aliphatic
and aromatic carbon acids that are soluble in water under alkaline conditions. Humic acid polymers are
capable of readily binding with clay minerals to form a stable organic complex, and they also show a
strong tendency to form a salt with inorganic clay complexes. Fluvic acids are a mixture of aliphatic and
aromatic organic acids that are soluble in water at all pH conditions. They are relatively smaller than
humic acids but are highly reactive due to the presence of a large number of carboxyl and hydroxyl
groups. The oxygen content of fluvic acids is more than that of humic acids. Fluvic acid particles easily
enter the plant system owing to their small size.
Soil Macronutrients: C, H, O, N, P, K, Ca, Mg, S

Soil Micronutrients: Fe, Mn, B, Mo, Cu, Zn, Cl, Ni, Co, Na, Si

Soil Microorganisms can be classified into bacteria, fungi, algae, and protozoa. Some of the important
microorganisms and their functions are given below.

1. Azotobactor
Azotobacter, a free-living soil microbe, is the heaviest breathing organism that requires a large amount of
organic carbon for its growth. They fix atmospheric nitrogen into ammonia non-symbiotically.
Azotobacters are found worldwide, in climates ranging from extremely northern Siberia to Egypt and
India.
2. Mycorrhizae
It is the symbiotic association between a fungus and a plant. The majority of the world’s plants are
mycorrhizal with varying degrees of benefits derived from this association. The most common
mycorrhizal symbioses involve arbuscular mycorrhizae (crop species) and ectomycorrhiza (woody
species). Mycorrhizae play crucial roles in plant nutrition, soil biology, and soil chemistry. Other benefits
of the mycorrhizal association include protection against pathogens; enhanced tolerance to pollutants
and higher resistance to water stress, high soil temperature, and extreme soil pH.
3. Rhizobia
Rhizobia infect roots of leguminous plants creating nodules where Nitrogen is fixed. When the legume
dies, the nodules also break down releasing rhizobia back to the soil where they can live either
individually or reinfect a new host plant.

4. Frankia
Frankia lives in symbiotic relations with actinorhizal plants, such as Coriaria, Bayberry, Alder, etc. These
bacteria convert atmospheric nitrogen into ammonia using the enzyme nitrogenase. The Frankia
symbiosis is often utilized in land reclamation and restoration process using Casuarinales trees to hold
soil.
 12

5. Cyanobacteria (Blue-green algae)

The coralloid root is found in clusters at the base of the stem of Cycas. It contains symbiotic
cyanobacteria, such as Nostoc and Anabaena to fix nitrogen within the specialized cells known as
heterocyst. They also produce beneficial amino acids, such as asparagine and citrulline in association
with root tissues.

Total Organic Carbon (TOC)

Total organic carbon (TOC) is the sum of carbon stored in soil organic matter (SOM) as organic and
inorganic (carbonates and bicarbonates) forms. The measurement of organic carbon is a difficult task for
the laboratories, so they measure total organic carbon. A conversion factor of 1.72 is generally used to
convert organic carbon into organic matter.

Organic Matter (%) = Total Organic Carbon (TOC) x 1.72

The Walkley-Black (WB) Titration

Walkley- Black Titration is a widely followed method for the rapid analysis of organic carbon (OC) in
soils and sediments. The titration is based on the oxidation of organic matter by potassium dichromate-
sulfuric acid mixture followed by back titration of the excessive dichromate using ferrous ammonium
sulfate.

Soil Profile
The soil profile is a vertical section of the soil that depicts all of its horizons having different properties
and characteristics than the adjacent layers above or below.

O (Organic)
A (Surface)

B (Subsoil)

C (Substratum)

R (Bedrock)

Clay Minerals
Clay minerals are formed by digenetic and hydrothermal alteration rocks. Most clay minerals are
described as hydrous-alumino-silicates. Structurally, clay particles are less than 2 microns in size and are
composed of planes of cations arranged in sheets, which may be tetrahedrally or octahedrally coordinated
with oxygen. They exhibit high dry strength and slow dilatancy. Among different types of clay minerals,
silicate clay and its types are important in the exam point of view..
 13

Type of Silicate clay Properties

Kaolinite Kaolinite is the purest of clays with the lowest cation exchange
capacity. Van der Waals forces and hydrogen bonds are found
between successive layers. It is widely used in the ceramic industry
as it does not absorb water and expand.
Kaolin or China clay, Bentonite, Fire clays
Halloysite A single layer of water is present in unit layers. If the temperature is
above 50 °C or the relative humidity is lower than 50%, the hydrated
halloysite will lose its interlayer water.
Montmorillonite It is also called smectite. Montmorillonites have a high specific
surface, cation exchange capacity, and affinity to water.
Montmorillonite can be expanded by several times its original
volume when it comes in contact with water.
Illite Illite is the most common clay mineral. This type of clay is formed
from the weathering of K and Al-rich rocks under high pH
conditions. The K, Ca, or Mg interlayer cations prevent the
entrance of H2O into the structure. Thus, the illite clays are non-
expanding.
Vermiculite Vermiculite possesses the special property of expanding between
six to twenty times its original volume when heated to ~1,000°C. It
has the highest cation exchange capacity among clay minerals.
Chlorite Central cation in octahedral sheets is either Fe or Mg. It shows
minimum swelling and is non-expandable.
Loam
Loam is a soil composed of sand, silt, and a smaller amount of clay. Its mineral composition is about 40-
40-20% concentration of sand-slit-clay. Loam soils have better drainage and infiltration of water and air
than slit and clay-rich soils. It is considered to be ideal for agriculture because of the presence of adequate
moisture, nutrients, and humus.

Soil alkalinity
Inland soil alkalinity is caused by sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) or sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) present
in the soil. Saline-alkaline (Usar) soils have high pH and undesirable salts on their surface. The addition
of gypsum (CaSO4, 2H2O) or pyrite (FeSO4) is a conventional method for the reclamation of such soils.
In this method, calcium replaces the exchangeable sodium and thereafter leaching of the exchanged
sodium takes place by flooding or extensive irrigation. Biological reclamation using cyanobacteria is
another effective approach. Cyanobacteria could be used to reclaim alkaline soils because they grow
successfully on such soils where most plants fail to grow.
Miscellaneous

• Lysimeter is used for determining the amount of evapotranspiration takes place in plants. By
recording the amount of precipitation that an area receives and the amount lost through the soil,
the amount of water lost to evapotranspiration can be calculated.
• Agrobacterium tumefacians is a plant pathogenic bacterium that is known as “nature’s genetic
engineer”. It manipulates the plant genome by injecting its DNA segment into the plant cells.
 14

GLOBAL CIRCULATION
The winds are deflected to the right of their intended path in the northern hemisphere and to the left in
the southern hemisphere due to Coriolis force (CF). The impact of the Coriolis effect helps to define
prevailing wind patterns around the globe. The wind blows from a region of high pressure to a region of
low pressure due to Pressure gradient force (PGF). When Coriolis force and pressure gradient force
come into balance, the air which begins to move parallel to the isobars is known as Geostrophic wind.
The wind which is a balance of the pressure gradient force, Coriolis force, and centrifugal force (CFF) is
known as Gradient wind. The flow of gradient wind stays parallel to the height of contours.

PGF PGF

Geostrophic wind Gradient wind

CFF

CF
CF

Intertropical Convergence Zone (ICZ)

Intertropical convergence zone or doldrums is the area of low-pressure which appears as a band of
clouds. It circles the Earth generally near the equator where the trade winds of the Northern and
Southern Hemispheres converge.

Horse latitudes
Subtropical regions where sinking air creates an area of high-pressure with calm wind and little
precipitation. The horse latitudes are regions located at about 30 degrees north and south of the equator.

Hadley cells
Hadley cell is a global scale atmospheric air circulation that features air rising near the equator and flowing
poleward at a height of 10-15 km above the Earth surface then descending in the subtropics and returning
equatorward.

Polar cells
The polar cells are found at Earth’s poles between 60° and 70° north and south. Cold and dense air in
these cells sinks and travels towards the equator.

Ferrel cells
In the Ferrel cells, air flows poleward and eastward near the surface and equatorward and westward at
higher altitudes. This movement is the reverse of the airflow in the Hadley cell. Ferrel cell is a thermally
indirect cell because it is driven by the motions of the cells on either side.
 15

Air Circulation Pattern

Roaring Forties
Roaring forties are strong westerly winds found in the southern hemisphere, generally between 40° and
50° latitudes. The strong west to east currents are formed by the combination of air being displaced from
the equator towards the south pole and Coriolis force. In Southern Hemisphere, there are little
landmasses to break this strong wind so they can blow practically uninterrupted. But in Northern
Hemisphere, large landmasses of North America, Europe, and Asia obstruct the airstream.
Wind rose
The wind rose is a time-honored method for the graphical representation of wind conditions, direction,
and speed over a period of time at a particular location. Typically, the wind direction data is sorted into
12 equal arch segments of 30°. The length of spokes indicates the frequency of winds and the color of
spokes indicates the speed of the wind.

Wind Rose
 16

Cyclones and Anticyclones

Convection creates a large area of low pressure and the air masses converging into this low-pressure zone
are known as cyclones. Anti- cyclones are predictors of fair weather, which is formed when sinking air
masses create a high-pressure zone.

Local winds
Mesoscale winds or local winds are formed due to temperature and pressure differences, topographical
variations, and the shape and height of Earth's surface features. Such winds occur in a small spatial scale
with horizontal dimensions generally ranging from tens to a few hundred kilometers.
Local Winds
Katabatic wind Convection wind Prevailing wind Periodic wind
This occurs in places This includes land and Also known as Also known as seasonal
such as Greenland and sea breezes. permanent wind or winds or monsoons.
Antarctica where on planetary wind. They blow from water
calm and clear nights Subdivided into trade bodies to land.
heat is rapidly winds, polar winds, and
lost through ground anti-trade winds.
radiation.
El Niño and La Niña
El Niño and La Niña events are a part of the global climate system which occurs in the Pacific Ocean
when the atmosphere above it changes from their normal state for several seasons. El Niño is the warm
phase and La Niña is the cold phase of the El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) cycle. El Niño and
La Niña episodes typically last 9-12 months. El Niño occurs more frequently than La Niña and the
proportion of frequency of their occurrence is 1:2. El Niño events are associated with the warming of the
central and eastern tropical Pacific, while La Niña events are the reverse, i.e. sustained cooling of the
same areas.

Gulf- stream
Gulf- stream is a westward-moving current of warm water. It starts by moving north of South America
and into the Caribbean Sea. It actually becomes Gulf stream when it starts moving
 17

Northwards along the east coast of the United States of America. London and Paris enjoy a mild winter
climate because of the Gulf- stream. Its presence has caused the development of intense cyclones of all
types within the atmosphere and the ocean. The Gulf Stream is also an important potential source of
renewable power generation.

Scales of Meteorology
Weather phenomena occur at a variety of scales of motion. The major three meteorological scales are
microscale, mesoscale, and synoptic scale.

1. Microscale
Microscale meteorological events take place in an area less than 10km and they generally last less than
one hour. Mixing and dilution process in the atmosphere, near ground turbulence, and gas exchange
between soil and vegetation are the important microscale events.

2. Mesoscale
Mesoscale phenomena generally range from ten-kilometer to several hundred kilometers and they last
more than one hour. Sea breezes and squall lines are the most prominent mesoscale phenomena.

3. Synoptic scale
The synoptic-scale is also known as cyclonic scale phenomena that control day-to-day weather changes.
The synoptic-scale events, such as a hurricane, cyclone, high and low-pressure areas, and mid-latitude
depressions typically last more than 24 hours.

Miscellaneous
• The weather front is a boundary that separates masses of air of different densities and is the
principal cause of meteorological phenomena.
• In mesoscale meteorological systems, vertical velocity often exceeds or equals horizontal velocity.
Rising thermals are susceptible to undergo non-hydrostatic processes such as buoyant
acceleration through narrow mountain passes.
• The hydrostatic approximation is the assumption that the atmosphere is in hydrostatic
equilibrium. It leads to a balance between the pressure gradient vertical component force and
gravity. As an example, the pressure gradient force prevents gravity from collapsing Earth’s
atmosphere into a thin shell, while gravity prevents the pressure gradient force from diffusing the
atmosphere into space.
• Eddies are mesoscale ocean phenomena arising from instabilities of the ocean currents. They
are temporary loops of swirling water, which can be imaged by the seismic oceanography method.
• Venturi effect is the increase in velocity of a fluid or gas due to constriction of flow. In narrowing
terrains mountain winds can accelerate in speed due to this effect.
 18

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AIR POLLUTION
The dispersion of emitted gases in the form of vapor or smoke into the air from their source of
production is known as plumes. The rate of decrease of temperature with altitude in the stationary
atmosphere at a given time and location is known as the Environmental lapse rate (ELR). The average
ELR is assumed to be 6.49 °C /km. An adiabatic process is one in which the expansion and contraction
of a thermodynamic system take place without exchanging any heat or mass between the system and its
surroundings.

When a parcel of air expands, it pushes on the air around it, doing work (thermodynamics). Since the
parcel does work but gains no heat, it loses internal energy so that its temperature decreases. The process
of expanding and contracting without exchanging heat is an adiabatic process. The adiabatic lapse rate in
the case of a rising air plume is assumed to be 9.8 °C/ Km. Environmental Lapse Rate and Adiabatic
Lapse rate govern the diffusion or dispersion of air pollutants into the atmosphere.

Gaussian Dispersion Model

Gaussian model is one of the most used mathematical models to estimate the concentration of air
pollutants at a particular point situated at some distance from their source of emission. The model runs
based on the assumption that plume dispersal occurs due to molecular diffusion and the horizontal and
vertical pollutant concentrations in the plume are normally distributed. The shape and diffusion of
plumes often vary in response to atmospheric conditions. A major drawback of this model is that it is not
suitable for pollutants that undergo chemical transformations in the atmosphere.

Factors affecting the dispersion of pollutants

Source characteristics Meteorological characteristics
The emission rate of pollutants Wind velocity
Stack height Wind direction
The exit velocity of gases Ambient temperature
The exit temperature of gases Atmospheric stability
Stack diameter
Gaussian dispersion modeling is based on a number of assumptions including

1. Steady-state conditions or constant source emission rate.

2. Wind speed, direction, and diffusion characteristics of the plume are constant.

3. Mass transfer due to bulk motion in the x-direction far out-shadows the contribution due to mass
diffusion.

4. No chemical transformations take place (i.e. conservation of mass).

5. Wind speeds are >1m/sec.

6. Limited to predicting concentrations > 50 m downwind.
 20

Gaussian Plume Model (Source: www.researchgate.com)

The model can be used to calculate the Effective Stack Height, Lateral and Vertical Dispersion
Coefficients, and Ground-Level Concentrations. The Gaussian plume model is also used to find out the
concentration of pollutants at any point in space and is given by:

C: concentration of the emission (micrograms/cubic meter) at any point x meters downwind of the
source, y meters laterally from the centerline of the plume, and z meters above ground level.

Q: quantity or mass of the emission (in grams) per unit of time (seconds)
µ: wind speed (in meter per second)

h: height of the source above ground level (m) , σy and σz are the standard deviations of a statistically
normal plume in the lateral and vertical dimensions, respectively. They are the functions of x.

Atmospheric Inversion
In normal atmospheric conditions, the temperature falls by 6.49°C for an increase of 1km in altitude.
This vertical temperature gradient is called 'lapse rate' or ‘Environmental lapse rate’. Inversion occurs
when the cold layer of air at the ground level is covered by a warmer air at a higher level. This leads to
an increase in atmospheric temperature with respect to the increase in altitude. Inversion prevents the
vertical movement of air and the pollutants are concentrated below the inversion layer. In this case, the
atmosphere is said to be stable as it’s free of mixing and turbulence. Consequently, the pollutants will not
disperse into the higher altitude. Inversion generally occurs between the months of October and
February. The phenomenon leads to the accumulation of smoke and other air pollutants at the ground
level and it often prevents solar rays from heating the ground and surrounding air. Fog is generally
associated with inversions. Narrow valleys are more prone to inversion as horizontal air movement is
restricted. During the winter season (November to March) in North India, the prevailing atmospheric
inversion is limiting the dispersal of pollutants as the upper-level air is descending to ground level. There
are two types of inversions: Radiation inversion and Subsidence inversion.
 21

Radiation Inversion Subsidence Inversion

It forms on clear, light-wind nights and is strongest It frequently occurs with high-pressure systems
around sunrise. During the night, the ground that cause the air in the upper levels to sink and
cools off, radiating the heat to the sky. thus warm. It lasts for several days at an inversion
height of 200 m. Extreme pollution is observed.
Fog is formed if the air is moist and the It is formed due to the sinking of air in high-
temperature is below the dew point. pressure areas surrounded by low-pressure areas.
Common in winter due to longer nights, and it As air sinks, it is compressed and gets heated to
frequently occurs in valleys. form a warm dense layer that prevents the upward
movement of contaminants.

❖ If temperature increases with respect to elevation, it is called stable condition and if

temperature decreases with respect to elevation it is called unstable or natural condition.
❖ Dry Adiabatic Lapse rate (DALR) = 9.8°C/km ~ 10°C/km.
❖ Wet Adiabatic Lapse rate or Saturated Adiabatic Lapse Rate = 6°C/km.
❖ Wet Adiabatic Lapse Rate (WALR) begins from a particular point from where cloud
formation starts.
❖ The environmental lapse rate greatly varies from time to time and from location to location.
❖ Environmental Lapse Rate is measured using an instrument called Radiosonde.
❖ Negative lapse rate indicates inversion.
❖ ELR < WALR then the atmosphere is absolutely stable.
❖ ELR > DALR then the atmosphere is absolutely unstable or super adiabatic.
❖ WALR < ELR < DALR then the atmosphere is conditionally unstable.
❖ Mathematically, DALR= dT/dZ = - 9.8°C/Km.

TYPES OF PLUMES

ALR (------), ELR ( )

 22

❖ Looping plumes are formed under strong lapse conditions (ELR> ALR) when the atmosphere
is highly unstable.
❖ Weak lapse condition results in a limited vertical mixing of gases. In such slightly stable
environments, the plume tends to attain a cone-like structure.
❖ Fanning plumes are obtained under extreme inversion conditions. The stable environmental
conditions present just above the stack prevent upward movement of the plume.
❖ Lofting plume is considered to be suitable for industrial areas as it is ideal for the dispersion of
pollutants. It is formed when a strong super adiabatic lapse rate exists just above the stack and
negative lapse rate (inversion) exists just below the opening of the stack.
❖ Fumigating plume is obtained in the condition opposite to that of lofting plume, i.e., negative
lapse rate (inversion) exists just above the stack and a strong super adiabatic lapse rate exists just
below the stack. It is the most lethal form of plume among all other types.
❖ Trapping Plume is obtained when the inversion layer exists above and below the stack, the plume
neither goes upward nor goes downward, rather, it gets trapped between inversion layers.

Types of Air Pollutants

1. Particulate matter (PM)
Particulate matter or atmospheric aerosol particles are suspended solid and liquid particles in the air. It
includes wind-blown soil, soot, smoke, and liquid droplet and other fine particles that are less than 2.5
microns in size. They adversely affect both your lungs and your heart causing respiratory illness,
bronchitis, and even death. Black Carbon Pollution was a major problem since the industrial revolution
(18th to 19th centuries).

2. Nitrogen Oxides (NOx)

The two most common and hazardous nitrogen oxides are Nitric oxide (NO) and Nitrogen dioxide
(NO2). They in huge quantities during agricultural and industrial activities and during the combustion of
fossil fuels and solid waste. Nitrous oxide (N2O), commonly called laughing gas, is a greenhouse gas that
contributes to climate change. NOx gases rapidly react with volatile organic compounds (VOC) and
sunlight to form smog, acid rain, and ground-level ozone.

3. Sulfur Oxides (SOx)

Sulfur dioxide (SO2) and Sulphur trioxide (SO3) are the important oxides of sulfur in the context of air
pollution. Oxides of Sulfur are colorless and highly reactive. SO2 is a major precursor of acid rain as it
mixes with water vapor to produce sulfuric acid. Combustion of fossil fuels, such as coal, natural gas, and
oil are the major source of sulfur dioxide in the atmosphere. The volcanic eruption is a natural source
of SO2 emission, which leads to the injection of thousands of tons of Sulphur dioxide into the atmosphere
in a short span of time.
Stratospheric sulfur aerosols contain a naturally created mixture of sulfuric acid and water derived from
the photochemical decomposition of sulfur-containing gases, e.g. carbonyl sulfide. The sulfate aerosols,
when present in large quantities in the atmosphere (e.g. after a huge volcanic eruption) produce a cooling
effect by reflecting the sun rays and by modifying clouds as they fall out of the stratosphere. This global
cooling effect carries on for a few years until the particles dissipate.
 23

4. Carbon dioxide (CO2)

The concentration of atmospheric carbon dioxide has increased by about 43% since the industrial
revolution. The Keeling Curve is a graphical representation of the concentration of carbon dioxide in
the Earth's atmosphere since 1958. The continuous measurements are taken at the Mauna Loa
Observatory, Hawaii. The global average atmospheric carbon dioxide in 2018 was 407.4 ppm.

Keeling Curve
Radiation emission from Earth’s surface takes place in the infrared region (between 200 and 2500 cm−1)
in contrast with light emission from the sun which takes place in the visible region. The atmospheric
carbon dioxide absorbs Earth’s infrared radiation at the vibrational frequencies near the surface, which
leads to warming of the lower atmosphere. An increase in the concentrations of atmospheric CO2,
methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), and other greenhouse gases have enhanced the absorption rate of
infrared radiation in the lower atmosphere, thus creating Global warming effect. Among the greenhouse
gases, carbon dioxide is of greatest concern because of its long residence time in the atmosphere and
ability to exert a larger overall warming influence than all other gases combined. The Global Warming
Potential (GWP) was developed to compare the global warming impacts of different gases. GWP is a
measure of how much energy the emissions of 1 ton of a gas will absorb over a given period of time,
relative to the emissions of 1 ton of carbon dioxide (CO2). GWP values are generally determined for
time horizons of 20, 100, and 500 years. The following table shows the GWP of different greenhouse
gases for a time horizon of 100 years.

The oceans are enormous sinks of carbon and they take up about a third of carbon dioxide produced
from anthropogenic activities. Carbon dioxide dissolves in the ocean to form carbonic acid (H2CO3),
bicarbonate (HCO3−), and carbonate (CO32−). The bicarbonate ion is the most abundant form of carbon
in the ocean with a relative concentration of 91%, followed by carbonate ion (8%) and CO 2 (1%). Since
CO2 is an acid gas, the uptake of anthropogenic CO2 uses up carbonate ions and lowers the oceanic pH
causing ocean acidification.
 24

Coral bleaching
Delicate coral reefs are home to millions of fish and other marine organisms. Coral bleaching is a global
issue caused by a rise in seawater temperatures. When water is warmer than the average levels, the
endosymbiotic relationship between coral polyps and algae will break down, causing the expulsion of
algae partner which is responsible for generating up to 90% of the coral’s energy by living inside the
tissues of polyps.
5. Carbon monoxide (CO)
The main anthropogenic sources of carbon monoxide are waste incinerators, power plants, and petrol
vehicles that are not fitted with a catalytic convertor. The incomplete combustion of various other fuels
(including wood, coal, charcoal, oil, paraffin, propane, natural gas, and trash) also results in the
production of carbon monoxide. CO poisoning can even cause death because of its ability to bind to
hemoglobin very strongly. The affinity between hemoglobin and carbon monoxide is almost 230 times
stronger than the affinity between hemoglobin and oxygen. In the atmosphere, carbon monoxide
molecules are generally short-lived but have an important role in ground-level ozone formation.

6. Hydrocarbons
Hydrocarbons play a pivotal role in atmospheric chemistry. They are found in the atmosphere as trace
gases with methane (1.77 ppm) being the predominant hydrocarbon molecule. In nature, vegetation is
the main emitter of hydrocarbons, e.g., terpenes, α - pinene, limonene, β - pinene; myrcene; ocimene;
α - terpinene and isoprene. These are the most reactive compounds in the atmosphere due to the
presence of olefinic bonds. The formation of Blue haze in the atmosphere above some dense vegetation
is due to the reaction between natural hydrocarbons and atmospheric radicles.
Gaseous and volatile organic hydrocarbons are of particular interest in air pollution studies. In the
atmosphere, hydrocarbons alone produce no adverse effects. They are of concern when they undergo
chemical reactions in the presence of sunlight and NOx forming photochemical oxidants. Some of the
hydrocarbon compounds present in the atmosphere are aldehydes, ketones, Chlorofluro carbons
(CFCs), CH3Br, CF3Br, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), carbon tetrachloride, etc.

Ozone layer depletion and Chlorofluoro Carbons

Chlorofluro carbons are widely used as refrigerants owing to their properties, such as low viscosity, low
surface tension, low boiling point, and chemical and biological inertness.
 25

The ozone depletion potential (ODP) of chlorofluorocarbons is defined as the ratio of the impact on
ozone from a specific chemical to the impact from an equivalent mass of CFC-11. ODP value depends
on the species’ reactivity, atmospheric residence time, and molecular mass. CFCs are unreactive in the
troposphere but undergo photolytic decomposition in the stratosphere to produce chlorine radicles,
which react with ozone molecules and break them apart. In the industrial-environmental perspective,
hydrofluorocarbons (HCFCs) are generally considered as substitutes for chlorofluro carbons as they
contain no chlorine atoms and have zero ODP value. Ozone layer depletion leads to an increase in UV-
B radiation reaching the Earth’s surface. Exposure to this harmful radiation can cause skin cancer, eye
cataracts, weakening of immune systems, damage to crops, and reductions in primary producers
(plankton) in the ocean.

Smog
Smog is a type of critical air pollution, originally named for the mixture of smoke and fog in the air. Two
distinct types of smog are recognized in the atmosphere: classical smog and photochemical smog.

London smog or Classical smog Los Angeles smog or Photochemical smog

The main components are fog and coal smoke The word smog is a misnomer as it does not
(SO2). it is first observed in London (1952) involve any smoke or fog. It is first observed in
Los Angeles (1943)
SO2 reacts with humidity in the air to form In the presence of UV radiation, NOx and
Sulphuric acid fog which deposits on the hydrocarbons undergo photochemical reactions
particulates. to produce toxic secondary air pollutants, such as
PAN (Peroxyacyl nitrates) aldehydes, ketones,
and ozone.
Early morning hours of winter months are The secondary air pollutants are lachrymatory
susceptible to the formation of classical smog. (eye irritants)
Chemically, it is reducing in nature and causes It is oxidizing in nature due to the high
bronchitis irritation. concentration of photochemical oxidants
Criteria air pollutants

Criteria pollutants are a set of air pollutants with national air quality standards that define permissible
concentrations of these substances in ambient air. The set of criteria pollutants include carbon monoxide,
lead, nitrogen dioxide, ozone, particulate matter, and sulfur dioxide. Exposure to these substances can
cause health effects, environmental effects, and property damage.

Ambient Air Quality Monitoring Methods

Air pollutant Monitoring method

Sulfur dioxide (SO2) Improved West-Gaeke
Ultraviolet fluorescence
Oxides of nitrogen (NOx) Jacob & Hochheiser (Na-Arsenite)
Chemiluminescence
 26

PM10 & PM 2.5 Gravimetric

TOEM
Beta attenuation
Ozone (O3) UV Photometric
Chemiluminescence
Lead (Pb) AAS/ICP method after sampling on EPM 2000
or equivalent
Carbon monoxide (CO) Non dispersive infrared spectroscopy (NDIR)
Ammonia (NH3) Chemiluminescence
Indophenols Blue Method
Benzene Gas Chromatography based continuous
analyzer
Adsorption and desorption followed by GC
Benzo (a) pyrene particulate phase only Solvent Extraction followed by HPLC/GC
Arsenic & Nickel AAS/ICP method after sampling on EPM 2000
or equivalent

Miscellaneous
❖ Formaldehyde is a major indoor pollutant that causes Sick building syndrome (SBS), i.e., a
medical condition in which people in a building suffer from symptoms of illness or feel unwell
for no apparent reason.
❖ Water vapor is the most potent greenhouse gas having the highest GWP value, but it is not a
significant driver of global warming due to its short lifetime in the atmosphere
❖ The GWP of greenhouse gases are in the order of CO2<CH4<N2O<CFC<HFC<SF6
❖ Atmospheric brown cloud is a layer of air pollution containing aerosols such as soot or dust that
absorbs as well as scatter incoming solar radiation. Aerosols in brown clouds primarily consist of
black carbon and organic carbon. It is prevalent in tropical regions having a lengthy dry season.
❖ Benzo- a- pyrene (BaP) is formed from incomplete combustion of organic matter at a
temperature between 300°C-600°C.
❖ Frontal inversions form at the frontal surface in the upper atmosphere between the cool and
warm air separating two air masses. Similar inversions occur on a more local scale at the sea
breeze front.
 27

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ATMOSPHERIC CHEMISTRY
A plot of the lifetimes of different atmospheric chemical species shows a huge variation in their residence
time in the atmosphere. The lifetime of a chemical determines the spatial and temporal variability of the
species. Long-lived gases such as CFC and N2O are well mixed in the troposphere, whereas free radicles
exhibit much more temporal and spatial variability owing to their short life span.

Stratification of the Atmosphere

The troposphere extends from earth surface to an altitude of about 11-13Km. In this layer, temperature
decreases steadily with increasing altitude. The temperature gradient causes thorough mixing of different
regions within the layer, and the turbulence thus created in the troposphere produces fluctuations in
temperature and precipitation, i.e., what we collectively refer to as ‘weather’.

The stratosphere lies above the troposphere and extends from 13 km to about 44 km. It has the highest
concentration of ozone (O3) molecules in the atmosphere.

The mesosphere is the third highest layer of Earth's atmosphere. In this layer, the temperature drops
with increasing altitude to the mesopause, which marks the top of this middle layer of the atmosphere.
It is the coldest place on earth and has an average temperature of around -85 °C.

The thermosphere extends from the mesopause (80 km) to the thermopause (500–1000 km).
Considerable height variation is observed in the location of thermopause due to changes in solar activity.
In this hottest layer of the atmosphere, even the absorption of small amounts of solar radiation can
significantly increase the air temperature as there are relatively few molecules and atoms. The
 29

temperature in this layer can rise as high as 1500 °C. The layer is devoid of clouds and water vapor.
However, non-hydrometeorological phenomena such as the aurora borealis and aurora australis are
sometimes observed in the thermosphere. The International Space Station orbits in this layer, between
350 and 420 km.
The exosphere is the outermost layer of Earth's atmosphere. This layer is composed of extremely low
densities of hydrogen, helium, and several heavier molecules including nitrogen, oxygen, and carbon
dioxide closer to the exobase (i.e. the upper limit of atmosphere). The atoms and molecules in this layer
can travel considerable distances without colliding with one another.

Ionosphere
Ionosphere (75-1000 km) is defined as the layer of the Earth's atmosphere that is prone to ionization by
solar and cosmic radiations. Within the ionosphere, there are five different layers that influence the
propagation of radio waves through the atmosphere.

1. D Region
D layer is found at altitudes between about 50 and 90 kilometers and the region attenuates high-frequency
radio waves only during the day. Lyman radiation is primarily responsible for the formation of this region
where ionization of nitric oxide gas takes place. The greater the number of gas molecules present in the
layer, the higher the number of collisions with free electrons.
Attenuation= k/f²
Where: k = constant, f = frequency of operation (Hz)
2. E Region

E layer exists above the D layer at altitudes between about 100 and 125 kilometers, and it can be observed
during day and night. Instead of attenuating the radio waves, this layer mainly reflects them, often to a
degree where they are returned to earth. The phenomenon of reflection is dependent upon the frequency
and the angle of incidence of incoming radiations.
3. F Region

F region is the most important layer in the context of high-frequency radio communications. The lower
part of the region is known as the F1 layer and the higher part is known as the F2 layer. Generally, the
F1 layer is situated at an altitude of 300 km and is followed by an F2 layer above it at around 400 km.
 30

Most of the high-frequency waves penetrate through the F1 layer to the F2 layer, which is the most
reflecting layer for high-frequency waves that helps in establishing worldwide radio communication.

Chemistry of Ozone Depletion

The chemical reactions occur in the stratosphere are intimately connected with the presence of the ozone
layer. The ultraviolet region covers the wavelength range between 100 and 400 nanometers, which is
shorter than that of visible light but longer than X-rays. The ozone layer absorbs UV radiation at
wavelengths below 300 nm. UVR is classified based on wavelength into three regions: UVA, UVB, and
UVC

Types of UV Radiation
Type Health consequences
UVA Premature aging and wrinkling of the skin. Accounts
(315nm – 400nm) for approximately 95 percent of the UV radiation
reaching the Earth's surface.
UVB More dangerous than UVA and the prime cause of skin
(280nm- 315nm) cancers and cataracts.
UVC A lethal form of ultraviolet radiation but it fails to reach
(100nm- 280nm) the earth’s surface due to absorption in the atmosphere
by ozone.
At higher altitudes, Chlorofluoro Carbons are exposed to an intense flux of ultraviolet radiation. As a
consequence, the photolytic decomposition of CFC molecules takes place.

CFCl3+ hѴ (ʎ< 290 nm) ---- > •CFCl2+ •Cl

The released chlorine radical takes part in the following reactions causing ozone depletion

•Cl+ O3 --------- > •ClO + O2

•ClO+ O --- > •Cl + O2
Net Reaction: O+ O3 --------- > 2O2
Scientific Assessment of Ozone Depletion
The scientific assessment of ozone depletion is carried out by WMO/ UNEP. The sequence of study
reports indicates that the concentration of ozone-depleting substances (ODS) continues to decrease
 31

slowly from the peak that occurred in 1992-1994. Whereas the abundance of HCFCs in the troposphere
continues to increase. Springtime Antarctic ozone depletion caused by halogens has been significant
throughout the last decade. Polar stratospheric clouds (PSCs), also known as nacreous clouds, are made
up mostly of supercooled droplets of water and nitric acid and are implicated in the formation of the
ozone hole in the Antarctic and Arctic regions. The heterogeneous chemical reactions that occur on the
surface of PSCs lead to the production of Cl• in the stratosphere, which directly destroys the ozone layer
by turning it into ordinary oxygen molecules.

The Dobson unit is the basic measure used in ozone research to determine the thickness of the
stratospheric ozone layer. One Dobson unit is equivalent to a layer of pure ozone 0.01 mm thick at
standard temperature and pressure. The average thickness of the ozone layer above the earth's surface is
about 300 Dobson Units or 3 millimeters. Equivalent effective stratospheric chlorine (EESC) is a
parameter that is used to quantify man-made ozone depletion and its changes with time. It provides an
estimate of the total effective amount of chlorine and bromine present in the stratosphere.

CFC Number
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) contain carbon and some combination of fluorine and chlorine atoms.
To find the number of a given CFC molecule from its chemical formula, consider the number as
consisting of 3 digits: x, y, and z.

X is the number of carbon atoms minus 1;

Y is the number of hydrogen atoms plus 1;

Z is the number of fluorine atoms.
In the case of CCl2F2

X= the number of carbon atoms (1) minus 1= 0

Y= the number of hydrogen atoms (0) plus 1= 1

Z= the number of fluorine atoms = 2

and the compound is CFC-012, or CFC-12.

Similarly, the number of CFCl3 and C2Cl3F3 are CFC-11 and CFC-113 respectively.
 32

Chemical reactions involved in photochemical smog formation

Initially, the nitrogen dioxide molecule absorbs ultraviolet radiation from the sun and decomposes into
nitric oxide and reactive atomic oxygen.

NO2 + hѴ -- > NO + O
The atomic oxygen combines with reactive oxygen to form ground-level ozone.
O + O2 +M--- > O3 + M
O3 + NO --- > NO2 + O2
The energy-absorbing molecule (M) is required to stabilize the ozone molecule from undergoing rapid
decomposition. Under normal conditions, the ozone formed will quickly react with NO to produce NO2
and O2, but when hydrocarbons are abundant in the atmosphere, NO reacts with the hydrocarbon
radical peroxyacyl (RCO3•) and also with O2 to give O3. As a result, the ozone concentration in the
atmosphere reaches dangerous levels.

HC + O →RCO• (acyl radical) RCO•

+ O2 > RCO3• (peroxyacyl radical)
RCO3• + HC --- > RCHO (aldehydes) + R2CO (Ketones)
RCO3•+ NO ---- > RCO2•+ NO2
RCO3•+ O2 ---- > RCO2• + O3
These chemical reactions result in the accumulation of NO2 and O3 in the atmosphere. The reactions
of peroxyacyl radical culminate with the formation of peroxyacyl nitrates or PANS. Three important
members of the PAN family are Peroxy formyl nitrate (PFN), Peroxy acyl nitrate (PAN) and Peroxy
benzoyl nitrate (PBN). Since they dissociate quite slowly in the atmosphere into radicals and NO2, PANs
are able to transport these unstable compounds far away from the urban and industrial origin. This is
important in the context of tropospheric ozone production as PANs transport NOx to regions where it
can efficiently produce ozone.

Structure of PAN
The overall photochemical reaction leading to the formation of photochemical smog can be represented
as;

HC + O3 ---------- > RCO2• + RCHO, R2CO

The presence of excessive O3, along with aldehydes, ketones, and PAN constitute photochemical smog
in the atmosphere.
 33

Oxidation in the Atmosphere

Chemical compounds are removed from the atmosphere via oxidation by free radicles. For gas-phase
organic chemicals, removal is the easiest if they are first oxidized into a less volatile and water-soluble
form. The major oxidants present in the atmosphere are:

1) Hydroxyl radical (OH•)

2) Nitrate radical (NO3•)
3) Ozone molecule (O3)
4) Hydroperoxy radicals (HO2•)
The hydroxyl radical (OH•) is the most reactive species in the atmosphere and is capable of oxidizing
most of the chemicals found in the troposphere. Therefore, it is known as the 'detergent of the
atmosphere'. About 97% of the oxygen atoms present in the atmosphere are formed by photolysis of
ozone. Less than 3% start the formation of hydroxyl radicles in the atmosphere. If two molecules or
atoms undergo collision reaction, then a third species M is required to take away the excess energy
produced during the chemical reaction.

O3 + hѴ -- > O + O2
O + O2+ M ---- > O3+ M
O+ H2O --- > 2 OH
OH• reacts with volatile organic compounds (VOC) by abstracting a hydrogen atom. A few compounds
like Chlorofluro carbons (CFSs), nitrous oxide(N2O), and carbon dioxide (CO2) do not react at all or
react very slowly with hydroxyl radicle. The rate of oxidation of methane (CH4) by OH• is relatively very
lower than that of other organic compounds. This is the reason why methane (CH4) is having a higher
concentration than any other trace gas in the troposphere.

OH• concentration over Maunas rain forest, Brazil

(source: presentation J. Lelieveld MPI Mainz 2003)
 34

The above figure shows a low concentration of hydroxyl radicles near the ground over the Maunas rain
forest in Brazil. Vegetation emits various organic compounds into the atmosphere (e.g. isoprene) which
reacts with hydroxyl radicles present over the region and results in the reduction of the concentration of
OH-. The major atmospheric pollutants that react with OH• are carbon monoxide (CO) and ozone (03).
Hydroxyl radicles can oxidize carbon monoxide into carbon dioxide. Reactions of OH• with
atmospheric trace gases usually produce hydroperoxyl radicals, HO2, which are recycled back to OH by
reaction with Nitric oxide (NO). Although OH is the most important atmospheric oxidant, its night time
concentration can fall closer to zero due to the absence of solar radiation which is required for its
formation. Nighttime tropospheric chemistry is dominated by nitrate radical (NO3•) and ozone molecule
(O3).

Nitrate radical (NO3•) is generated at night by the reaction of NO2 with O3. This reaction takes place
during day time too, but NO3 gets instantly photolyzed by solar radiation.
NO2 + O3 ---------- > NO3 + O2
NO3• further reacts with NO2 and establishes an equilibrium with N2O5
NO3 + NO2 ⇌ N2O5
NO3• generally does not perform hydrogen abstraction reactions like their day time counterpart- OH•.
However, the reaction between dimethyl sulfide (emitted by oceanic plankton) and NO3 is an exception.
NO3 often acts as the dominant sink for isoprene and terpenoid compounds released by plants. The
atmospheric concentrations of NO3 and N2O5 are quantified using variants of cavity ring-down
spectroscopy (CRDS) and cavity-enhanced absorption spectroscopy (CEAS).

Nitrogen (N) forms oxides in which nitrogen exhibits oxidation numbers from +1 to +5. Gaseous
nitric oxide (NO) is the most thermally stable oxide of nitrogen with an unpaired electron. Two
molecules of NO can combine to form a dimer by coupling their unpaired electrons, i.e. 2NO or
N2O2

Hydroperoxyl radicals (HO2) can be regarded as an important chemical reservoir for hydroxyl radicals
(OH). Gaseous hydroperoxyl is involved in reaction cycles that cause the destruction of stratospheric
ozone. In the troposphere, they are generated as a byproduct of the oxidation of carbon monoxide and
hydrocarbons by hydroxyl radicals. As HO2 is quite reactive, it acts as a ‘cleanser’ of the atmosphere by
degrading certain organic pollutants.
 35

NOISE POLLUTION
According to the World Health Organization, sound intensity levels less than 70 dB are not harmful to
living beings despite how long or consistent the exposure is. But exposure for more than 8 hours to a
constant noise beyond 85 dB can cause noise-induced hearing loss.

The Noise Pollution (Regulation and Control) Rules, 2000, were legislated by the government of India
to abate the harmful effects of noise. The law set regulations on the use of loudspeakers, megaphones,
and any other form of public address system, along with banning the use of the same from 10 PM to 6
AM.
Under this Act, the legislation has divided all areas into 4 categories, viz.,
1) Industrial Areas (A)
2) Commercial Areas (B)
3) Residential Areas (C)
4) Silence Zones (D)
An ambient air quality standard (AAQS) in respect of noise was specified to each of these areas during
day (6 AM to 10 PM) and night (10 PM to 6 AM) times. It has also become mandatory to designate an
area of 100 meters around hospitals, educational institutions, and courts as silence zones.

Area Code Category of Area/ Zone Limits in dB

Day Night
A Industrial area 75 70
B Commercial area 65 55
C Residential area 55 45
D Silence zone 50 40

Sound intensity and Decibel scale

Sound intensity, also known as acoustic intensity, is the rate at which sound energy reaches a given cross-
sectional area. It is generally expressed in a logarithmic scale known as the decibel scale.

Sound Source Intensity Decibel

Weakest sound Heard 1 x 10-12 W/m2 0.0
Rustling leaves 1 x 10-11 W/m2 10.0
Quiet library 1 x 10-9 W/m2 30.0
Average home noise 1 x 10-7 W/m2 50.0
Normal conversation 1 x 10-6 W/m2 60.0
Phone dial tone 1 x 10-4 W/m2 80.0
Truck traffic 1 x 10-3 W/m2 90.0
Chain saw, 1m away 1 x 10-1 W/m2 110.0
 36

The decibel scale and the intensity level values are objective measures of sound. The decibel rating of a
given sound can be determined by measuring its intensity level. The loudness of sound is subjective, i.e.
not measurable. It varies from person to person. The unit Phon is used to indicate an individual’s
perception of loudness. 1 phon is equivalent to 1 decibel at 1000 Hz.

The sone scale is associated with the loudness of a sound. The scale is based on the observation that a
10-phon increase in a sound level is most often perceived as a doubling of loudness. According to the
sone scale, 1 sone sound is defined as a sound whose loudness is equal to 40 phons.

Environmental Noise Measurement

The most common measurement of environmental noise is the dB(A) level. It is measured using a simple
sound level meter having an A-weighting filter. Frequency weighted filters are used in sound level meters
to mimic certain conditions. A-weighting is a frequency-dependent curve (or filter) that is applied to
sound pressure microphone measurements to mimic the effects of human hearing, i.e. in a frequency
range between 20 Hz to 20 kHz. As far as loudness is concerned, humans can typically hear starting at 0
dB, and our hearing is most sensitive in 1000 - 5000 Hz frequency range.

While studying long term trends in environmental noise, a single- value descriptor like Leq - Equivalent
Level is used to define an entire day's noise history. Another useful set of parameters is the Ln values or
statistical noise levels, such as L10, L50, and L90.

Percentile levels
Leq is the preferred method to describe sound levels that vary over time, resulting in a single decibel
value which takes into account the total sound energy over the period of time of interest. Leq is the
imaginary constant noise level that would result in the same total sound energy being produced over a
given period. The meter initially converts the dB values to sound pressure levels and adds them all up,
then divides by the number of samples and finally converts this equivalent level back to decibels. An
equivalent continuous A-weighted sound pressure level is a common measurement used in the industry
to characterize noise levels in loud environments.
 37

L10 is the noise level which exceeds only 10% of the time of the measurement duration. It is also called
the ‘Average peak level’. This parameter is generally used to give an indication of the upper limit of
fluctuating noise due to intermittent events such as traffic congestion.

L50 is the noise level which exceeds 50% of the measuring time. It is statistically the middle point of
noise readings that represents the median of the fluctuating noise levels.

L90, also known as ‘average background level’, is the noise level which exceeds 90% of the measuring
time. It generally indicates the ambient noise level of an environment.

Auditory Perception
Our ears are sound pressure receptors because the eardrums are vibrated by the sound pressure as a
sound field quantity. The perceived sound consists of periodic acoustic pressure vibrations which are
superimposed on the surrounding static air pressure. It’s a wrong concept that a particular sound source
(e.g. Jetplane) should have a fixed dB value because the sound level depends on the distance between
the sound source and the listener. The sound level usually drops 6dB by doubling the distance from the
source.

The highest possible sound pressure

The greatest measurable sound pressure is 194dB SPL, which cannot be exceeded because the average
air pressure is 101325 Pa. Beyond the upper limit of measurable sound pressure, all noise measurement
instruments will be destroyed.

L = 20 × log (101 325 / 0.000 02) = 194 dB SPL

Sound Pressure Level and Permissible exposure time

According to the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, USA, for every 3dB sound
pressure level (SPL) over 85 dB, the permissible exposure time is halved.

Sound Pressure Level (dB) Sound pressure (Pa) Permissible exposure time
88 0.50 4 Hours
91 0.71 2 Hours
94 1 1 Hour
 38

WATER POLLUTION
Drinking water, also known as potable water, is water from any source that is safe for drinking and
cooking purposes. It includes treated or untreated water supplied by any means for human consumption.
The quality standards for drinking water in India are prescribed by the Bureau of Indian Standards in IS
10500: 2012.

Organoleptic and Physical Parameters

Characteristic Desirable Permissible Risks or Health Treatment

(Acceptable Limit effects
limit)

Color 5 15 Visible tint and Filtration, Distillation

(Hazen units) acceptance decreases and Reverse osmosis
Odor Agreeable Agreeable Rotten egg, Musty and Activated carbon, Air
Chemical stripping, and
oxidation
pH value 6.5- 8.5 No relaxation Low pH - corrosion, Increase pH by soda
metallic taste ash
High pH – bitter/soda Decrease pH with
taste, deposits white vinegar
Turbidity, NTU, 1 5 - The water is allowed
Max to settle and is then
followed by filtration
to remove any
suspended floc.
Total dissolved 500 2000 Hardness, scaly Reverse Osmosis,
solids, mg/l deposits, sediment, Distillation, and
and cloudy colored deionization by ion-
water exchange

General Parameters Concerning Substances Undesirable in Excessive Amounts

Characteristic Desirable Permissible Risks or Health effects
(Acceptable limit) Limit
(mg/l) (mg/l)
Aluminium 0.03 0.2 Neurological disorders;
Alzheimer's disease
Ammonia (as total 0.5 No relaxation Indicates pollution; growth of
ammonia-N) algae
Anionic detergents (as 0.2 1 Undesirable foaming
MBAS)
 39

Barium 0.7 No relaxation -

Boron 0.5 1 -
Poor lathering and deterioration
Calcium 75 200 of the quality of
clothes; incrustation in pipes;
scale formation
Chloramines (as Cl2) 4.0 No relaxation -

Chloride (as Cl) 250 1000 Taste affected; corrosive

Anemia, digestive disturbances,

Copper 0.05 1.5 liver and kidney damage,
Fluoride 1 1.5 A brownish discoloration of
teeth and bone damage
Free residual chlorine 0.2 1 -
Brackish color, rusty sediment,
Iron 0.3 No relaxation bitter or metallic taste, brown-
green stains,
Poor lathering and deterioration
Magnesium 30 100 of clothes.

Manganese 0.1 0.3 Poor taste, color, and turbidity;

staining; black slime
Mineral oil 0.5 No relaxation -
Blue baby disease
Nitrate (as NO3) 45 No relaxation (methemoglobinemia); algal
growth
Phenolic compounds 0.001 0.002 -
(as C6H5OH)
Selenium 0.01 No relaxation -
Silver 0.1 No relaxation
Bitter, medicinal taste, scaly
Sulfate (as SO4) 200 400 deposits, corrosion, laxative
effects, "rotten-egg" odor from
hydrogen sulfide gas
formation
Sulfide (as H2S) 0.05 No relaxation -
Total alkalinity as 200 600 -
calcium carbonate
Total hardness 200 600
(as CaCO3)
Astringent taste; opalescence in
water; gastro intestinal
Zinc 5 15 irritation; vomiting,
dehydration, abdominal pain,
nausea and dizziness
 40

Parameters Concerning Toxic Substances

Characteristic Desirable Permissible Risks or Health Treatment
(Acceptable Limit effects
limit)
Cadmium 0.003 No relaxation Highly toxic; causes -
'itai-itai' disease-
painful rheumatic
Condition.

Cyanide 0.05 No relaxation Thyroid, nervous Ion Exchange,

system damage Reverse osmosis

Lead 0.01 No relaxation Reduces mental Ion Exchange,

capacity (mental Activated Carbon,
retardation), Reverse Osmosis
interference with and distillation
kidney and
neurological
functions
Mercury 0.001 No relaxation Loss of vision and Reverse Osmosis
hearing, kidney and Distillation
and nervous system
disorders, death at
high levels.
Molybdenum 0.07 No relaxation - -
Nickel 0.02 No relaxation
Polychlorinated 0.0005 No relaxation Skin conditions such -
biphenyls (PCB) as acne and rashes
Polynuclear 0.0001 No relaxation Long-term exposure -
aromatic to PAHs causes
hydrocarbons cataracts, kidney and
(PAH) liver damage, and
jaundice.
Total arsenic 0.01 0.05 Weight loss; Activated
(as As) Depression; Lack of Alumina
energy; Skin and Filtration,
nervous Reverse Osmosis
system toxicity. and Distillation

Total chromium 0.05 No relaxation Skin irritation, skin Ion Exchange,

(as Cr) and nasal ulcers, lung Reverse Osmosis
tumors, and and Distillation
accumulates in the
spleen, bones,
kidney, and liver.
 41

Pesticide Residues Limits

Pesticide Limit
µg/l
Alachlor 20
Atrazine 2
Aldrin/ Dieldrin 0.03
2,4- Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid 30
DDT 1
Endosulfan 0.4
Malathion 190
Methyl parathion 0.3

Bacteriological Quality of Drinking Water

Total coliform bacteria are generally used to indicate water quality. They are unlikely to cause illness.
However, their presence in drinking water indicates that pathogens could be present in the water system.
Fecal coliform bacteria are a subgroup of total coliform bacteria, which thrive in the intestines and feces
of humans and animals.

Contamination in water is confirmed by the presence of Escherichia coli (E. coli), a species of fecal
coliform bacteria. Although E. coli is the more precise indicator of fecal pollution, the count of
thermotolerant coliform bacteria is also considered as an alternative. A specific strain of E. coli bacteria
known as E. coli O157: H7 is responsible for most of the disease outbreaks. According to the Bureau of
Indian Standards, all water intended for drinking must not contain E. coli or thermotolerant coliform in
any 100 ml sample. Potable water quality tests for total coliform bacteria include membrane filtration,
multiple tube fermentation, and MPN (Most Probable Number) methods. Bacteria are usually removed
from water by disinfection and/or filtration. Filtration alone may not be effective, but it helps in removing
sediments that shelters the bacteria. The three chemicals most commonly used as primary disinfectants
are chlorine, chlorine dioxide, and ozone. Other disinfectants include iodine, ultraviolet light, and
physical methods such as boiling or steam sterilization. Monochloramine is generally used as a residual
disinfectant for distribution.

Water quality criteria Set by Central Pollution Control Board

Class of Water Criteria Use

A Total Coliforms Organism Drinking water source without
MPN/100ml shall be 50 or less conventional treatment but after
pH between 6.5 and 8.5 disinfection
Dissolved Oxygen 6mg/l or more
Biochemical Oxygen Demand 5 days
20C 2mg/l or less
B Total Coliforms Organism Outdoor bathing (Organized)
MPN/100ml shall be 500 or less
pH between 6.5 and 8.5
Dissolved Oxygen 5mg/l or more
 42

Biochemical Oxygen Demand 5 days

20C 3mg/l or less
C Total Coliforms Organism Drinking water source after
MPN/100ml shall be 5000 or less conventional treatment and
pH between 6 to 9 disinfection
Dissolved Oxygen 4mg/l or more
Biochemical Oxygen Demand 5 days
20C 3mg/l or less
D pH between 6.5 to 8.5 Dissolved Propagation of Wildlife and
Oxygen 4mg/l or more Fisheries
E pH between 6.0 to 8.5 and electrical Irrigation, Industrial Cooling,
Conductivity at 25C micromhos/cm Controlled Waste disposal
Max.2250
Below-E Not Meeting A, B, C, D & E Criteria

Water chlorination
Water chlorination is a chemical disinfection method in which chlorine or chlorine compounds such as
sodium hypochlorite is added to water. Chlorine is a strong oxidizing agent that kills disease-causing
pathogens, such as bacteria, viruses, and protozoans via oxidation of organic molecules. In particular,
chlorination is used to prevent the spread of waterborne diseases such as cholera, dysentery, and typhoid.
When added to water, chlorine is converted to an equilibrium mixture of hypochlorous acid (HOCl)
and hydrochloric acid (HCl). In acidic solution, the major species are Cl2 and HOCl, whereas in alkaline
solution only ClO− (hypochlorite ion) is present.
Cl2 + H2O ⇌ HOCl + HCl
The neutrally charged chlorine and hypochlorous acids can easily penetrate the negatively charged
surface of pathogens, causing the disintegration of lipids in the cell wall.

Shock chlorination is a method used to reduce the bacterial and algal residue in swimming pools, water
wells, and springs. The procedure involves adding a large amount of hypochlorite into water. The
hypochlorite can be in the form of a powder or a liquid such as chlorine bleach (solution of sodium
hypochlorite or calcium hypochlorite in water). Shock chlorinated water should not be used until the
sodium hypochlorite concentration in the water reduces to 3 PPM or until the calcium hypochlorite
concentration reduces to 0.2 to 0.35 PPM.

Chlorination is one of the most common disinfection methods. However, the reaction of chlorine with
organic matter in water has raised concerns, because such a reaction can result in the formation of
carcinogenic trihalomethanes- a chemical compound in which three of the four hydrogen atoms of
methane (CH4) are replaced by halogen atoms.

Wastewater Treatment
A typical wastewater treatment process involves a combination of physical, chemical, and biological
processes and operations to remove solids, organic matter, and nutrients from the wastewater. The
 43

wastewater undergoes through different stages of treatment in order of increasing treatment level before
coming out as treated effluent, which is safe enough to be discharged into the environment. The
treatment process takes place in a wastewater treatment plant (WWTP), often referred to as a Water
Resource Recovery Facility (WRRF) or a Sewage Treatment Plant (STP). The major four treatment
processes are preliminary treatment, primary treatment, secondary or biological treatment, and tertiary
treatment.

1. Preliminary Treatment
The objective of preliminary treatment is the removal of floating materials, settleable inorganic solids,
and oily substances. Preliminary treatment operations are carried out in equipment such as screeners,
grit chambers, and skimming tanks.

Screening is the first unit operation used at wastewater treatment plants. In this stage, the effluent is
passed through a screener having uniform-sized openings for removing floating materials and suspended
particles. The screeners are classified as coarse (75-150 mm), medium (20-50 mm) or fine (less than 20
mm), depending on the size of the openings.

Grit chambers are generally used to remove heavy inorganic materials having a specific gravity between
2.4 and 2.7 (e.g., sand and ash). The chamber works on the principle of sedimentation due to the force
of gravity.

When the effluent is passed through Skimming Tanks, the greasy and oily substances rise and remain
on the surface of the wastewater until removed. The tank contains three interconnected compartments.
The rising air bubbles from the bottom of the tank effectively coagulate and solidify the oily and greasy
materials present in the wastewater.

2. Primary Treatment
Primary treatment involves temporarily holding the sewage in a quiescent basin. The treatment is applied
to fine suspended organic solids that cannot be removed in the preliminary treatment. The sedimentation
of organic particles is influenced by certain factors, such as size, shape, viscosity, specific gravity, and flow
velocity of effluent. Sometimes, certain chemicals are used to facilitate the sedimentation process of
colloidal wastes. The chemical-aided sedimentation or chemical precipitation technique involves three
stages-coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation. Two types of chemicals are used in chemical aided
sedimentation- coagulants (e.g., aluminum sulfate, iron salts, and sodium carbonate) and coagulant aids
(e.g., activated silica, weighting agent and polyelectrolytes). The remaining liquid may be discharged or
subjected to secondary treatment.

2. Secondary or Biological Treatment

Secondary treatment is a part of the sewage treatment sequence for removing dissolved and colloidal
compounds with the use of microorganisms (bacteria, algae, fungi, protozoa, rotifers, and nematodes)
that decompose the unstable organic matter (e.g., sugars, fats, and organic short-chain carbon molecules
from human waste, food waste, soaps, and detergent) to stable inorganic forms. Secondary treatment is
traditionally applied to the liquid portion of sewage after primary treatment has removed settleable solids
and floating material. Several aerobic and anaerobic biological treatment processes are used for
 44

secondary treatment. They differ primarily in the manner in which oxygen is supplied to the
microorganisms and in the rate at which organisms decompose the organic matter. Biological oxidation
processes are sensitive to temperature and, between 0 °C and 40 °C, the rate of biological reactions
increases with temperature.

Waste Water Treatment System

(Source: https://www.britannica.com/technology/wastewater-treatment/media/1/666611/19281)
Major Secondary (biological) Treatment Processes

Category Process
Aerobic Processes
a) Suspended growth system Activated sludge process, Plug- flow process, Oxidation
ditch, Deep shaft, Aerobic lagoons, Contact stabilization, and
Sequencing batch reactor

b) Attached growth system Trickling filters, Roughing filters, and Rotating biological
contractors (RBC)

c) Suspended- attached combined Activated biofilters

growth system
Anaerobic Processes
a) Suspended growth systems Anaerobic digestion
Anaerobic contact process
b) Attached growth systems Anaerobic filter process
Expanded bed process
Pond Processes Aerobic ponds
Anaerobic ponds
Facultative ponds
 45

1. Activated sludge process

It is a process for treating sewage using aeration and a biological floc composed of bacteria and protozoa.
The general arrangements for an activated sludge process include an aeration tank where the effluent
containing organic matter and microorganisms (or mixed liquor) is aerated. As a result, a part of the
organic matter is oxidized into CO2 and H2O and the remaining is utilized for the synthesis of new
bacterial cells.
Organic Matter+ O2+ Nutrients -------Bacteria > CO2+ NH3+ H2O
This is followed by a settling tank where the newly formed microorganisms are agglomerated to form
biological sludge. Growth of protozoa, such as Amoebae and Peritrichs in sludge is an indication of its
healthy condition. A part of the biological sludge is recycled to the aeration tank to re-seed the new
wastewater entering the tank and the remainder is removed from the process to maintain a constant
concentration of microorganisms in the system.

Activated Sludge Process

2. Aerated Lagoons
An aerated lagoon (or aerated pond) is a simple wastewater treatment system consisting of a pond with
artificial aeration to promote the biological oxidation of wastewaters. These ponds make use of floating
surface aerators to transfer air into the basins for the biological oxidation reaction. They also provide the
mixing required for dispersing the air and for contacting the reactants- oxygen, wastewater, and microbes.
The microbiological treatment of aerated ponds is similar to the activated sludge process. However, the
process is sensitive to temperature changes.

Aerated Lagoon
 46

3. Sequencing Batch Reactor

The sequencing batch reactor (SBR) is a modified version of the activated sludge treatment system.
Unlike the conventional activated sludge system where aeration and sedimentation take place in separate
tanks, in a sequencing batch reactor, both processes occur in the same tank. The cycle for each tank in
a typical SBR is divided into five discrete periods- Fill, React, Settle, Draw and Idle.

SBR Operations (Irvine and Ketchum, 2004)

4. Trickling Filters
Trickling filters are oxidation units having a hard and porous bed of rocks, coke, gravel, slag,
polyurethane foam, sphagnum peat moss, ceramic, or plastic over which sewage is sprayed. When the
sewage flows downward, in about two weeks’ time, a layer of microbial slime is formed covering the bed
of media. This biofilm has a thickness of 0.1 to 2.0 mm and is abundant with microorganisms (Bacteria-
Pseudomonas, Flavobacterium, Alcaligenes, and Algae- Chlorella, Utothrix, Stigeoclonium, and some
fungi and yeasts).

Trickling filter
 47

Biofilms having a thickness in the range of 70-100 µm are considered to be ideal for the treatment
process. As the biofilm layer thickens, it settles to the bottom of the tank and forms part of the secondary
sludge. In the case of high hydraulic loading rates, a special type of trickling filters known as Roughing
Filters is used to reduce the organic matter in downstream processing. Roughing filters provide low
maintenance treatment when high water quality is not needed. It can also reduce the number of
pathogens in the water, as well as the amount of iron and manganese.

5. Rotating Biological Contactors (RBC)

Rotating biological contactor (RBC) is a recent innovation in the field of biological sewage treatment. It
is commonly used in small and medium towns for municipal wastewater treatment. An RBC consists of
a series of closely spaced parallel discs mounted on a rotating shaft which is supported just above the
surface of the wastewater. Microorganisms grow on the surface of the discs where biological oxidation of
the sewage pollutants occurs. The microbial community is alternately exposed to the atmosphere and
the wastewater, allowing both aeration and assimilation of dissolved organic pollutants and nutrients for
their degradation.

6. Anaerobic Digestion
The anaerobic treatment process is usually preferred for effluents that are highly polluted with organic
content. The anaerobic process provides the possibility to decrease BOD from thousands to hundreds
mg/l. The anaerobic digestion takes place in an airtight reactor, into which sludge is introduced.
Afterward, the contents of the reactor are thoroughly mixed and heated to yield methane (CH4) and
carbon dioxide (CO2) as the end products.

The Anaerobic Digestion Pathway

7. Facultative Ponds
Facultative ponds or oxidation ponds are a type of waste stabilization pond used for the biological
treatment of industrial and domestic wastewater. The treatment consists of both aerobic and anaerobic
processes. The upper aerobic zone of a facultative pond contains a symbiotic association of aerobic
bacteria and algae, whereas the lower anaerobic zone contains anaerobic bacteria and solids that undergo
decomposition.
 48

Diagrammatic representation of a Facultative Pond

The algae present on the surface carry out photosynthesis ensuring the supply of oxygen to the aerobic
bacteria for oxidizing soluble and colloidal organic matter. The degradation of organic solids into organic
acids takes place at the anaerobic zone of the pond. As a result, gases, such as CO2, CH4, and H2S are
produced. The organic acids get oxidized by the aerobic bacteria while the gases produced (CO2, CH4,
H2S, NH3) may be vented to the atmosphere. In fact, most CO2 is utilized by the algae for photosynthesis,
while H2S reacts with O2 to form H2SO4.

Tertiary Treatment
Tertiary treatment or advanced treatment can further reduce organics, turbidity, nitrogen, phosphorus,
metals, and pathogens present in the wastewater. There are four major tertiary treatment processes:

1. Filtration
Sand filtration removes much of the residual suspended matter. The removal of residual toxins is carried
out through the activated carbon adsorption method.

2. Lagoons or ponds
Large man-made lagoons or ponds are highly aerobic systems colonized by native macrophytes and filter-
feeding invertebrates such as Daphnia and species of Rotifera, which greatly assist in removing fine
particulates.

3. Biological nutrient removal

Excessive discharge of nitrogen and phosphorus to natural water bodies can lead to a build-up of
nutrients, called eutrophication, which in turn causes algal blooms- the rapid growth of weeds, algae, and
 49

cyanobacteria. The decomposition of the algae by bacteria consumes huge quantities of dissolved oxygen
from water leading to the death of most or all of the animals. Thus, adding more organic matter for the
bacteria to decompose.
4. Nitrogen removal
Decomposition products of proteins and urea are the major forms of biological nitrogen present in the
wastewater. Biological nitrogen removal (BNR) is carried out by oxidation of organic nitrogen into nitrite
(NO2−), most often facilitated by Nitrosomonas spp., followed by the oxidation of nitrite into nitrate
(NO3−) by Nitrospira spp. The final step is the de-nitrification process in which nitrate is reduced into
nitrogen gas under anaerobic conditions with the help of certain genera of bacteria, such as Aerobacter,
Bacillus, Brevibacterium, Lactobacillus, Micrococcus, Pseudomonas and Spirillum.
5. Phosphorus removal
Phosphorus removal is achieved through a process called enhanced biological phosphorus removal. A
certain type of bacteria called polyphosphate-accumulating organisms (PAOs) are used in this method
as they can absorb and accumulate large quantities of phosphorus within their cells (up to 20 percent of
their mass). When the bacteria achieve high biomass and fertilizer value, they can be separated from the
treated water for their applications in agriculture. The phosphate-rich sewage sludge is also referred to as
biosolids.

6. Disinfection
A substantial reduction in the number of microorganisms is achieved through disinfection methods. The
commonly used disinfectants are ozone, chlorine, ultraviolet light, and sodium hypochlorite. The
disinfected water is safe to be discharged back into the environment for later uses, such as drinking,
bathing, irrigation, etc.

Sources and toxic effects of heavy metals on human beings

Heavy Metal Sources Toxic effects

Cadmium Coal and nuclear power plants, batteries Itai-Itai disease
and ceramics
Chromium Leather/ tanner, coal power plant and Allergies and bronchial asthma
textiles
Lead Mining, automobiles, petrochemicals and Mental retardation and learning
paint industries disability
Mercury Mining, coal power plant, electrical Minamata disease
equipment and pesticides
Arsenic Textiles, wood and wood products Skin diseases and visceral
Electronics and paper manufacturing cancer
 50

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 51

PESTICIDES
Pesticides are chemical substances used for controlling pests and weeds. Most pesticides are intended to
serve as plant protection products, which generally protect plants from weeds, fungi, or insects.
Herbicides account for 80% of the total pesticide use. There are three prominent chemical families of
insecticides- organochlorines, organophosphates, and carbamates. Organochlorine hydrocarbons (e.g.
DDT) can be further classified into dichlorodiphenylethanes, cyclodiene compounds, and other related
compounds. They kill organisms by disrupting the sodium/potassium balance of the nerve fiber.
Organophosphate and carbamates are relatively less toxic than organochlorines. They can inhibit the
enzyme acetylcholinesterase, allowing acetylcholine to transfer nerve impulses indefinitely, causing a
variety of symptoms such as weakness or paralysis. Important herbicide families are phenoxy and benzoic
acid herbicides (e.g. 2,4-D), triazines (e.g. atrazine), urea (e.g. diuron), and Chloroacetanilides (e.g.
alachlor). Phenoxy compounds can selectively kill broad-leaf weeds by crushing the plant's nutrient
transport system.

Classification of Pesticides Based on Target Organisms

Type of Pesticide Target Organism

Avicides Birds
Bactericides Bacteria
Fungicides Fungi and oomycetes
Herbicides Plant
Insecticides Insects
Miticides or acaricides Mites
Molluscicides Snail
Nematicides Nematodes
Rodenticides Rodents
Slimicides Algae, Bacteria, Fungi and Slime molds

Classification of Pesticides Based on their Chemical Nature

Chemical group Chemical names
Organochlorines DDT, DDD, Dicofol, Eldrin, Dieldrin, Chlorobenziate, Lindane, BHC,
Methoxychloro Aldrin, Chlordane, Heptachlor, Endosulfan, Isodrin,
Isobenzan, Toxaphene, Chloro propylate
Organophosphates Dimefox, Mipafox, Methyl Parathion, Ronnel, enitrothion, Bidrin, Phorate,
Fenthion, caumphos, Abate, Dichlorovas, Diptrex, Phosphomidon, Demetox,
Oxydemeton-methyl, Malathion, Dimethoate, Trichlorofan
Carbamates Methyl
Carbaryl, Carbanolate, Prupoxur, Dimethan, Dimetilan, Isolan, Carbofuran,
Pyrolan, Aminocarb, Aldicarb
Thio
Vernolate, Pebulate, Diallate, Monilate, Butylate, Cycloate, Trillate, Thiourea
Dithio
Methan, Thiram, Ferban, Amoban, Naban, Zineb, Maneb, Ziram Polyran,
Dithane M- 45
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Pyrethroids Allethrin, Bonthrin, Dimethrin, Tetramethrin, Ptrethrin, Cyclethrin

Furethrin, Fenevelerate, Alphamethrin, Decamethrin, Cypermethrin
Phenyl amides Carbanilates
Barban, Carbetamide, Chlororprofan, Prophan, Phenyl Urea, Fenuron,
Monuron, Diuron, Flumeturon, Chloroxuron, Neburon, Bromuron
Acylanalide
Propanil, Solan, Dicryl, Karsil, Propachlor, Alachlor, Butachlor
Toluidines
Trifluralin, Dipropanil, Benefin, Oryzalin, Isopropanil, Nitralin
Acetamide
Diphenamid
Phenoxyalkonates 2,4-D (2,4 Dichloro phenoxy acetic acid)
2,4 5 T (2,4 5 Trichloro Phenoxy acetic acid)
Dichloroprop, Mecoprop, Erbin, Sesone
Trazines Atrazine, Simazine, Ametryn, Atratone, Chlorazine, Cynazine, Cyprazine,
Metribuzin, Propazine, Turbutryn, Simetryn
Benzoic acid Dicamba, Dichlorobenil, Chloroambin, Tricamba, Neptalan, Bromoxynil
Others Pentachlorophenol, Ethyl mercuric Phosphate, Methyl mercuric chloride,
Calcium arsenate, Aluminium phosphide, Zinc phosphide

1. Organochlorines
Organochlorine pesticides belong to the class of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) with Endosulfan
and lindane being the most biodegradable pesticides in the group that are still in use. Organochlorines
are classified into three subgroups:

1) Dichlorodiphenylethanes (DDT, dicofol, methoxychlor, and perthane)

2) Chlorinated cyclodienes (aldrin, dieldrin, endrin, chlordane, endosulfan, and heptachlor)
3) Hexachlorocyclohexanes (BHC, chlordane, lindane, mirex, and toxaphene).
Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane, commonly known as DDT, is a mixture of several closely–related
compounds. DDT, DDE, and DDD are collectively called DDX. In general, organochlorine insecticides
are neurotoxicants. The DDT compounds act on the peripheral nervous system (PNS) and alter the
transport of sodium and potassium ions across axonal membranes, resulting in an increased negative
after-potential and prolonged action potentials. Consequently, repetitive firing and a spontaneous spate
of action potentials occur. Specifically, DDT inhibits the activation of sodium channels and the activation
of potassium conductance. Some of the organochlorine insecticides have the potential to induce
placental toxicity. DDT and its metabolites DDE and DDD have caused eggshell thinning and
population declines in multiple North American and European birds of prey. DDT is a highly fat-soluble
substance that bioaccumulates in the fatty tissues of animals.

If exposed 2-8 hours, chlorinated cyclodienes can cause damages to the functioning of the central nervous
system (CNS). CNS symptoms in animals poisoned by chlorinated cyclodienes include tremors,
convulsions, ataxia, and changes in EEG patterns. Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) were once
commonly used for manufacturing electrical insulators and heat transfer agents. Their use has generally
been phased out due to health concerns.
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Hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH), also known as benzene hexachloride (BHC), is a mixture of

stereoisomers and is used as an insecticide. In 2009, γ-, α-, and β-HCH (Lindane) were labeled as
Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) in the Stockholm Convention.

2. Organophosphate
Organophosphates are esters of phosphoric acid and are relatively less toxic to humans. Although certain
organophosphates, such as triorthocresyl phosphate, nipafox, and trichlorfon compounds are
neurotoxic. It contaminates drinking water by moving through the soil to the groundwater.
Organophosphate works by irreversible inactivation of the enzyme acetylcholinesterase, which is essential
for nerve functioning in humans, insects, and many other animals. This group of chemicals is degraded
rapidly by hydrolysis on exposure to sunlight, air, and soil.

3. Carbamates
Carbamate pesticides are derived from carbamic acid (NH2COOH). They kill insects by reversible
inactivation of the enzyme acetylcholinesterase. The most potent chemicals among the group- aldicarb,
and carbofuran- are capable of inhibiting mammalian acetylcholinesterase enzymes.

4. Phenoxy herbicides
Phenoxy herbicides are the most widely used family of herbicides worldwide. This family of chemicals
is related to the growth hormone indoleacetic acid (IAA). When sprayed on monocotyledonous (grass)
crops such as wheat or corn, they selectively kill broad-leaf weeds by stimulating uncontrolled growth,
leaving the crops relatively unaffected. Phenoxy herbicides can be further classified into phenoxyacetic,
phenoxybutyric and phenoxypropionic subtypes.

2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D), one of the best-studied agricultural chemicals, belongs to the
family of Phenoxy herbicides. During the Vietnam War, 2,4-D was mixed with a similar chlorophenoxy
compound- 2,4,5-trichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4,5-T), to make the defoliant Agent Orange. It was used
to remove the leaves of trees and other dense tropical foliage that provided enemy cover. 2,4-D may also
contain dioxin impurities depending on the production method.

Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs)

Persistent Organic Pollutants consist of a wide class of chemical species that are resistant to
environmental degradation. Their ability to bioaccumulate and biomagnify in ecosystems produce
adverse impacts on human health and the environment. The most commonly encountered POPs are:

▪ 1,1,1-trichloro-2,2-bis (4-chlorophenyl) ethane

▪ DDT (Dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene)
▪ HCHs (Hexachlorocyclohexane)
▪ HCBs (Hexachlorobenzene)
▪ PCDD/Fs (Polychlorinated dibenzodioxins)
▪ PCBs (Polychlorinated biphenyl)
▪ PAH; Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
In 1995, the Stockholm Convention listed twelve POPs for their adverse effects on human health and
the environment, placing a global ban on these particularly harmful and toxic compounds.
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Aldrin An insecticide used in soils to kill termites, grasshoppers,

Western corn rootworm, and others, is also known to kill birds,
fish, and humans. Humans are primarily exposed to aldrin
through dairy products and animal meats.
Chlordane An insecticide used to control termites and on a range of
agricultural crops, is known to be lethal in various species of
birds, including mallard ducks, bobwhite quail, and pink
shrimp. It is a chemical that remains in the soil with a reported
half-life of one year. Chlordane has been postulated to affect
the human immune system and is classified as a possible
human carcinogen. Chlordane air pollution is believed to be
the primary route of humane exposure.
Dieldrin A pesticide used to control termites, textile pests, insect-borne
diseases and insects living in agricultural soils. In soil, aldrin can
be oxidized, resulting in rapid conversion to dieldrin.
Dieldrin’s half-life is approximately five years. Dieldrin is
highly toxic to fish and other aquatic animals. It has been linked
to Parkinson's disease, breast cancer, and classified as an
immunotoxin, neurotoxin, with endocrine-disrupting capacity.

Endrin An insecticide sprayed on the leaves of crops and used to

control rodents. Animals can metabolize endrin, so fatty tissue
accumulation is not an issue, however, the chemical has a long
half-life in the soil for up to 12 years. Endrin is highly toxic to
aquatic animals and humans as a neurotoxin. Human exposure
occurs primarily through food.
Heptachlor A pesticide primarily used to kill soil insects and termites, along
with cotton insects, grasshoppers, other crop pests, and
malaria-carrying mosquitoes. Heptachlor, even at very low
doses has been associated with the decline of several wild bird
populations – Canada geese and American kestrels.
Laboratory tests have shown high-dose heptachlor as lethal,
with adverse behavioral changes and reduced reproductive
success, and is classified as a possible human carcinogen.
Human exposure primarily occurs through food.
Hexachlorobenzene (HCB) HCB was first introduced in 1945–59 to treat seeds because it
can kill fungi on food crops. HCB-treated seed grain
consumption is associated with photosensitive skin lesions,
colic, debilitation, and a metabolic disorder called porphyria
turcica, which can be lethal. Mothers who pass HCB to their
infants through the placenta and breast milk had limited
reproductive success including infant death. Human exposure
primarily occurs through food.
Mirex An insecticide used against ants and termites or as a flame
retardant in plastics, rubber, and electrical goods. Mirex is one
of the most stable and persistent pesticides, with a half-life of
up to 10 years. Mirex is toxic to several plant, fish and
crustacean species, with suggested carcinogenic capacity in
humans.
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Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) PCBs are used as heat exchange fluids in electrical
transformers, capacitors, and as additives in paint, carbonless
copy paper, and plastics. Persistence varies with the degree of
halogenation, an estimated half-life of 10 years. PCBs are toxic
to fish at high doses, and associated with spawning failure at low
doses. Human exposure occurs through food and is associated
with reproductive failure and immune suppression. Immediate
effects of PCB exposure include pigmentation of nails and
mucous membranes and swelling of the eyelids, along with
fatigue, nausea, and vomiting.
Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane In 1962, the American biologist Rachel Carson published
(DDT) Silent Spring, describing the impact of DDT spraying on the
environment and human health. DDT’s persistence in the soil
for 10–15 years after its initial application has resulted in the
spread of DDT residues throughout the world including the
arctic, even though it has been banned or severely restricted in
many of the countries. DDT can be detected in foods from all
over the world and food-borne DDT remains the greatest
source of human exposure.
Dioxins Dioxins are by-products derived from partial combustion of
materials containing chlorine. They are typically emitted from
the burning of hospital waste, municipal waste, and hazardous
waste. Air dust or pesticide deposit of dioxins on plants is their
entry point in the food chain by stably bonding with lipids.
Dioxin’s half-life in the human body is approximately 7–11
years. Their high toxicity leads to reproductive problems,
immune system damage, hormone interference, and cancer.
Polychlorinated dibenzofurans These are by-products of high-temperature processes such as
incomplete combustion after waste incineration or in
automobiles, pesticide production, and polychlorinated
biphenyl production. Structurally similar to dioxins, the two
compounds share toxic effects. Furans persist in the
environment and are classified as possible human carcinogens.

*In 2001, this list has been expanded to include some polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), brominated
flame retardants, and other compounds.

Heavy Metals: Sources and Effect in the Environment

Heavy metals are naturally occurring elements having a high atomic weight and density which is five times
greater than that of water. The most common heavy metals are lead (Pb), nickel (Ni), chromium (Cr),
cadmium (Cd), arsenic (As), mercury (Hg), zinc (Zn) and copper (Cu).

Arsenic (As)
Arsenic (atomic number 33) is a silver-grey brittle crystalline solid. The highly toxic inorganic arsenic
compounds are primarily used for wood preservation. Whereas, the less toxic organic arsenic substances
are mostly used as pesticides, especially on cotton plants. The most common forms of arsenic present in
 56

the natural water bodies are arsenite (AsO 33-) and inorganic arsenate (AsO 4 3-), generally represented as
As3+ and As5+. The trivalent methylated arsenic species (arsenite) is more toxic than its pentavalent form
(arsenate) because it is more efficient at causing DNA breakdown. Although As5+ tends to be less toxic
compared to As3+, but is thermodynamically more stable than As3+ and is a major groundwater
contaminant.

Lead (Pb)
Lead commonly exists in the +2 oxidation state and is one of the most widely and evenly distributed trace
metals. Lead from car exhaust, dust, and gases from various industrial sources can contaminate soils,
especially those with high organic content. Lead poisoning or Plumbism is a type of metal poisoning
caused by lead in the body, which affects the peripheral nervous system and the central nervous system.

Mercury (Hg)
Mercury occurs in deposits throughout the world mostly as cinnabar (mercuric sulfide). Three soluble
forms of Hg exist in the soil environment. The most reduced one is Hg0 metal with the other two forms
being mercurous ion (Hg+) and mercuric ion Hg2+. The mercurous ion is relatively unstable and under
oxidizing conditions, especially at low pH, it gets oxidized into Hg0 and Hg2+. Methylation of mercury by
soil anaerobic bacteria results in the formation of Methylmercury [CH3Hg], which is the most toxic form
of mercury present in the environment. Mercury poisoning can result from exposure to water-soluble
forms of mercury (such as mercuric chloride or methylmercury), by inhalation of mercury vapor, or by
ingesting any form of mercury. Prolonged Inhalation of elemental mercury (Hg0) vapors, released from
broken thermometers or found in higher concentrations near gold mines can cause tremors, gingivitis,
and excitability. The Ingestion of mercuric salts, e.g. HgCl2, can damage the gastrointestinal tract.

Cadmium (Cd)

Cadmium is a severe pulmonary and gastrointestinal irritant. Human exposure to cadmium occurs
through inhalation or cigarette smoke, and from the ingestion of food. It is commonly determined by
measuring cadmium levels in blood or urine. Several regulatory agencies have designated cadmium as a
carcinogen with lungs being its primary target. Chronic inhalation exposure to cadmium particulates is
generally associated with changes in pulmonary function and chest radiographs that are consistent with
emphysema.
Chromium (Cr)

Chromium (Cr) is a naturally occurring lustrous, brittle, and hard metal present in the Earth’s crust. Its
oxidation states vary from chromium (II) to chromium (VI). Elemental chromium [Cr (0)] does not
occur naturally, the naturally occurring chromium is usually present as trivalent Cr (III). Hexavalent Cr
(VI) is the most toxic form among the group and is almost completely derived from human activities.
Chromium (III) is an essential nutrient for humans and its deficiency may cause heart conditions,
disruptions of metabolisms and diabetes. Chromium (VI) is lethal to human health, mainly for people
who work in the steel and textile industries. People who smoke cigarettes also have a higher chance of
exposure to chromium. Chromium (VI) is known to cause various health effects. When it is a compound
in leather products, it can cause allergic reactions such as skin rash.
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MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

Solid waste management (SWM) is defined as the storage, collection, transfer, and transport, processing
and disposal of solid wastes in a manner that is in accordance with the best principles of public health,
economics, engineering, conservation, aesthetics, public attitude, and other environmental
considerations. Solid wastes constitute a heterogeneous mass of wastes from the urban areas as well as
homogeneous accumulation of agricultural, industrial and mineral wastes. Based on the degradability,
solid wastes can be classified into two categories: Biodegradable and non- biodegradable.

Category Type of waste Time required for degeneration

Organic waste 1-2 weeks

Biodegradable
Paper 10-30 days
Cotton cloth 2-5 months
Woolen items 1 year
Wood 10- 15 years
Tin, aluminum and other metal 100-500 years
Non- biodegradable items such as cans

Plastic bags 1million years

Glass bottles Undetermined

The solid waste management system (SWM) is a combination of the following functional elements:

Waste generation Waste collection Transfer and transport Processing

Recovery and recycling

In India, about 90% of the municipal waste collected by the authorities is dumped in low-lying areas in
the outskirts having no facilities for leachate collection and treatment. As a result, leachate containing
heavy metals percolate into the groundwater resources, rendering it unfit for drinking. The landfill gases
(CH3& CO2) escape into the atmosphere, adding to the greenhouse emissions, which otherwise could be
used as thermal fuel.

Over the years, the problems faced due to MSW escalated and were highlighted by civic and
environmental activists. This resulted in framing Municipal Solid Wastes (Management and Handling)
Rules, 2000.

Waste stream assessment (WSA)

Waste stream assessment (WSA) is a method to determine the basic aspects of quantity, composition,
and source of wastes that are essential for making decisions about the SWM system, finance, and
regulations.
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Heating value
The heating value (KJ/Kg) of waste materials is determined experimentally using the Bomb calorimeter
test. This test evaluates the potential of waste materials to be used as fuel for incineration.

Component Typical heating value (KJ/Kg)

Food wastes 4500
Paper 16500
Cardboard 16000
Plastics 32500
Rubber 18500
Wood 18500
Glass 140
Waste Disposal Methods
1. Uncontrolled dumping or non-engineered disposal
This is the most common waste disposal method practiced in India and many other parts of the world.
In this method, the solid wastes are dumped at a particular site without any environmental control. They
remain at the site for a prolonged period of time, causing health risks and environmental degradation.
2. Sanitary landfill
Sanitary landfill is a type of engineered waste disposal site where environmental degradation is minimized
to a great extent. Proper site selection and management of such landfills can effectively reduce the effects
of leachate (polluted water which flows from a landfill) and gas production. The four basic requirements
of a sanitary landfill are:

(i) full or partial hydrological isolation;

(ii) formal engineering preparation;
(iii) permanent control;
(iv) planned waste emplacement and covering.
Landfills consist of cells in which a certain volume of waste is kept isolated from adjacent waste cells by
a suitable barrier (e.g. clay), which prevents downward or lateral escape of leachate.

Design of a Sanitary Landfill

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3. Composting
Composting is the biological decomposition of organic matter into humus like material under controlled
conditions of ventilation, temperature, and moisture. An efficient composting process can yield a stable,
odor-free soil conditioner as its final product. With the rising interest in organic agriculture, the
production of organic-grade MSW compost for agriculture is also gaining popularity because of its
positive effect on biological, physical, and chemical soil properties.

4. Incineration
Incineration refers to controlled burning of the hospital and other biological wastes at a high temperature
(1200 – 1500°C) to sterilize, stabilize, and to reduce its volume. In this process, most of the combustible
materials such as paper or plastics get converted into carbon dioxide and ash.

5. Gasification
This is the partial combustion of organic materials containing a large amount of carbon content. At high
temperature (roughly 1000°C) they form a gas comprising mainly carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon
monoxide (CO), nitrogen (N), hydrogen (H), water vapor, and methane (CH4).

6. Refuse-derived fuel (RDF)

RDF consists of combustible components of raw waste separated by different processing steps, such as
screening, air classification, ballistic separation, etc. The separated components can be used as fuel and
it has high calorific value than its parent material.

Solid recovered fuel (SRF) is a high-quality alternative to fossil fuel. It is produced from mainly
commercial waste including paper, card, wood, textiles, and plastic. Solid recovered fuel has gone
through additional processing to improve the quality and value. It has a higher calorific value than RDF
and is used in facilities such as cement kilns.

7. Pyrolysis
Pyrolysis is the thermal degradation of organic materials in the absence of oxygen. Pyrolysis of
carbonaceous materials occurs in the absence of oxygen at a temperature between 200 and 900°C. The
process always produces solid (charcoal, biochar), liquid and non-condensable gases (H2, CH4, CnHm,
CO, CO2, and N).

Microbial Degradation Process

In the case of landfills receiving huge quantities of organic wastes, microbial degradation is the major
process that stabilizes the waste and therefore governs landfill gas generation and leachate composition.
The anaerobic degradation process of wastes undergoes through the following stages:

1. Hydrolysis and fermentation of solid and dissolved organic components into volatile fatty acids,
alcohols, hydrogen, and carbon dioxide.

2. The products derived from the first stage are then converted into acetic acid, hydrogen and carbon
dioxide by an acidogenic group of bacteria.
 60

3. Methanogenic bacteria convert acetic acid into methane and carbon dioxide. Hydrogenophilic bacteria
convert hydrogen and carbon dioxide into methane.
Non-methane organic compounds (NMOCs) and Landfill gas (LFG) can contaminate groundwater in
unlined landfills and landfills with no or inadequate LFG collection systems. The contamination takes
place through three transfer mechanisms:

1. The direct transfer of NMOCs to groundwater.

2. Condensation of LFG in the vadose zone.

3. Condensation of LFG in vadose zone plus washdown.

The control of escaping LFG by proper extraction ensures its use as a source of energy. Generally, the
landfill gas is extracted during the operation phase by means of gas wells that are drilled by auger and are
driven into the landfill at a spacing of 40 – 70 m. If landfill gas is not utilized, it should be burnt by means
of flaring. As a matter of fact, the efficient utilization of landfill gas can notably reduce fossil fuel
consumption for the production of electricity and heat.

Leachate Formation
Leachate is a bad odoured liquid comprising soluble components of waste and its degradation products
that are harmful to the environment. The generation of leachate is caused principally by precipitation
percolating through waste deposited in a landfill and is controlled by a group of factors, such as water
availability, landfill surface condition, refuse state, and condition of surrounding strata. The major toxic
substances present in leachate are ammonia and heavy metals.
The water balance equation for landfill requires negative or zero so that no excess leachate is produced.
Lo = I – E – aW
Lo = free leachate retained at site (equivalent to leachate production minus leachate leaving the site);
I = total liquid input;
E = evapotranspiration losses;
a = absorption capacity of waste;
W = weight of waste disposed.
An appropriate way for controlling the migration of leachate and its toxic constituents into underlying
aquifers or nearby rivers is to use landfill liners to prevent the movement. Modern landfills generally
require a layer of compacted clay with a minimum required thickness and a maximum allowable
hydraulic conductivity, overlaid by a high-density polyethylene geomembrane. Chipped or waste tires are
generally used to support and insulate the liner.
1. Natural liners
These are generally less permeable, resistant to chemical attack and have good sorption properties.
Commonly used natural liners are compacted clay or shale, bitumen or soil sealants, etc. They do not
act as true containment barriers because leachate may migrate through them.
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2. Synthetic (geo-membrane) liners

Geosynthetic clay liner is usually made of sodium bentonite. It is compacted in between two thick pieces
of geotextile and is able to expand or shrink according to temperature variations.

3. Composite liners
A composite liner consists of a natural membrane along with a geosynthetic clay liner. This system is
more efficient at reducing leachate migration into the subsoil than either a clay liner or a single
geomembrane layer.
The leachate containing a high concentration of undesirable substances then undergoes a treatment
process for their safe discharge into the environment. The common treatment processes applied to
leachate are:

1. Leachate recirculation
It is defined as the practice of returning leachate to the landfill from which it has been abstracted. The
process reduces the hazardous nature of leachate and helps to wet the waste thereby increasing the rate
of biological degradation. This method of repeatedly reapplying leachate to waste masses saves offsite
disposal costs and boosts landfill gas production.

2. Biological treatment
The high concentration of volatile fatty acids (VFA) in leachate makes it easily biodegradable. The
common methods, such as aerated lagoons, activated sludge process, and rotating biological contactors
are used to remove BOD, ammonia, and suspended solids from the leachate.

3. Physicochemical treatment
Physiochemical processes are generally carried out to remove different substances, such as heavy metals
and other chemicals that remain even after the biological degradation of leachate. These processes
include flocculation-precipitation, adsorption, and reverse osmosis.

Recycling Programmes
Recycling programs are formulated and carried out according to the needs and priorities of the
communities. The major elements of a recycling program include source separation, curbside collection,
material resource facilities, and full stream processing.
1. Source separation
The segregation of recyclable and reusable materials at the point of generation is referred to as source
separation. It involves voluntary or mandated separation of recyclable materials into their own specific
containers.
2. Curbside collection
Kerbside collection or curbside collection is a service provided to households for collecting source-
separated recyclables on a regular basis. Specific purpose-built vehicles are used to pick household waste
in containers prescribed by the municipality. Kerbside collection is today often referred to as a strategy
of local authorities to collect recyclable items from the consumer
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3. Material recovery facilities (MRF)

MRF is a specialized plant that receives, separates, processes and markets recyclable materials. Generally,
two different types of material recovery facilities are in use:

1. Clean MRF
A clean MRF accepts source-separated materials from municipal solid waste generated by either
residential or commercial sources. In a single-stream type of clean MRF processing, all recyclable
materials are mixed. Whereas in dual-stream MRFs, source-separated recyclables are delivered in a
mixed container stream (glass, ferrous metal, aluminum and other non-ferrous metals, and plastics) and
a mixed paper stream (corrugated cardboard boxes, newspapers, magazines, office paper, and junk mail).
2. Dirty MRF
A Dirty MRF or Mixed-waste processing facility (MWPF) involves the manual and mechanical separation
of recyclable materials from a mixed solid waste stream. MWPFs can recycle wastes at much higher rates
than that of curbside or other waste collection systems, and it can recover 5% - 45% of the incoming
materials as recyclables, then the remainder is sent to landfills.

Recycled Process
Material
i) Semi-mechanical process
Glass The waste glass cullet is sorted according to the color and melted in an oven at 1400°C.
Substances such as soda ash, potassium carbonate, borax, lime, etc., are added to
enhance the hardness of glass. It is followed by refining and molding steps to finally yield
new, clear, green and brown glass jars and bottles.
Metals Ferrous and non-ferrous metals are usually recycled into sanitary and gas fittings, funnels,
buckets and storage bins, reinforced steel bars, hand tools, etc. They are initially melted
in a crucible in the coal furnace and the molten metal is cast into the desired mold to
make ingots of required shapes and size. New and melted recycled metals are mixed
together in a 3:1 ratio for better quality products.
Plastic High-density polyethylene (HDPE) and polyethylene terephthalate (PET) plastics now
hold a stronger place in the market. The uses of recycled HDPE include non-food
bottles, drums, toys, pipes, sheets, and plastic pallets, and of PET include plastic fibers,
injection molding, non-food grade containers, and chemicals.

Batteries Battery recycling is paramount due to the concerns over toxic compound including lead,
cadmium, and mercury present in many batteries. Battery reprocessing includes
breaking open the batteries, neutralizing the acid, chipping the container for recycling
and smelting the lead to produce recyclable lead.

Composting
Compost is the organic matter that has been decomposed in a process called composting. It is peaty
humus, dark in color and has a crumbly texture and earthy odor, and resembles topsoil. In India, organic
materials constitute about 70% of the total weight of municipal solid wastes
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Composting Process
The success of composting largely depends on various processes take place within the system. All these
processes and reactions can be classified into two:

1. Biological Processes
In the mesophilic, or moderate-temperature phase, the compost bacteria combine oxygen with carbon
to produce carbon dioxide and energy. A part of the energy is used by microorganisms for their own
reproduction and growth, and the rest is released as heat. Initially, when the degradation begins,
mesophilic bacteria such as E. coli and other bacteria from the human intestinal tract proliferate and
raise the temperature of the composting mass up to 44°C. The increase in temperature, in turn, inhibits
the growth of mesophilic bacteria and are replaced by thermophilic bacteria.

The thermophilic or high-temperature phase occurs in the upper portion of a compost pile at a
temperature range of 44-52°C. The heating phase usually lasts only a few days, weeks or months. After
the completion of this stage, the manure will appear to have been digested, but the coarser organic
materials will not be digested.

The degradation of coarser organic materials takes place in the cooling phase with the help of fungi and
macroorganisms, such as earthworms and sowbugs. The microorganisms replaced by thermophilic
bacteria will also migrate back into the compost during this phase.

The final stage of the composting process is known as the curing or maturing stage. This phase usually
lasts 3-4 weeks and the long curing period ensures the destruction of pathogens as a result of microbial
competition. Uncured compost contains high levels of organic acids and phytotoxins that deplete the
oxygen and nitrogen content of the soil.

2. Chemical Processes
A major portion of municipal solid wastes contains an adequate amount of biodegradable form of
carbon. The microorganisms present in the compost convert a small portion of the carbon into microbial
cells and a significant portion into carbon dioxide which is lost to the atmosphere. Eventually, the
degradation of carbon decreases the weight and volume of the feedstock. The carbon-nitrogen ratio is
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an important factor determining the rate of decomposition. An initial ratio of 30:1 (C: N) is generally
considered ideal. Higher ratios result in slow decomposition, while ratios below 25:1 may produce
unpleasant odors.

In general, the moisture content of compostable materials is relatively lower than the ideal requirement
(i.e. 50-60%). In order to hasten the decomposition rate, moisture content can be increased by the
controlled addition of water. Excess water creates anaerobic conditions leading to the rotting of feedstock.
However, the amount of water evaporated from the compost usually exceeds the input of moisture, in
such cases, adding moisture is a necessity for maintaining the ideal composting rate. Composting is an
aerobic process that requires 10- 15% oxygen concentration and enough void space for the free
circulation of oxygen and
carbon dioxide. These requirements are met via mechanical aeration of the compost pile by turning the
materials over with a front-end loader, or by means of mechanical agitation with a special compost turner
along with turning it frequently to expose the microbes to the atmosphere.

A pH between 6 and 8 is considered optimum for the biodegradation of feedstock. It can be adjusted by
adding lime (for increasing the pH) or by adding Sulphur (for decreasing the pH). The carbon dioxide
generated by microorganisms often combines with water to form carbonic acid within the compost
causing swings in pH during the degradation process, but organic materials are naturally well buffered
with respect to pH changes.

❖ Composting technologies
• Windrow composting - Most common and cheapest technology
• In-vessel composting system - All environmental conditions can be controlled
• Vertical composting reactor - Neither temperature nor oxygen can be maintained
• Horizontal composting reactor - Effective in dealing with the heterogeneity of MSW
• Rotating drum - Retain the material for only a few hours or days

Vermicompost
The end-product of the breakdown of organic matter by earthworms is known as vermicast, which is
used as a valuable compost known as ‘vermicompost’. The commonly used earthworm species are red
wigglers (Eisenia fetida or Eisenia andrei), though European nightcrawlers (Eisenia hortensis or
Dendrobaena veneta) could also be used.
1. Surface dwellers
These epigeic earthworms are inhabitants of the organic layer of the soil and are not common in most
agricultural soils. Perionyx excavatus, Eisenia fetida, Eudrilus eugeniae, and Lumbricus rubellus are
examples of surface-dwelling earthworms that are usually darker in color, mostly purplish or reddish. In
organic farming practices, mulching is highly recommended as it provides food and shelter for surface-
dwelling earthworms.
2. Sub-surface dwellers
These endogeic species of earthworms live in horizontal and vertical burrows known as drilospheres that
are created by them in the soil. They assist in soil comminution, i.e. breaking down of soil into finer
 65

structures. They feed primarily on partially decomposed organic matter that is already incorporated in
the soil. The cast deposit by these earthworms is directly related to the bulk density of the soil. Species
such as Lampito mauritii, Octochaetona serrata, Lumbricus terrestris, Pontosolex carethrurus and
Octochaetona thurstoni are examples for endogeic earthworms.
3. Subsoil dwellers
Subsoil- dwellers or anecic species live in permanent vertical burrows that can be 5 or 6 feet deep. Their
burrows are capped by crop residue that they pull to the entrance.

The nightcrawler (Lumbricus terrestris) is the most prominent member of the group.

The most widely used species of earthworms for composting purposes are Eisenia andrei, Eisenia fetida,
Eudrilus eugeniae, Lampito mauritii, Lumbricus rubellus, Metaphire posthuman, Perionyx excavates,
Polypheretima elongate.
In India, endemic species such as Perionyx excavatus and Lampito mauritii are also used in composting
units owing to their capability to tide over local adverse soil conditions in which exotic species fail to
survive. For example, the native earthworm species Octochaetona serrata is adapted to live in red laterite
soil which is acidic. Despite the diversity of endemic compost worms, In India, exotic species of
earthworms are preferred due to their conspicuous action, voracious feeding habits, and high
reproductive potential. Since 1982, African nightcrawler (Eudrilus eugeniae) has been promoted for
waste degradation in India because it overperformed local species in laboratory experiments. Red worm
or tiger worm (Eisenia fetida) is also used in certain areas of India for waste degradation.
 66

REMOTE SENSING AND GIS

The remote sensing process has wide-ranging applications in the field of ecology, biodiversity, and
conservation. The passive sensors, such as film photography, infrared, charge-coupled devices, and
radiometers collect the radiation that is emitted or reflected by an object. Reflected sunlight is the most
common source of radiation measured by passive sensors. Whereas in active remote sensing, the sensor
emits radiation in order to scan objects and areas. RADAR and LiDAR are examples for active remote
sensing in which the time delay between emission and return of radiation is measured to establish the
location, speed, and direction of an object.

Types of Orbits
1. Polar orbits
The satellites functioning in near-polar orbits are able to scan virtually every part of the Earth as the Earth
rotates underneath it. Typically, a satellite in such an orbit moves in a near-circle about 1000 km above
ground and It takes approximately 90 minutes for the completion of one orbit. Measurement of
atmospheric ozone concentration and the temperature is done using near-polar orbiting satellites. E.g.,
PSLV, SPOT, IERS
2. Sun-synchronous orbits
Sun-synchronous satellites pass over the same spots on the ground at the same solar time of day. It
enables us to compare images from the same season over several years. These satellites orbit at an altitude
between 600 km and 800 km. This orbit is also useful for imaging, spy, and weather satellites because
every time the satellite is overhead, the surface illumination angle on the planet underneath it will be
nearly the same. E.g., Landsat 7, CloudSat, Cartosat
3. Geosynchronous orbits
Also known as geostationary orbit as the satellite appears stationary to an observer on a point on the
earth. Satellites in these orbits circle the Earth in its equatorial plane with the same angular speed and in
the same direction as the Earth rotates about its own axis. These satellites are placed at an altitude of
approximately 35,800 kilometers directly over the equator. Geostationary satellites are considered ideal
for communication, broadcasting, and GPS services. E.g., GSAT, INSAT, INTELSAT, EDUSAT

Thermal Remote sensing

Thermal remote sensing is a type of passive remote sensing which is based in the infrared portion of the
spectrum and measures emitted thermal radiation. Most thermal remote sensing applications take place
between 8 -13 micrometer range.
IR Type Wavelength (µm)
Reflected Infrared Near IR 0.7- 1.3
Short wave IR 1.3- 3.0
Thermal Infrared Intermediate IR 3- 8
Thermal IR 8- 14
Far IR 14 µm – 1 mm
 67

Thermal remote sensing has wide-ranging applications in the study of agriculture, forestry, water
resources, forest fires, and volcanic eruptions. It can also be used to detect water stress in crops and
evapotranspiration in river basins, which is important for watershed management. The Airborne thermal
infrared sensor (e.g. TIMS or ATLAS) is generally used for measuring the change in the surface
temperature of a particular area. it is then analyzed using thermal response number (TRN)- defined as
the amount of net radiation required to change one unit of surface temperature. It is equal to daily total
net radiation divided by daily temperature range. Rugged and barren terrains are found to be having the
lowest TRN value, while forests have the highest. Absorption of radiation by water and other gases in the
atmosphere restricts sensors to record thermal images in two wavelength windows - 3 to 5 µm and 8 to
15 µm. For this reason, thermal IR imagery is difficult to interpret and process because there is
absorption by moisture in the atmosphere.

Electromagnetic wave Use Wavelength

Thermal IR Urban heat island 8-14 µm
Near IR Delineation of water- non-water 0.7- 1.3 µm
boundaries
Microwave For obtaining information about flood 1mm- 1m
extent and Inundated areas.

Urban Heat Island

An urban heat island (UHI) is an urban area that is relatively warmer than its surrounding rural areas.
The temperature difference is usually larger at night than during the day and is most apparent when
winds are absent or weak. The major cause of this phenomenon is the modification of land surfaces.

Microwave Remote sensing

The microwave portion of an electromagnetic spectrum includes wavelengths within the approximate
range of 1mm to 1m. Active microwave radar systems are the most advanced type of Earth-observing
satellite that can image the ground or sea at any time of the day or the night even through the cloud cover.
In Imaging Radars, the size of the Ground Resolution Cell is controlled by the following factors.
 68

1. Pulse Duration and Ground Range

They dictate the spatial resolution in the direction of energy propagation, referred to as the Range
Resolution.

2. Beamwidth
It determines the spatial resolution in the direction of flight, referred to as Azimuth Resolution.

Microwave Bands
Band Wavelength Use
X 2.4- 3.75 cm Generally used for military reconnaissance, mapping, and
surveillance.
C 3.75- 7.5 cm The penetration capability of this band is limited and is restricted to
the upper layer of vegetation. Sometimes used for sea ice
surveillance.
S 7.5- 15 cm Used for medium-range meteorological applications such as rainfall
measurement.
L 15- 30 cm It can penetrate vegetation to support surface observation, e.g., soil
moisture, monitoring ice sheets, and glacier dynamics.
P 30- 100 cm It has a significant penetration capability. Widely used for estimating
biomass and tree height.
Radar Range Resolution
Range resolution is defined as the minimum distance that the radar system can distinguish between two
scatters on the target. Search radars usually have poor resolution and will distinguish two targets at about
100 meters apart. The range resolution of a radar depends on a number of factors, such as transmitted
pulse width, pulse compression, beam-width, type of target, size of the target, radar receiver efficiency,
and resolution of the radar display unit. The equation for calculating the range resolution of a radar is
given below.
 69

RRes = C Ʈ/2

where Ʈ is the transmitted pulse width and c is the velocity of light in the free space.

Ground Truth
In remote sensing, the term ground truth refers to a process in which a ‘pixel’ on a satellite image is
compared to what is there in reality in order to verify the contents of the ‘pixel’ on the image. The method
is used for accuracy assessment, calibration of remote sensing sensors, and analysis of data. Ground truth
also helps to correct distortion in the images due to absorption in the atmosphere.

Current Indian Remote Sensing Missions

1. Resourcesat-1

RESOURCESAT-1 (also known as IRS-P6) is an advanced remote sensing satellite built by the Indian
Space Research Organization (ISRO). The main objective of the mission is to provide continued remote
sensing data services on an operational basis for integrated land and water resources management with
enhanced data quality.

RESOURCESAT-1 carries three sensors:

1. A high-resolution linear imaging self-scanner (LISS-IV) with a spatial resolution of 5.8 m and a swath
of 70 km.
2. A medium resolution linear imaging self-scanner (LISS-III) with a spatial resolution of 23.5 m and a
swath of 140km.
3. An AwiFS (Advanced Wide Field Sensor) with a spatial resolution of 56 m and a swath of 740 km.
Possible applications include crop monitoring and condition assessment, crop canopy water stress, forest
inventory, fire damage analysis, environmental monitoring, land use, soil contamination, oil spills and
disaster monitoring, environmental impact assessment, rock type mapping, mining pollution assessment,
coal fire analysis, landslide risk, road network, 3D building models and cartography.
2. Resourcesat-2

Resourcesat-2 is virtually identical to Resourcesat-1, but it has a few sensor enhancements such as
enhancement of LISS-4 multispectral swath from 23 km to 70 km and improved Radiometric accuracy
from 7 bits to 10 bits for LISS-3 and LISS-4 and 10 bits to 12 bits for AWIFS. Besides, suitable changes
including miniaturization in payload electronics, have been made in RESOURCESAT-2. its major
objective is to provide data with enhanced multispectral and spatial coverage.

3. Cartosat-1

CARTOSAT–1 is a stereoscopic Earth observation satellite in a sun-synchronous orbit and is the first
Indian Remote Sensing Satellite capable of providing in-orbit stereo images. The satellite has two
panchromatic cameras with 2.5 m spatial resolution and a swath of 30 km for acquiring the information
required for generating digital elevation models, orthoimage products, and value-added products for
various applications of geographical information system (GIS).
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4. Cartosat-2
Cartosat-2 carries a panchromatic (PAN) camera that takes black and white pictures of the earth in the
visible region of the electromagnetic spectrum. The swath covered by this high-resolution PAN camera
is 9.6 km and their spatial resolution is 0.81 m.

5. RISAT-1
Radar Satellite-1 (RISAT-1) is a Microwave Remote Sensing Satellite carrying a Synthetic Aperture Radar
(SAR) Payload operating in C-band (5.35 GHz), which enables imaging of the surface features during
both day and night under all weather conditions. Active Microwave Remote Sensing provides cloud
penetration and day-night imaging capability. These unique characteristics of C-band (5.35GHz)
Synthetic Aperture Radar enable applications in agriculture, particularly paddy monitoring in Kharif
season and management of natural disasters like floods and cyclones.

RISAT-2 is a Radar Imaging Satellite with the all-weather capability to take images of the earth. This
Satellite enhances ISRO's capability for Disaster Management applications.

6. Megha-Tropiques
Megha-Tropiques is an Indo-French Joint Satellite Mission for studying the water cycle and energy
exchanges in the tropics. The main objective of this mission is to understand the life cycle of convective
systems that influence the tropical weather and climate, and their role in associated energy and moisture
budget of the atmosphere in tropical regions.

Megha-Tropiques provides scientific data on the contribution of the water cycle to the tropical
atmosphere, with information on condensed water in clouds, water vapor in the atmosphere,
precipitation, and evaporation. Having its circular orbit inclined 20 deg to the equator, the Megha-
Tropiques is a unique satellite for climate research that should also aid scientists seeking to refine
prediction models.

7. Landsat 8
Landsat 8 launched on February 11, 2013, from Vandenberg Air Force Base, California, with the
extended payload fairing (EPF) from United Launch Alliance, LLC.

The Landsat 8 satellite payload consists of two science instruments—the Operational Land Imager (OLI)
and the Thermal Infrared Sensor (TIRS). These two sensors provide seasonal coverage of the global
landmass at a spatial resolution of 30 meters (visible, NIR, SWIR); 100 meters (thermal); and 15 meters
(panchromatic). Landsat 8 bands reflect environmental changes and help identify differences in the
surface of the Earth. It will continue to obtain valuable data and imagery to be used in agriculture,
education, and science.

Map Scale
Map scale refers to the ratio between a distance on the map to the corresponding distance on the ground,
i.e. on a 1:100000 scale map, 1cm on the map equals 1km on the ground. Large scale maps are usually
prepared for small areas as they contain a large amount of detail. While small scale maps are prepared
for large areas and they contain a small amount of detail.
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Scale Formula
The simplified formula used to determine the scale of photographs is finding the ratio between the focal
length of the camera (f) and the altitude of the aircraft platform (H).

S = F/h
or
Scale (RF) = F (focal length) / H (flight altitude) – h (average ground elevation)

End lap

Practically all projects require more than a single pair of photographs for creating the three-dimensional
effect necessary for mapping. End lap, also known as forward overlap, is the overlapping portion of two
successive aerial photos. Normally, end lap ranges between 55 and 65% of the length of a photo.

Side lap
Side lap encompasses the overlapping areas of photographs between adjacent flight lines. Usually, side
lap ranges between 20 and 40% of the width of a photo. This type of overlap is needed to make sure that
there are no gaps in the coverage.

% of End lap = G-B/G*100

% of Side lap = G-W/G*100
Where,
G = Dimension of the square of ground covered by a single photograph
B = Airbase or distance between exposure stations of stereo pair
W = Spacing between the adjacent flight line
Relief Displacement
Relief displacement is the radial distance between where an object appears in an image to its true
geographic location according to a Planimetric coordinate system. The major causes of displacement are
camera tilt, earth curvature, and terrain relief. Recently developed gyroscopically-controlled cameras are
found to be effective at eliminating camera tilt and earth’s curvature is of little consequence on large-scale
photography. However, topographic relief can have a great impact on displacing image features.
 72

Geographic Information System Glossary

1. Advanced Very High-Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR)
AVHRR is a multi-spectral sensor that collects infrared, visible, and thermal images with an approximate
1-kilometer spatial resolution cell size. Its broad field of view has been used for tracking fast-changing
surface conditions and monitoring food crops, wildfires, desert encroachment, and vegetation changes.

2. American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII)

ASCII is a character encoding standard for electronic communication that uses a set of numbers between
0 and 255 for information storage and processing. For example, the ASCII code for uppercase M is 77.

3. Aspect
Aspect values indicate the directions in which the physical slopes face. It is measured clockwise starting
North as 0°, and it returns back as 360° north again. The flat areas are given an aspect value of -1 (or 0
degrees).

4. Atmospheric Window
Atmospheric windows are the ranges of wavelengths of the electromagnetic spectrum that can be
transmitted through the Earth's atmosphere. The upper atmosphere blocks 100% of the gamma rays, x-
rays, and most ultra-violet light. But visible light can easily pass through. The wavelengths of the EM
spectrum that are absorbed by atmospheric gases such as water vapor, carbon dioxide, and ozone are
known as absorption bands. The atmosphere is nearly opaque to EM radiation in part of the mid-IR and
all of the far-IR regions.

Atmospheric window
The radio window is the range of wavelengths from about 1mm to 100 mm. The low-frequency end of
the window is limited by signal absorption in the ionosphere, while the upper limit is determined by
signal attenuation caused by water vapor and carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.

5. Digital Elevation Model (DEM)

DEMs are used often in geographic information systems for the 3D computer graphic representation of
a terrain's surface. Mappers may prepare digital elevation models in a number of ways, but they frequently
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use remote sensing rather than direct survey data. The DEM of a particular area can be acquired through
techniques, such as photogrammetry, lidar, IfSAR, land surveying, etc. The acquired data is then
represented as a raster (a grid of squares) or as a vector-based triangular irregular network (TIN). Discrete
rasters are used to represent distinct categories where you can distinguish each thematic class, e.g. a grid
cell representing a soil type. Integers are usually used to represent classes in discrete data. On the other
hand, gradually changing data, such as elevation, temperature or aerial photographs are represented by
continuous rasters (non-discrete). This type of surface generally has no distinct boundaries. A continuous
raster surface is generally derived from a fixed registration point. For example, digital elevation models
use sea level as a registration point.
6. Contour Line
The contour line, also known as isoline or isopleth, is a constant value for mapping variables such as
elevation and temperature. Simply, it is a line on a map joining points of equal height above or below sea
level.
7. Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR)
LiDAR is a remote sensing method that uses laser pulse measurements to identify heights, depths, and
other properties of features on the Earth’s surface. Topographic LiDAR uses a near-infrared laser to
map the land, while bathymetric LiDAR uses water-penetrating green light to measure seafloor and
riverbed elevations. This method produces more accurate shoreline maps, makes digital elevation
models for use in geographic information systems, and assists in emergency response operations.
8. Overlay Analysis
It is a method by which the thematic maps with relevant class values are overlaid. Based on the arithmetic
process the class values will be added, subtracted, multiplied or divided. An overlay creates a composite
map by combining the geometry and attributes of the input data sets. Tools are available in many GIS
software for overlaying both vector or raster data.
 74

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 75

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT (EIA)

According to The International Association of Impact Assessment (IAIA), EIA is the process of
identifying, predicting, evaluating, and mitigating the biophysical, social, and other relevant effects of
development proposals prior to major decisions being taken and commitments made. Environmental
Impact Assessment (EIA) studies require a significant amount of primary and secondary environmental
data. Primary data are collected from the field to define the status of the environment (such as air quality
data, water quality data, etc.). Secondary data are those collected over the years that can be used to
understand the existing environmental scenario of the study area. The main steps in the EIA process are:

❖ Screening
This step categorizes projects and determines whether a full-scale environmental impact assessment is
required or not. The output from the screening process is often a document called an Initial
Environmental Examination or Evaluation (IEE). The main conclusion will be a classification of the
project according to its likely environmental sensitivity.

Screening Stage
Different types of tools used during the screening method are:

1. Inclusive project list (projects must undergo EIA) and exclusive project list (projects exempted from
EIA)

2. Case-by-case examinations to determine whether projects may have significant environmental effects.
if so, the project should undergo EIA

3. Combination of the aforementioned tools

❖ Scoping
Scoping is the process of determining the most critical issues to be considered and this step will involve
community participation to some degree. It establishes the content and scope of an EIA report. It is at
this early stage that EIA can most strongly influence the outline proposal. Two major types of scoping
method are closed scoping and open or public scoping.
 76

1. Closed scoping
In this method, the content and scope of an EIA Report is pre-determined by law and modified through
closed consultations between a developer and the competent authority.

2. Open or Public scoping

It is a transparent process based on public consultations.

The scoping process begins with the preparation of a scope outline through informal consultation with
environmental and health authorities. The outline is then made available for the public and is compiled
with an extensive list of concerns, which is followed by the evaluation of relevant concerns to establish
key issues. The key issues are further organized into impact categories and the outline is amended
accordingly. A ‘Terms of reference’ (ToR) is then developed for impact analysis and the progress is
monitored. If necessary, revising is carried out. Another major activity of scoping is to identify key interest
groups (both governmental and non-governmental) and to establish good lines of communication.

❖ Impact Analysis
In this phase, the likely impacts are analyzed in greater detail in accordance with the terms of reference
specifically established for this purpose. Impact analysis is conducted using various tools, such as
checklists, matrices, networks, overlays and geographical information systems (GIS), expert systems, and
professional judgment.
Type Biophysical, social, health or economic
Nature Direct or indirect, cumulative, etc.
Magnitude High, moderate, low
Extent Local, regional, trans-boundary or global
Timing Immediate/long term
Duration Temporary/permanent
Uncertainty Low likelihood/high probability
Reversibility Reversible/irreversible
Significance Unimportant/important

• Checklists
Checklists are comprehensive lists of environmental effects and impact indicators designed to stimulate
the analyst to think broadly about possible consequences of contemplated actions. There are four types
of checklist:
1. Simple checklist
A list of environmental parameters with no guidelines on how they are to be measured and interpreted.
2. Descriptive checklist
This method involves the identification of environmental parameters and guidelines on how to measure
data on particular parameters.
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3. Questionnaire
This is based on a set of questions to be answered. Some of the questions may concern indirect impacts
and possible mitigation measures. They may also provide a scale for classifying estimated impacts from
highly adverse to highly beneficial.

4. The threshold of Concern (TOC) checklists

It consists of a list of environmental components, and for each component a threshold at which those
assessing a proposal should become concerned with an impact. The implication of alternative proposals
can be seen by examining the number of times that an alternative exceeds the threshold of concern.

An Example for Threshold of Concern (TOC) Checklist

5. Scaling Checklist
This is similar to a descriptive checklist, but with additional information on subjective scaling of the
parameters. Scaling and weighting checklist techniques quantify impacts reasonably well although they
use subjective estimates. However, they make no provision for assessing dynamic probabilistic trends or
mitigation, enhancement, and monitoring programs.

• Matrices
Matrices are two-dimensional tables that facilitate the identification of impacts arising from the interaction
between project activities and specific environmental components. The entries in the cell of the matrix
can be either qualitative or quantitative estimates of impact. The three important types of matrices used
in EIA are:
1. Magnitude Matrices
Go beyond the mere identification of impacts according to their magnitude, importance, and time frame
(e.g., short, medium or long term)

2. Quantified Matrix
Leopold Matrix is one of the best-known types of quantified matrix. It was developed by Leopold et al.
for the US geological survey. This matrix is based on a horizontal list of 100 project actions and a vertical
list of 88 environmental components.
 78

3. Weighted Matrix
In this method, Importance weightings are assigned to environmental components, and sometimes to
project components. The impact of the project (component) on the environmental component then
assessed and multiplied by the appropriate weightings.

Calculation: 21x10x8+21x0+21x50x7+21x40x8 = 15750

• Network

The network is an alternative for illustrating the secondary and subsequent effects of actions on
environmental elements. This method involves the construction of a network tracing such effects. The
advantage of a network approach is that it permits clear tracing of high-order effects of initial actions;
indeed, mitigation and control measures can also be illustrated.

Sorenson network is probably the best-known approach used to illustrate and understand primary,
secondary and tertiary impacts of developmental activity. It also identifies feasible mitigation measures
and assesses multiple impacts at the same time. However, the applications of the Sorenson network are
limited by inadequate data availability and reference networks relevant to the local environment.

Battelle Environmental Evaluation System is designed to assess the impacts of water resource
development projects, water quality management plans, highways, nuclear power plants, and other
projects. In an Environmental Evaluation System, the major concerns are separated into four categories:
Ecology, Physical/chemical, Aesthetics and Human Interest, and Social. Each category is further broken
down into a number of environmental components and for each component, an index of environmental
quality normalized to a scale ranging from 1 to 10 is developed. Environmental Indicator is defined as
the difference in environmental quality between before and after the impact states. Each environmental
component has a weighting factor (relative importance). From this, the overall impact of the project is
calculated by summing the weighted impacts indicators.

• Overlay and GIS

These are effective visual aids for documenting environmental conditions existing before the
implementation of a particular project. It also describes both the biophysical and social aspects of an area
under study. Overlay method is used when sensitive lands, renewable resource areas, and heritage sites
require protection from human activities. In addition to identifying and analyzing potential impacts, GIS
is also a powerful spatial planning tool.
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❖ Impact Mitigation
Mitigation measures are considered after environmental impact evaluation. An important outcome of
this stage will be recommendations for mitigating measures. This would be contained in the
Environmental Impact Statement. Clearly, the aim of this stage will be to introduce measures that
minimize any identified adverse impacts and enhance positive impacts. Even measures that are not
economically viable should not be dropped out, because, in the long run, they make the project both
economically and environmentally viable.

Framework for Impact Mitigation

❖ Assessment of Alternative Measures
In this stage, the assessment of environmental degradation and improvement is carried out in terms of
economic losses and gains. Cost-benefit analysis, sometimes called benefit-cost analysis, is a systematic
approach for evaluating development projects.

• Hedonic Pricing Method

This method is used to determine the value of environmental features from the prices of traded goods
using both primary data (characteristics of surrounding) and secondary data (market transaction).

• Contingent Valuation
This approach involves asking people to directly report their willingness to pay (WTP) for the use or
conservation of natural goods. In other words, it is a method of estimating the value that a person places
on a good.

• Travel Cost Method (TCM)

Unlike the contingent valuation method, TCM can only estimate the use-value of an environmental good
or service. It is mainly applied for determining the economic values of sites that are used for recreation
(e.g. national parks).
 80

❖ Preparation of the Final Document

Two types of documents are prepared in this stage, the first one contains a detailed account of the EIA,
and the second one is a brief summarized account for a decision-maker, who may not be a technical
person. The detailed document is usually considered as a reference document, which can be used for
preparing future EIAs in the same geographical area, or for the same type of project in a different area.
The referred part usually contains the technical calculations, graphs, and the results of field and
laboratory measurements. The summarized non-technical account is usually called a working document,
which is written clearly without using technical language to communicate the findings of the EIA team to
the decision-maker.

❖ Decision-making
The decision is taken by a manager or a committee, or personnel from the concerned ministry who had
not been associated with the EIA during its preparation. In general, the decision-maker has three choices:

1. Accepting one of the project alternatives.

2. Returning the EIA with a request for further study in certain specific areas.
3. Totally rejecting the proposed project along with alternative versions.
❖ Monitoring of Project Implementation and its Environmental Impacts
This step is usually carried out while the selected project is under actual implementation. The monitoring
is basically the process of inspection to make sure that the proper guidelines and recommendations stated
in the EIA are faithfully followed.

The EIA Process in India

In India, first of all, the developer prepares an EIA report with the help of an environmental consultant.
On the basis of this report, the EIA may be either comprehensive or rapid.

The comprehensive EIA report incorporates the data of all four seasons of a year. Whereas, Rapid EIA
(i.e. completed within 3 months) has only one season data. It should be noted that the Environmental
Ministry has recently diluted the comprehensive EIA policies, therefore, in most cases only Rapid EIA
is required. The completed report is then submitted to the regulatory agency to decide if the project may
go for formal EIA or not.
Screening is the primary stage of EIA to decide if the project requires EIA or not. Based on the
government rules, the existing projects are generally categorized into two.

1. Category A projects require environment clearance from the Centre

• All new National Highways are classified as Category A. In addition, expansion of National
Highways greater than 30 KM, involving additional Right of Way (ROW) greater than 20m,
involving the land acquisition and passing through more than one State are categorized as
Category A.
 81

• Crude oil refineries and installations for the gasification and liquefaction of 500 tonnes or more
of coal or bituminous shale per day.
• Thermal power stations and other combustion installations (including cogeneration) with a heat
output of not less than 300 megawatts (equivalent to the gross electrical output of 140 MWe for
steam and single-cycle gas turbines power stations) and nuclear power stations and other nuclear
reactors.
• Construction of airports with a basic runway length of 2,100 meters or more.
• Waste-processing and disposal installations for the incineration, chemical treatment or landfill
of hazardous, toxic or dangerous wastes.
• Large dams and other impoundments designed for the holding back or permanent storage of
water.
• Industrial plants for the production of pulp, paper, and board from timber or similar fibrous
materials.
• Municipal wastewater treatment plants with a capacity exceeding 150,000 population

2. Category B projects (with potentially less significant impacts) are evaluated and given clearance by
state-level authorities, the State Environment Impact Assessment Authority (SEIAA) and State Expert
Appraisal Committee (SEAC). Under Category B projects, there was only one distinction—coal and non-
coal mines—with all non-coal mine leases below 50 ha clubbed under Category B. Environmental
clearance (EC) is compulsory for mining of minor minerals in areas less than or equal to five hectares

Category B projects are further categorized as ‘B1’ and ‘B2’ (except for township and area development
projects). The MoEF is assigned the task of issuing appropriate guidelines from time to time for such
projects.

The projects categorized as B1 require an EIA report for appraisal and also have to undergo a public
hearing process. But those falling under B2 are exempted from requirements of both EIA and public
consultation. If the project clears the screening stage, the developer will have to conduct a Preliminary
Assessment, which will predict the extent of the impacts and would briefly evaluate the importance for
decision-makers. After reviewing the preliminary report, the competent authority will decide if there is a
need for comprehensive EIA or Rapid EIA.

Scoping is an important stage prior to the main EIA process. During scoping, the study team interacts
and engage in discussions with various stakeholders, such as developers, investors, regulatory agencies,
scientific institutions, local people, etc. The numerous concerns and issues raised by different
stakeholders will be investigated and addressed by the study team. Then the team would select primary
impacts for the main EIA to focus and determine detailed and comprehensive Terms of Reference
(ToR).

It is during Main EIA stage that the key impacts on the environment, such as changes in air quality, noise
levels; impacts on wildlife, impact on biodiversity, impact on local communities’ settlement patterns,
changes in employment statistics, changes in water consumption and availability, etc., are formally
identified. It is followed by “prediction” in which the impacts are characterized quantitatively as well as
 82

qualitatively. The predicted adverse impacts are then evaluated to determine if they can be significantly
mitigated. This stage also involves estimating mitigation costs and benefit-cost analysis.
Once the above-mentioned procedures are over, the next part is documentation, which is called the EIA
report. The report contains an executive summary of the project. The project developer would now
submit 20 copies of the executive summary to SPCB (State Pollution Control Board). It is now the
responsibility of the SPCB to conduct public hearing.

The Public hearing is organized within 30 days after the release of official notification at the site or in its
close proximity for ascertaining concerns of local stakeholders. SPCB fixes a date for Public Hearing
and informs the proponent to advertise in the local newspapers inviting the public for the hearing. Once
the hearing is completed, the SPCB forwards the minutes of the hearing along with the No objection
certificate to MoEF. In MoEF, the application is evaluated by an Impact Assessment Agency (IAA). The
IAA has the complete right of entry and inspection of the sites or factory premises prior to, during or
after the commencement of the project. The team carries out a technical assessment and gives its
recommendations within 90 days. On the basis of this, the MOEF grants the environmental clearance
which is valid for a period of seven years for the commencement of the project.

Steps to Secure Environmental Clearance in India

(Source: https://www.india-briefing.com/news/obtaining-environmental-approvals-india-17208.html)
Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ)

Under the Environment Protection Act, 1986 of India, notification was issued in February 1991, for the
regulation of activities in the coastal area by the Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF). As per
the notification, the coastal land up to 500m from the High Tide Line (HTL) and a stage of 100m along
banks of creeks, estuaries, backwater, and rivers subject to tidal fluctuations is called the Coastal
Regulation Zone (CRZ). Under this regulation, coastal areas have been classified as CRZ-1, CRZ-2, CRZ-
3, CRZ-4.
 83

CRZ-1: These ecologically sensitive areas are essential in maintaining the ecosystem of the coast. They
lie between low and high tide lines. Exploration of natural gas and extraction of salt is permitted.
CRZ-2: These areas are urban coastal areas. As per CRZ, 2011 Notification, for CRZ-II (Urban) areas,
Floor Space Index (FSI) or the Floor Area Ratio (FAR) had been frozen as per the 1991 Development
Control Regulation (DCR) levels. In the CRZ, 2018 Notification, it has been decided to de-freeze the
same and permits FSI for construction projects, as prevailing on the date of the new notification. This
will enable the redevelopment of these areas to meet emerging needs.

CRZ-3: Rural and urban localities that fall outside the CRZ1 and CRZ2. Only certain activities related to
agriculture and some public facilities are allowed in this zone. Two separate categories have now been
stipulated as below:

(a) CRZ-III A – These are densely populated rural areas with a population density of 2161 per square
kilometer as per the 2011 Census. Such areas shall have a No Development Zone (NDZ) of 50 meters
from the HTL as against 200 meters from the High Tide Line stipulated in the CRZ Notification, 2011,
since such areas have similar characteristics as urban areas.

(b) CRZ-III B – Rural areas with a population density of below 2161 per square kilometer as per the
2011 Census. Such areas shall continue to have an NDZ of 200 meters from the HTL.

CRZ-4: This zone lies in the aquatic area up to territorial limits. Fishing and allied activities are permitted
in this zone. Solid waste should be let off in this zone. This zone has been changed from 1991
notification, which covered coastal stretches in islands of Andaman & Nicobar and Lakshadweep.

Salient features of Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ) Notification 2018

1. Tourism infrastructure for basic amenities to be promoted: temporary tourism facilities such as shacks,
toilet blocks, change rooms, drinking water facilities, etc., have now been permitted in Beaches.

2. Temporary tourism facilities are also now permissible in the "No Development Zone" (NDZ) of the
CRZ-III areas as per the Notification. However, a minimum distance of 10 m from HTL should be
maintained for setting up of such facilities.

3. CRZ Clearances streamlined: The procedure for CRZ clearances has been streamlined. Only such
projects/activities, which are located in the CRZ-I (Ecologically Sensitive Areas) and CRZ IV (area
covered between Low Tide Line and 12 Nautical Miles seaward) shall be dealt with for CRZ clearance
by the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change. The powers for clearances with respect to
CRZ-II and III have been delegated at the State level with necessary guidance.

4. A No Development Zone (NDZ) of 20 meters has been stipulated for all Islands: For islands close to
the mainland coast and for all Backwater Islands in the mainland, in wake of space limitations and unique
geography of such regions, bringing uniformity in treatment of such regions, NDZ of 20 m has been
stipulated.

5. Pollution abatement has been accorded special focus: In order to address pollution in Coastal areas,
treatment facilities have been made permissible activities in CRZ-I B area subject to necessary safeguards
and precautions.
 84

International Organization for Standardization (ISO)

The ISO 14000 family of standards provides guidance for companies and organizations to manage their
environmental responsibilities. The other standards in the family focus on specific approaches such as
audits, communications, labeling and life cycle analysis, as well as environmental challenges such as
climate change.

ISO 14001 Environmental management systems- Specifications with the guidance

of use
ISO 14004 Guidelines on environmental management principles, systems and
supporting techniques.
ISO 14006 Guidelines for incorporating eco-design
ISO 14010 General principles for environmental auditing.
ISO 14011 Audit procedures
ISO14012 Qualification criteria for environmental auditors
ISO 14020 to 14025 Environmental labels and declarations
ISO14022 Symbols
ISO14023 Testing and Verification
ISO14024 Principle and Procedure
ISO14030 Environmental Performance Evaluation
ISO 14040 to 14049 Life cycle assessment; discusses pre-production planning and
environment goal setting
ISO 14040 A standard on principles and framework
ISO 14041 A standard on goal and scope definition and inventory analysis
ISO 14042 A standard on life-cycle impact assessment
ISO 14043 A standard on life-cycle interpretation
ISO 14050 Terms of fundamental concepts related to environmental
management
ISO14060 Guide for the inclusion of environmental aspects in product standards
ISO 14064 Greenhouse gases- measuring, quantifying, and reducing greenhouse
gas emissions

Environmental Audit
Environmental auditing is a management tool intended to provide information on environmental
performance to the concerned people at the right time. This audit includes an analysis of the technical,
procedural and decision-making aspects of the EIA. It also encompasses all kinds of activities related to
the environmental measures of an organization.
 85

Auditing Action

Implementation audit Initial activities

Predictive techniques audit Validation of impacts
Performance audit Comprehensive operational
activities
Procedures audit External review

Parameter Importance Units

The principle of the Batelle Environmental Evaluation System lies in splitting the environmental impacts
into four major categories: ecology, pollution, aesthetics, and human interest. Initially, the environmental
indicators are transformed into environmental quality. For example, in the pulp and paper industry,
water pollution could be represented by indicators, such as BOD, dissolved oxygen, fecal coliforms,
inorganic carbon, pH, temperature, total dissolved solids, turbidity, etc. The notation table defines a
number from 0 to 1 (0 for poor quality and 1 for good quality). Thus, it is possible to quantify
environmental deterioration and improvement. A total of 1,000 points (or Parameter Importance Units)
are shared among the indicators by the authors of the EIA. They reflect the relative importance of each
parameter. EES assessment of the environmental impacts of water resources development projects is
based on commensurate "environmental impact units" (EIU). Two EIU scores are produced, one 'with'
and another 'without' the proposed project. The difference between the two scores is a measure of the
environmental impact. The scores are based on the magnitude and importance of specific impacts.

(Vi)1- Environmental quality for indicator “i” in the project conditions

(Vi)2- Environmental quality for indicator “i” without the project
wi - Relative weight of the indicator “i” (PIU)
m- Total number of indicators.
Ecolabel
Eco-labels are voluntary certifications practiced around the world. It is independently developed by
governments, manufacturers, and third-party organizations. Producers and service providers
demonstrate through eco-label that they comply with high standards of environmental protection during
the life-cycle of the product and the provided services. The government of India in 1991 launched its
first eco-label scheme, known as ‘Eco-mark’ through the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB). The
BIS is responsible for setting quality and safety norms and is closely involved with the implementation
of the Eco mark scheme. The program is run by the Ministry of Environment, forests and climate change
(MoEF&CC) with technical advice from the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB).
 86

Eco-mark Logo
An earthen pot symbolizes the Eco-mark scheme that uses renewable resources like earth, which does
not produce hazardous wastes and consumes less energy in making. The Central Pollution Control
Board has set up guidelines for environmentally friendly products. These products can obtain
environmental labeling from the Government of India if they meet the criterion set by the acts in Indian
laws.

Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA)

Strategic Environmental Assessment aims to incorporate environmental and sustainability considerations
into strategic decision-making processes, such as the formulation of policies, plans, and programs (PPP).
SEA is an evidence-based instrument, aiming to add scientific rigor to PPP making by using suitable
assessment methods and techniques.
The structure of SEA is based on the following phases:

▪ "Screening", investigation of whether the plan or programme falls under the SEA legislation,
▪ "Scoping", defining the boundaries of investigation, assessment and assumptions required,
▪ "Documentation of the state of the environment", effectively a baseline on which to base
judgments,
▪ "Determination of the likely (non-marginal) environmental impacts", usually in terms of
Direction of Change rather than firm figures,
▪ Informing and consulting the public,
▪ Influencing "Decision taking" based on the assessment and,
▪ Monitoring of the effects of plans and programmes after their implementation.
 87

ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY

Environmental analytical chemistry can be defined as the study of contaminant behavior (pollution
chemistry), analysis (environmental analytical chemistry), and chemical control technology (pollution
control chemistry). Common analytical techniques used for the quantitative determination of
environmental chemicals include gravimetry, titrimetry and electrochemical methods. More
sophisticated approaches are used in the determination of trace metals and organic compounds. Metals
are commonly measured using atomic spectroscopy and mass spectrometry (e.g., Atomic Absorption
Spectrophotometry (AAS) and Inductively Coupled Plasma Atomic Emission (ICP-AES) or Inductively
Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometric (ICP-MS) techniques). Organic compounds, including PAHs, are
also measured using mass spectrometric methods, such as gas chromatography-mass spectrometry
(GC/MS) and liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC/MS).

1. Flame photometry
Flame photometry or flame atomic emission spectrometry (FAES) is an emission technique suitable for
different gases such as nitrous oxide or methane, and for determination of alkali metals such as Na and
K in solutions. When Na+ and K+ are excited, they emit spectra with sharp, bright lines at 589 and 768
nm, respectively. Within certain limits, the amount of light given off by the excited atoms is proportional
to the concentration of the metal ions in the solution.

2. Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry

In AAS, the flame serves to dissociate the element from its chemical bonds and place it in a ground state
at which it is capable of absorbing light of a wavelength specific for the element. This method can be
used in the analysis of Na+, K+, Ca2+, and Mg2+, and also for the determination of the concentration of
heavy metals (Mn, Pb, Cr, and Cd).

3. X-ray Diffraction
X-ray diffraction analysis (XRD) is one of the microstructural analysis methods used for the study of
structures and atomic spacing of unknown crystalline materials (e.g., minerals and inorganic compounds).
In this method the crystalline structure causes a beam of incident X-rays to diffract into many specific
directions.
4. IR spectroscopy

List of main IR spectroscopy bands

 88

The IR spectroscopy is based on the concept that molecules tend to absorb specific frequencies of light
that are characteristic of the corresponding structure of the molecules, and this method is often used to
identify structures of functional groups. It covers a range of techniques but is mostly based on absorption
spectroscopy.

5. Raman spectroscopy
Raman spectroscopy is a spectroscopic technique typically used to determine vibrational, rotational and
other low-frequency modes of molecules. This method is generally used to establish a structural
fingerprint by which molecules can be identified. The Stokes and Anti-Stokes lines are the two sets of
lines found in Raman Spectra. The former are those lines having wavelengths longer than that of the
incident light, whereas the latter have wavelengths shorter than the incident light.

Energy-level diagram showing the states involved in Raman spectra

6. Ultraviolet Spectroscopy
Ultraviolet spectroscopy is a general spectroscopic method in which absorption takes place in the
ultraviolet (200-400 nm.) spectral region. Absorption of ultra-violet radiation results in the excitation of
the electrons from the ground state to a higher energy state. It is used in the quantitative determination
of concentrations of the absorber in the solutions of transition metal ions and highly conjugated organic
compounds. This method works on the basis of Beer-Lambert law, which states that when a beam of
monochromatic light is passed through a solution of an absorbing substance, the rate of decrease of
intensity of radiation with the thickness of the absorbing solution is proportional to the incident radiation
as well as the concentration of the solution.

7. Inductively Coupled Plasma Atomic Emission Spectroscopy (ICP-AES)

ICP-AES is a type of emission spectroscopy that uses the inductively coupled plasma to produce excited
atoms and ions that emit electromagnetic radiation at wavelengths characteristic of a particular element.
Although each element emits energy at multiple wavelengths, it is most common in the ICP-AES
technique to select a single wavelength (or a very few) for a given element. The intensity of the energy
emitted at the chosen wavelength is proportional to the amount (concentration) of that element in the
sample being analyzed.
 89

8. Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (ICP- MS)

ICP-MS is a type of mass spectrometry that uses an inductively coupled plasma to ionize the sample. It
atomizes the sample and creates atomic and small polyatomic ions, which are then detected. It is used
for its ability to detect metals and several non-metals in liquid samples at very low concentrations. It can
detect different isotopes of the same element, which makes it a versatile tool in Isotopic labeling.

9. Electrophoresis
Electrophoresis is a technique commonly used in the lab to separate charged molecules according to
their size. Gel electrophoresis is another method for separation and analysis of macromolecules (DNA,
RNA, and proteins) and their fragments, based on their size and charge. It is used in clinical chemistry
to separate proteins by charge or size.

10. X-ray fluorescence

X-ray fluorescence (XRF) is the emission of characteristic ‘secondary’ (or fluorescent) X-rays from a
material that has been excited by being bombarded with high-energy X-rays or gamma rays. The
phenomenon is widely used for elemental and chemical analyses, particularly in the investigation of
metals, glass, ceramics and building materials, and for research in geochemistry, forensic science,
archaeology, and art objects such as paintings and murals.

11. Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NMR)

Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy is a technique to observe local magnetic fields around atomic
nuclei. The sample is placed in a magnetic field and the NMR signal is produced by excitation of the
nuclei sample with radio waves. The signals are detected with sensitive radio receivers. The
intramolecular magnetic field around an atom in a molecule changes the resonance frequency, thus giving
access to details of the electronic structure of a molecule and its individual functional groups. As the
fields are unique or highly characteristic to individual compounds, in modern organic chemistry practice,
NMR spectroscopy is the definitive method to identify monomolecular organic compounds. Similarly,
biochemists use NMR to identify proteins and other complex molecules. The most common types of
NMR spectroscopy are proton and carbon-13, but these methods are only applicable to samples that
contain nuclei possessing spin.

12. Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR)

Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) is a technique used to obtain an infrared spectrum of
absorption or emission of a solid, liquid or gas. An FTIR spectrometer simultaneously collects high-
spectral-resolution data over a wide spectral range. This confers a significant advantage over a dispersive
spectrometer, which measures intensity over a narrow range of wavelengths at a time.

13. Paper chromatography

Chromatography is a method of separating mixtures and identifying the components. The Paper
chromatography technique has two major components: a mobile phase and a stationary phase. The
mobile phase is a solution that travels up the stationary phase due to capillary action. The mobile phase
is generally a mixture of non-polar organic solvent, while the stationary phase is a polar organic solvent
 90

in water. Mixtures are separated because some components will be more attracted to the stationary phase
(and stick to it) while some components will be more attracted to the mobile phase (and travel with it).
The samples to be separated must be spotted onto the paper (stationary phase). By placing one edge of
the paper into a small amount of liquid (mobile phase), the paper will wick up the liquid. The
components that are attracted more to the paper will move very little, if at all. The components that are
more attracted to the mobile phase will travel with it, at different rates depending on the level of attraction.
This component traveling process is called elution. A component with a given solubility travels along
with the mobile phase at one rate, regardless of what other components are present in the sample.
14. Thin-layer chromatography (TLC)
Thin-layer chromatography (TLC) is a technique used to separate non-volatile mixtures. It is performed
on a sheet of glass, plastic or aluminum foil, which is coated with a thin layer of adsorbent material: silica
gel, aluminum oxide (alumina), or cellulose. This layer of adsorbent is known as the stationary phase.

After the sample has been applied on the plate, a solvent or solvent mixture (known as the mobile phase)
is drawn up the plate via capillary action. Separation is achieved since different analytes ascend the TLC
plate at different rates. The mobile phase has different properties from the stationary phase. For example,
non-polar mobile phases (e.g. heptane) are used with polar stationary phases such as silica gel.
The spots are visualized after the completion of the experiment. This can be done simply by projecting
ultraviolet light onto the sheet. When sheets are treated with phosphor, dark spots appear on the sheet
where compounds absorb the light impinging on certain areas. Chemical processes can also be used to
visualize the spots. For example, anisaldehyde forms colored adducts with many compounds. Similarly,
sulfuric acid will char most organic compounds leaving a dark spot on the sheet.

Retardation factor
A solvent in chromatography is the liquid in which the paper is placed, and the solute is the ink that is
being separated. The retardation factor (Rƒ) is defined as the ratio of the distance traveled by the solute
to the distance traveled by the solvent. It is used in chromatography to quantify the amount of retardation
of a sample in a stationary phase relative to a mobile phase. The term retention factor is sometimes used
synonymously with the retardation factor in regard to planar chromatography.
 91

The Rf value will always be in the range 0 to 1. If Rƒ value of a solution is zero, then the solute will
remain in the stationary phase and is immobile. If Rƒ value = 1 then the solute will have no affinity for
the stationary phase and travels with the solvent front.

15. Gas chromatography

Gas chromatography is used for separating and analyzing compounds that can be vaporized without
decomposition. GC is generally used for testing the purity of a particular substance, or for separating the
different components of a mixture (the relative amounts of such components can also be determined).
On some occasions, GC also helps in identifying a compound. In gas chromatography, the mobile phase
is a carrier gas, usually an inert gas such as helium or an unreactive gas such as nitrogen. The stationary
phase is a microscopic layer of liquid or polymer on an inert solid support, inside a piece of glass or
metal tubing called a column. The gaseous compounds being analyzed interact with the walls of the
column, which is coated with a stationary phase. This causes each compound to elute at a different time,
known as the retention time of the compound. The comparison of retention times is what gives GC its
analytical usefulness.

16. High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC)

HPLC is a technique in analytical chemistry used to separate, identify, and quantify each component in
a mixture. It relies on pumps to pass a pressurized liquid solvent containing the sample mixture through
a column filled with a solid adsorbent material. Each component in the sample interacts slightly
differently with the adsorbent material, causing different flow rates for the different components and
leading to the separation of the components as they flow out of the column. HPLC is distinguished from
traditional (low pressure) liquid chromatography because operational pressures are significantly higher
(50–350 bar), while ordinary liquid chromatography typically relies on the force of gravity to pass the
mobile phase through the column.

17. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS)

Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) is an analytical method that combines the features of
gas-chromatography and mass spectrometry to identify different substances within a test sample.
Applications of GC-MS include drug detection, fire investigation, environmental analysis, explosives
investigation, and identification of unknown samples. Besides, it can identify trace elements in materials
that were previously thought to have disintegrated beyond identification.

18. Scanning electron microscope (SEM)

A scanning electron microscope (SEM) is a type of electron microscope that produces images of a sample
by scanning the surface with a focused beam of electrons. The electrons interact with atoms in the sample,
producing various signals that contain information about the surface topography and composition of the
 92

sample. The electron beam is scanned in a raster scan pattern, and the position of the beam is combined
with the intensity of the detected signal to produce an image. In the most common SEM mode, secondary
electrons emitted by atoms excited by the electron beam are detected using an Everhart-Thornley
detector. SEM can achieve resolution better than 1 nanometer.

19. Transmission electron microscopy

Transmission electron microscopy is a microscopic technique in which a beam of electrons is transmitted
through a specimen to form an image. The specimen is most often an ultrathin section less than 100 nm
thick or a suspension on a grid. An image is formed from the interaction of the electrons with the sample
as the beam is transmitted through the specimen. The image is then magnified and focused onto an
imaging device, such as a fluorescent screen, a layer of photographic film, or a sensor such as a scintillator
attached to a charge-coupled device.

20. Gravimetric analysis

Gravimetric analysis describes a set of methods used in analytical chemistry for the quantitative
determination of an analyte (the ion being analyzed) based on its mass. The principle behind this type of
analysis is that once an ion's mass has been determined as a unique compound, that known measurement
can then be used to determine the same analyte's mass in a mixture, as long as the relative quantities of
the other constituents are known. The four main types of this method of analysis are precipitation,
volatilization, electro-analytical and miscellaneous physical method. The methods involve changing the
phase of the analyte to separate it in its pure form from the original mixture and are quantitative
measurements.

21. Bomb calorimeter

A bomb calorimeter is a type of constant-volume calorimeter used in measuring the heat of combustion
of a particular reaction. Bomb calorimeters have to withstand the large pressure within the calorimeter
as the reaction is being measured. Electrical energy is used to ignite the fuel; as the fuel is burning, it will
heat up the surrounding air, which expands and escapes through a tube that leads the air out of the
calorimeter. When the air is escaping through the copper tube it will also heat up the water outside the
tube. The change in temperature of the water allows for calculating the calorie content of the fuel.
 93

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 94

ENVIRONMENTAL LAWS, CONVENTIONS, AND

AGREEMENTS
When India became a republic, the constitution had no direct provisions for environmental protection.
The Stockholm Conference and increasing awareness about the environmental crises prompted the
Indian Government to enact the 42nd Amendment to the Constitution in 1976. The amendment
introduced direct provisions for the protection of the environment by adding Article 48-A to the Directive
Principles of State Policy.

Article 48A
The article states that “The State shall endeavor to protect and improve the environment and to
safeguard the forests and wildlife of the country.”

Article 51A
It deals with the fundamental duties of the citizens and states that “It shall be the duty of every citizen of
India to protect and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes, rivers, and wildlife and to
have compassion for living creatures.”

Article 253
Article 253 states that “Parliament has the power to make any law for the whole or any part of the country
for implementing any treaty, agreement or convention with any other country.” In simple words, this
article suggests that in the wake of the Stockholm Conference of 1972, Parliament has the power to
legislate on all matters linked to the preservation of the natural environment.

Wildlife Protection Act, 1972

India had only five designated national parks before the enactment of WPA (1972). The Wildlife
Protection act has six schedules and seven chapters that give varying degrees of protection to plant and
animal species. Schedule I and part II of Schedule II provide absolute protection - offenses under these
are prescribed the highest penalties. Species listed in Schedule III and Schedule IV are also protected,
but the penalties are much lower. Schedule V includes the animals which may be hunted. These are
Common crow, Fruit bats, Mice & Rats only. Some of the salient features of WLP Act, 1972 are:

1. The specified endemic plants in Schedule VI are prohibited from cultivation and planting- Beddomes’
cycad (Cycas beddomei), Blue Vanda (Vanda soerulec), Kuth (Saussurea lappa), Ladies slipper orchids
(Paphiopedilum spp.), Pitcher plant (Nepenthes khasiana), Red Vanda (Rananthera inschootiana).

2. The Chief Wildlife Warden may, if he is satisfied that any wild animal specified in Sch. 1 has become
dangerous to human life or is so disabled or diseased as to be beyond recovery, by order in writing and
stating the reasons, therefore permit any person to hunt such animal or cause animal to be hunted.

3. it shall be lawful for the Chief Wildlife Warden, to grant a permit, by an order in writing stating the
reasons therefor, to any person, on payment of such fee as may be prescribed, for the purpose of
education, scientific research, translocation of wild animals, and Collection of specimens (Section 38-1).
 95

4. The Chief Wild Life Warden may with the previous permission of the State Government, grant to
any person a permit to pick, uproot, acquire or collect from a forest land or the area specified under
section 17A or transport, subject to such conditions as may be specified therein, any specified plant for
the purpose of education, scientific research, collection, preservation, and display in a herbarium of any
scientific institutions; or propagation by a person or an institution approved by the Central Government
in this regard.

5. The State Government may, by notification, declare its intention to constitute any area other than area
comprised of any reserve forest or the territorial waters as a sanctuary (Section 18) if it considers that
such area is of adequate ecological, faunal, floral, geomorphological, natural. or zoological significance,
for the purpose of protecting, propagating or developing wildlife or its environment.
6. Whenever it appears to the State Government that an area, whether within a sanctuary or not, is, by
reason of its ecological, faunal, floral, geomorphological, or zoological association of importance, needed
to be constituted as a National Park for the purpose of protection& propagating or developing wildlife
therein or its environment, it may, by notification, declare its intention to constitute such area as a
National Park (Section 35).

7. The State Government may, by notification, declare any area closed to hunting for such period as may
be specified in the notification. No hunting of any wild animal shall be permitted in a closed area during
a particular period. (Section 36)

Forest Conservation Act, 1980

This is an Act of the Parliament of India to provide for the conservation of forests and for matters
connected therewith or ancillary or incidental thereto. It was enacted by the Parliament of India to control
further deforestation of Forest Areas in India. In 1992, some amendment was made in the Act which
made provisions for allowing some non-forest activities in forests, without cutting trees or limited cutting
with prior approval of Central Govt.
Section 1 of the Act explains Short Title, Extent, and the Date of commencement.

Section 2 of the act is about the restriction on the State Government for de-reservation of forests or use
of forest land for non-forest purpose. "non-forest purpose" means the breaking up or clearing of any
forest land or portion thereof for- (a) the cultivation of tea, coffee, horticultural crops; (b) any purpose
other than reforestation.

Section 3 of the Act deals with the constitution of an Advisory Committee. It gives Central Government
the power to constitute a committee of such number of persons as it may deem fit to advise the
Government.
Section 3A deals with Penalty for contravention of the provisions of the Act.

Section 3B deals with cases in which the offense is made by Authorities or Government Departments.

Section 4 deals with the power to make rules. It states that the Central Government may, by notification
in the Official Gazette, makes rules for carrying out the provisions of this Act.
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Section 5 deals with repealing and saving. The Forest (Conservation) Ordinance, 1980 is hereby
replaced.

The State Advisory Groups (SAGs)

SAGS are constituted by the Ministry of Environment & Forests, Government of India, under the Forest
(Conservation) Act, 1980 shall meet according to the timetable to monitor the effective implementation
of the compensatory afforestation in the country, an authority named as "Compensatory Afforestation
Management and Planning Authority (CAMPA)" is being constituted at the national level. Through the
tool of PIL (Public Interest Litigation) the Supreme Court had dealt with a variety of issues related to
conservation of forest, preservation, and protection of wildlife, protecting the rights of tribal people, and
thus balancing the symbiotic relationship between the forest dwellers and the goal of forest conservation.
The Act was enacted to meet the obligations under the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), to
which India is a party.

Biological Diversity Act, 2002

An Act to provide for the conservation of biological diversity, sustainable use of its components and fair
and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the use of biological resources, knowledge and for
matters connected therewith or incidental thereto.

National Biodiversity Authority (NBA): The National Biodiversity Authority is a statutory autonomous
body under the Ministry of Environment, Forests and climate change, Government of India established
in 2003. All matters relating to requests for access by foreign individuals, institutions or companies, and
all matters relating to the transfer of results of research to any foreigner will be dealt with by the National
Biodiversity Authority.

State Biodiversity Boards (SBB): All matters relating to access by Indians for commercial purposes will
be under the purview of the State Biodiversity Boards (SBB). The Indian industry will be required to
provide prior intimation to the concerned SBB about the use of a biological resource. The State Board
will have the power to restrict any such activity, which violates the objectives of conservation, sustainable
use and equitable sharing of benefits.

Biodiversity Management Committees (BMCs): Institutions of local self-government will be required to

set up Biodiversity Management Committees in their respective areas for conservation, sustainable use,
documentation of biodiversity and chronicling of knowledge relating to biodiversity.

Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981

The act provides for the control and abatement of air pollution. It entrusts the power of enforcing this
act to the Central Pollution Control Board. The act states that sources of air pollution, such as industry,
vehicles, power plants, etc., are not permitted to release particulate matter, lead, carbon monoxide, sulfur
dioxide, nitrogen oxide, volatile organic compounds (VOCs) or other toxic substances beyond a
prescribed level. The Act specifically empowers State Government to designate air pollution areas and
to prescribe the type of fuel to be used in these designated areas. According to this Act, no person can
operate certain types of industries including the asbestos, cement, fertilizer and petroleum industries
without consent of the State Board.
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The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974

Water (Prevention & Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 is a comprehensive legislation for the maintaining
or restoring of wholesomeness of water in the country. The Central and State Pollution Control Boards
were constituted under this act. The act was amended in 1978 and 1988 to clarify certain ambiguities
and to vest more powers in the Pollution Control Board. Under the water act, Sewage or pollutants
cannot be discharged into water bodies including lakes and it is the duty of the state pollution control
board to intervene and stop such activity.

Hazardous Waste Management Rules, 2016

Unscientific disposal of hazardous and other wastes through burning or incineration leads to the emission
of toxic fumes comprising of Dioxins & Furans, Mercury, and heavy metals causing air pollution and
associated health-related problems. The salient features of Hazardous and Other Wastes (Management
& Transboundary Movement) Rules, 2016 are:

1. The ambit of the rules has been expanded by including other wastes such as waste tire, paper waste,
metal scrap, used electronic items, etc.

2. Waste Management hierarchy in the sequence of priority of prevention, minimization, reuse,

recycling, recovery, co-processing, and safe disposal has been incorporated.

3. The basic necessity of infrastructure to safeguard the health and environment from the waste
processing industry has been prescribed as Standard Operating Procedure (SOPs). It is a set of step-by-
step instructions compiled by an organization to help workers carry out complex routine operations.

4. List of Waste Constituents with Concentration Limits has been revised as per international standard
and drinking water standard. The items such as Waste edible fats and oil of animals, or vegetable origin,
Household waste, and other chemical wastes especially in the solvent form are prohibited from
importing.

Bio-Medical Waste Management Rules, 2016

The quantity of bio-medical waste generated in India is estimated to be 1-2 kg per bed per day in a
hospital. 85% of hospital waste is non-hazardous, whereas 15% is infectious/hazardous. Mixing of
hazardous wastes non-hazardous wastes results in the contamination of entire waste. Scientific disposal
of Biomedical Waste through segregation, collection, and treatment in an environmentally sound
manner minimizes the adverse impact on health workers and the environment.
Salient features of BMW Management Rules, 2016 are:

1. Phase-out the use of chlorinated plastic bags, gloves, and blood bags within two years.

2. Existing incinerators to achieve the standards for retention time in the secondary chamber and Dioxin
and Furans within two years.

3. Bio-medical waste has been classified into 4 categories instead of 10 to improve the segregation of
waste at source. The amended rules stipulate that generators of bio-medical waste such as hospitals,
nursing homes, clinics, and dispensaries, etc., will not use chlorinated plastic bags and gloves beyond
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March 27, 2019, in medical applications to save the environment. Blood bags have been exempted for
phase-out, as per the amended BMW rules, 2018.

CATEGORIES OF BIOMEDICAL WASTE

Category Type of Waste Treatment

Yellow Human tissues, organs, body parts Incineration or Plasma Pyrolysis or deep
and fetus below the viability period, burial. Expired cytotoxic drugs and items
animal anatomical waste, soiled contaminated with cytotoxic drugs to be
Waste: Items contaminated with returned back to the manufacturer or
blood, body fluids like dressings, supplier for incineration at temperature
plaster casts and cotton swabs, expired >1200 0 C or to common biomedical waste
or discarded medicine, and chemicals treatment facility or hazardous waste
used in the production of biological treatment, storage and disposal facility.
and used or discarded disinfectants,
Microbiology, Biotechnology, and
other clinical laboratory waste.
Red Wastes generated from disposable Autoclaving or microwaving/ hydroclaving
items such as tubing, bottles, followed by shredding or mutilation or
intravenous tubes and sets, catheters, combination of sterilization and shredding.
urine bags, syringes (without needles Treated waste to be sent to registered or
and fixed needle syringes) and authorized recyclers or for energy recovery
vacutainers with their needles cut) and or plastics to diesel or fuel oil or for road
gloves. making.

White Waste sharps including Metals: Autoclaving or Dry Heat Sterilization

(Translucent) Needles, syringes with fixed needles, followed by shredding or mutilation or
needles from needle tip cutter or encapsulation in a metal container or cement
burner, scalpels, blades, or any other concrete; a combination of shredding cum
contaminated sharp object that may autoclaving; and sent for final disposal to
cause puncture and cuts. This iron foundries or sanitary landfill or
includes both used, discarded and designated concrete waste sharp pit.
contaminated metal sharps

Blue Glassware: Broken or discarded and Disinfection (by soaking the washed glass
contaminated glass including waste after cleaning with detergent and
medicine vials and ampoules except Sodium Hypochlorite treatment) or through
those contaminated with cytotoxic autoclaving or microwaving or hydroclaving
wastes. and then sent for recycling.

The bins and bags used in hospitals should carry the biohazard symbol indicating the nature of waste to
the patients and the public.
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The Environment (Protection) Act,1986

The Environment (Protection) Act was enacted in 1986 with the objective of providing for the protection
and improvement of the environment. The rules lay down procedures for setting standards of emission
or discharge of environmental pollutants. It also empowers the Central Government to establish
authorities charged with the mandate of preventing environmental pollution in all its forms and to tackle
specific environmental problems that are peculiar to different parts of the country. The Act was last
amended in 1991.

The Plastic Waste Management Rules, 2016

The main aim of The Plastic Waste Management Rules, 2016 was to Increase the minimum thickness
of plastic carry bags from 40 to 50 microns and stipulate minimum thickness of 50 microns for plastic
sheets, and also to facilitate collection and recycling of plastic wastes. The rural areas have been brought
within the ambit of the Rules since plastic has reached in such areas as well. Responsibility for
implementation of the rules is given to Gram Panchayat. The Ministry of Environment, Forest and
Climate Change has notified the Plastic Waste Management (Amendment) Rules 2018 on March 27.
The amended Rules lay down that the phasing out of Multilayered Plastic (MLP) is now applicable to
MLP, which are "non-recyclable, or non-energy recoverable, or with no alternate use.” Besides, Rule 15
of the Plastic Waste Management (Amendment) Rules 2018 on "explicit pricing of carry bags" has been
omitted.

Motor Vehicle Act, 1988

The Act came into force from 1 July 1989. It replaced Motor Vehicles Act, 1939 which earlier replaced
the first such enactment Motor Vehicles Act, 1914. The act is amended by The Motor Vehicles
(Amendment) Act, 2019. It provides in detail the legislative provisions regarding licensing of
drivers/conductors, registration of motor vehicles, control of motor vehicles through permits, special
provisions relating to state transport undertakings, traffic regulation, insurance, liability, offenses, and
penalties, etc. For exercising the legislative provisions of the Act, the Government of India made the
Central Motor Vehicles Rules 1989.

Construction and Demolition Waste Management Rules, 2016

The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change notified the Construction & Demolition
Waste Management Rules, 2016 as an initiative to tackle the issues of pollution and waste management.
The rule applies to everyone who generates construction and demolition waste. Large generators of waste
(more than 20 tons or more in one day or 300 tons per project in a month) shall segregate the waste into
streams such as concrete, soil, steel, wood and plastics, bricks and mortar. Besides, the authorities shall
procure and utilize 10-20% materials made from construction and demolition waste in municipal and
government contracts.
The Manufacture, Storage and Import of Hazardous Chemical Rules, 2000

The regulation was firstly enacted in 1989 by the Ministry of Environment & Forests (MoEF) and later
amended in 1994 and 2000. It regulates the manufacture, storage, and import of hazardous chemicals in
India. The transport of hazardous chemicals must meet the provisions of the Motor Vehicles Act, 1988.
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The Solid Waste Management Rules, 2016

In India, only about 75- 80% of the municipal waste gets collected and out of this only 22-28 % is
processed and treated, and the remaining is disposed of indiscriminately at dump yards. According to
the Solid Waste management rules (2016), the generators are obliged to segregate waste into three
streams: wet (Biodegradable), dry (Plastic, Paper, metal, wood, etc.) and domestic hazardous wastes
(diapers, napkins, empty containers of cleaning agents, mosquito repellents, etc.), and handover
segregated wastes to authorized rag-pickers or waste collectors. Non-recyclable waste having a calorific
value of 1500 K/cal/kg or more shall not be disposed of on landfills and shall only be utilized for
generating energy either through refuse-derived fuel or by giving away as feedstock for preparing refuse-
derived fuel. In addition to this, high calorific wastes shall be used for co-processing in cement or thermal
power plants.

The Batteries (Management and Handling) Rules, 2001

The Batteries (Management & Handling) Rules, 2001 apply to every manufacturer, importer, re-
conditioner, assembler, dealer, recycler, auctioneer, consumer and bulk consumer involved in the
manufacture, processing, sale, purchase, and use of batteries or components thereof.

The Public Liability Insurance Act, and Rules 1991

The Public Liability Insurance Act of 1991 is an act of Parliament of India to provide for immediate
relief to the persons affected by accidents occurring while handling any hazardous substance. This act is
related to immediate relief and not compensation. The victims have a right to claim compensation under
any other law.

The Noise Pollution (Regulation and Control) (Amendment) Rules, 2000, 2010
These rules lay down such terms and conditions that are necessary to reduce noise pollution such as
banning the use of loudspeakers or public address systems during night hours (between 10:00 p.m. to
6:00 am) on or during any cultural or religious festive occasion. According to the rules, a loudspeaker or
any sound-producing system or a sound amplifier shall not be used at night time except in closed
premises for communication within like the auditorium, conference rooms, community halls, banquet
halls or during a public emergency. The noise level at the boundary of the public place where
loudspeaker or public address system is being used the sound should not exceed 10dB above the ambient
noise standards of that area or 75dB whichever is less.

National Forest Policy, 1988

The principal aim of National Forest Policy, 1988 is to ensure environmental stability and maintenance
of ecological balance. The major achievements of the policy are:
1. Increase in the forest and tree cover.

2. Involvement of local communities in the protection, conservation, and management of forests through
the Joint Forest Management Programme. In this scheme, the village committee is known as the Forest
Protection Committee (FPC), with which the Forest Department enters into a JFM agreement. Villagers
agree to assist in the safeguarding of forest resources by providing protection from fire, grazing, and illegal
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harvesting in exchange for what they receive, i.e. Non-timber forest products and a share of the revenue
from the sale of timber products.
3. Meeting the requirement of fuelwood, fodder and minor forest produce of the rural and tribal
populations.

4. Conservation of Biological Diversity and Genetic Resources of the country through ex-situ and in-situ
conservation measures.
5. A significant contribution to the maintenance of the environment and ecological stability.

National Water Policy, 2012

National Water Policy is formulated by the Ministry of Water Resources of the Government of India to
govern the planning and development of water resources and their optimum utilization. The first
National Water Policy was adopted in September 1987. It was reviewed and updated in 2002 and later
in 2012. The main emphasis of National Water Policy 2012 is to treat water as an economic good which
the ministry claims to promote its conservation and efficient use. This provision intended for the
privatization of water-delivery services is being criticized from various quarters. The policy also does away
with the priorities for water allocation mentioned in 1987 and 2002 versions of the policy.

National Environmental Policy, 2006

National Environment Policy 2006 is a response to India’s national commitment to a clean environment,
mandated in the Constitution (Articles 48 A and 51 A). Among its objectives, the policy aims to empower
stakeholders, including communities, to care for their own environments by providing opportunities to
share in managing their local resources and the right to participate in decision-making. The policy also
aimed to formulate an innovative strategy to increase the forest and tree cover from the present level of
23 percent of the country’s land area, to 33 percent in 2012 through afforestation on degraded forest
land, wasteland and on private or revenue land.

The e-waste (Management) Rules, 2016

The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change notified the E-Waste Management Rules,
2016 in supersession of the e-waste (Management & Handling) Rules, 2011. In this rule, the
manufacturer, dealer, refurbisher, and Producer Responsibility Organization (PRO) have been
introduced as additional stakeholders. Compact Fluorescent Lamp (CFL) and other mercury-containing
lamps were brought under the purview of the rules.

Environmental Conventions and Agreements

Stockholm Conference on Human Environment (1972)

In 1972 in Stockholm, Sweden, the United Nations hosted its first Conference on the Human
Environment, the official declaration of which is commonly called the Stockholm Declaration of 1972.
The declaration was the first major international document to recognize that both developing and
industrialized economies contribute to environmental problems, and it noted that most environmental
problems in developing economies occur because of underdevelopment. One of the seminal issues that
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emerged from the conference is the recognition of poverty alleviation for protecting the environment.
The Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi in her influential speech in the conference brought forward
the connection between ecological management and poverty alleviation.
Montreal Protocol (1987)
The Montreal Protocol on substances that deplete the Ozone layer (a protocol to the Vienna Convention
for the Protection of the Ozone Layer) is an international treaty designed to protect the ozone layer by
phasing out the production of numerous substances that are responsible for ozone depletion. Climate
projections indicate that the ozone layer will return to 1980 levels between 2050 and 2070. Owing to its
widespread adoption and implementation the protocol has been hailed as an example of exceptional
international co-operation.

Conference of Parties (COPs)

The United Nations Climate Change Conferences are yearly conferences held in the framework of the
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). They serve as the formal
meeting of the UNFCCC Parties (Conference of the Parties, COP) to assess progress in dealing with
climate change. It began in the mid-1990s, to negotiate the Kyoto Protocol for establishing legally binding
obligations for developed countries to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions. A key task for the COP is
to review the national communications and emission inventories submitted by Parties. Based on this
information, the COP assesses the effects of the measures taken by Parties and the progress made in
achieving the ultimate objective of the Convention.
Basel Convention (1989, 1992)
The Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their
Disposal was adopted on 22 March 1989 in response to a public outcry following the discovery of
deposits of toxic wastes imported from abroad in Africa and other parts of the developing world. It does
not, however, address the movement of radioactive waste. The overarching objective of the Basel
Convention is to protect human health and the environment against the adverse effects of hazardous
wastes. Its scope of application covers a wide range of wastes defined as ‘hazardous wastes’ based on their
origin and composition.

Ramsar Convention on Wetlands (1971)

The Ramsar Convention on Wetlands of International Importance (especially as Waterfowl Habitat) is
an international treaty for the conservation and sustainable use of wetlands. It is also known as the
Convention on Wetlands, named after the city of Ramsar in Iran, where the Convention was signed in
1971. The Montreux Record is a register of wetland sites on the List of Ramsar wetlands of international
importance where changes in ecological character have occurred, are occurring, or are likely to occur as
a result of technological developments, pollution or other human interference. India became a
contracting party to the Ramsar Convention in October 1981 and designated Chilika Lake (Odisha) and
Keoladeo National Park (Rajasthan) as its first two Ramsar Sites. Four additional sites were designated
in 1990: Sambhar Lake (Rajasthan), Loktak Lake (Manipur), Harike Lake (Punjab) and Wular Lake
(Jammu & Kashmir). Currently, India has 26 Ramsar Sites.
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Earth Summit (1992)

The United Nations Conference for Environment and Development (UNCED) in Rio de Janeiro was
the first large international conference focused on global environmental questions since the 1972 UN
meeting in Stockholm. The conference presented and introduced the concept of sustainable
development as a strategy for the future to the world, and developed the action program Agenda 21. It
also adopted the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), the UN Forest
Declaration and the UN Convention to Combat Desertification. To help ensure a successful follow-up
to UNCED, the UN Commission for Sustainable Development (CSD) was founded. The Earth Summit
also led to the establishment of the Convention on Biological Diversity, which has three primary goals:
conservation of biodiversity; sustainable use of the components of biodiversity; and a fair and equitable
sharing of the benefits that arise from using biological resources.

Agenda 21 is a comprehensive plan for intergovernmental agencies, national governments, local

governments, and NGOs to work hand in hand to protect the environment through sustainable
development. It contains four categories: Social and Economic Dimensions, Conservation and
Management of Resources for Development, Strengthening the Role of Major Groups, and Means of
Implementation. The United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development is primarily responsible
for the implementation of Agenda 21.
Global Environment Facility (GEF)
The Global Environment Facility (GEF) was established on the eve of the 1992 Rio Earth Summit to
help tackle our planet’s most pressing environmental problems. GEF provides grants for projects related
to biodiversity, climate change, international waters, land degradation, the ozone layer, persistent organic
pollutants (POPs), mercury, sustainable forest management, food security, and sustainable cities.

Convention on Biodiversity (1992)

The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), known informally as the Biodiversity Convention, is a
multilateral treaty. The convention recognized for the first time in international law that the conservation
of biodiversity is "a common concern of humankind" and is an integral part of the development process.
The agreement covers all ecosystems, species, and genetic resources. It links traditional conservation
efforts to the economic goal of using biological resources sustainably. The Convention has three main
goals including the conservation of biological diversity (or biodiversity); the sustainable use of its
components; and the fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from genetic resources.
CBD has two supplementary agreements - Cartagena Protocol and Nagoya Protocol.

The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety is an international agreement which aims to ensure the safe
handling, transport, and use of living modified organisms (LMOs) resulting from modern biotechnology
that may have adverse effects on biological diversity, taking also into account risks to human health.

The Nagoya Protocol on Access to Genetic Resources and the Fair and Equitable Sharing of Benefits
Arising from their Utilization (ABS) provides a transparent legal framework for the effective
implementation of one of the three objectives of the CBB, i.e. the fair and equitable sharing of benefits
arising out of the utilization of genetic resources.
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Kyoto Protocol (1997)

The Kyoto Protocol is an international treaty that commits state parties to reduce greenhouse gas
emissions. It is based on the scientific consensus that global warming is occurring and it is extremely
likely that human-made CO2 emissions have predominantly caused it. The Kyoto Protocol applies to the
six greenhouse gases listed in Annex A: Carbon dioxide (CO2), Methane (CH4), Nitrous oxide (N2O),
Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), Perfluorocarbons (PFCs), and Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6).

Emissions trading - Carbon trading

Carbon trading is the process of buying and selling permits and credits to emit carbon dioxide. Countries
with commitments under the Kyoto Protocol have accepted targets for limiting or reducing emissions.
These targets are expressed as levels of allowed emissions or ‘assigned amounts.’ The allowed emissions
are divided into ‘assigned amount units’ (AAUs). Countries that have emission units to spare (i.e.
emissions permitted to them but not "used") are allowed to sell this excess capacity to countries that are
over their targets. Thus, a new commodity was created in the form of emission reductions or removals.
Since carbon dioxide is the principal greenhouse gas, it was termed carbon trading. Carbon is now
tracked and traded like any other commodity. This is often termed the carbon market.
The other units which may be transferred under the scheme are the following.

1. A removal unit (RMU) on the basis of land use, land-use change and forestry (LULUCF) activities
such as reforestation.

2. An emission reduction unit (ERU) generated by a joint implementation project.

3. A certified emission reduction (CER) generated from a clean development mechanism project activity.
Clean Development Mechanism (CDM)

The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) allows a country with an emission-reduction or emission-
limitation commitment under the Kyoto Protocol to implement an emission-reduction project in
developing countries. Such projects can earn saleable certified emission reduction (CER) credits, each
equivalent to one tonne of CO2, which can be counted towards meeting Kyoto targets. A CDM project
activity might involve, for example, a rural electrification project using solar panels or the installation of
more energy-efficient boilers.
Earth Summit at Johannesburg (2002)

The United Nations World Summit on Sustainable Development, also called Earth Summit 2002, was
an international convention on the environment and sustainable development held in Johannesburg,
South Africa. The Johannesburg Declaration contains targets and timetables for achieving the goals of
Agenda 21.
RIO+20

Rio+20 or Earth Summit 2012 was the third international conference on sustainable development aimed
at reconciling the economic and environmental goals of the global community. The primary result of the
conference was the nonbinding document, "The Future We Want," a 49-page work paper. In it, the
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heads of state of the 192 governments in attendance renewed their political commitment to sustainable
development and declared their commitment to the promotion of a sustainable future.
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

The UNFCCC objective is to "stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that
would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system". The framework sets non-
binding limits on greenhouse gas emissions for individual countries and contains no enforcement
mechanisms. Instead, the framework outlines how specific international treaties (called "protocols" or
"Agreements") may be negotiated to specify further action towards the objective of the UNFCCC. One
of the first tasks set by the UNFCCC was for signatory nations to establish national greenhouse gas
inventories of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions.

The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)

The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) were eight international development goals that all 191
UN member states have agreed to achieve by the year 2015. The goals had been established following
the Millennium Summit of the United Nations in 2000.

As the MDGs era came to a conclusion with the end of the year 2015, the official launch of the bold and
transformative 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development was adopted by world leaders in 2016. The
Eight Millennium Development Goals are given below.
1. To eradicate extreme poverty and hunger
2. To achieve universal primary education

3. To promote gender equality and empower women

4. To reduce child mortality

5. To improve maternal health

6. To combat HIV/AIDS, malaria, and other diseases

7. To ensure environmental sustainability

8. To develop a global partnership for development

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)

The IPCC was established in 1988 by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and the United
Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). IPCC is dedicated to providing the world with an objective,
scientific view of climate change, its natural, political and economic impacts and risks, and possible
response options. IPCC reports cover the "scientific, technical and socio-economic information relevant
to understanding the scientific basis of risk of human-induced climate change, its potential impacts and
options for adaptation and mitigation." The IPCC does not carry out original research, nor does it
monitor climate or related phenomena itself. Rather, it assesses published literature including peer-
reviewed and non-peer-reviewed sources.
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Copenhagen Summit (2009)

The 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference, commonly known as the Copenhagen Summit
recognized that climate change is one of the greatest challenges of the present day and that actions should
be taken to keep any temperature increases to below 2 °C. Besides, it significantly advanced the
negotiations on the infrastructure needed for effective global climate change cooperation, including
improvements to the Clean Development Mechanism of the Kyoto Protocol, and also produced the
Copenhagen Accord, which expressed clear a political intent to constrain carbon and respond to climate
change, in both the short and long term.

United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)

The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) is a program that coordinates the organization's
environmental activities and assists developing countries in implementing environmentally sound policies
and practices. UNEP's activities cover a wide range of issues regarding the atmosphere, marine and
terrestrial ecosystems, environmental governance, and green economy. UNEP has aided in the
formulation of guidelines and treaties on issues such as the international trade in potentially harmful
chemicals, transboundary air pollution, and contamination of international waterways. The International
Cyanide Management Code, a program of best practice for the use of chemicals at gold mining
operations, was developed under UN Environment's aegis.

International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme

The International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme (IGBP) was a research program that studies the
phenomenon of global change that ran from 1987 to 2015. IGBP aimed to describe and understand how
the physical, chemical and biological processes regulate the Earth system.
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ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC)
National Action Plan on Climate change was officially launched in 2018 for promoting development
objectives while also yielding co-benefits for a National Solar Mission. The action plan outlines a number
of steps to simultaneously advance India's development and climate change-related objectives. It
encompasses a range of measures. The core of the implementation of the Action plan is constituted by
the following eight missions:
1. National Solar Mission
The major objective of the mission is to enhance the share of solar energy in the total energy requirement
of the country, while also expanding the scope of other renewable sources. The NAPCC sets the solar
mission a target of delivering 80% coverage for all low temperature (<150° C) applications of solar energy
in urban areas, industries and commercial establishments, and a target of 60% coverage for medium
temperature (150° C to 250° C) applications.
2. National Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency
The NAPCC recommends mandating specific energy consumption decreases in large energy-consuming
industries, with a system for companies to trade energy-saving certificates, financing for public-private
partnerships to reduce energy consumption through demand-side management programs in the
municipal, buildings, and agricultural sectors, and energy incentives including reduced taxes on energy-
efficient appliances.
3. National Mission on Sustainable Habitat
NMSH aims at promoting energy efficiency as a core component of urban planning by extending the
existing Energy Conservation Building Code, strengthening the enforcement of automotive fuel economy
standards, and using pricing measures to encourage the purchase of efficient vehicles and incentives for
the use of public transportation. The NAPCC also emphasizes on waste management and recycling.
4. National Water Mission
With water scarcity projected to worsen as a result of climate change, the plan sets a goal of 20%
improvement in water use efficiency through pricing and other measures.

5. National Mission for Sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystem

The plan aims to conserve biodiversity, forest cover, and other ecological values in the Himalayan region,
and also sets the goal to prevent the melting of the Himalayan glaciers.

6. National Mission for a Green India

Its goals include the afforestation of 6 million hectares of degraded forest lands and expanding forest
cover from 23% to 33% of India’s territory. It is to be implemented on degraded forest land through
Joint Forest Management Committees set up under State Departments of Forests.
7. National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture
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National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA) has been formulated for enhancing agricultural
productivity especially in rainfed areas focusing on integrated farming, water use efficiency, soil health
management, and synergizing resource conservation. The mission also aims to support climate
adaptation in agriculture through the development of climate-resilient crops, expansion of weather
insurance mechanisms, and agricultural practices.
8. National Mission on Strategic Knowledge for Climate
To gain a better understanding of climate science, impacts, and challenges. The plan envisions a new
Climate Science Research Fund, improved climate modeling, and increased international collaboration.
It encourages private sector initiatives to develop adaptation and mitigation technologies. It also aimed
at networking existing knowledge institutions, capacity building & improving understanding of key climate
processes and climate risks.

Major Environmental Movements in India

Tehri Dam Movement (the 1970s)
The Tehri Dam is constructed over the Bhagirathi River, the main tributary of the Ganges in the hills of
Uttarakhand, India. The Tehri Dam movement was spearheaded by Baba Amte against the
submergence of land due to dam construction. The relocation of more than 100,000 people from the
area has led to prolonged legal battles over resettlement rights. In addition to the human rights concerns,
the project has spurred concerns about the environmental consequences of locating such a large dam in
the fragile ecosystem.
Save Silent Valley Movement (1973)
Save Silent Valley was a social movement aimed at the protection of Silent Valley, an evergreen tropical
forest in the Palakkad district of Kerala. It was started in 1973 by an NGO led by school teachers and
the Kerala Sastra Sahithya Parishad (KSSP) to save the Silent Valley from being flooded by a
hydroelectric project. Romulus Whitaker, the founder of the Madras Snake Park and the Madras
Crocodile Bank, was probably the first person to draw public attention to the issue. The valley was
declared as Silent Valley National Park in 1985.

Narmada Bachao Andolan

Narmada Bachao Andolan (NBA) was an Indian social movement spearheaded by native tribes
(Adivasis), farmers, environmentalists, and human rights activists against a number of large dam projects
across the river Narmada, which flows through the states of Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, and Maharashtra.
Sardar Sarovar Dam in Gujarat is one of the biggest dams on the river and was the first focal point of the
movement. The dam was a part of the Narmada Dam Project, aimed to provide irrigation and electricity
to people of the above-mentioned states. The protests were spearheaded by Medha Patkar and Baba
Amte.

Gandhamardan Movement
Gandhamardan, one of the bauxite rich hill ranges situated in Sambalpur and Bolangir region of western
Odisha, was regarded by tribals and peasants as their mother who provides them with food, firewood,
 109

fodder, and also water for cultivation and drinking purposes. The Five-year long sustained campaign led
by the local people saw BALCO wind up its operation to mine 213 million tonnes of bauxite. It was a
major victory both for the local forest-dependent people and for the fragile ecology of western Orissa.
Chipko Movement (1973)
Chipko Movement, started in the Chamoli district of Uttarakhand, was a non-violent movement led by
Sunderlal Bahugua, alongside Chandi Prasad Bhatt and Gaura Devi. It aimed at the protection and
conservation of trees and forests from being destroyed. The name of the movement originated from the
word “embrace” (Chipko) as the villagers used to hug the trees and protect them from woodcutters.
Appiko Movement (1983)
On Sep.8, 1983, Panduranga Hegde, the fiery activist, started the Appiko movement. The main purpose
of the movement was to prevent the commercial felling of trees in the Uttara Kannada district of
Karnataka.

Wildlife Conservation Projects

Project tiger (1973)
Project Tiger conservation program was launched in 1973 by the Government of India during Prime
Minister Indira Gandhi's tenure to ensure a viable population of Bengal tigers in their natural habitats
for economic, scientific, cultural, aesthetic and ecological values. It also aimed at protecting them from
extinction along with preserving areas of biological importance as natural heritage (e.g. tiger reserves).
The project's task force visualized these tiger reserves as breeding nuclei, from which surplus animals
would migrate to adjacent forests. The government has set up a Tiger Protection Force to combat
poachers and funded relocation of villagers to minimize human-tiger conflicts. The National Tiger
Conservation Authority was launched in 2005, following recommendations of the Tiger Task Force.

Project Elephant (1992)

Project Elephant was launched in 1992 by the Ministry of Environment and Forests to provide financial
and technical support to wildlife management efforts taken by states for their free-ranging populations of
wild Asian Elephants. The project aims to ensure the long-term survival of the populations of elephants
in their natural habitats by protecting the elephants, their habitats and migration corridors.
UNDP Sea Turtle Project (1999)
The project was initiated by Wildlife Institute of India in November 1999 with an objective to conserve
the Olive Ridley Turtles. The project is for 10 coastal states in India especially Odisha where it has
contributed towards the preparation of a map of breeding sites of Sea Turtles, identification of breeding
places and habitats along the coastline, and migratory routes taken by Sea Turtles.
Indian Rhino Vision 2020

Greater one-horned rhinoceros once roamed from Pakistan to the Indo-Burmese border, and in parts of
Nepal, Bangladesh and Bhutan. Due to hunting and habitat loss, their population has reduced to fewer
than 200 individuals in northern India and Nepal. Kaziranga National Park in Assam, India, holds about
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70% of its world population. Indian Rhino Vision 2020 is an ambitious effort to attain a wild population
of at least 3,000 greater one-horned rhinos spread over seven protected areas in the Indian state of Assam
by the year 2020.
Indian Crocodile Conservation (1975)

The Indian Crocodile Conservation Project was an in-situ conservation initiative set up in 1975 under
the auspices of the Government of India, initially at Odisha's Satkosia Gorge Sanctuary. Sixteen crocodile
rehabilitation centers and five crocodile sanctuaries including National Chambal Sanctuary; where
Gharials are bred in captivity, were established in India between 1975 and 1982. As of 1999, gharials
were also kept in the Madras Crocodile Bank Trust, Mysore Zoo, Jaipur Zoo and Kukrail Gharial
Rehabilitation Centre in India.

Sustainable Habitat: Green Building and GRIHA Rating Norms

A green building is one which uses less water, optimizes energy efficiency, conserves natural resources,
generates less waste and provides healthier spaces for occupants, as compared to a conventional building.
The Indian Green Building Council (IGBC) was formed by the Confederation of Indian Industry (CII)
in 2001. The council is based out of the CII Green Business Centre, Hyderabad, which is India’s 1st
Platinum rated green building. The vision of the council is to enable a ‘Sustainable built environment for
all.’

GRIHA is an acronym for Green Rating for Integrated Habitat Assessment. GRIHA is a performance-
oriented system where points are earned for meeting the design and performance intent of the criteria.
GRIHA is a 100-point system consisting of some core points, which are mandatory, while the rest are
optional. Different levels of certification (one star to five stars) are awarded based on the number of
points earned. The minimum points required for certification are 25.

The GRIHA V 2015 rating system consists of 31 criteria categorized under various sections, such as Site
Planning, Construction Management, Occupant Comfort and Well-being, Sustainable Building
Materials, Performance Monitoring and Validation, and Innovation.

GRIHA V 3 rating system consists of 34 criteria covering various subjects such as sustainable site
planning, energy, and water optimization, sustainable building materials, waste management, and building
operations & maintenance.
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Bharat Stage Emission Standards

Bharat stage Emission Standards (BSES) are emission standards instituted by the Government of India
to regulate the output of air pollutants from internal combustion engines and Spark-ignition engines
equipment, including motor vehicles. The standards and the timeline for implementation are set by the
Central Pollution Control Board under the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change.
The standards are based on European regulations and were first introduced in 2000. All new vehicles
manufactured after the implementation of the norms have to be compliant with the regulations. Since
October 2010, Bharat Stage (BS) III norms have been enforced across the country. In 13 major cities,
Bharat Stage IV emission norms have been in place since April 2010 and it has been enforced for the
entire country since April 2017. In 2016, the Indian government announced that the country would skip
the BS-V norms altogether and adopt BS-VI norms by 2020.

In its recent judgment, the Supreme Court has banned the sale and registration of motor vehicles
conforming to the emission standard Bharat Stage-IV in the entire country from April 1, 2020. The
major difference between the existing BS-IV and forthcoming BS-VI norms is the presence of sulfur in
the fuel. While the BS-IV fuels contain 50 parts per million (ppm) sulfur, the BS-VI grade fuel only has
10 ppm sulfur content. Also, the harmful NOx (nitrogen oxides) from diesel cars can be brought down
by nearly 70%.

Cetane Number
Cetane is a colorless, liquid hydrocarbon that ignites easily under compression. Cetane number is the
rating assigned to diesel fuel to rate its combustion quality. Pure cetane represents the highest purity of
diesel fuel possible, and thus has a cetane rating of 100. A typical diesel engine operates well with a CN
from 48 to 50. Fuels with lower CN causes longer ignition delays. Generally, Alkyl nitrates (principally
2-ethylhexyl nitrate) and di-tert-butyl peroxide are used as additives to raise the cetane number. Dimethyl
ether is a potential diesel fuel as it has a high cetane rating (55-60) and can be produced as biofuel.

Octane number
Octane number is a standard measure of the performance of an engine or aviation fuel. It is based on a
scale on which isooctane is 100 (minimal knock) and heptane is 0 (bad knock). The higher the octane
number, the more compression the fuel can withstand before igniting, i.e. gasoline with an octane
number of 92 has the same knock as a mixture of 92% isooctane and 8% heptane. The use of gasoline
with lower octane numbers often lead to engine knocking.

The most common type of octane rating worldwide is the Research Octane Number (RON). RON is
determined by running the fuel in a test engine with a variable compression ratio under controlled
conditions and comparing the results with those for mixtures of iso-octane and n-heptane.

The Compression ratio is varied during the test in order to challenge the fuel's antiknocking tendency as
an increase in the compression ratio will increase the chances of knocking.

Antiknock agents are additives used to reduce engine knocking by raising the temperature and pressure,
thereby increasing the fuel's octane rating. Some of the antiknock agents in use are:
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1. Tetraethyllead - Still in use as a high-octane additive. To avoid deposits of lead inside the engine, lead
scavengers such as Tricresyl phosphate, 1,2-Dibromoethane and 1,2-Dichloroethane are added to the
gasoline together with tetraethyllead. Tetraethyllead is highly toxic, with as little as 6-15mL being enough
to induce severe lead poisoning.
2. Alcohol

3. Ferrocene

4. Iron pentacarbonyl

5. Methylcyclopentadienyl manganese tricarbonyl (MMT)- when MMT is used as a fuel additive in

petrol, no significant human health or environmental concerns related to exposure to either MMT or its
transformation [combustion] products (manganese phosphate, manganese sulfate, and manganese
tetroxide) were identified.

6. Toluene

7. Isooctane

8. BTEX - a hydrocarbon mixture of benzene, toluene, xylene, and ethyl-benzene, also called gasoline
aromatics.

Ignition Quality of Residual Fuel Oil

Two empirical indices are generally used to represent the ignition quality of residual fuel oil. 1. Calculated
Carbon Aromaticity Index (CCAI)

2. Calculated Ignition Index (CII)

Where, D= density at 15°C (kg/m3), V= viscosity

Both indices are calculated from the density and kinematic viscosity of the fuel. The normal ignition
quality value lies somewhere between 800 and 880. A lower value indicates better ignition quality. Fuels
with a CCAI higher than 880 are often problematic or even unusable in a diesel engine.

Environmental Disasters
1. Love Canal Disaster (1978 – 2004)
Love Canal is a neighborhood in Niagara Falls, New York. In 1890, the place was envisioned to be a
model planned community. After the partial development and subsequent demise of the project, the
canal became a dumpsite during the 1920s for municipal refuse for the City of Niagara Falls. During the
1940s, the canal was purchased by Hooker Chemical Company, now Occidental Chemical Corporation,
which used the site to dump 21,800 tons of chemical byproducts from the manufacturing of dyes,
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perfumes, and solvents for rubber and synthetic resins. In 1953, the Hooker Chemical Company, then
the owners and operators of the property, covered the canal with earth and sold it to the city for one
dollar. In the late '50s, about 100 homes and a school were built at the site. In 1978, an explosion was
triggered at the site by a record amount of rainfall. Shortly thereafter, the leaching and upward percolation
of chemical substances began. This event displaced numerous families, leaving them with long-standing
health issues and symptoms of high white blood cell counts and leukemia. Subsequently, the federal
government passed the Superfund law. The resulting Superfund cleanup operation continued until 2004.
2. Minnamata Disaster (1956)
Minamata disease is methylmercury (MeHg) poisoning that first occurred in humans who ingested fish
and shellfish contaminated by Hg discharged in wastewater in the Minamata City, Kumamoto prefecture,
Japan. It was caused by the release of methylmercury in the industrial wastewater from the Chisso
Corporation's chemical factory, which continued from 1932 to 1968. Minamata is a neurological disease
with symptoms such as ataxia, numbness in the hands and feet, general muscle weakness, narrowing of
the field of vision, and damage to hearing and speech. In extreme cases, insanity, paralysis, coma, and
death follow within weeks of the onset of symptoms. A second outbreak of Minamata disease also
reported in Niigata, Japan in 1965. For the past 36 years, of the 2252 patients who have been officially
recognized as having Minamata disease, 1043 have died.

3. Bhopal Gas Tragedy (1984)

The Bhopal disaster, also referred to as the Bhopal gas tragedy, was a gas leak incident on the night of 2
December 1984 at the Union Carbide India Limited (UCIL) pesticide plant in Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh.
It is considered to be the world's worst industrial disaster. Over 500,000 people were exposed to methyl
isocyanate (MIC) gas. The highly toxic substance made its way into and around the small towns located
near the plant. The cause of the disaster remains under debate. The Indian government and local
activists argue that slack management and deferred maintenance created a situation where routine pipe
maintenance caused a backflow of water into a MIC tank, triggering the disaster. Union Carbide
Corporation (UCC) argues that water entered the tank through an act of sabotage.
4. The Chernobyl disaster (1986)
The Chernobyl disaster was a nuclear accident that happened during a safety test on an RBMK-type
nuclear reactor in the Nuclear Power Plant, near the city of Pripyat in the north of the Ukrainian Soviet
Socialist Republic. It is considered as the worst nuclear disaster in history and is one of the only two
nuclear energy disasters rated at seven—the maximum severity—on the International Nuclear Event Scale,
the other being the 2011 Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster in Japan.
5. Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Disaster (2011)
The Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster occurred at Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant in Japan.
The accident was started by the earthquake and tsunami on 11 March 2011 which terminated with three
nuclear meltdowns, three hydrogen explosions, and the release of an estimated 18,000 terabecquerel
(TBq) of radioactive cesium 137.
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ENERGY AND ENVIRONMENT

The world's primary energy sources as of 2017 consisted of petroleum (34%), coal (28%), and natural
gas (23%), amounting to an 85% share for fossil fuels in primary energy consumption. Non-fossil fuel
sources as of 2006 included nuclear (8.5%), hydroelectric (6.3%), and others (geothermal, solar, tidal,
wind, wood, etc.) amounting to 0.9%.

Petroleum
Petroleum is a yellowish-black liquid consisting of naturally occurring hydrocarbons of various molecular
weights. Due to its high energy density, easy transportability, and relative abundance, oil has become the
world's most important source of energy since the mid-1950s. The name petroleum covers both naturally
occurring unprocessed crude oil and petroleum products that are made up of refined crude oil. The
components of petroleum are separated via fractional distillation, i.e. a process by which components in
a chemical mixture are separated into different parts according to their different boiling points using a
fractionating column.

The consumer products derived from petroleum include gasoline (petrol), kerosene, asphalt, and
chemical reagents that are used to make plastics, pesticides, and pharmaceuticals. Petroleum is usually
found in porous rock formations in the upper strata of some areas of the Earth's crust and in oil sands
(tar sands).

Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG)

LPG is prepared by refining petroleum and is a mixture of both propane and butane. When LPG is
used to fuel internal combustion engines, it is often referred to as autogas or auto propane. It is now
increasingly used as an aerosol propellant and a refrigerant, replacing chlorofluorocarbons. Ethanethiol,
commonly known as ethyl mercaptan is usually added to liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) to help warn of
gas leaks. Due to its low boiling temperature, LPG is supplied in pressurized steel vessels. They are
typically filled to 80–85% of their capacity to allow for thermal expansion of the contained liquid.

Compressed Natural Gas (CNG)

Compressed natural gas is primarily comprised of methane gas. CNG engines run more quietly due to
the higher-octane rating of CNG over gasoline and they produce fewer exhaust emissions. As it is lighter
than air, natural gas disperses quickly when released and poses less of a threat in the event of a spill.
Compressed natural gas is sometimes mixed with hydrogen (HCNG), which increases the H/C ratio
(hydrogen/carbon ratio) of the fuel and gives it speed up to eight times higher than CNG.

Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG)

Liquefied natural gas (LNG) is predominantly comprised of methane, CH4, with some mixture of ethane,
C2H6. The main difference between CNG and LNG is that CNG is stored at ambient temperature and
high pressure, while LNG is stored at low temperature and nearly ambient pressure. In their respective
storage conditions, LNG is a liquid and CNG is a supercritical fluid. LNG is often used for transporting
natural gas over large distances, in ships, trains or pipelines, where the gas is converted into CNG before
distribution to the end-user.
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Gasoline
Gasoline or petrol is used primarily as a fuel in spark-ignited internal combustion engines. It is a mixture
of paraffin (alkanes), olefins (alkenes) and cycloalkanes (naphthenes). Gasoline also contains benzene
and other known carcinogens.

In October 2007, the Government of India decided to make 5% ethanol blending (with gasoline)
mandatory.

Ethanol fuel
It is made by the catalytic hydration of ethylene with sulfuric acid as the catalyst. Bioethanol is a form of
renewable energy that can be produced from very common crops, such as hemp, sugarcane, potato,
cassava, and corn, through a process called ethanol fermentation.

In India, seeds of the Jatropha curcas plant are used for the production of bio-diesel in remote rural and
forest communities to meet the fuel requirements.

Shale oil
Shale oil is produced from shale rock fragments by pyrolysis, hydrogenation, or thermal dissolution.
These processes convert the organic matter within the rock (kerogen) into synthetic oil and gas. The
World Health Organization classifies shale oil as Group 1 carcinogens to humans.

Kerogen is the most abundant source of organic compounds on earth, in which Petroleum and natural
gas are formed. Kerogen may be classified based on its origin: lacustrine (e.g. algal), marine (e.g.
planktonic), and terrestrial (e.g. pollen and spores).

Coal Bed Methane (CBM)

Coal Bed Methane (CBM) is an unconventional form of natural gas found in coal deposits or coal seams.
The methane is stored into the solid matrix of the coal by a process called adsorption. It is called 'sweet
gas' due to the absence of hydrogen sulfide. The presence of this gas is well known for its occurrence in
underground coal mines, where it presents a serious safety risk.

Gas Hydrates
Gas hydrate is a solid, ice-like form of water, which contains gas (usually huge quantities of methane)
molecules in its molecular cavities. It is found at several hundred meters directly below the seafloor and
in association with permafrost in the Arctic. It is not stable at normal sea-level pressures and
temperatures.

ONGC has struck gas hydrate reserves in the deep sea off the Andhra Pradesh coast. The reserves are
located in the Krishna-Godavari basin, which came into the limelight about a decade ago. These natural
gas hydrates are seen as a potentially vast energy resource, but an economical extraction method has so
far proven elusive.
Hydrocarbon clathrates are a bane to the petroleum industry because they can form inside gas pipelines
creating obstructions. Deep-sea deposition of carbon dioxide clathrate has been proposed as a method
to remove this greenhouse gas from the atmosphere and control climate change.
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Calorific value
The calorific value (heating value or energy value) of a fuel is the amount of heat released during the
combustion of a specified amount of it. The values are conventionally measured using a bomb
calorimeter.

Higher (HHV) and Lower (LHV) heating values of some common fuels (at 25 °C)

Gross calorific value (GCV) is the amount of heat released by the complete combustion of a unit of
natural gas. It is also known as the Higher Heating Value (HHV).

Net Calorific Value (NCV), also known as lower heating value (LHV), is determined by subtracting the
heat of vaporization of water from the higher heating value. It treats any H2O formed as vapor, and the
energy required to vaporize water is not released as heat. Natural gas prices are decided on the basis of
GCV and NCV.

Hv is the heat of vaporization of water, nH2O out is the number of moles of water vaporized, nfuel in is
the number of moles of fuel combusted

Most applications that burn fuel produce water vapor, which is unused and thus wastes its heat content.
In such applications, the lower heating value must be used to give a 'benchmark' for the process.
However, for true energy calculations in some specific cases, the higher heating value is correct. This is
particularly relevant for natural gas, whose high hydrogen content produces much water when it is burned
in condensing boilers and power plants with flue-gas condensation that condenses the water vapor
produced by combustion, recovering heat which would otherwise be wasted.
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Hydro-Electricity
Hydroelectricity is the application of hydropower to generate electricity. The output power of a
hydroelectric turbine is calculated using the following formula;

Where,
P or W = Electric Power in W
Q = Flow rate in the pipe (m3/s)
ρ = Density (kg/m3)
g = Acceleration due to gravity (m/s²)
H = Waterfall height (m)
η = Global efficiency ratio
For example, the power output of a turbine that is 85% efficient, with a flow rate of 80 cubic meters per
second (2800 cubic feet per second) and a head of 145 meters (480 feet), is 97 Megawatts.

Tidal Energy
Tidal forces are periodic variations in gravitational attraction exerted by celestial bodies. Springtide is a
tide in which the difference between high and low tide is the greatest. it occurs when the moon, the sun,
and the Earth are aligned. When this is the case, their collective gravitational pull on the Earth's water is
strengthened.

A neap tide is a tide in which the difference between high and low tide is the least. It occurs twice a month
when the sun and moon are at right angles to the Earth. When this is the case, their total gravitational
pull on the Earth's water is weakened because it comes from two different directions.

The time difference between the two high tides is 12.25 hours and between two low tides is 6.125 hours.

Tidal energy generation is achieved using Tidal Barrage and Tidal Stream Generator. The former
method makes use of the kinetic energy of moving water to power turbines, in a similar way to wind
turbines that use the wind to power turbines. Some tidal generators can be built into the structures of
existing bridges or are entirely submersed, thus avoiding concerns over the impact on the natural
landscape. The later makes use of potential energy differences between high and low tides. When using
tidal barrages to generate power, the potential energy from a tide is seized through the strategic placement
of specialized dams. When the sea level rises and the tide begins to come in, the temporary increase in
tidal power is channeled into a large basin behind the dam, holding a large amount of potential energy.
With the receding tide, this energy is then converted into mechanical energy as the water is released
through large turbines that create electrical power through the use of generators As of March 2017, India
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announced that its 7500 Km long coastline, where the height of the high tide was recorded over 5 meters
higher than the low tide can essentially capture the potential tidal power. The Ministry of New and
Renewable Energy estimated that the country can produce 7000 MW of power in the Gulf of Khambhat
in Gujarat, 1200 MW of power in the Gulf of Kutch in Gujarat and about 100 MW of power in the
Gangetic delta of Sundarbans in West Bengal.

Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC)

Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) is a process that can produce electricity utilizing the
temperature difference between deep cold ocean water and warm tropical surface waters. To be
economically practical, the temperature difference should be at least 20 °C in the first 1,000 meters below
the surface. The cold seawater must be brought to the surface to operate the system. The primary
approaches are active pumping and desalination. Desalinating seawater near the seafloor lowers its
density, which causes it to rise to the surface. The working systems may be either closed-cycle or open-
cycle. In a closed cycle, working fluids with low boiling points such as ammonia or R-134a are used for
powering the system’s generator. The most commonly used heat cycle for OTEC to date is the Rankine
cycle, which is an idealized thermodynamic cycle of a heat engine that converts heat into mechanical
work while undergoing a phase change. Open-cycle engines use vapor from the seawater itself as the
working fluid. The uses of OTEC other than electricity generation include desalination, air conditioning,
chilled-soil agriculture, aquaculture, and hydrogen production. India's first Ocean Thermal Energy
Conversion (OTEC) project is coming up in Kavaratti, capital of the Lakshadweep archipelago, off the
south-western coast.

Wind Power
Wind power, a form of energy conversion in which turbines convert the kinetic energy of wind into
mechanical or electrical energy that can be used for power. The set-up consists of many individual wind
turbines that are connected to the electric power transmission network. The onshore wind farm is an
inexpensive source of electric power, but it is having environmental impacts such as habitat loss as they
are constructed in wild and rural areas.

Wind resources are calculated based on the average wind speed and the distribution of wind speed values
occurring within a particular area. Areas are generally grouped into wind power classes that range from
1 to 7. A wind power class of 3 or above (or a mean wind of 5.1–5.6 m/s) is suitable for utility-scale wind
power generation.
Wind Power Classification

Wind Power Average Annual Wind Velocity (m/s) Rating

Class
1 0- 4.4 Poor
2 4.4- 5.1 Marginal
3 5.1- 5.6 Fair
4 5.6- 6 Good
5 6- 6.4 Excellent
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6 6.4- 7 Outstanding
7 7- 9.4 Superb

Equation of Wind Power

Wind Power depends on volume, velocity, and density of the air flowing through the area of interest
(flux). Total wind energy flowing through an imaginary surface with an area A during the time t is:

where ρ is the density of air; v is the wind speed; Avt is the volume of air passing through A (which is
considered perpendicular to the direction of the wind); Avtρ is, therefore, the mass m passing through
"A". ½ ρv2 is the kinetic energy of the moving air per unit volume.

Power is energy per unit time, so the wind power incident on A (i.e. equal to the rotor area of a wind
turbine) is:

Wind power is proportional to the third power of the wind speed; the available power increases eightfold
when the wind speed doubles.

Efficiency in Extracting Wind Power

Power Coefficient (Cp) is the ratio of power extracted by the turbine to the total power contained in the
wind resource

Cp = PT / PWind
(The Betz Limit is the maximal possible Cp = 16/27)

59% is the best efficiency at which a conventional wind turbine can extract power from the wind.

Geothermal Energy
The heat is produced at Earth’s interior mainly by the radioactive decay of potassium, thorium, and
uranium in the crust, mantle, and along the margins of continental plates due to friction. Dry steam is
the oldest form of geothermal technology, which takes the steam out of the ground and uses it to directly
drive a turbine.

Flash plants pump hot fluids under high pressure into a tank at the surface held at a much lower pressure,
causing some of the fluid to rapidly vaporize, or "flash." Geothermal power is cost-effective, reliable,
sustainable, and environmentally friendly, but has historically been limited to areas having a recent
volcanic activity or those near tectonic plate boundaries.

Solar Energy
Solar radiation can be converted either into thermal energy (heat) or into electrical energy. The former
is achieved using solar thermal collectors.
 121

1. Flat-plate solar collectors

Flat-plate collectors are the most common solar collector for water-heating systems in homes. A collector
must have a surface area of about 40 square meters to gather enough energy to serve the energy needs
of one person. The flat-plate systems normally operate and reach the maximum efficiency (20-80%)
within the temperature range from 30 to 80 oC.
A flat-plate collector consists basically of an insulated metal box with a glass or plastic cover (the glazing)
and a dark-colored absorber plate (usually made of copper or aluminum). Solar radiation is absorbed by
the absorber plate and transferred to a fluid that circulates through the collector in copper tubes. In an
air-based collector, the circulating fluid is air, whereas in a liquid-based collector it is usually water. The
heat may be used directly, or it may be transferred to another medium for storage

2. Evacuated Tube Collector

The Evacuated tube collector consists of a number of rows of parallel transparent glass tubes connected
to a header pipe. Unlike flat panel collectors, in evacuated tube collectors, the heating of water does not
take place within the tubes. Instead, the air is removed or evacuated from the space between the two
tubes, forming a vacuum, which acts as an insulator reducing any heat loss significantly to the surrounding
atmosphere either through convection or radiation. They can also extract the heat out of the air on
humid, dull overcast days and do not need direct sunlight to operate. Thus, making ETC much more
efficient than plate collector.

Evacuated Tube Collector

Photovoltaics (PV)
PV is used to convert light into electric current through the photoelectric effect. The power generated by
a single photovoltaic cell is typically only about two watts. The energy efficiency of most of the present-
day photovoltaic cells is only about 15 to 20 %.

The efficiency of a PV cell indicates how much electrical power a cell can produce for a given solar
irradiance. The basic expression for maximum efficiency of a photovoltaic cell is given by the ratio of
output power to the incident solar power (radiation flux times area). The actual efficiency is influenced
by temperature, irradiance, and spectrum.
 122

Another important parameter that is used to determine solar cell performance is referred to as Fill Factor
(FF). It is the ratio of the actual maximum obtainable power to the product of the open-circuit voltage
(Voc) and short circuit current (Isc). This is a key parameter in evaluating the performance of the solar
cells.

The most important part of a photovoltaic cell is the specially treated semiconductor comprising two
distinct layers (p-type and n-type). The minimum energy required by a photon to remove an electron
from a crystal structure is known as the band-gap energy. If a photon has less or more energy than the
bandgap, the energy will be transformed into heat. The theoretical efficiency of silicon PV cells is about
33%. The commonly used material for commercial solar cell construction is Silicon (Si), but others
include Gallium Arsenide (GaAs), Aluminium gallium arsenide (AlGaAs) and Cadmium Telluride
(CdTe).

Concentrator Photovoltaics (CPV)

CPV is a photovoltaic technology that uses lenses or curved mirrors to focus sunlight onto small, highly
efficient, multi-junction (MJ) solar cells. In addition, CPV systems often use solar trackers and sometimes
a cooling system to further increase their efficiency. To produce equal or greater energy per rated watt
than conventional PV systems, CPV systems must be fixed in areas that receive plentiful direct sunlight.

Solar Ponds
A solar pond is an artificially constructed large scale solar thermal collector. The depth of the pond is
usually between 1 to 4 meters. The bottom of the pond is generally lined with a durable plastic liner.
Salts like magnesium chloride, sodium chloride or sodium nitrate are dissolved in the pond water, and
the concentration is densest at the bottom (20% to 30%) and gradually decreasing to almost zero at the
top. A typical solar pond consists of three zones with a varying salt gradient.

1. Upper Convective Zone, typically .3 m thick, having low salinity and is almost close to ambient
temperature. The layer is kept as thin as possible by using wave suppressing mesh or by placing
windbreaks near the ponds.

2. Non-Convective Zone is much thicker and occupies more than half the depth of the pond.

3. The lower convective zone has the densest salt concentration and serves as the heat storage zone. It is
almost as thick as the middle non-convective zone. Salt concentration and temperatures are nearly
constant in this zone.
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Solar Pond
When solar radiation strikes the pond, most of it is absorbed by the surface at the bottom of the pond.
The temperature of the dense salt layer therefore increases. If the pond contained no salt, the bottom
layer would be less dense than the top layer as the heated water expands. The less-dense layer would
then rise up and the layers would mix. But the salt density difference keeps the layers of the solar pond
separate. The denser salt water at the bottom prevents the heat from being transferred to the top layer of
freshwater by natural convection, due to which the temperature of the lower layer may rise to as much
as 95°C.

India was the first Asian country to have established a solar pond in Bhuj, in Gujarat. The project was
sanctioned under the National Solar Pond Programme by the Ministry of Non-Conventional Energy
Sources in 1987 and completed in 1993.

Nuclear Energy
Nuclear power can be obtained from nuclear fission, nuclear decay, and nuclear fusion reactions.
Presently, the vast majority of electricity from nuclear power is produced by nuclear fission of uranium
and plutonium. Nuclear fission is the splitting of the nucleus of an atom into two smaller nuclei. The
Liquid Drop model can be used to estimate the energy released in fission. For 235U it is about 200 MeV
per nucleus and it mostly comes from the Coulomb energy.

Fission Reaction of 235U

Nuclear fusion is a reaction in which two or more atomic nuclei are combined to form one or more
different atomic nuclei and subatomic particles (neutrons or protons).

The fusion of deuterium with tritium results in creating helium-4, freeing a neutron, and releasing 17.59
MeV as the kinetic energy of the products while a corresponding amount of mass disappears.
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The fusion of deuterium with tritium

The four fusion reactions which can occur with deuterium can be considered to form a deuterium cycle.
The four reactions are:

Nuclear fuel
Nuclear fuel is a material that can be used or consumed by nuclear fusion or fission to derive nuclear
energy. The only naturally occurring fissionable nuclear fuel is Uranium. Which contains 238U (99.3%),
235
U (0.7%) and trace amounts of 234U. The other fissionable materials such as 239Pu and 233U can be
produced artificially from 238U and 232Th.

The uranium is extracted from open-pit or in-situ leach mines. It is then converted into a stable and
compact form known as "yellowcake" for the ease of transport. In the next step, the yellowcake is
converted to uranium hexafluoride for enriching it with 3-5% uranium-235. Finally, the enriched uranium
is converted back to the ceramic uranium oxide (UOx) form and shaped into rods.
In modern light-water reactors the fuel rods will typically spend 3 operational cycles (about 6 years) inside
the reactor, generally, until about 3% of the uranium has been fissioned. Afterward, they will be moved
to a spent fuel pool which provides cooling for the thermal energy and shielding for ionizing radiation.
After about 5 years in a spent fuel pool, the fuel becomes radioactively and thermally cool enough to
handle and can be moved to dry storage casks or reprocessed. As opposed to light water reactors that
use uranium-235 (0.7% of all-natural uranium), fast breeder reactors use uranium-238 (99.3% of all-
natural uranium) or thorium.

Components of a Nuclear Reactor

A nuclear reactor, formerly known as an atomic pile, is a device used to initiate and control a self-
sustained nuclear chain reaction. Components of a typical nuclear reactor are:
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1. Moderator
The material in the core which slows down the neutrons released from fission. It is usually water but
maybe heavy water or graphite.

2. Control rods
These are made with neutron-absorbing material such as cadmium, hafnium or boron, and are inserted
or withdrawn from the core to control the rate of reaction.

3. Coolant
A fluid circulating through the core so as to transfer the heat from it. In light-water reactors, the water
moderator functions also as a primary coolant. Except in Boiling Water Reactor (BWR) having a
secondary coolant circuit where the water becomes steam.
4. Containment
The structure around the reactor and associated steam generators that are designed to protect it from
outside intrusion and to protect those who live outside from the effects of radiation in case of any serious
malfunction inside. It is typically a meter-thick concrete and steel structure.

Type of Nuclear Reactors

1. Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR)
This is the most common type of nuclear reactor representing the majority (around 80%) of current
reactors. It uses ordinary water as both coolant and moderator. The design is distinguished by having a
primary cooling circuit which flows through the core of the reactor under very high pressure, and a
secondary circuit in which steam is generated to drive the turbine. Water in the reactor core reaches
about 325°C during reactions, hence it must be kept under about 150 times atmospheric pressure to
prevent boiling. In the primary cooling circuit, the water is also the moderator, and if any of it turned to
steam, then the fission reaction would slow down. This negative feedback effect is one of the safety
features of this type of reactor. The secondary shutdown system involves adding boron to the primary
circuit.
2. Boiling water reactor (BWR)
This design of a BWR is similar to that of a PWR, except that there is only a single circuit in which the
water is at a lower pressure (about 75 times atmospheric pressure) so that it boils in the core at about
285°C. The reactor is designed to operate with 12-15% of the water in the top part of the core as steam.
4. Advanced gas-cooled reactor (AGR)
These are the second generation of British gas-cooled reactors whose first prototype became operational
in 1962. The design of the AGR was such that the final steam conditions at the boiler stop valve were
identical to that of conventional coal-fired power stations. This reactor uses graphite as the moderator
and carbon dioxide as the primary coolant. The fuel is uranium oxide pellets, enriched to 2.5-3.5%, in
stainless steel tubes. The carbon dioxide coolant circulates through the core, reaching 640 °C and a
pressure of around 40 bar, and then passes through boiler (steam generator) assemblies outside the core
 126

but still within the steel-lined, reinforced concrete pressure vessel. The AGR was designed to have a high
thermal efficiency of about 41%, which is better than modern pressurized water reactors having a typical
thermal efficiency of 34%.
3. Pressurized heavy water reactor (PHWR)

The PHWR reactor generally uses natural uranium (0.7% U-235) oxide as fuel, hence it requires a more
efficient moderator such as heavy water (D2O). It also produces more energy per kilogram of mined
uranium than other designs. The pressure tube is designed in such a way that the reactor can be refueled
progressively without shutting down.
5. Light water graphite-moderated reactor/ High Power Channel Reactor/ RBMK
This is a Soviet design, developed from plutonium production reactors. Their main attraction is the use
of light water and unenriched uranium. It employs long (7 meters) vertical pressure tubes running
through graphite moderator, and is cooled by water. The water is allowed to boil in the core at 290°C.
The fuel pellets are made of uranium dioxide powder and are loaded into assemblies of nuclear fuel
rods.

In RBMKs, the generation of steam in the coolant water would create a void• bubble that does not absorb
neutrons. The reduction in moderation by light water is irrelevant as graphite is still moderating the
neutrons. However, the loss of absorption would dramatically alter the balance of neutron production
causing a runaway condition in which more and more neutrons are produced, and their density grows
exponentially fast. Such a condition is called a positive void coefficient. The RBMK has the highest
positive void coefficient among any commercial reactor ever designed. A series of critical safety flaws
have also been identified with the RBMK design, though some of these were corrected following the
Chernobyl disaster.
6. Fast neutron reactors (FNR)
A fast-neutron reactor (FNR) is a category of the nuclear reactor in which the fission chain reaction is
sustained by fast neutrons. Such a reactor needs no neutron moderator but requires fuel (plutonium-
239) that is relatively rich in fissile material when compared to that required for a thermal-neutron
reactor.

A breeder reactor is a nuclear reactor capable of generating more fissile material than it consumes. These
devices are able to achieve this feat because their neutron economy is high enough to breed more fissile
fuel than they use from fertile material like uranium-238 or thorium-232. Interest in breeders declined
after the 1960s as more uranium reserves were found, and new methods of uranium enrichment reduced
fuel costs.Fast breeder reactor (FBR) uses fast (unmoderated) neutrons to breed fissile plutonium and
possibly higher transuranic from fertile uranium-238. The fast spectrum is flexible enough that it can also
breed fissile uranium-233 from thorium.
Electricity Generation Efficiencies

Electric power plant efficiency (η) is defined as the ratio between the useful electricity output from the
generating unit, in a specific time, and the energy value of the energy source supplied to the unit in the
 127

same time period. For electricity generation based on steam turbines, 65% of all prime energy is wasted
as heat. The maximum theoretical energy efficiency is defined in more detail by the Rankine cycle.

Electricity Generation Efficiencies

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ENVIRONMENTAL BIOLOGY
Speciation is an evolutionary process by which populations evolve to become distinct species. There are
four geographic modes of speciation in nature based on the extent to which speciating populations are
isolated from one another.

1. Allopatric Speciation
Allopatric Speciation occurs as a result of geographic isolation of populations due to habitat
fragmentation (e.g. mountain formation). The isolated populations then undergo genotypic or
phenotypic divergence as (a) they become subjected to dissimilar selective pressures; (b) they
independently undergo genetic drift; (c) different mutations arise in the two populations. When the
populations come back into contact, they have evolved such that they are reproductively isolated and are
no longer capable of exchanging genes.

E.g. Darwin's finches, which may have speciated allopatrically because of volcanic eruptions that divided
populations.

Modes of Speciation

2. Peripatric Speciation
This is a subform of allopatric speciation. The new species are formed in isolated, smaller peripheral
populations that are prevented from exchanging genes with the main population. Founder effect and
Genetic drift are considered as important driving forces of peripatric speciation. Case studies include
Mayr's investigation of bird fauna; the Australian bird Petroica multicolor, and reproductive isolation in
populations of Drosophila subject to population bottlenecks.
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3. Parapatric Speciation
Partial geographical separation of a population often leads to the parapatric type of speciation. individuals
of each species may come in contact or cross habitats from time to time, but reduced fitness of the
heterozygote leads to selection for behaviors or mechanisms that prevent their interbreeding. Ring
species such as Larus gulls have been claimed to illustrate the parapatric type of speciation.

4. Sympatric Speciation
Sympatric Speciation occurs due to reproductive isolation within a single population without geographic
isolation. The new species are generally the descendants of a single ancestral species which occupied the
same geographic location. The best-known example of sympatric speciation is that of the Cichlids of East
Africa inhabiting the Rift Valley lakes.

Geologic Time Scale

The geologic time scale (GTS) is a system of chronological dating to describe the timing and relationships
of events that have occurred during Earth's history.
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Energy flow in the Ecosystem

The solar energy is initially fixed by primary producers such as green plants. The stored energy in
photoautotrophs is then absorbed by primary consumers through digestion and transform it into the
form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) through respiration. A part of the energy received by primary
consumers (e.g. herbivores) is lost as body heat. This loss of energy as body heat is much greater in warm-
blooded animals than in cold-blooded animals.

Energy loss also occurs through the expulsion of undigested food (egesta) by excretion or regurgitation.
The carnivores (i.e. secondary consumer) and omnivores then consume the primary consumers, with
some energy passed on and some lost. Tertiary consumers, which may or may not be apex predators,
then consume the secondary consumers. Finally, the decomposers, such as Saprotrophic bacteria and
fungi break down the organic matter of the dead tertiary consumers and release nutrients into the soil.

Lindeman’s 10% Law of Energy Flow

10% energy transfer law in the food chain is put forth by Lindeman. It states that when energy is passed
on from one tropic level to the next, only 10% of the energy is received by the later, while 90% of the
energy is lost as heat into the environment (an effect of respiration) and some being lost as incompletely
digested food (egesta). This means the top consumer of a food chain receives the least amount of energy.

The unidirectional flow of energy through various trophic levels in an ecosystem can be explained with
the help of various energy flow models.

1. Single Channel Energy Flow Model

The single or linear channel energy flow model is one of the first published models pioneered by H. T.
Odum in 1956. In this model, the flow of energy takes place in a unidirectional manner through a single
channel of green plants or producers to herbivores and carnivores. This model depicts a community
boundary and, in addition to light and heat flows, it also includes import, export, and storage of organic
matter.

2. Y-Shaped/two Channel Energy Flow Model

This model conforms to the basic stratified structure of ecosystems. The Y-shaped model explains the
complex flow of energy between grazing and a detritus food chain. The flow of energy in a single chain
rarely occurs in nature. Food webs are the realistic representations of the flow of energy in ecosystems
and are incomplete until you consider the detritus food chain as a part of it.

3. Universal Energy Flow Model

A generalized model was put forward by E.P. Odum (1983) by combining both single-channel model
and Y-shaped model which are applicable to terrestrial as well as aquatic ecosystem. The model
represents a discrete energy level, in which the biomass and energy channels represent all or part of many
populations supported by the same energy source.
E.g. foxes obtain their food partly by eating plants (fruits) and partly by eating herbivore animals (rabbits,
mice, etc.).
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Ecological Succession
The term ‘Ecological succession’ is defined as the process of change in the species structure of an
ecological community over time. The time scale can be decades (e.g. after a wildfire), or even millions
of years after a mass extinction. Succession that begins at new habitats, such as newly exposed rock or
sand surfaces, lava flows, newly exposed glacial tills, etc., uninfluenced by pre-existing communities is
called primary succession. The stages of primary succession include pioneer microorganisms, plants
(lichens and mosses), grassy stage, smaller shrubs, and trees (i.e. climax community).
Succession that follows the disruption of a pre-existing community is called secondary succession. The
dynamics of secondary succession are strongly influenced by pre-disturbance conditions, such as soil
development, seed banks, remaining organic matter, and residual living organisms. The succession of
micro-organisms including fungi and bacteria occurring within a microhabitat is known as
microsuccession or serule.

Hydrarch Succession
Plant succession starting on relatively shallow water, such as ponds and lakes, which culminate in a mature
forest is called Hydrarch succession. Hydrosere is a type of hydrarch succession which starts in the
freshwater ecosystems, such as ponds, pools, lakes, and marshes. When the succession starts in the saline
water ecosystem, it is termed as Halosere.
The whole processes involved in hydrosere succession is further subdivided into a number of sub-stages:
1. Phytoplankton stage
This is the initial stage in hydrosere succession which takes place in ponds devoid of nutrients and life
forms. Initially, phytoplanktons consisting of microscopic algae begin to multiply and they quickly form
the pioneer community. Death and decomposition of these organisms result in the enrichment of
minerals in aquatic habitats.

2. Submerged stage
Rooted and submerged hydrophytes, such as Hydrilla, Potamogeton, and Vallisneria start to grow in the
pond which is now shallower and rich in nutrients. These plants grow at various depths mostly rooted in
the muddy or sandy bottom depending on the species and also on the clearness or turbidity of water.

3. Floating stage
In the beginning, the submerged and floating plants grow intermingled, but as the succession progresses
the submerged plants are replaced entirely. Their broad leaves floating on the water surface check the
penetration of light to the deeper layer of water. The most tolerant species in the area are able to
reproduce and perpetuate. This may be one of the main causes responsible for the death of submerged
plants. Some of the Important floating plants are Nelumbum, Trapa, Pistia, Nymphaea, and
Limnanthemum, etc.

4. Reed-swamp stage
When the ponds and lakes become too shallow, the habitat becomes less suited to the floating plants.
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Under these conditions floating plants are gradually replaced by amphibious plants, such as Bothrioclova,
Typha, Phragmites (Reed), etc. The plants of the swamp stage transpire huge quantities of water and also
produce abundant organic matter.
5. Sedge Marsh or Meadow stage
The newly formed marshy soil will be too dry for the plants of the pre-existing community to thrive. Now
the plants well adapted to the new habitat begin to appear. Important plants that are well suited to marshy
habitat are the members of Cyperaceae and grammeae. The species of sedge (Carex) and rushes
(Juncus), species of Themeda, Iris, Dichanthium, Eriophorum, Cymbopogon, Teucrium, Cicuta, etc.
6. Woodland stage
The woodland plant community produces more shade and absorb and transpire large quantity of water.
Some of the prominent members of this group are Buteazon, Acacia, Cassia, Terminalia, Salix,
Cephalanthus, etc.
7. Climax forest
In the climax stage of hydrarch succession, the level of the soil rises much above the water level by
progressive accumulation of humus and soil particles. In the newly formed dry and much-aerated habitat,
self-maintaining and self-reproducing plant community consisting mostly of woody trees develops in the
form of mesophytic forest.

Xerarch Succession
The succession initiated with the establishment of pioneer communities in dry areas is called Xerosere.
When succession takes place on bare rocks it is called Lithosere and when it occurs in a sandy area, like
sand dunes, the succession is called Psammosere. The stages involved in xerarch succession are:
1. Crustose lichen stage
Crustose lichens (e.g., Rhizocarpus and Lacidea) are the pioneer colonizers on bare rock surfaces. These
plants grow only when water becomes available in the habitat. They occur in the form of membranous
crusts and during the dry season, though they appear to be desiccated, remain alive. Their spongy nature
helps them absorb excess amounts of water and minerals. The lichens also secrete carbonic acid which
causes weathering of the rock and subsequent formation of a thin layer of soil on the rock surface.
2. Foliose Lichens Stage
Now the habitat is suitable for the growth of foliose and fruticose lichens (e.g., Dermatocarpon Parmelia,
Umbilicaria, etc.). They also secrete carbonic acid which further pulverizes or loosens the rocks into
small particles.

3. Moss Stage
The accumulation of enough rock particles, humus, and moisture creates a condition suitable for the

growth of xerophytic mosses. They cover the previous lichens and successfully compete with them for
water and mineral nutrients. Like lichens, mosses are also adapted to survive in extreme drought. They
 134

develop rhizoids which can penetrate deep into the rocky soil. Eventually, the habitat becomes wetter as
a result of the formation of a thick mat by decaying older parts of mosses.
4. Herbs Stage
As the soil thickness increases, the herbaceous vegetation, which consists mainly of annual and perennial
herbs, develops rapidly. The increased moisture content of the soil further enhances the growth of herbs.

5. Shrub Stage
Xerophytic shrubs gradually replace the herbaceous vegetation and establish a community. Roots of
shrubs also reach the surface of unpulverized rocks and corrode a sufficient quantity of rock particles
which make the soil more massive. Decaying leaves, twigs and roots of these shrubs also enrich the soil
with hummus.

6. Xerophytic Trees Stage

Dwarf and widely spaced trees start to grow now in this area. With the increase in water holding capacity
of the soil, xerophytic trees gradually disappear and subsequently the mesophytic tree communities will
develop.

7. Forest Stage
The shade-tolerant seedlings of mesophytic trees grow densely and become dominant. Under the shade
of these trees, some shade loving herbs and shrubs also flourish. Complete harmony is developed among
various plant communities and their environment. This climax stage remains unchanged unless disturbed
by some major environmental changes.

Mechanisms of Succession
1. Nudation

Initiation of ecological succession on a bare site that is usually formed after a major environmental
disturbance such as volcanic eruption or wildfire.

2. Migration

Migration refers to the arrival of propagules such as seeds or spores to the bare site through mediums
like air and water.

3. Ecesis

Ecesis is the successful establishment of species on the harsh environmental conditions of the bare site.

4. Aggregation

After ecesis, the individuals of the same species increase their number as they stay close to one another.

5. Competition
As vegetation becomes well established, various species in different communities begin to compete for

space, light, and nutrients

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6. Reaction
It is the most important stage in ecological succession in which living organisms can influence the
modification of the surrounding environment. Due to these modifications, the present community
becomes unsuitable for existing environmental conditions and are entirely replaced by another. The
whole sequence of communities replacing one another in a given area is called sere. A seral community
is an intermediate stage found in ecological succession in an ecosystem advancing towards its climax
community. In many cases, more than one seral stage evolves until climax conditions are attained.
7. Stabilization
The final stage in ecological succession in which the climax community maintains equilibrium with the
prevailing environmental conditions for longer periods.

Species Diversity
Species diversity is the number of different species that are represented in a given community. It consists
of three components: species richness, taxonomic or phylogenetic diversity, and species evenness.

1. Species richness
Species richness is simply a count of species, i.e. the number of different species represented in an
ecological community, landscape or region. Species richness does not take the abundances of the types
into account, it is not the same thing as diversity, which does take abundances into account. It is a popular
diversity index in ecology because it can be used when abundance data is not available for the datasets of
interest.
2. Phylogenetic diversity
It is a measure of biodiversity which incorporates phylogenetic difference between species. The
phylogenetic dimension of biodiversity reflects evolutionary differences among species based on times
since divergence from a common ancestor and represents a comprehensive estimate of phylogenetically
conserved ecological and phenotypic differences among species.
3. Species evenness
Species evenness is a diversity index that quantifies how close in numbers each species in an environment
is. The evenness of a community is mathematically represented by Pielou's evenness index:

Where H’ is the number derived from the Shannon diversity index and H’ max is the maximum possible
value of H’.

Diversity Indices
Diversity indices (also called phylogenetic indices or phylogenetic metrics) are used for mathematical
measurement of species diversity in a given community based on the species richness (the number of
 136

species present) and species abundance (the number of individuals per species). There are two types of
diversity indices used in ecological calculations. They are dominance indices and information statistic
Indices.

1. The Simpson index (D) is a dominance index because it gives more weight to common or dominant
species. In this case, a few rare species with only a few representatives will not affect diversity. It takes
into account the number of species present, as well as the abundance of each species. There are two
different formulae for calculating D, either is acceptable but is to be consistent:

The value of D ranges between 0 and 1

where, n = the total number of individuals of each species, N = the total number of organisms of all
species.

0 represents infinite diversity and 1, no diversity. That is, the higher the value of D, the lower the diversity.
This does not sound logical, so to get over this problem, D is often subtracted from 1 or the reciprocal
of the index is taken.

Simpson’s Index of Diversity 1-D

This index estimates the probability of two randomly selected individuals from a community belonging
to different species. The value of this index also ranges between 0 and 1, but here, the higher value
represents greater diversity.
Simpson’s Reciprocal Index 1/D
The lowest possible value of this index is 1, which represents a community containing only a single
species. The higher values indicate greater diversity. The maximum value is equal to the number of
species in the sample. E.g. if there are six species in the sample, then the maximum value is 6.

As an example, let us consider the following table:

Species Number (n) n(n-1)

Lantana camara 2 2
Adhatoda Vasica 8 56

syzygium aromaticum 1 0

Bambusa bambos 1 0
Artocarpus heterophyllus 3 6

Total (N) 15 64
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D= 64/210
Simpson's Index D =0.3

Simpson's Index of Diversity 1 - D = 0.7

Simpson's Reciprocal Index 1 / D = 3.3

All three values quantify the same biodiversity. Hence, it is important to be clear about which index
should actually be used in comparative studies.

2. The Shannon index (H) is an information statistic index, it assumes all species are represented in a
sample and they are randomly sampled. It takes into account the number of species present, as well as
the abundance of each species.

Where p is the proportion (n/N) of individuals of one particular species found (n) divided by the total
number of individuals found (N), ln is the natural log, Σ is the sum of the calculations, and s is the number
of species.
Typical values of H are generally between 1.5 and 3.5 in most ecological studies, and the index is rarely
greater than 4. The Shannon index increases as both the richness and the evenness of the community
increase. Even the rare species with one individual contribute some value to the Shannon index.

Species Abundance Pi ln Pi
Lantana camara 50 -0.347
Adhatoda Vasica 30 -0.361
syzygium aromaticum 10 -0.230
Bambusa bambos 9 -0.217
Artocarpus heterophyllus 1 -0.046
Total 100 -1.201
Putting the values into the formula for Shannon index, Hs = 1.201

Measuring Biodiversity Over Spatial Scales

RH Whittaker (1972) coined three terms for measuring biodiversity over spatial scales: alpha, beta, and
gamma diversity. Alpha and γ diversity are grouped as inventory diversity, sharing the same characteristics
and differentiated only by scale. Beta diversity is defined as the difference in species composition between
communities.

Alpha diversity (α-diversity) is the diversity of a region or a local species pool. In other words, alpha
diversity is the number of species found in a particular area or ecosystem.
 138

Beta diversity (β-diversity) is defined as the difference in species composition between communities and
is closely related to many facets of ecology and evolutionary biology. Simply, it is the ratio between
regional and local species diversity.

Gamma diversity (γ-diversity) is the total species diversity in a landscape (γ) and is determined by two
different things: the mean species diversity in sites or habitats at a more local scale (α) and the
differentiation among those habitats (β).

Biodiversity Gradient
Biodiversity gradient or Latitudinal Gradients of Biodiversity are biogeographic patterns that quantify the
ways in which taxonomic, phylogenetic, functional, genetic, or phenetic biodiversity changes with the
latitudinal position on the surface of the earth. In general, species richness increases with increasing
latitude from polar to equator regions. A few species are there contradicting the aforementioned
phenomenon. They include parasites, aquatic flora, North American wasps, marine birds, etc. There are
several theories to explain why species diversity is greater in the tropics than in cooler regions. Almost
90% of this variation can be explained by four variables: seasonal temperature, precipitation,
evapotranspiration, and elevation. Besides, the relative environmental stability of the tropics also enables
species to specialize to a greater extent.

Rapoport's Rule
The rule states that latitudinal ranges of plants and animals are generally smaller at lower latitudes than
at higher latitudes. According to this theory, species can have narrower tolerances in more stable climates,
leading to smaller ranges and allowing the coexistence of more species.

Minimum Viable Population (MVP)

MVP refers to the smallest possible size at which a biological population can exist without facing
extinction from natural disasters or demographic, environmental, or genetical stochasticity. Estimates of
MVP have their greatest value in the field of conservation biology. It is generally used to refer to a wild
population, but can also be used for populations under ex-situ conservation.

A graphical representation of population growth over the total population

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“50/500” rule proposed by Australian geneticist Ian Franklin suggests that a minimum population size of
50 is necessary to combat inbreeding and a minimum of 500 individuals are needed to reduce genetic
drift.

In general, species with high reproductive capacities, known as r-selected species, such as arthropods and
rodents tend to have lower MVPs than species with low reproductive capacities (i.e. k- selected species).
It is mainly because of the fact that they do not breed until individuals are several years old. An MVP of
500 to 1,000 has often been given as an average for terrestrial vertebrates when inbreeding or genetic
variability is ignored.

Island Biogeography Theory

The theory states that the number of species on any island reflects a balance between the rate at which
new species colonize it and the rate at which populations of established species become extinct. The
following graph portrays the immigration (I) rate of new species and the extinction rate (E) of resident
species versus the number of species present on an island. The intersection point gives the equilibrial
species number (I=E).

The authors of island biogeography theory have also predicted that larger islands will have more species
than smaller islands (assuming these islands are comparably isolated), and isolated islands will have fewer
species than islands closer to source regions (assuming these islands are equally large). Thus, the more
isolated islands are likely to have a greater number of endemic species and low gene flow and connectivity
with surrounding islands.
The relationship between species richness and area is well known in ecology and is represented as

S = cAz

S = species richness, A is area and c and z are constants. The equation is often presented in its logical
form as:
log10S = log10 C + z log10 A
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Types of Species in a Community

Types of Species Definition Examples

Indicator A species whose presence is Non-Alaskan grizzly bears are

indicative of other forms of indicator species for mountain
biodiversity and/or the health of the ecosystems.
ecosystem as a whole.
Keystone A plant or animal that plays a pivotal The sea otter is considered a
role in the functioning of an keystone species due to their
ecosystem. Without which the consumption of sea urchins,
ecosystem would be dramatically preventing the destruction of kelp
different or cease to exist altogether. forests caused by the sea urchin
population. Kelp forests are critical
habitat for many species in
nearshore ecosystems.
Umbrella The species whose area of occupancy The Amur Tiger, found in the
is large enough and their Russian Far East, is an example of
conservation will protect many other an umbrella species
species in the same ecosystem.
Flagship A flagship species is a species selected The lion-tailed macaque is a flagship
to act as an ambassador, icon or species of Silent valley national park
symbol for a defined habitat, issue, of Kerala. Other examples include
campaign or environmental cause. Bengal Tiger, Asian Elephant, and
Flagship species are usually relatively the Giant Panda
large, and considered to be
'charismatic' in western cultures.

IUCN Red List of Threatened Species

IUCN Red List is the world's most comprehensive inventory of the global conservation status of
biological species. It evaluates the extinction risk of thousands of species and subspecies worldwide.
Major species assessors include BirdLife International, the Institute of Zoology, London, the World
Conservation Monitoring Centre, and many Specialist Groups within the IUCN Species Survival
Commission (SSC).
Species are classified by the IUCN Red List into nine groups, specified through the following criteria;

1. The rate of population decline

2. The geographic range

3. Whether the species already possesses a small population size

4. Whether the species is very small or lives in a restricted area
5. Whether the results of a quantitative analysis indicate a high probability of extinction in the wild.
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Extinct (Ex)
A taxon is Extinct when there is no reasonable doubt that the last individual has died. A taxon is
presumed Extinct when exhaustive surveys in known and/or expected habitat, at appropriate times
(diurnal, seasonal, annual), throughout its historic range have failed to record an individual.

Extinct in the Wild (EW)

A taxon is Extinct in the Wild when it is known only to survive in cultivation, in captivity or as a
naturalized population (or populations) well outside the past range.

Critically Endangered (CR)

This category contains those species that possess an extremely high risk of extinction as a result of rapid
population declines of 80 to more than 90 percent over the past 10 years (or three generations), a current
population size of fewer than 50 individuals, or other factors.

Endangered (EN)
The endangered species are under very high risk of extinction due to rapid population declines of 50 to
more than 70 percent over the past 10 years (or three generations), a current population size of fewer
than 250 individuals, or other factors.

Vulnerable (VU)
A designation applied to species that possess a high risk of extinction as a result of rapid population
declines (30-50%) over the past 10 years (or three generations), a current population size of fewer than
1,000 individuals, or other factors.

Near Threatened (NT)

A taxon is Near Threatened when it has been evaluated against the criteria but does not qualify for
Critically Endangered, Endangered or Vulnerable, but is close to qualifying for or is likely to qualify for
a threatened category in the near future.
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Least Concern (LC)

A taxon is Least Concern when it has been evaluated against the criteria and does not qualify for Critically
Endangered, Endangered, Vulnerable or Near Threatened. Widespread and abundant taxa are included
in this category.

Data Deficient (DD)

A taxon is Data Deficient when there is inadequate information to make a direct, or indirect, assessment
of its risk of extinction based on its distribution and/or population status.

A taxon in this category may be well studied, and its biology well known, but appropriate data on
abundance and/or distribution are lacking. Data Deficient is therefore not a category of threat.

Not Evaluated (NE)

A taxon is Not Evaluated when it has not yet been evaluated against the criteria.

Critically Endangered Species in India

1. Rameshwaram parachute spider (Poecilotheria hanumavilasumica)
The spider was initially believed to be endemic to the Ramanathapuram district in the state of Tamil
Nadu, India, but later it was identified outside India in the Mannar District of Northern Sri Lanka. The
close proximity of Mannar island to India suggests that the species may have dispersed over the land
bridge between the two countries in the Pleistocene epoch.
2. White-bellied heron (Ardea insignis)
The white-bellied heron, also known as imperial heron, has a global population of fewer than 300 mature
individuals distributed along the foothills of the eastern Himalayas. It is mostly solitary and occurs in
undisturbed riverside or wetland habitats. It is under serious threat of extinction in Bhutan due to the
rapid development of large-scale hydro-power projects in the river basins.
3. Great Indian bustard (Ardeotis nigriceps)
The Great Indian bustard is a bird with a height of about one meter and is commonly found on the dry
plains (grassland and scrub) of the Indian subcontinent, with population size as fewer as 150 individuals.
These birds are often found associated in the same habitat as blackbuck. They face grave threats from
hunting and habitat loss. In the past, they were widely hunted for their meat and even today illegal
poaching activities continue. In some places such as Rajasthan, increased irrigation by the Indira Gandhi
canal has led to alteration of the landscape for agriculture activities, causing the disappearance of bustard
species from these regions. Recent threats to the species include the development of roads and electric
power lines in the desert. The alarming and rapid reduction of the population of India's bustard species
has prompted the Ministry of Environment and Forests to formulate species recovery programs in 2012
for three species of bustard- the great Indian bustard, the Bengal florican and the Lesser florican.

4. Bengal florican (Houbaropsis bengalensis)

The Bengal florican, also called Bengal bustard, is the world's rarest bustard with a limited distribution
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on the tiny fragments of grassland scattered across South and Southeast Asia. The major threat to their
population is the land conversion for intensive agriculture, particularly for dry season rice production.
Poaching also continues to be a problem in Southeast Asia, while the South Asian population is down to
less than 350 adult birds, about 85% of which are found in India.
5. Jerdon's courser (Rhinoptilus bitorquatus)
Jerdon's courser (Rhinoptilus bitorquatus) is a nocturnal bird endemic to southern India. It has a very
limited geographical range around the Godavari river valley near Sironcha and Bhadrachalam, and from
the Cuddapah and Anantpur areas in the valley of the Pennar River. The construction of the Somasilla
Dam had led to the relocation of residents of 57 villages into the region where the courser inhabits. In
addition, extensive quarrying threatens their habitat. The scrub habitat preferred by the bird has declined
due to increased agricultural activity.

6. Indian vulture (Gyps indicus)

The Indian vulture and white-rumped vulture have suffered a grave population decline (99%–97%) in
Bangladesh, Pakistan, and India between 2000 and 2007. This unprecedented decline occurred due to
the poisoning caused by diclofenac, a veterinary drug. Diclofenac is a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory
drug (NSAID) generally given to working animals to reduce joint pain. The drug was believed to be
swallowed by vultures with the flesh of dead cattle who were given diclofenac in the last days of their life.

7. Pondicherry shark (Carcharhinus hemiodon)

Pondicherry shark is a critically endangered and extremely rare species of requiem shark. They are
usually harmless to humans but are caught and used for meat.

8. Namdapha flying squirrel (Biswamoyopterus biswasi)

It is an arboreal, nocturnal flying squirrel endemic to northeastern India. The range of the Namdapha
flying squirrel is believed to be restricted to a single valley and is threatened by poaching of animals for
food from within the Namdapha national park.

Biodiversity hotspot
A biodiversity hotspot is a biogeographic region with significant levels of biodiversity that is threatened
by human habitation. To qualify as a hotspot, a region must contain at least 0.5% or 1,500 species of
vascular plants as endemics, and it has to have lost at least 70% of its primary vegetation. 36 biodiversity
hotspots have been so far identified around the globe. Some of these hotspots support up to 15,000
endemic plant species and some have lost up to 95% of their natural habitat. India shares its territories
into four biodiversity hotspots viz. Eastern Himalaya, Western Ghats, Indo-Burma and Sundalands.

Ecotone and Edge effect

Ecotones are dynamic boundaries and transitional areas between two very distinct ecological habitats
containing different communities and physicochemical features. In terrestrial systems, these are typically
located between habitat patches or ecosystems such as forest to grassland, whereas in aquatic systems, a
major ecotonal transition is between land and water (e.g. the mangrove forests represent an ecotone
between marine and terrestrial ecosystem). The physicochemical change for animals in the aquatic-
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terrestrial ecotones are more dramatic than for animals in terrestrial ecotones because the habitats vary
more substantially in a set of characteristics, such as temperature, oxygen content, chemical conditions
(e.g., pH, salinity, osmotic/ionic state, etc.), physical support for the animal (buoyancy), and predators.
The riparian zone is a major transitional zone for all types of aquatic systems.
The edge effect is defined as the influence of the two bordering communities on each other. It results in
greater species diversity and density at the transition zone than in adjoining communities.

Ecological Niche
The ecological niche is a term for the position of a species within an ecosystem. It describes both the
range of conditions necessary for the persistence of the species and its ecological role in the ecosystem.
It also describes how an organism or population responds to the distribution of resources and
competitors. A wide array of abiotic factors (e.g., soil type and climate) also influence a species’ niche.

Fundamental niche (FN) is the whole set of conditions under which an animal can survive and reproduce
itself. Whereas, realized niche (RN) is the set of conditions actually used by given animal after interactions
with other species have been taken into account.

FN ≥ RN

According to Niche breadth species are classified into two categories: Specialist species (having narrow
niches) and Generalist species (having broad niches).

Types of Niche Overlap

The degree and type of niche overlap can be used to assess the interspecific competition. If niches of
two species are overlapping and the resources are limiting, then competition is currently occurring
between them. Abutting niches are an indirect indication that competition may have led to niche
divergence in the past.

Competitive Exclusion Principle

The competitive exclusion principle, sometimes referred to as Gause's law states that “Two species with
identical niches (and compete for a single resource) cannot coexist together indefinitely.” When one
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species has even the slightest advantage over another, the one with the advantage will dominate in the
long term. This will lead either to the extinction of the weaker competitor or to an evolutionary or
behavioral shift toward a different ecological niche. Examples for Gause’s principle include Darwin’s
finches and Mac Arthur’s Warblers
The competitive exclusion principle is based on a mathematical model developed independently by Vito
Volterra and Alfred Lotka. This model is expressed in the equation for Logistic Population Growth.

N is the number of individuals in a population or the density; K is the carrying capacity of the
environment for that species; r denotes the intrinsic rate of population growth; dN/dt represents the
change in population with time.

J-shaped curve and S-shaped curve

The first and the simplest Lotka–Volterra model describes an ecological predator-prey (or parasite-host)
relationship. The assumptions about the environment and evolution of the predator and prey
populations are:

1. The prey population has an unlimited food supply at all times.

2. In the absence of predators, the prey population x would grow proportionally to its size, dx/ d t = αx,
α > 0. The coefficient α was named as the coefficient of auto-increase.
3. In the absence of prey, the predator population y would decline proportionally to its size, d y/ d t =
−γy, γ > 0.
4. When both predator and prey are present, a decline in the prey population and a growth in the
predator population will occur, each at a rate proportional to the frequency of encounters between
individuals of the two species (−βxy for prey, δxy for predators, β, δ > 0).

Prey equation
When the interaction rate is adjoined to the natural rate, the change in the prey’s numbers is given by its
own growth minus the rate at which it is preyed upon.
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Predator equation
The predator equation expresses the change in the predator population as growth is determined by the
food supply minus natural death.

Where δxy represents the growth of the predator population; α, β, γ, δ are positive real parameters
describing the interaction of the two species.

Two species equation

In the case of two populations, x1 and x2, with logistic dynamics, the equation is:

α12 represents the effect species 2 has on the population of species 1 and α21 represents the effect
species 1 has on the population of species 2

N species equation
This is a generalized equation for any number(N) of species competing against one another. The
equation for any species i becomes

Niche Differentiation
The long-term coexistence of ecologically similar species is achieved through niche differentiation (also
known as niche segregation, niche separation, and niche partitioning), a process by which competing
species use the environment differently in a way that helps them to coexist.
Many studies have shown that potential competitors show differences in patterns of resource use (i.e.
resource partitioning). For example, in a detailed study of bumblebees in the mountains of Colorado, it
was observed that different bumblebees in this area appear to be adapted to specific species of plants
having different corolla lengths in their flowers. Hence, the species having long proboscis consumed
nectar from the flowers with the long corolla, while the species with short proboscis preferred flowers
with short corolla.
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The case study of character displacement in Darwin's finches of Galapagos island is another classical
example of resource partitioning. A single species of seed-eating finch, which originally colonized the
Galapagos Islands, was faced with a diverse range of seed types and sizes. However, the beak of the
founding species only allowed it to eat a small subset of the available seed types and sizes. The advantages
gained by individuals that were able to exploit slightly different seed types drove the evolution of many
new species, each with different shaped beaks enabling them to specialize in a particular size of the seed.

Although the term ‘resource’ generally stands for food, species can partition other non-consumable
objects such as parts of the habitat. For example, warblers are thought to coexist because they nest in
different parts of trees.

Population Ecology
A population is a group of organisms of the same species occupying a particular space at a particular
time. Its major characteristics are:

1. Geographic Distribution
2. Density
3. Dispersion
4. Growth Rate
5. Age Structure
Carrying Capacity and Maximum Sustainable Yield (MSY)
The carrying capacity of an area represents the maximum number of individuals of a particular species
that the area can support indefinitely without degrading the environment. It is represented by K in the
logistic growth equation.

Maximum Sustainable Yield (MSY) is a well-known acronym in fisheries science. MSY is defined as the
maximum catch (in numbers or mass) that can be removed from a population over an indefinite period.
The key assumption behind all sustainable harvesting models such as MSY is that populations of
organisms grow and replace themselves – that is, they are renewable resources. The simplest way to
model harvesting is to modify the logistic equation so that a certain number of individuals is continuously
removed.

H represents the number of individuals being removed from the population or harvesting rate. An
equilibrium population size is attained when the harvest rate becomes equal to the population growth
rate.
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In the logistic growth model, there is a point at which the population exhibits the maximum growth rate.
This point, called the maximum sustainable yield (MSY), is where the population size is half the carrying
capacity.

Maximum Sustainable Yield

The maximum sustainable yield is the largest yield that can be taken from a population at equilibrium.
Mathematically, H is one-fourth the carrying capacity (K) times the intrinsic rate of growth.

r/K Selection Theory

In r/K selection theory, selective pressures are hypothesized to drive evolution in either r- direction or in
k- direction. The terms r-selection and K-selection have also been used by ecologists to describe the
growth and reproductive strategies of various organisms. The table below summarizes the important
differences between r-organisms and K-organisms.

r- selected species K- selected species

Unstable environment Stable environment
The small size of organisms Large-sized organisms
Energy used for making individuals is low Energy used to make individuals is high
Many offspring are produced and they attain Fewer offspring are produced and they attain late
early maturity maturity
Short life expectancy Long life expectancy
Density independent Density-dependent
Follow type III survivorship curve Follow either type I or type II survivorship curve
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Organisms that exhibit r-selected traits can range from bacteria and diatoms to insects and grasses, to
various semelparous cephalopods and small mammals, particularly rodents. Some of the k- selected
organisms are elephants, humans, and whales, but also smaller, long-lived organisms, such as Arctic terns,
parrots, and eagles.
In reality, it is not surprising that many organisms cannot be classified clearly into either category. A
number of organisms adopt an intermediate strategy or even adopt different strategies depending on local
environmental conditions at any given time. For example, trees exhibit traits of K-strategists, such as
longevity and strong competitiveness. In reproduction, however, trees typically produce thousands of
offspring and disperse them widely, which are the characteristic of r-strategists. Similarly, sea turtles, an
organism with a long lifespan and large size, produce a large number of unnurtured offspring. Unlike r -
selected species, k -selected species are not effective colonizers. Instead, they tend to be found in climax
communities (stable and long-established ecological communities).

The Intermediate Disturbance Hypothesis posits that intermediate levels of disturbance in a landscape
create patches at different levels of succession, promoting the coexistence of colonizers and competitors
at the regional scale.

An illustration of the three idealized types of the curve (logarithmic scale)

Intermediate Disturbance Hypothesis

The intermediate disturbance hypothesis states that high species richness in communities subject to a
moderate degree of disturbance or stress. According to this model, high stress leads to mortality in all
but fast-growing individuals, and under low stress, inter- and intraspecific interactions such as competition
and predation determine community structure. The intermediate level of disturbance to an ecosystem
ensures the coexistence of colonizers and competitors at the regional scale. The hypothesis also predicts
that biodiversity is controlled by the frequency of disturbance events, their spatial extent, and the amount
of time required for ecological succession.
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Graph showing the Intermediate Disturbance Hypothesis

Metapopulation Ecology
A metapopulation is a spatially structured population that persists over time as a set of local populations
with limited dispersal among them. A species with a metapopulation structure lives in a habitat made up
of patches. At a given instant, only some of the patches will be occupied. There will be limited migration
among these local populations. The persistence of metapopulations largely depends on the balance
between local extinction and colorization rates. Migration among local populations that prevents local
extinctions is called the ‘Rescue effect’. Turnover event occurs when a habitat patch becomes
unoccupied through extinction and is then recolonized by individuals from other local populations.

Types of Metapopulation Structures

1. Classical metapopulation model (or Levins metapopulation model)
A nexus of patches, each patch winking into life as a population colonizes it and winking out again as
extinction occurs. In this model, all patches are relatively small and the small subpopulations within a
metapopulation are extinction-prone but are sufficiently close to neighboring populations for
recolonization to occur.
2. Patchy metapopulation model
The local population exists in habitat patches and all subpopulations are sufficiently close to function as
a single subpopulation. The dispersal rates among the patches are high. When a subpopulation goes
extinct it is not noticed as it is a part of the large continuous metapopulation, however, the extinction of
the single large subpopulation can lead to the extinction of the entire metapopulation.
3. Non-equilibrium metapopulation model
Each subpopulation acts as a separate metapopulation that is completely independent. Subpopulations
are usually separated by large interpatch distances; hence migration and colonization do not occur when
a subpopulation goes extinct. Local extinction rates greatly exceed recolonization rates. These types of
metapopulations are frequently found in anthropogenic fragmented landscapes (e.g. formerly forested
agricultural fields).
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Meta Population Structure

4. Mainland-island metapopulation model
Several small patches (or “islands”) are within dispersal distance of a much larger “mainland” patch. It
is assumed that the mainland population never goes extinct, though smaller patches have a high
probability of local extinction. A steady migration of organisms out of the mainland to the islands, called
propagule rain, always takes place in this type of metapopulation model.

Genetic Drift
Genetic drift is the change in the frequency of an existing gene variant in a population due to random
sampling of organisms. The alleles in the offspring are a sample of those in the parents, and chance has
a role in determining whether a given individual survives and reproduces. Genetic drift often takes place
through two mechanisms:

1. The bottleneck effect

A population bottleneck is an extreme example of genetic drift that significantly reduces the size of a
population in a short period of time due to some random environmental events (floods, fires, etc.). The
allele frequencies in this group may be very different from those of the population prior to the event, and
some alleles may be missing completely. It also increases the damages done by recessive deleterious
mutations in a process known as inbreeding depression. As a consequence of the bottleneck effect, even
the beneficial alleles controlling adaptations may be permanently eliminated.

.
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2. Founder effect
The founder effect occurs when a small group of individuals breaks off from a larger population to
establish a new colony. The smaller population size of colonizers results in reduced genetic variation
from the original population. The founder effect is similar in concept to the bottleneck effect, but it
occurs via a different mechanism- colonization rather than a catastrophe.

Biomes
Biomes are distinct biological communities that have formed in response to a shared physical climate.
They constitute the largest geographic biotic unit. The major Terrestrial biomes are:

1. Tundra
Tundra is a type of biome where the tree growth is hindered by low temperatures and short growing
seasons. The ecotone between the tundra and the forest is known as tree line or timberline. There are
three types of Tundra regions existing around the globe: Arctic tundra, alpine tundra, and Antarctic
tundra.

Arctic tundra is situated to the north of the taiga belt covering vast areas of northern Russia and Canada.
This region is characterized by permafrost (permanently frozen soil) which makes it impossible for trees
to grow. The precipitation is only about 150–250 mm falling per year. The biodiversity in Arctic Tundra
is low with just 700 species of vascular plants and only 48 species of land mammals, but during summer
millions of birds migrate to the marshes in these regions. Poikilotherms such as frogs or lizards are absent
in Arctic Tundra.

A major threat to the Tundra biome is global warming and subsequent melting of permafrost. About
one-third of the world's soil-bound carbon is in taiga and tundra areas. When the permafrost melts, the
carbon gets released in the form of carbon dioxide and methane to the atmosphere and thereby
augmenting the greenhouse effect.
Antarctic tundra is found in Antarctica and on several Antarctic and sub-Antarctic islands. This continent,
too cold to support any vegetation, is mostly covered by ice fields. However, some remaining areas of
rocky soil support plant life (e.g., lichens, mosses, liverworts, etc.). Antarctic hair grass (Deschampsia
antarctica) and Antarctic pearlwort (Colobanthus quitensis) are the only flowering plants found on the
entire continent. Unlike the Arctic tundra, the Antarctic regions are devoid of large mammal fauna. Sea
mammals and sea birds including seals and penguins inhabit areas near the shore.

Alpine tundra does not have trees because the climate and soil at high altitude block tree growth. The
lack of permafrost distinguishes Alpine tundra from the rest. The soil found here is better drained than
arctic soils. The stunted forests growing at the forest-tundra ecotone are known as Krummholz.
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2. Taiga

The taiga, also known as boreal forest or snow forest, is found throughout the high northern latitudes
between the tundra and the temperate forest. This biome is dominated by coniferous forests consisting
mostly of pines, spruces, and larches. It is the world's largest land biome occupying about 17 percent of
Earth’s land surface area. The taiga experiences relatively low precipitation throughout the year (generally
200–750 mm). Soil is spodosol, i.e., acidic with a strongly leached surface layer. A distinctive feature of
the flora of taiga is the abundance and diversity of mosses, that form one-third of the ground cover. The
fire has been one of the most important factors shaping the composition and development of boreal
forest stands. The dominant fire regime in the boreal forest is high-intensity crown fires or severe surface
fires of very large size, often more than 10,000 ha, and sometimes more than 400,000 ha. Such fires can
kill entire stands.

3. Temperate forests
The temperate forest forms a belt between the tropical and boreal regions and is widely distributed in
Eastern Asia, Central, and Western Europe. It is the second-largest terrestrial biome on the planet.
Temperate forests are characterized as regions with high levels of precipitation, humidity, and a variety
of deciduous trees that shed their leaves in fall and bud new leaves in spring. This forest is further
classified into 4 subtypes:

Deciduous forests are composed mainly of broad-leaved trees, such as maple and oak, which shed all
their leaves once in a year. They are typically found in the middle-latitude regions with temperate
climates.

Coniferous forests are composed of cone-bearing needle-leaved or scale-leaved evergreen trees, such as
pine, spruce, fir, sequoia, and redwood.

Broadleaved and mixed forests, as the name implies, it is composed of conifers and broadleaved-trees
growing together in the same area. E.g., maple, birch, beech, poplar, elm, and pine.

Temperate rainforests are composed of evergreen trees and found only in very wet coastal areas.

4. Tropical rainforests
Tropical rainforests are the most biodiverse terrestrial biome typically found in equatorial regions. The
annual rainfall in tropical rainforests ranges from 125 to 660 cm, which often results in poor soils due to

Layers of Rain forest

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intense leaching of soluble nutrients from the ground. Soils in the tropical regions are categorized into
ultisols and oxisols. Tropical rainforests are characterized by a vertical layering of vegetation that forms
distinct habitats for animals within each layer. The forest floor receives only 2% of the sunlight. Only
plants adapted to low light can survive in this region. The movement of large animals such as okapi, tapir,
Sumatran rhinoceros, etc., takes place on the forest floor. Buttress roots are a common feature of many
tropical rainforest tree species.
5. Deserts
Deserts cover about one-fifth of the Earth's surface and occur where rainfall is less than 50 cm/year.
Subtropical hot deserts can have daytime soil surface temperatures above 60oC and night-time
temperatures dropping down to 0oC. Most of the xerophytic desert plants have adopted crassulacean acid
metabolism, which allows them to open their stomata during the night for CO2 to enter and close them
during the day to reduce evapotranspiration.

In Cacti, a group of desert specialists, the leaves have been dispensed with and the chlorophyll is
displaced into the trunks, the cellular structure of which has been modified to store water. They also
possess spines for shade and waxy skin to seal in moisture. Phreatophytes are a characteristic of arid or
desert zones. These plants are adapted to arid environments by growing extremely long roots, allowing
them to acquire moisture at or near the water table. Animals adapted to live in deserts are called
xerocoles. Most of them are crepuscular or nocturnal. Some smaller desert animals burrow below the
surface of the soil or sand to escape the high temperatures at the desert surface. Kangaroo rats
manufacture water metabolically from the digestion of dry seeds. Other common adaptations seen in
desert animals include big ears, light-colored coats, humps to store fat, etc. There are four major types
of deserts on Earth:

Hot and dry deserts: The Sahara is one such dessert. Others appear in Australia, South Asia, and Central
and South America.

Cold winter deserts or semiarid deserts: The average temperature ranges between 21-27°C while the
annual rainfall is between 0.8 and 1.5 inches. Semi-arid deserts are found in North America, Russia,
northern Asia, Europe, and Greenland.

Coastal deserts occur in moderately cool to warm areas such as the Nearctic and Neotropical realm. A
good example is the Atacama of Chile.

Cold deserts are characterized by cold winters with snowfall and high overall rainfall throughout the
winter and occasionally over the summer. The largest of these deserts are the Gobi Desert in northern
China and southern Mongolia, the Taklimakan Desert in western China, the Turkestan Desert, and the
Great Basin Desert of the United States.
6. Chaparral
Chaparral is a shrub forest found in California, along the Mediterranean Sea, and along the southern
coast of Australia. It is shaped by the Mediterranean climate (mild, wet winters and hot dry summers)
and wildfire, featuring summer-drought-tolerant plants with hard sclerophyllous evergreen leaves. The
frequency of fire occurrence intervals ranges between 30-50+ years. Some plants produce seeds that
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germinate only after a hot fire. There are two types of Chaparral plant species:

Sprouters (obligate): They have dormant meristems on buried lignotubers, and also have storage and
intact roots, which help them respond quickly.

Seeders (facultative and obligate): These plants have long-lived seeds in the seed bank or aerially. The
germination of these seeds is induced by fire.

Mature chaparral stands that have survived for greater intervals between fires are characterized by nearly
impenetrable dense thickets. These plants are highly flammable during the late summer and autumn
months.

7. Temperate grasslands
Temperate grasslands are areas of open grassy plains that are sparsely populated with trees. They are
known as prairies in North America and steppes in Eurasia. The natural factors that impact temperate
grassland biomes are tornadoes, blizzards, and fires. The major locations of Temperate grasslands are
given below.

Argentina - Pampas
Australia - Downs

North America - Prairies

Hungary - Puszta

New Zealand - Downs

Russia - Steppes

South Africa – Veldts

8. Savanna

Savannas are grasslands with scattered trees, generally occurring in Africa, South America, and northern
Australia. Charismatic animals including elephant, giraffe, lion, and cheetah make their homes in the
savanna. The plants here have well-developed root systems that allow them to quickly re-sprout after a
fire.

The South American savanna type- cerrado has a high density of trees, which is similar to, or greater
than that found in South American tropical forests. Two factors common to all savanna environments
are rainfall variations from year to year and dry season wildfires. Serengeti National Park in Tanzania is
one of the famous savannas in the world.

Temperature and Precipitation

Precipitation and temperature are the two most important climatic variables that determine the type of
biome in a particular location. In the graph given below, the tropical rainforest has high average
temperatures and high precipitation, whereas subtropical deserts have much lower precipitation and great
variation in average temperature.
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Net Primary Production (NPP) in Terrestrial Biomes

Primary production is dependent on many environmental factors, such as water, temperature, nutrients,
and sunlight. Extreme variations in these factors among different biomes determine their primary
productivity.

Biome NPP (g C/m2/ year)

Tropical Rain Forest 900
Tropical Dry Forest 675
Temperate Evergreen Forest 585
Temperate Deciduous Forest 540
Boreal Forest 360
Savanna 315
Chaparral 270
Prairie 225
Tundra 225
Desert 32
Aquatic Biome
Aquatic biome is the largest of all the world's biomes. Aquatic habitats are three-dimensional
environments that can be divided into distinct zones based on characteristics such as depth, tidal flow,
temperature, and proximity to landmasses. In addition to this, aquatic biomes can be further divided into
two main groups based on the salinity of their water (freshwater habitats and marine habitats).

1. Ocean
The pelagic zone of oceans consists of the water column of the open ocean. The benthic zone extends
along the ocean bottom from the shoreline to the deepest parts of the ocean floor. This is a nutrient-rich
portion of the ocean because of the dead organisms that fall from the upper layers of the ocean. Due to
the high level of nutrient availability, a diversity of sponges, sea anemones, marine worms, sea stars,
fishes, and bacteria thrive in this region.
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The photic zone is the portion of the ocean that light can penetrate (approximately 200 m). At depths
greater than 200 m, less than 1% of sunlight penetrates into the next portion of the ocean known as
aphotic (or profundal) zone. The portion of the ocean deeper than about 2000 m and remains in
perpetual darkness is known as the abyssal zone. The deepest region of the ocean lying within oceanic
trenches is known as the hadal zone. It is found from a depth of around 6,000 to 11,000 meters.
The mid-ocean ridges of the world are connected and form a single global mid-oceanic ridge system that
is a part of every ocean and is the longest mountain range in the world. This feature is formed where
seafloor spreading takes place along a divergent plate boundary.

The ocean is divided into different zones based on water depth and distance from the shoreline
The intertidal zone is the area where the ocean meets the land between high and low tides. The tough
exoskeletons of shoreline crustaceans protect them from desiccation (drying out) and wave damage from
this zone.

The neritic zone, also called coastal waters, is the relatively shallow part of the ocean situated from the
intertidal zone to depths of about 200 m. The zone is relatively stable and provides a well-illuminated
environment for marine life. The water contains silt and is well-oxygenated. Zooplankton, protists, small
fishes, and shrimp are found in the neritic zone and are the base of the food chain for most of the world’s
fisheries. Corals are also mostly found in the neritic zone than in the intertidal zone.

The oceanic zone is typically defined as the area of the ocean lying beyond the continental. shelf and is
relatively less productive. The mixing of warm and cold waters takes place in this zone due to the action
of ocean currents.

Coral Reefs
Coral reefs often called “rain forest of the sea”, form some of Earth's most diverse ecosystems. Most of
the reef-building or hermatypic corals live only in the photic zone. The coral organisms (members of
phylum Cnidaria) are colonies of saltwater polyps that secrete a calcium carbonate skeleton. The gradual
accumulation of these calcium-rich skeletons forms the underwater reef. Coral polyps are not
photosynthetic, but they form a symbiotic association with zooxanthellae. These organisms live within
the polyps' tissues and provide organic nutrients (glucose and amino acids) that nourish the polyp.
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Formation of Different Types of Coral reef

The Great Barrier Reef is a well-known reef system located several miles off the northeastern coast of
Australia. The most common among the three types of the reefs is the fringing reef, which can be seen
at the New Hebrides Society islands off Australia and off the southern coast of Florida. Atolls are located
at great distances from deep see platforms. The major reef formations in India are restricted to the Gulf
of Mannar, Palk Bay, Gulf of Kutch, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, and the Lakshadweep islands.
While the Lakshadweep reefs are atolls, the others are all fringing reefs. Relatively pristine reefs are
located around uninhabited islands or barrier type reefs located away from population centers.

2. Wetlands
Wetlands are characterized by soil that is periodically or permanently saturated with water. They have
also been described as ecotones, acting as a transition zone between dry land and water bodies. Wetlands
are generally formed due to flooding. The duration of flooding or prolonged soil saturation by
groundwater determines whether the resulting wetland has aquatic, marsh or swamp vegetation. Bogs
and fens are formed due to the accumulation of peat in the region. Wetlands are an important carbon
sink storing approximately 44.6 million tonnes of carbon per year globally. However, some wetlands are
a significant source of methane emissions and some are also emitters of nitrous oxide.

Mangrove
Mangrove forests only grow at tropical and subtropical latitudes near the equator in coastal saline or
brackish water. Mangroves are a group of salt-tolerant trees, generally called halophytes. The anoxic
sediments under mangroves act as sinks for a variety of heavy metals, which have been scavenged from
the water by the colloidal particles in the sediments.

Black Mangroves (e.g. Avicennia germinans) are easily identified by the presence of pneumatophores,
which are tubular bristles like a root system that sticks out vertically and trap oxygen for its oxygen-starved
roots. The Black Mangrove is adapted to high saline conditions and these trees grow in isolated groups
or in woodland formations. Individual trees are fairly large and may grow up to 20-25 meters in height.

Red Mangroves (e.g. Rhizophora mangle) are evergreen trees, which are immediately recognized by their
elaborate prop and aerial root systems that stabilize the trees. The roots contain a waxy substance to
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prevent salt intake. When salt gets through, it is deposited in older leaves and the tree then sheds them.
The tree also creates a propagule resembling an elongated seed pod that is, in reality, a living tree. The
fully-grown propagule on the mangrove is capable of rooting and producing a new tree even after floating
over a year in brackish water.
White Mangroves (e.g. Laguncularia racemose) normally grow in the back portion of mangrove swamps
and remain unaffected by tidal inundation except during spring tides. The tree grows up to 18 meters.
The leaves are adapted to the saline environment by developing special openings (glands) to expel salt.

Mangrove zonation is the predictable and discrete ordering of mangrove species caused by a unique
intertidal environment. The red mangrove is closest to the water, while the buttonwood mangrove is
found farthest from the water. Their positions depend on land elevation, water and soil salt levels, and
tidal changes.

Mangrove zonation
3. Estuary
An estuary is a partially enclosed coastal body of brackish water having one or more rivers or streams
flowing into it with a free connection to the open sea. Estuaries form a transition zone between river
environments and maritime environments.

4. Ponds and Lakes

The size of lakes and ponds ranges from just a few square meters to thousands of square kilometers.
Lakes and ponds are divided into three different zones based on the depth and distance from the
shoreline.

The topmost zone near the shore of a lake or pond is the littoral zone. This zone is the warmest and is
dominated by rooted and floating aquatic plants, grazing snails, clams, insects, crustaceans, fishes, and
amphibians. The near-surface open water surrounded by the littoral zone is called the limnetic zone,
which is dominated by both phytoplankton and zooplankton. The much colder and denser portion of a
lake or pond is called the profundal zone.
Eutrophication is the process by which a lake or pond gets enriched with minerals and nutrients
(phosphorus and nitrogen), which induce excessive growth of algae (or algal bloom)
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Average Net Primary Productivity of Various Ecosystems

Ecosystem Services
Ecosystem services are the many and varied benefits that humans freely gain from the natural
environment and from properly-functioning ecosystems. They support directly or indirectly our survival
and quality of life. Ecosystem services can be categorized into four main types: Provisioning services,
cultural services, regulating services, and supporting services. To help inform decision-makers, many
ecosystem services are being assigned economic values.
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Bioprospecting and Biopiracy

Biodiversity prospecting is the exploration, extraction, and screening of biological diversity and
indigenous knowledge in a legal and respectful manner for commercially valuable genetic and
biochemical resources.

Traditional Knowledge naturally includes a deep understanding of ecological processes and the ability to
sustainably extract useful products from the local habitat. Biopiracy refers to an illegitimate appropriation
of traditional knowledge. It is most often associated with western biotech companies that forage the flora
of biodiversity-rich developing countries to exploit and commercialize biological substances that have
been used by Indigenous people for generations.
Indian products, such as the neem tree, tamarind, turmeric, and Darjeeling tea have all been patented
by multinational companies for different biomedical purposes.

Restoration Ecology
Ecological restoration is the rehabilitation, reclamation, recreation, and recovery of degraded
lands. These efforts may be conducted on either a small-scale (e.g. tree planting) or may involve major
human and technical efforts (e.g., the re-creation of wetlands, acid lake neutralization, etc.).

Enhancement is the process through which only a few ecosystem processes or species are ‘restored’.
However, the system remains far from its pristine state.

Rehabilitation helps to significantly improve the ecosystem, but it remains quite distinct from its pre-
degradation conditions. This is generally carried out in areas that have been strip-mined.

Reclamation stabilizes land and restores sufficient soil to revegetate the land, without attempting to
restore the conditions before mining.

Replacement builds a new community that meets some set of conservation objectives but is different
from the degraded one. E.g., constructed wetlands around some lakes fit into this category.
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Finally, Restoration rebuilds an ecosystem little different than the pristine ecosystem that was degraded.
For animals, there are translocation and reintroduction methods (using captive-bred animals). Restorative
projects can also increase the effective size of a population by adding suitable habitat and decrease
isolation by creating habitat corridors that link isolated fragments.

Index of biological integrity (IBI)

IBI is a method for objectively determining the success of a restoration program. In this index, the
baseline biological integrity (functions of the ecosystem before human influence) and the current
functions of an ecosystem are measured against one another to evaluate how much of the ecosystem's
functions have been preserved. This index evaluates the ecosystem by utilizing bio surveys and comparing
species richness, indicator taxa, hybrids, and invasive species. For aquatic systems, these might include
fish species richness, presence of indicator taxa (e.g. those (in)tolerant of low oxygen concentration),
the incidence of abnormalities, disease, etc.

Bioremediation
Bioremediation is the use of microorganisms, plants, or microbial or plant enzymes to destroy or
immobilize waste materials by altering environmental conditions. One of the major advantages of
bioremediation is the savings in cost and also the savings in the time put forth by workers to clean a
contaminated site. The contaminants known to be biologically degraded by microorganisms are
categorized into five groups:

(a) Halogenated aromatic hydrocarbons

(b) Munitions wastes
(c) Organic solvents
(d) Pesticides
(e) Polyaromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) (e.g. creosote oily wastes)
On the basis of place from where the wastes are removed, there are principally two ways of
bioremediation- In-situ and Ex-situ

1. in-situ indicates that the location of the bioremediation has occurred at the site of contamination
without the translocation of the polluted materials. This technique focuses on initiating or enhancing the
degradation of the contaminants in soils and groundwater. The most effective methods in in-situ
bioremediation are the following;

Bioventing
This process involves supplying the necessary amount of oxygen and nutrients through wells to
contaminated soil for stimulating the growth of indigenous bacteria while minimizing the volatilization
and release of contaminants to the atmosphere. Oxygen is most commonly supplied through direct air
injection into residual contamination in soil by means of wells. It is applied for simple hydrocarbons and
can also be used where the contamination is deep under the surface. In many soils, effective oxygen
diffusion for desirable rates of bioremediation extends to a range of only a few centimeters to about 30
cm into the soil, although depths of 60 cm and greater have been effectively treated in a few cases.
 163

Biosparging
It involves the injection of air under pressure below the water table to increase the oxygen concentration
in groundwater, which will enhance the rate of biological degradation of contaminants by naturally
occurring bacteria. Biosparging also increases the contact between soil and groundwater. Another benefit
of this technique is that water does not have to be extracted. However, there is still very little known about
the extent to which air injection causes a flow of ground-water.

In situ biodegradation
This method involves supplying oxygen and nutrients by circulating aqueous solutions through
contaminated soils to stimulate naturally occurring bacteria to degrade organic contaminants. It can be
used for biodegradation in the soil and the groundwater.

Bioaugmentation
In this method, bacterial cultures are added to a contaminated medium. Two factors limit the use of
added microbial cultures in a land treatment unit: (a) nonindigenous cultures rarely compete well enough
with an indigenous population to develop and sustain useful population levels and (b) most soils with
long-term exposure to biodegradable waste have indigenous microorganisms that are effective degraders
if the land treatment unit is well managed. Bioaugmentation is commonly used in municipal wastewater
treatment to restart activated sludge bioreactors.

2. Ex-Situ Bioremediation involves the treatment of contaminated soil or water once it has been
excavated or pumped out of the location where it was found. The techniques used for Ex-situ type of
bioremediation are the following;

Landfarming
Landfarming is limited to the treatment of superficial (10–35 cm) soil. In this method, contaminated soil
is excavated and spread over a prepared bed and periodically tilled until pollutants are degraded by
indigenous microorganisms through aerobic degradation.

Composting
Composting is a technique that involves combining contaminated soil with nonhazardous organic
materials such as manure or agricultural wastes. The presence of these organic materials supports the
growth of a rich microbial population and elevated temperature facilitates composting.

Biopiles
Biopiles are a hybrid of landfarming and composting techniques in which solid-phase biological process
is carried out for converting contaminants to low-toxicity byproducts. They are used to reduce
concentrations of petroleum constituents in excavated soils through the use of biodegradation.

Bioreactors
Slurry reactors or aqueous reactors are proven to be more effective and efficient against a wider range of
pollutants. A slurry bioreactor may be defined as a containment vessel and apparatus used to create a
three-phase (solid, liquid, and gas) mixing condition to increase the bioremediation rate of soil-bound
 164

and water-soluble pollutants. Bioreactors are used primarily to treat volatile organic compounds (VOCs)
and fuel hydrocarbons in soil and groundwater. The process is less effective for pesticides.
The rate and extent of biodegradation are higher in a bioreactor system than in in situ or in solid-phase
systems because the contained environment is efficiently manageable and more controllable.

Summary of Bioremediation Strategies

Microorganisms used for Bioremediation
Aerobic bacteria such as Pseudomonas, Alcaligenes, Sphingomonas, Rhodococcus, and Mycobacterium
are reported to degrade pesticides and hydrocarbons (both alkanes and polyaromatic compounds). Many
of these bacteria use the contaminant to derive carbon and energy for metabolic activities.

Anaerobic bacteria are recently being used for the bioremediation of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)
in river sediments, dechlorination of the solvent trichloroethylene (TCE), and chloroform.

Ligninolytic fungi such as white rot (Phanaerochaete chrysosporium) have the ability to degrade an
extremely diverse range of persistent or toxic environmental pollutants.

Methylotrophs are aerobic bacteria that grow utilizing methane for producing carbon and energy. They
can degrade a wide range of compounds, including the chlorinated aliphatics trichloroethylene and 1,2-
dichloroethane.

Superbug is a constructed bacterium, e.g. Pseudomonas putida, which can degrade hydrocarbons found
in petroleum wastes.

Phytoremediation
Phytoremediation is a bioremediation process that uses various types of plants for in situ removal,
degradation, and containment of contaminants in soils, surface waters, and groundwater. The method is
 165

well suited for the use at very large field sites where other methods of remediation are not cost-effective
or practicable. Some of the plant species used for phytoremediation include,
1. Indian mustard (Brassica juncea L.)
2. Willow (Salix species)
3. Poplar tree (Populus deltoides)
4. Indian grass (Sorghastrum nutans)
5. Sunflower (Helianthus Annuus L.)
Technique Plant mechanism Surface medium
Phytoextraction Plants accumulate contaminants in the roots and Soils
or Phytoaccumulation aboveground shoots or leaves. These plants are then
removed for disposal or recycling.
Phytotransformation Uptake of organic contaminants from soil or water Surface water,
and their transformation to more stable, less toxic, or groundwater
less mobile form (e.g., Metal chromium can be
reduced from hexavalent to trivalent chromium).
Phytostabilization Reduction of the mobility and migration of Soils, groundwater,
contaminated soil. mine tailing

Phytodegradation Breakdown of contaminants through the activity Soils, groundwater

or existing in the rhizosphere. This activity is due to the within the
Rhizodegradation presence of proteins and enzymes produced by the rhizosphere
plants or by soil organisms such as bacteria, yeast, and
fungi.
Rhizofiltration Water remediation technique that involves the uptake Surface water and
of contaminants by plant roots. It is used to reduce water pumped
contamination in natural wetlands and estuary areas.
Phytovolatilization Plants evaportranspirate selenium, mercury, and Soils and
volatile hydrocarbons. groundwater
Vegetative cap Rainwater is evaportranspirated by plants to prevent Soils
leaching contaminants from disposal sites.
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STATISTICS
Statistics is a form of mathematical analysis that uses quantified models, representations and synopses
for a given set of experimental data or real-life studies. In statistics, an attribute is a characteristic of an
object. Attributes are closely related to variables. A variable is a logical set of attributes. For example, if
you are collecting data on damaged products, attribute data simply classify the output as damaged or not
damaged. If you gather variable data, you can find out how bad each damaged product is: 30 percent, 40
percent, and so on.

Types of Variables
In scientific researches, a variable is something that we measure, but also something that we can
manipulate and control for. The two main variables in an experiment are the independent variable and
the dependent variable. An independent variable is a variable that is being manipulated in an experiment
in order to observe the effect on a dependent variable. Whereas, the dependent variable is a variable
that is dependent on an independent variable.
For example, an entomologist wants to find out if the brightness of light has any effect on a moth being
attracted to the light. The brightness of the light, which is controlled by the scientist, is an independent
variable. How the moth reacts to the different light levels is considered as the dependent variable.

Categorical Variables
Categorical variables are numeric or nominal variables that take a finite, limited, countable number of
possibilities or values (e.g. the number of students in a class). It can be further categorized as nominal
and ordinal variables.
1. Nominal variable
These categories of variables differ in name only, not in value. Examples include Gender (male and
female), eye color (blue, brown, green, etc.), surgical outcome (dead or alive), etc.

2. Ordinal variables
There is an inherent order to the relationship among different categories. E.g. Stages of cancer (stage I,
II, III, IV), Education level (elementary, secondary, college), etc.

Continuous variables
Continuous variables are also known as quantitative variables having an infinite number of value
possibilities. There always exists a third value between any two values on it. Continuous variables can be
further categorized as either interval or ratio variables.
1. Interval
Variables having constant and equal distances between values, but the zero point is arbitrary. E.g.
Intelligence (IQ test score of 100, 110, 120, etc.), pain level (1-10 scale), etc.

2.Ratio
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Variables having equal intervals between values, the zero point is meaningful, and the numerical
relationships between numbers are meaningful. E.g. weight (50 kilos, 100 kilos, 150 kilos, etc.), pulse
rate, etc.

Levels (or scales) of Measurement

Measures of Central Tendency and Dispersion
Two kinds of statistics are frequently used to describe data. They are measures of central tendency and
dispersion. The central tendency is nothing but the average of the given data. The mean, median, and
mode are three commonly used measures of central tendency. On the other hand, dispersion helps in
evaluating how near or far the other values are from this average value. One simple measure of dispersion
is the range, which is the difference between the greatest and least data values. These are often called
descriptive statistics because they can help you describe your data.

1. Arithmetic Mean
The arithmetic mean is the same as the average of data. It is calculated by adding together the given
values in a data set and then dividing that total by the number of given values. Thus, the mean of n
observation x1, x2, ., xn, is given by;

2. Median
If we arrange n observations in ascending or descending order then the middle value is the median. If
the total number of terms(n) is an odd number, then the formula for the median is:

If the total number of terms(n) in a data set is even, then the formula for the median is:
 169

3. Mode
The mode is the most frequently occurring value in the data set. It is useful when there are a lot of
repeated values in a dataset.

Relation Between Mean, Median, and Mode

When the distribution of data is symmetrical or moderately skewed, there is a simple relationship
between the three M’s (mean, median and mode).

Mode = 3 Median – 2 Mean

Geometric mean (G.M.)

For a set of n observations (x1, x2, …, xn), the geometric mean is the nth root of their product. For instance,
the geometric mean of two numbers, say 2 and 8, is just the square root of their product, that is, 4

Harmonic Mean (HM)

The harmonic mean is calculated by dividing the number of observations by the sum of reciprocal of the
observation.

The harmonic mean has the least value when compared to the geometric mean and the arithmetic mean.

If a and b are two integers then:

Measures of Dispersion
The measures of dispersion show the scatterings of the data. More precisely, it measures the degree of
variability in the given observation on a variable from their central value (usually the mean or the median).
 170

Absolute Measures of Dispersion

1. Range
The range is the simplest method to measure the dispersion of the values of a variable. It is the difference
between the highest and the lowest values of a data set.

Range = X max – X min

2. Quartile Deviation
The quartiles(Q) divide a data set into three quarters: Q1, Q2, and Q3. Quartile Deviation (QD) is the
product of half of the difference between the upper and lower quartiles.

Q1 is the middle number between the smallest number and the median of the data;

Q2 is the median of the data set;

Q3 is the middle number between the median and the largest number.

3. Mean Deviation
For n observations; x1, x2, ..., xn, the mean deviation about their mean x is given by:

Let x1, x2, ..., xn be n observations with x as the mean. The variance, denoted by σ2, is given by,
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4. Standard Deviation (SD)

The standard deviation of a set of observations on a variable is defined as the square root of the arithmetic
mean of the squares of deviations from their arithmetic mean. If σ2 is the variance, then σ is called the
standard deviation.

Relative Measures of Dispersion

Coefficient of Range = (X max – X min) ⁄ (X max + X min)

Coefficient of Quartile Deviation= (Q3 – Q1) ⁄ (Q3 + Q1)

Coefficient of Mean Deviation= Mean deviation/Average from which it is calculated

Coefficient of Standard Deviation= S.D. ⁄ Mean

Coefficient of Variation= (σ/Mean) × 100.

Standard Error of the Mean

The standard error of the mean (SEM) can be expressed as:

Where σ is the standard deviation of the population and n is the size (number of observations) of the
sample. In most cases, the standard deviation of populations is unknown, hence, the standard error of
the mean is usually estimated as the sample standard deviation divided by the square root of the sample
size.

Where S is the sample standard deviation and n is the number of observations of the sample.

Confidence Interval (CI)

A confidence interval is a range of values where the true value of an unknown population parameter lies.
This proposes a range of plausible values for an unknown parameter. The general formula for estimating
CI is given below. Confidence levels of 90% and 99% are often used in analyses.
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CI Z Value
90% 1.645
95% 1.960
99% 2.576

Skewness and Kurtosis

The measures of central tendency provide no information about the shape of the distribution. Hence a
further characterization of the data is required. Skewness is the measure of the degree of asymmetry
exhibited by the data in a histogram. If skewness equals zero, the histogram is symmetric about the
mean.

If Mean > Mode, the skewness is positive.

If Mean < Mode, the skewness is negative.

If Mean = Mode, the skewness is zero.

When the long tail of a distribution is on the negative side of the peak, it’s called negatively skewed. The
distribution is positively skewed when the long tail is on the positive side of the peak.

The simplest measure of skewness is Pearson’s coefficient of skewness:

Kurtosis is a statistical measure that defines how heavily the tails of distribution differ from the tails of a
normal distribution. It characterizes the relative peakedness or tailedness of a distribution. The kurtosis
of distribution is in one of three categories of classification:

Platykurtic– When the kurtosis < 0

Leptokurtic– When the kurtosis > 0
Mesokurtic- When the kurtosis =0
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Moment ratio and Percentile Coefficient of kurtosis are used to measure the kurtosis. Moments are a set
of statistical parameters to describe the shape of a distribution.

0th moment (µ 1) - Total probability (i.e. 1)

1st moment (µ1) - Mean (describes central value)
2nd moment (µ 2) - Variance (describes dispersion)
3rd moment (µ 3) - Skewness (describes asymmetry)
4th moment (µ 4) - Kurtosis (describes peakedness)
Moment based Measure of kurtosis (β2)

Coefficient of kurtosis (Ѵ2) = β2-3

If β2>3, the distribution is leptokurtic

If β2<3, the distribution is platykurtic

If β2=3, the distribution is mesokurtic

Probability Theory
The probability is the chance of occurring of a certain event when expressed quantitatively, i.e. the
probability is a quantitative measure of the certainty.

Probability of an event A, denoted as P(A), is defined as

P(A)= number of cases favorable to A / Number of possible outcomes

? A bag contains 5 white and 3 black balls, and two balls are drawn at random. What is the probability
that both are of the same color?

Probability of drawing a white ball= P(W)= 5/8

Probability of drawing a black ball= P(B)= 3/8

P (same color) = (W and W) or (B and B)

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in probability ‘or’ means '+' & ‘and’ means 'x'

Total probability of drawing two white balls is 5/8 x 4/7 (since they are independent events)

Total probability of drawing two white balls is 3/8*2/7

P= (5/8 x 4/7) + (3/8 x 2/7)

P=13/28

? A box contains 2 red, 3 black, and 4 blue balls. 3 balls are randomly drawn from the box. What is the
probability that the balls are of different colors?
n
Cr = n! / r! * (n - r)!

3 balls can be chosen in 9C3 ways = 9! / 6! 3! = 84 ways

1 black can be chosen from 3 in 3 ways

1 blue can be chosen from 4 in 4 ways and

1 red can be chosen from 2 in 2 ways.

1 Red, 1 Black and 1 Blue ball can be chosen in [(2C 1) x (3C 1) x (4C1)] = 24 ways.
The probability that the balls are of different colors is 24/84= 2/7

Standard Statistical Distributions

1. Normal Distribution
Normal distributions are important in statistics and are often used in the natural and social sciences to
represent real-valued random variables whose distributions are not known. It is also known as the
Gaussian distribution or the bell curve, which is a symmetric distribution where most of the observations
cluster around the central peak.

E.g., heights, blood pressure, and IQ scores follow the normal distribution. The mean and the standard
deviation are the two parameters of normal distribution. The Empirical Rule for the Normal Distribution
helps to determine the proportion of values that fall within specific numbers of standard deviations from
the mean.

Mean +/- Standard Percentage of Data

Deviations Contained
1 68%
2 95%
3 99.7%
Normal distributions do not necessarily have the same means and standard deviations. When the mean
of a normal distribution is 0 and the standard deviation is 1, it is known as the Z-distribution or standard
normal distribution. A value on the standard normal distribution is known as a standard score or a Z-
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score. For example, a Z-score of 1.5 indicates that the observation is 1.5 standard deviations above the
mean. As opposed to this, a negative Z-score represents a value below the average.

Graph of a Standard Normal Distribution (μ= 0 and σ= 1)

Following formula can be used to calculate the standard score for an observation:

Z is the value on the standard normal distribution

X represents the value on the original distribution

μ and σ represent the population mean and standard deviation respectively.

2. Log-normal Distribution
The log-normal distribution is the probability distribution of a random variable whose logarithm follows
a normal distribution. It is commonly used to model phenomena whose relative growth rate is
independent of size (e.g., size of tissue and blood pressure).

If Z is the standard normal variable, μ and σ are the mean and standard deviation of the logarithm of X,
then the equation for such distribution is given as,

A graph showing Log- normal distribution

 176

3. Binomial Distribution

The binomial distribution can be simply stated as the probability of a SUCCESS or FAILURE outcome
in an experiment or survey that is repeated multiple times. The probability distribution of the random
variable X is given by the formula:

Where,

n = the number of trials , x = 0, 1, 2, ... n, p = the probability of success in a single trial, q = the probability
of failure in a single trial (i.e. q = 1 − p), nCx is a combination, P(X) gives the probability of successes in
n binomial trials. Binomial distributions must also meet the following criteria:
1. The number of trials is fixed.

2. Each observation or trial is independent. In other words, none of the trials should have an effect on
the probability of the next trial.
3. The probability of success is exactly the same from one trial to another.

4. Poisson Distribution
This probability model can be used when the outcome of an experiment is a random variable taking
positive integer values and where the only information available is a measurement of its average value.

The shape of Poisson Distribution

Some of the common examples of Poisson distribution include the number of births per hour during a
given day, the number of particles emitted by a radioactive source in a given time, the number of
mutations in given regions of a chromosome, etc.
If X = the number of events in a given interval;

λ = mean number of events per interval;

then the probability of observing x events in a given interval is given by:
 177

e is a mathematical constant (e ≈ 2.718282)

5. t-Distribution
Classic z-statistic is generally used for testing a single mean when the population variance is known. But
in reality, σ2 is not known in the vast majority of cases. In such cases, the Student’s t-distribution is used
for calculations. There are three classic test statistics:

1. The 1-Sample Student’s t-test for a single mean

2. The 2-Sample independent sample (unpaired) t-test for comparing two means.

3. The 2-Sample “correlated sample” t-test (paired) for comparing two means with correlated or
repeated-measures data.

Properties of a t-Distribution

1. The distribution has mean 0

2. The distribution is symmetric about the mean

3. The variance is equal to df/df-2

4. The variance is always greater than one but approaches 1 when df gets bigger

Degrees of Freedom (Df)

In statistics, the number of degrees of freedom is the number of values in the final calculation of a statistic
that are free to vary. In other words, Df indicate the number of independent values that can vary in an
analysis without breaking any constraints. Simply, Df is the number of observations in a data set that are
free to change without changing the mean.
 178

The goal of the one-sample t-test is to compare a sample mean to a specific value (e.g., a population
parameter; a neutral point on a Likert-type scale, chance performance, etc.), based on the assumptions
that subjects are randomly drawn from a population and the distribution of the mean being tested is
normal. The one-sample t-test requires the following statistical assumptions:
1. Random and independent sampling.

2. Data are from normally distributed populations.

Note: The one-sample t-test is generally considered robust against violation of this assumption when N
> 30.

The null hypothesis (H0) and the alternative hypothesis (H1) of the one-sample T-test can be expressed
as:

H0: µ = x ("the sample mean is equal to the [proposed] population mean")

H1: µ ≠ x ("the sample mean is not equal to the [proposed] population mean")

df= n-1
Where, t= t score, x̅= sample mean, μ= population mean, s= sample standard deviation, n= sample size.The
calculated t value is then compared to the critical t value from the t distribution table with degrees of
freedom (df = n - 1) and chosen confidence level.

If the calculated t value is greater than the critical t value, then we reject the null hypothesis.

The Independent Samples (unpaired) t-test compares the means of two independent groups in order to
determine whether there is statistical evidence that the associated population means are significantly
different.
Two samples are referred to as independent if the observations in one sample are not in any way related
to the observations in the other (e.g. giving treatment A to the first group and treatment B to the second
group)

The null hypothesis (H0) and the alternative hypothesis (H1) of the Independent Samples t-Test can be
expressed in two different but equivalent ways:
H0: µ1 = µ2 ("the means of two populations are equal")

H1: µ1 ≠ µ2 ("the means of two populations are not equal")

When the two independent samples are assumed to be drawn from populations with identical population
variances (i.e. σ12 = σ22), the test statistic t is computed as:
 179

Where,

x̅1 = Mean of first sample, x̅ 2 = Mean of second sample, n1 = Sample size of first sample, n2 = Samplesize
of second sample, s1 = Standard deviation of first sample, s2 = Standard deviation of second sample, sp =
Pooled standard deviation

The calculated t value is then compared to the critical t value from the t distribution table with degrees
of freedom (df = n1 + n2 – 2) and chosen confidence level. If the calculated t value is greater than the
critical t value, then we reject the null hypothesis.

When the two independent samples are assumed to be drawn from populations with unequal variances
(i.e., σ12 ≠ σ22), the test statistic t is computed as:

The calculated t value is then compared to the critical t value from the t distribution table with degrees
of freedom:

The Paired Samples t-Test is used to compare means on the same or related subject over time or in
differing circumstances; subjects are often tested in a before-after situation. Hence, in a paired sample t-
test, each subject or entity is measured twice, resulting in pairs of observations. It does not assume that
the variance of both populations is equal.

The null hypothesis (H0) and the alternative hypothesis (H1) can be expressed as:
H0: µ1 = µ2 ("the paired population means are equal")

H1: µ1 ≠ µ2 ("the paired population means are not equal")

 180

x̅ diff = Sample mean of the differences

n = Sample size (i.e., number of observations)
sdiff= sample standard deviation of the differences
s x̅= Estimated standard error of the mean
The calculated t value is then compared to the critical t value with (df = n – 1) from the t distribution
table for a chosen confidence level. If the calculated t value is greater than the critical t value, then we
reject the null hypothesis and conclude that the means are significantly different.

6. The Chi-Square Distribution

The χ2 test of Independence is commonly used to test the statistical independence or association between
two or more categorical variables. For both the goodness of fit test and the test of independence, the chi-
square statistic is the same. Generally, the chi-squared test is used to determine whether there is a
significant difference between the expected frequencies and the observed frequencies in one or more
categories. The null hypothesis and the alternative hypothesis of the Chi-Square Test of Independence
can be expressed as:
H0: "[Variable 1] is independent of [Variable 2]"
H1: "[Variable 1] is not independent of [Variable 2]"

Or

where Oi is the observed number of cases in category i, and Ei is the expected number of cases in category
i.

? Using the data in the following table, conduct a chi-square goodness of fit test to determine whether
the sample does provide a good match to the known age distribution of Bangalore women. Use the 0.05
level of significance.

Age distribution of Bangalore women

 181

H0: The age distribution of respondents in the sample is the same as the age distribution of Toronto
women, based on the Census.
H1: The age distribution of respondents in the sample differs from the age distribution of women in the
Census.

The chi-square test should always be conducted using the actual number of cases, rather than the
percentages. Let the 20-24 age group be category i = 1. The 20-24 age group contains 18% of all the
women, and if the null hypothesis were to be exactly correct, there would be 18% of the 490 cases in
category 1.
E1 = 490 × 18/100 = 490 × 0.18 = 88.2

Similarly, for the second category 25-34, there would be 50% of the total number of cases.
E2 = 490 ×50/100= 490 × 0.50 = 245.0

And finally,

E3 = 490 ×32/100= 490 × 0.32 = 156.8

The goodness of Fit Calculations for Sample of Bangalore Women

= 2.483 + 3.433 + 1.286

= 7.202

The next step is to decide whether this is a large or a small χ2 value. The level of significance requested
is the α = 0.05 level. The number of degrees of freedom is the number of categories minus one. There
are k = 3 categories into which the ages of women have been grouped so that there are (d = k −1 = 3−1
= 2) two degrees of freedom. The critical value of χ2, in this case, is 5.991. Since 7.202 > 5.991 the null
hypothesis can be rejected, and the research hypothesis is accepted at the 0.05 level of significance.

Level of Significance

The level of significance is defined as the probability of rejecting a null hypothesis by the test when it is
really true, which is denoted as α. The relationship between the level of significance and the confidence
 182

level is c=1−α. For example, a significance level of 0.05 indicates a 5% risk of concluding that a difference
exists when there is no actual difference. The significance level for a study is chosen before data collection
and is typically set to 5% or much lower depending on the field of study.

The common level of significance and the corresponding confidence level are given below:
1. The level of significance 0.10 is related to the 90% confidence level.

2. The level of significance 0.05 is related to the 95% confidence level.

3. The level of significance 0.01 is related to the 99% confidence level.

The rejection rules are:

7. F Distribution

A Statistical F Test uses an F Statistic to compare two variances, s1 and s2, by dividing them. its result is
always a positive number (because variances are always positive).
The null hypothesis assumes that the variances are equal, i.e. H0: S12 = S22

The alternate hypothesis states that the variances are unequal. H1: S12 ≠ S22

The equation for comparing two variances with the f-test is:

Where S12 is assumed to be larger sample variance and S22 is the smaller sample variance. Degree of
freedom (df1) = n1 – 1 and Degree of freedom (df2) = n2 – 1, where n1 and n2 are the sample sizes. If
the F statistic is greater than the critical value at the required level of significance, we reject the null
hypothesis.
8. Correlation and Regression

Two variables are said to be in correlation if the change in one variable results in a corresponding change
in the other variable. Correlation is a statistical technique that can show whether and how strongly pairs
of variables are related. Correlation is said to be Positive or direct when the values increase together, and
it is negative when one value decreases as the other increases, and so-called inverse or contrary
correlation.
Correlation can have the following values:
1 is a perfect positive correlation
 183

0 is no correlation (the values don't seem linked at all)

-1 is a perfect negative correlation

If the change in one variable tends to bear a constant ratio to the change in the other variable, the
correlation is said to be linear. Correlation is said to be non- linear if the amount of change in one variable
does not bear a constant ratio to the amount of change in the other variable. If only two variables are
studied, it is a case of a simple correlation. In multiple correlations, three or more variables are studied
simultaneously. In partial correlation, we have more than two variables but consider only two variables
to be influencing each other, the effect of the other variables being kept constant.
The following are the methods of determining correlation:

1. Scatter diagram method

2. Karl Pearson’s Coefficient of Correlation

Scatter diagrams showing various types of correlations

In order to quantify the relationship between the variables, a measure called the correlation coefficient
developed by Karl Pearson is used. The coefficient of correlation ‘r’ is always a number between -1 and
+1, which indicates to what extent two variables are related.

Suppose that there are two variables X and Y, each having n values X1, X2, . . . , Xn and Y1, Y2. . . , Yn
respectively. Let the mean of X be x̅ and the mean of Y be Ȳ. Then the Pearson’s r is
 184

1. If r = +1, there is a perfect positive correlation between the variables.

2. If r = -1, there is a perfect negative correlation between the variables.

3. If r = 0, there is no correlation.

4. If r = 0.7 to 0.999, there is high degree of correlation.

5. If r = 0.5 to 0.699, there is a moderate degree of correlation.

6. If r is less than 0.5, there is a low degree of correlation.

? A study is conducted involving 10 students to investigate the association between statistics and science
tests. Is there a relationship between the degrees gained by the 10 students in statistics and science tests?

Let us consider that x denotes statistics degrees and y denotes science degree. Calculating x̅ and Ȳ;

X Y x- x̅ (x- x̅)2 Y- Ȳ (Y- Ȳ)2 (x- x̅) (Y- Ȳ)

20 20 2.7 7.29 0 0 0
23 25 5.7 32.49 5 25 28
8 11 -9.3 86.49 -9 81 83
29 24 11.7 136.89 4 16 46
14 23 -3.3 10.89 3 9 -9.9
12 16 -5.3 28.09 -4 16 21.2
11 12 -6.3 39.69 -8 64 50.4
21 21 3.7 13.69 1 1 3.7
17 22 -0.3 0.09 2 4 -06
18 26 0.7 0.49 6 36 4.2
Σ 173 200 0 356.1 0 252 228
 185

The calculation shows a strong positive correlation (0.761) between the student's statistics and science
degrees.

Regression Analysis
The term regression literally means “stepping back towards the average”. It is used to explain variability
in the dependent variable by means of one or more independent or control variables. In regression
analysis, the independent variable is known as regressor or predictor or explanatory variable, and the
dependent variable is known as regressed or explained variable. The simple regression model is used to
study relationships between two continuous (quantitative) variables. In a cause and effect relationship,
the independent variable (x) is the cause, and the dependent variable (y) is the effect. Mathematically,
the regression model is represented by the following equation:
𝐲 = 𝛽0 ± 𝛽1 𝒙1 ± 𝜀1
Where,
x -independent variable, y -dependent variable, 𝛽1 - Slope of the regression line, 𝜷𝟎- The intercept point
of the regression line and the y-axis.

𝜷𝟎 = Ȳ- 𝛽1 x̅
𝒏 -Number of cases or individuals, ∑ 𝒙𝐲 - Sum of the product of dependent and independent variables,
∑ 𝒙 - Sum of the independent variable, ∑ 𝐲 - Sum of the dependent variable, ∑ 𝒙𝟐 = Sum of square
of the independent variable.
Coefficient of Determination (R2) is the direct indicator of how good our model is in terms of accuracy
and precision. Technically, it is the measure of the variance in response to variable ‘y’ that can be
predicted using the predictor variable ‘x’.

R2 is basically a square of a correlation coefficient. Using regression outputs, we can calculate R2 using the
following formula.
 186

The value of R2 lies between 0 and 1. The higher the value of R2, the better will be the prediction and
strength of the model.

Multiple Regression Analysis

Multiple Regression Analysis refers to a set of techniques for studying the straight-line relationships
among two or more variables.

y=β0+β1X1+β2X2+ε
In the above equation, suppose y denotes the yield, X1 denotes the temperature, and X2 denotes the
catalyst concentration. This is a multiple linear regression model with two regressor variables. The term
linear is used because the equation is a linear function of the known parameters β0, β1& β2, and ε is an
error term.

Analysis of variance (ANOVA)

Statistical technique specially designed to test whether the means of more than 2 quantitative populations
are equal. One-way ANOVA is the simplest type of ANOVA, in which only one source of variation, or
factor, is investigated.

The total amount of variability among observations is measured by summing the squares of the
differences between each xij and x̄:

This variability has two sources:

1) Variability between group means

2) Variability within groups means

It is the case that SST= SSG+SSE

 187

SST measures the variation of the data around the overall mean x̄
SSG measures the variation of the group means around the overall mean

SSE measures the variation of each observation around its group mean

x̄IDegrees of Freedom

k − 1 for SSG, since it measures the variation of the k group means about the overall mean

n − k for SSE, since it measures the variation of the n observations about k group means

n − 1 for SST, since it measures the variation of all n observations about the overall mean

Two-way (or multi-way) ANOVA is an appropriate analysis method for a study with a quantitative
outcome and two (or more) categorical explanatory variables.
 188

Previous Year Questions (2018-2019-2020)

Among the following chemical species, the pH of natural waters is controlled mainly by?
1. H2CO3
2. HCO3-
3. CO32-
Ans: H2 CO 3, HCO 3- and CO 2-3
Alkalinity in most natural surface and groundwater is mainly derived from the dissolution of
carbonate minerals, and from CO2 present in the atmosphere and in the soil above the water table.
Three carbonate species (H 2CO 3, HCO 3- and CO32-) contribute to total alkalinity, their relative
proportions being dependent on pH and temperature. At near-neutral values of pH, dissolved
bicarbonate (HCO 3 -) is the dominant ion. A significant contribution from CO32-, and other anions,
emerges only at pH levels greater than approximately 9.0. In more acidic streams, a greater
proportion of dissolved CO2 is present as H2CO3.

Label on paper products with the Mobius arrows contained within a circle indicates that the
product is
1. Made up of recycled material
2. Recyclable after use
Ans: Recyclable after use
In flat-plate solar collector, the enrgy loses are due to?
1. Conduction
2. Convection
3. Radiation
Ans: Conduction, Convection, and Radiation
Heat loss from any solar water heating system takes the three modes of heat transfer: radiation,
convection, and conduction. The conduction heat losses occur from sides and the back of the
collector plate. The convection heat loss takes place from the absorber plate to the glazing cover and
can be reduced by evacuating the space between the absorber plate and the glazing cover and by
optimizing the gap between them. The radiation loss occurs from the absorber plate due to the plate
temperature.
 189

Which wavelength is most useful for imaging during cloud covered conditions?
1. 4.0 cm
2. 4 nm
3. 0.4 m
4. 0.04 cm

Ans: 0.4m (Microwave)

The microwave portion of the spectrum covers the wavelength range from approximately 1cm to
1m. Because of their long wavelengths, radiation can penetrate through cloud cover, haze, and dust
as the longer wavelengths are not susceptible to atmospheric scattering which affects shorter optical
wavelengths. This property allows the detection of microwave energy under almost all weather and
environmental conditions so that data can be collected at any time. Microwaves travel by line-of-
sight; unlike lower frequency radio waves they do not diffract around hills, so terrestrial microwave
communication links are limited by the visual horizon to about 64 km.

Match the following:

Ans: Ozonization- Cyanides, Evaporation- Chlorinated organics, Fluidized bed incineration- PCB,
Carbon adsorption- Aqueous with metals

The radiative forcing is negative in the case of?

1. Black carbon aerosols
2. Stratospheric ozone
3. Tropospheric ozone
Ans: Stratospheric ozone
A positive radiative forcing tends to warm the surface of the Earth, and negative forcing tends to cool
the surface. Stratospheric ozone depletion, which is most notable in the polar regions, yields a net
 190

negative RF. Black carbon (BC) aerosol in the atmosphere is estimated to have a large positive
climate forcing (heating effect). Explosive volcanic eruptions inject substantial amounts of sulfur
dioxide (SO2) and ash into the stratosphere. SO2 oxidizes to form sulfuric acid (H2SO4) which
condenses, forming new particles or adding mass to preexisting particles. These aerosols scatter
sunlight back to space, creating a negative RF that cools the planet.

The Keeling curve is a plot between

1. The concentration of CO2 and the year of measurement
2. The altitude and the temperature of the day
3. The solar intensity and time of the day
Ans: The concentration of CO2 and the year of measurement

The online monitoring technique for NOx is based on the Chemiluminiscence of which of the
following molecules in the excited state?
1. Nitric oxide
2. Ozone
3. Nitrogen dioxide
Ans: Nitrogen dioxide

When nitric oxide reacts with ozone, nitrogen dioxide in the excited state is produced. These
excited molecules return to the ground state by emitting light in the region 600-2800nm.
 191

The power output (P) from an ideal magnetohydrodynamic power generating plant varies
with the strength of magnetic field as.
1. P∝B2
2. P∝ B 1/2
3. P∝ B3

Ans: P ∝ B2
The power generated per unit length by the MHD generator is approximately given by:

P= σ μB2/ p

Where μ is the fluid velocity, B is the magnetic flux density, σ is the electrical conductivity of
conducting fluid and p is the density of the fluid.

In a nuclear fusion reactor based on deuterium+ tritium fuel, the proportion of these isotopes
of hydrogen in the fuel is as
1. 80:20
2. 60:40
3. 75:25
4. 50:50

Ans: 50: 50

In a commercial fusion power station, the fuel will consist of a 50-50 mixture of deuterium and
tritium (D-T) because this mixture fuses at the lowest temperature and its energy yield is the largest
compared with other fusion reactions.

Ozone in the stratosphere is not removed by catalytic cycles involving homogeneous gas phase
reactions of
1. SOx Familiies
2. HOx Families
3. BrOx Families

Ans: SOx families

Ozone can be destroyed by a number of free radical catalysts; the most important ones are the
hydroxyl radical (OH·), nitric oxide radical (NO·), chlorine radical (Cl·) and bromine radical (Br·).
 192

If arctic ice is replaced by forests, which of the following situation will arise?
1. It will decelerate global warming
2. It will accelerate global warming
3. It will not have any effect on global warming

Ans: It will accelerate global warming

Ice reflects sunrays, if replaced by dense forests it will absorb more heat, as the dark region absorbs
more heat. This will eventually aid global warming.
Which of the following types of motion contributes to vertical transport of latent and sensible
heat in surface layers?
1. Thermals
2.Molecular conduction and diffusion
3.Microscale turbulance
4. Deep convection
Ans: Deep convection
Deep convection refers to the thermally driven turbulent mixing that moves air parcels from the
lower to the upper atmosphere. In the tropics, it generally involves the vertical ascent of warm moist
air and, ultimately, precipitation.

Which of the following countries has the highest ecological footprint?

1. Brazil
2. India
3. China
Ans: China
The top five countries with the highest ecological footprint are: Luxembourg, Aruba, Qatar,
Australia, Unites States

Human ear is most sensitive to noise in the frequency range

1. 1-5 kHz
2. 4-6 kHz
3. 0.2-0.8 kHz
4. 0.5-1kHz
 193

Ans: 1-5 kHz

While 20 to 20,000Hz forms the absolute borders of the human hearing range, our hearing is most
sensitive between 1 and 5 kHz.

Match the following:

Ans: Fall- Rock, Flows- Soil, Subsidence- Cave, Lateral movement- Block
R.J. Chorley (1985) has classified mass movement and mass wasting phenomena on the basis of the
direction of movement, type of movement, and presence of transporting agent as given below:

If mean annual precipitation and mean annual temperature are the lowest, then which type of a
major vegetation dominates?
1. Tundra
2. Taiga
3. Desert
4. Chaparral
Ans: Tundra
 194

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 195

The dominant mechanism(s) of deposition of aerosol particles in the size range 5-10 μ in the
respiratory tract are
1. Sedimentation
2. Impaction
3. Diffusion
Ans: Impaction
It is widely accepted that the mechanisms of inertial impaction, gravitational sedimentation, and
Brownian diffusion mainly govern the deposition of aerosol particles in the lungs. Inertial impaction
is a velocity-dependent mechanism and causes most of the particles larger than ~5 μm to deposit in
the upper respiratory tract. Brownian diffusion and gravitational sedimentation are time-dependent
mechanisms. Brownian diffusion primarily affects small particles (<~0.5 μm). Sedimentation is the
gravitational settling of particles and it mainly affects particles in the size range of 1–5 μm.

Hedgegroves in an agricultural landscape

1. Patch
2. Metapopulation
3. Matrix
4. Corridor
Ans: Corridor
Which one of the following plateaus is the largest reservoir of ice in the world?
1. Plateau Rosa
2. Breithorn Plateau
3. Qinghai-Tibet Plateau

Ans: Qinghai-Tibet plateau

It is sometimes termed the Third Pole given its ice fields contain the largest reserve of freshwater
outside the polar regions (i.e., Arctic and Antarctic)
The preferred form of nitrogen for uptake by most plants is
 196

Ans: NO 3- and NH +4

Most of the crop plants prefer nitrogen in nitrate form, but paddy and a few other higher plants
prefer nitrogen in ammoniacal form.

The profudal zone of oligotrophic lakes is characterized by

1. Very high biomass
2. High biomass
3. Average biomass
4. Low biomass
Ans: Low biomass
Assertion (A): Stratosphere is a strongly layered structure
Reason (R): Stratosphere is neutrally stable
1. Both (A) and (R) are correct and (R) is the correct explanation of (A)
2. (A) is true, but (R) is false
3. Both (A) and (R) are false
Ans: Both (A) and (R) are correct and (R) is the correct explanation of (A)

The vertical temperature gradient in the stratosphere strongly inhibits vertical mixing, in contrast to
the situation in the troposphere. The stability of the stratosphere results in a strongly layered structure
in which thin layers of aerosol can persist for a long time. The stratosphere is a region of intense
interactions among radiative, dynamical, and chemical processes, in which horizontal mixing of
gaseous components proceeds much more rapidly than vertical mixing. The stratosphere is warmer
than the upper troposphere, primarily because of a stratospheric ozone layer that absorbs solar
ultraviolet radiation.

Biodiversity in a riverine ecosystem increases

1. In presence of diverse habitats with many potential niches.
2. With moderate amount of disturbance.
3. In the river having large woody debris.

Ans: (i), (ii) and (iii)

The presence of large woody debris is important in the formation of pools which serve as salmon
habitat in the Pacific Northwest.
 197

What is a contingency plan in EIA?

1. A plan of actions to prevent an emergency and steps to be taken when emergencies occur
2. A plan describing the measures that will be taken to contain or treat any waste produced by
development project

Ans: A plan of action to prevent an emergency and steps to be taken when emergencies occur.
pH of dust free and unpolluted rainwater is 5.6 due to dissolution of
1. NO2
2.SO2
3. CO2

Ans: CO2 (Carbon dioxide dissolves into rain and forms weak carbonic acid)

Name the low heat thermal process that destroys the pathogen in biomedical waste by heating
that occurs inside the waste material.
1. Hydroclave
2. Microwave
3. Pyrolysis
4. Internal combustion
Ans: Microwave

The processes utilize heat to disinfect are grouped into two categories:

1. Low-heat systems (operates between 93 -177oC) use steam, hot water, or electromagnetic radiation
to heat and decontaminate the waste. Autoclave & Microwave are low heat systems.

Autoclaving is a low heat thermal process, which uses steam for the disinfection of waste. Autoclaves
are of two types depending on the method they use for removal of air pockets. They are gravity flow
autoclave and vacuum autoclave.

Microwaving is a process which disinfects the waste by moist heat and steam generated by microwave
energy. Unlike other thermal treatment systems, which heats wastes externally, microwave heating
occurs inside the waste material.

2. High-heat systems employ combustion and high-temperature plasma to decontaminate and

destroy the waste. Incinerators and Hydroclaving are high heat systems
 198

Among the following gases, the permenant atmospheric gases are

1. N2, O2 and O3
2.N2 and O2
3. N2, O2 and CO2

Ans: N2 and O2

The permanent gases whose percentages do not change from day to day are nitrogen, oxygen, and
argon. Nitrogen accounts for 78% of the atmosphere, oxygen 21%, and argon 0.9%.

According to Darcy’s law, the relationship between flow velocity and hydraulic gradient is
1. Non-linear
2. Logarithmic
3. Linear
Ans: Linear
Darcy’s Law is an empirical relationship for liquid flow through a porous medium. A common
application is groundwater flow through an aquifer. It gives an idea about the relationship among the
flow rate of the groundwater, the cross-sectional area of the aquifer perpendicular to the flow, the
hydraulic gradient, and the hydraulic conductivity of the aquifer.

Darcy’s equation

Q = KA (hL/L)

Q = flow rate of liquid through the porous medium (ft3/sec)

A = cross-sectional area perpendicular to flow (ft2),

hL = head loss over a horizontal length, L, in the direction of flow (hL in ft and L in ft)

K= The hydraulic conductivity,

Darcy's Law is valid only for laminar flow, which occurs for Reynold's number less than 1. The
Reynolds number is the ratio between the inertial forces in a fluid and the viscous forces.

Most practical applications of groundwater flow have Re < 1, and thus can be modeled with Darcy's
Law. hL/L and is often called the hydraulic gradient (i). Then i = hL/L and Darcy's Law can be given
 199

as Q = KAi. Darcy's law is a linear flow law. It is linear because Darcy’s velocity(v) varies linearly with
the hydraulic gradient i, where v = −Ki.

According to the Water Act (1974), any liquid, gas or solid discharged from any premises used
for carrying industrial operation or process or treatment is called
1. Contaminants
2. Sewage
3. Trade effluent
3. Hazardous effluent
Ans: Trade effluent

The area of water column at which light intensity is just sufficient for rate of photosynthesis to
be equal to the rate of repiration is called?
1. Aphotic depth
2. Decomposition zone
3. Compensation depth
Ans: Compensation depth

Key attributes of a restored ecosystem are

1. Species composition
2. Structural diversity
3. Ecosystem functionality
3. Absence of threats
Ans: (i), (ii), (iii) and (iv)
 200

Key attributes of a restored ecosystem include the absence of threats, physical conditions, species
composition, community structure, ecosystem function, and external exchanges. These attributes in
combination can then be used to derive a five‐star rating that enables practitioners, regulators, and
industry to track restoration progress over time and between sites.

Ecosystem attributes

Sorghum is a
1. C4 Plant
2. CAM Plant
3. C3 Plant
Ans: C4 plant
C3 plants are the most common and the most efficient at photosynthesis in cool, wet climates. E.g.,
Sunflower, Spinach, Beans, Rice, Cotton, etc.

C4 plants are most efficient at photosynthesis in hot, sunny climates. E.g., Sugarcane, Sorghum,
Maize, etc.

CAM plants are adapted to avoid water loss during photosynthesis so they are best in deserts. E.g.
Cacti, orchids, etc
 201

Which EIA tool best identifies action-effect-impact relations?

1. Interaction matrices
2. SWOT
3. Networks
4. Checklists
Ans: Interaction matrices

A SWOT analysis is used to evaluate the internal strengths and weaknesses, and the external
opportunities and threats in an organization's environment.

A dwarf forest that occurs in regions with winter rain-summer drought and is adapted to fire is
1. Chaparral forest
2. Temperate forest
3. Deciduous forest
Ans: Chaparral forest

Which of the following biomass fuels has the highest energy content (MJ/Kg)?
1. Coconut and groundnut shells
2. Unsorted domestic refuse
3. Wood (air dry)

Ans: Coconut and groundnut shells

Kleptoparasitism refers to
1. Facultative parasitism
2. Obligate parasitism
3. Ectoparasitism
4. Stealing food from another predator’s catch

Ans: Stealing food from another predator’s catch

Obligate parasites are completely dependent on the host in order to complete their life cycle. Over
time, they have evolved so that they can no longer exist without the existence of the host. Head lice
are obligate parasites
 202

Ectoparasites are parasites that live on the outside of the host’s body, such as lice and ticks.
Endoparasites, like nematodes and hookworms, live inside the host.

Facultative parasites do not rely on the host in order to complete their life cycle; they can survive
without the host, and only sometimes perform parasitic activities. Certain plants, fungi, animals, and
microbes can be facultative parasites. A specific example is the nematode species Strongyloides
stercoralis.

Kleptoparasitism, literally meaning parasitism by theft, is a form of resource acquisition where one
animal takes resources from another. Although kleptoparasitism of food (i.e., kleptoparasitic
foraging) is the best-known example, the stolen resources may be food or another resource such as
nesting materials.

Ans: Soft clay- Very high, Clay- High, Silt- Medium, Sandy Clay- Low

Two important characteristics of any population are

1. Diversity and density
2. Frequency and density
3. Abundance and dispersion
4. Density and dispersion
Ans: Density and Dispersion

Fire occurance in the forest depends on:

1. Fuel load
2. Vegetation type
3. Distance from the habitations
 203

Ans: Fuel load, vegetation type, and distance from the habitations

Which energy conversion process is involved in syngas production from biomass?

1. Combustion
2. Gasification
3. Pyrolysis
Ans: Gasification
Syngas is a mixture of Carbon Monoxide and Hydrogen which is the product of steam or oxygen
gasification of organic material such as biomass.

Ozone depleting potential is measured with reference to

1. CFC-11
2. CFC-12
3. HCFC-22
Ans: CFC-11
The largest unit, in which gene flow is possible, is
1. Population
2. Genus
3. Species
4. Family
Ans: Species

Greenhouse gas CO2 has very strong absoption band in the wavelength region
1. 4-10 µm
2. >13.0 µm
3. 2- 3.5 µm
4. 1-4 µm
Ans: >13.0 µm
Carbon dioxide absorbs infrared radiation (IR) in three narrow bands of wavelengths, they are 2.7,
4.3 and 15 micrometers (µM). This means that most of the heat-producing radiation escapes it.
About 8% of the available black body radiation is picked up by these "fingerprint" frequencies of
CO2.
 204

Absorption Peaks

Spectral response pattern of leaves in healthy vegetation in SWIR region of EMR is primarily a
function of
1. Chlorophyll content
3. Leaf parenchyma
4. Water content of the leaf
Ans: Water content of the leaf
The leaf pigments, cell structure, and water content all impact the spectral reflectance of
vegetation. In the visible bands, the reflectance is relatively low as the majority of light is absorbed
by the leaf pigments.
 205

For healthy vegetation, the reflectance is much higher in the near-infrared (NIR) region than in the
visible region due to the cellular structure of the leaves, specifically the spongy mesophyll. The
reflectance in the shortwave infrared wavelengths (SWIR) is related to the water content of the
vegetation and its structure. Water has strong absorption bands around 1.45, 1.95, and 2.50 µm.

Fluvic acid molecules in soil humus are

1. Randomly coiled
2. More polar
3. Highly charged
Ans: (a), (b), and (c)
Which toxic metal is present in the colour printing inks of magazine pages?
1. Lead
2. Cadmium
3. Arsenic
Ans: Lead and Cadmium
Predators and parasites are similar in that, both can be characterized by
1. +/+ interaction
2. +/- interaction
3. -/- interaction
4. +/0 interaction
Ans: +/- Interaction
Electrostatic precipitator is good for controlling
1. VOCs
2. Greenhouse gases
3. Fine particulate matter
Ans: Fine particulate matter

Landslide incidents in the Himalayas have increased due to:

1. Increased rainfall
2. Deforestation
3. Construction of new roads
 206

Ans: Deforestation and Construction of new roads

Match the following:

Ans: Fragmentation- Landscape, Assembly- Community, Integrity- Ecosystem, Dispersion-

Population

Assertion (A) : The occurnce of acid rain over the Indian landmass is extremely rare
Reason (R) : The alkaline dust and ammonia (NH3) produced from agricultural areas
neutralise the acid formation in the atmosphere

Ans: Both (A) and (R) are true. R is the correct explanation of A

As per the amended rules for the implementation of Forests Rights Act of 2006, the transit
passes for the transport of minor forest produce are issued by?
1. Gram Sabha
2. Forest Department
3. Biodiversity Monitoring Committee

Ans: Gram Sabha

According to FRA, the committee constituted under the gram sabha will prepare conservation and
management plan for community forest resources, and the gram sabha will approve all decisions of
the committee pertaining to the issue of transit permits, use of income from the sale of forest produce
or modification of management plans.

Which forest type has the highest percentage cover in the country?
1. Tropical deciduous
2. Tropical evergreen
3. Tropical thorn
 207

Ans: Tropical deciduous

Relative extents of different types of Indian Forests

Which one among the following do all the terrestrial biomes have in common?
1. Annual average rainfall in excess of 25 cm
2. Clear boundaries between adjacent biomes
3. Biodiversity pattern that is directly proportional to latitude
Ans: Biodiversity pattern that is directly proportional to latitude

Match the following:

Ans: Vermiculite (150-160), Smectite (100-120), Illite (20-40) and Kaolinite (5-25)
 208

Acid mine drainage from underground mines occurs as?

1. Non-point discharge
2. Point discharge
3. Spoil tip discharge
Ans: Point discharge
Point source water pollution involves pollutants that are discharged from any identifiable, singular
source. Acid rock drainage occurs naturally within some environments as part of the rock weathering
process but is exacerbated by large-scale earth disturbances, such as mining and other large
construction activities, usually within rocks containing an abundance of sulfide minerals. The Clean
Water Act makes it unlawful to discharge any pollutant from a point source into navigable waters
without a permit.

A spoil tip is a pile built of accumulated waste material removed during mining. They trap solar
heat, making it difficult (although not impossible) for vegetation to take root; this encourages erosion
and creates dangerously unstable slopes. Existing techniques for regreening spoil tips include the use
of geotextiles (polypropylene or polyester) to control erosion as the site is resoiled and simple
vegetation such as grass is seeded on the slope.

Which type of earthworms are most suitable for vermicomposting?

1. Aneic
2. Epigeic
3. Endogeic
Epigeic

What percent of visible radiation accounts for total solar radiation on top of atmosphere?
1.7%
2. 41%
3. 36%
Ans: Ans: 41%

Assertion (A) : In the Himalayas North-facing slopes have luxuriant growth of forests, whereas
shruby drought- resistant vegetation inhabits the south-facing slopes
Assertion (A) : Biogas production is reduced in winters
Reason (R) : South-facing slopes in the northern hemisphere receive more sunlight than
Reason (R) : Methanogenesis
nearby north-facing occursare
slopes and, therefore, at warmer
mesophilic temperatures
and drier
 209

Ans: Both (A) and (R) are correct. R is the correct explanation of A

Which method is most appropriate for separating tin cans from aluminium cans in municipal
waste?
1. Shear shredding
2. Manual sorting
3. Magnetic field separation

Ans: Magnetic field separation

A lake has 2.5 mgL-1 of dissolvedorganic carbon. The dissolved organic matter concentration in
the lake is approximately
1. 6.25 mgL-1
2. 4.25 mgL-1
3. 3.25 mgL-1
Ans: 4.25 mgL-1 (Organic matter = Total Organic Carbon (TOC) x 1.72)

Remote sensing data from which of the following satellites is most suitable for urban ecological
studies?
1. RISAT-2
2. CARTOSAT-2
Ans: CARTOSAT-2

The Cartosat-2 series of satellites is a set of agile satellites with less inertia providing high-resolution
images at better than 0.8 m resolution. It helps to meet the user demands for cartographic
applications at cadastral level, urban planning, and rural development, utility mapping and
infrastructure development, etc.

A stream of waste water having BOD of 20.0 mg/L discharges water at the rate of 1.0 m3/s into
river with flow rate 8.0m3/s and BOD of 5.0 mg/L. Assuming complete and instantaneous
mixing, what is the resultant BOD just downstream from the point of discharge?
1. ~12.5 mg/L
2. ~6.7 mg/L
3. ~15.0 mg/L
4. ~ 7.7 mg/L
Ans: ~ 6.7 mg/L
 210

Resultant Concentration = (Cs x Ss) + (Cr x Sr)/ (Ss + Sr)

Where,

Cs is the concentration of the chemical (BOD in this case) in the stream

Ss is the speed of the stream

Cr is the concentration of the chemical in the river

Sr is the speed of the river

Resultant BOD= (20 x1.0) + (8.0 x 5.0)/ (1.0+ 8.0) = 60/9 = 6.66 ≈ 6.7 mg/L

Which is the correct hierarchial level of organization in ecology?

1. Organism, population, community, ecosystem, biome, landscape, ecosphere
2. Organism, population, community, ecosystem, landscape, biome, ecosphere
3. Organism, community, population, ecosystem, landscape, biome, ecosphere

Ans: Organism, Population, Community, Ecosystem, landscape, biome, ecosphere

In the model of r and k selection, rate of increase of two species are portrayed as function of
1. Population density
2. Resource density
3. Habitat
4. Size
Ans: Population density and Resource density

Match the following:

 211

Ans: PAHs- HPLC, Heavy metals- AAS, Sulphate ions- UV- Vis spectrophotometer, Nucleotides-
Electrophoresis.

According to National Ambient Air Quality Standars (NAAQS) annual average concentration
(µg/m3) for SO and NO2 in ecologically sensitive areas are
20 and 60 respectively
80 and 47 respectively
20 and 30 respectively

Ans: 20 and 30 respectively

Agencies responsible for air quality standard creation and monitoring include the Central Pollution
Control Board (CPCB) and several State Pollution Control Boards (SPCBs). All of these entities fall
under the control of the Ministry of Environment and Forest (MoEF).

National Ambient Air Quality Standards and monitoring methods in India

 212

Assertion (A): Refuse derived fuel from municipal solid waste has higher energy content than
raw municipal solid waste
Reason (R): Combustible organic material gets concentrated in final pellets produced from
municipal solid waste
Ans: Both (A) and (R) are true and R is the correct explanation of
The maximum concentration of hydroxyl radical in earth’s atmosphere is observed at
1. The equator, in middle of troposphere
2.The equatorial surface
3. The poles, in middle of troposphere

Ans: The equator, in the middle of the troposphere

Atmospheric Scale Height (H) is the height over which pressure dereases by a factor of
1. e
2. 10
3. π
Ans: e
Scale height is the vertical distance over which the density and pressure fall by a factor of 1/e. These
values fall by an additional factor of 1/e for each additional scale height H.
Which among the following can not be considered as VOCs?
1. Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons
2. Halocarbons
3. Oxygenates
4. Non- methane Hydrocarbons

Ans: Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAH)

Lanina is a Spanish Word meaning?
1. Little Boy
2. Little Girl
3. Violent girl

Ans: Little Girl

El Niño means “The Little Boy” and La Niña means “The Little Girl” in Spanish.
 213

In Ecological sampling, Importance Value Index to the sum of which of the following?
1. Relative density
2. Relative frequency
3. Relative Dominance
Ans: All of the Above

Assertion (A) : In soil, Chromium (III) predominates Chromium (VI)

Reason (R) : Chromium (VI) is easily reducd to Chromium (III) by organic matter in the soil

Both (A) and (R) are correct. R is the correct explanation of A

Which among the following radioactive species have a half life more than10 years?
91
36 Kr
38 Sr 90
55 Cs 137
Ans: 38 Sr 90 and 55 Cs 1

Consider the following gases: CO, CH4, HCFCs, CO2, SO3. The gases removed from the
atmosphere by the process of oxidation are
Ans: CO, CH4, and HCFCs

Solar radiation on a rectangular module (1.5 m x 2 m) of photovoltaic cells is 550 W/m2. If the
efficiency of the cell is 12%, what is the power output of the module?
 214

P max= η max x E x Ac/100

= 12 x 550 x 3/100 = 198 W

Section 3B of the Indian forest act, 1980 deaks with the ?

Ans: Cases in which offenses are made by authorities

Sound emitted from a line source attenuates at which of the following rates as a result of
geometrical spreading?
1. ≈ 3 dB per doubling the distance from the source
2. ≈ 6dB per doubling the distance from the source
3. ≈ 5 dB per doubling the distance from the source

Ans: ≈ 3 dB per doubling the distance from the source

Noise attenuates (decreases) with distance at a rate of 6 dB per doubling of distance for a point
source and 3 dB per doubling of distance from a line source

Identify the correct sequence of the components of Producer Gas from biogasification of coal
in decreasing order of their concentrations
1. CH4> H2>CO>N2
2. H2>CO>CH4>N2
3. N2>CO>H2>CH4

Ans: N2>CO>H2>CH4
Producer gas is fuel gas that is manufactured from material such as coal, as opposed to natural gas.
The average composition of ordinary producer gas: CO2 (5.8%), O2(1.3%) CO (19.8%), H2(15.1%),
CH4(1.3%), N2(56.7%).

Which of the following particulate control device has the poorest removal efficiency for particles
in the sub-micron range?
1. Electrostatic Precipitator
2. Fabric filer
3. Cyclone
4. Venturi Scrubber
Ans: Cyclone
 215

An electrostatic precipitator is a type of filter (dry scrubber) that uses static electricity to remove soot
and ash from exhaust fumes before they exit the smokestacks. Electrostatic precipitators are
extremely effective and are capable of removing more than 99% of particulate matter.

Fabric filters (also called baghouses) are devices that remove particulate from a gas stream by passing
the dirty air through a layer of cloth filtration. Fabric filters are typically used when very high
efficiencies are required, the gas is always above its dewpoint, volumes are reasonably low, and
temperatures are relatively low.

Cyclone separators or simply cyclones are separation devices (dry scrubbers) that use the principle
of inertia to remove particulate matter from flue gases. Cyclone separators are one of many air
pollution control devices known as pre-cleaners since they generally remove larger pieces of
particulate matter. Most cyclones are built to control and remove particulate matter that is larger
than 10 micrometers in diameter. They are generally able to remove somewhere between 50-99%
of all particulate matter in the flue gas.

A venturi scrubber is designed to effectively use the energy from the inlet gas stream to atomize the
liquid being used to scrub the gas stream. This type of technology is a part of the group of air
pollution controls collectively referred to as wet scrubbers. Venturi scrubbers PM collection
efficiencies range from 70 to greater than 99 percent, depending upon the application. Collection
efficiencies are generally higher for PM with aerodynamic diameters of approximately 0.5 to 5 μm.

In the case of which of the following fossil fuels, the difference between the Gross Calorific Value
and Net Calorific Value is maximum?
1. Natural Gas
2. Petrol
3. Diesal
4. Coal

Ans: Coal

Assertion (A): Between organophosphorus pesticides malathion and parathion, the former is
more toxic than the latter
Reason (R): Malathion is hydrolyzed by enzymes possessed by mammals to produce relatively
non- toxic products.
 216

Ans: (A) is true but (R) is false

How many years will it take for the population of a country to double, if it grows at the rate of
4% per year?
1. 17.3 years
2. 13.8 years
3. 15 years

Ans: 17.3 Years

The rule of 70 is a means of estimating the number of years it takes for investment or population to
double.
When the growth rate (r) is constant,
Doubling Time = 70/Growth Rate (r)
= 70/5= 17.5 years

What is the total power per unit area available in a wind stream blowing at a speed of 5 m/s?
(Given that density of air= 1.226J/Kg.K/m3)
Ans: 76.6 W/m3
Power Per Unit Area= ½ x ρ * V3 = ½ x 1.226 x 53= 76.6 W/m3

Artesian Well is a
1. Natural well in fault planes
2. Water underneath the surface having sufficient hydraulic pressure
3. Water underneath the surface having very low hydraulic pressure
Ans: Water underneath the surface having sufficient hydraulic pressure

Artesian well- a well from which water flows under natural pressure without pumping. It is dug or
drilled wherever a gently dipping, permeable rock layer (such as sandstone) receives water along its
outcrop at a level higher than the level of the surface of the ground at the well site.

Beaufort scale is used to classify which of the following meterological parameter?

1. Pressure
2. Precipitation
3. Wind velocity
Ans: Wind velocity
 217

The Beaufort scale is an empirical measure that relates wind speed to observed conditions at sea or
on land. Its full name is the Beaufort wind force scale.

Which of the following surface exhibits maximum variation in albedo with repect to the angle of
incidence of solar radiation?
1. Water
2. Bare soil
3. Vegeation
Ans: Water

Which of the following is/are the characteristic(s) of direct band gap semi-conductor Ga-As?
1. Less sharp absorption band
2. Large values of extinction coefficient
Ans: 1&2

Restoration of Doon valley is an example of best practices restoration of degraded ecosystem

caused by
1. Over exploitation by the high influx of tourists
2.Limestone quarrying
3. Construction and widening of road
Ans: Limestone quarrying
The Dehradun Valley litigation is the first case requiring the Supreme Court to balance
environmental and ecological integrity against industrial demands on forest resources. The case
arose from haphazard and dangerous limestone quarrying practices in the Mussoorie Hill Range of
the Himalayas. Miners blasted out the hills with dynamite, extracting limestone from thousands of
acres. The mines also dug deep into the hillsides, an illegal practice that resulted in the cave-ins and
slumping. As a result, the hillsides were stripped of vegetation. Landslides killed villagers and
destroyed their homes, cattle and agricultural lands. The State of Uttar Pradesh failed to regulate the
mining as required by existing mining laws. In 1961, the State minister of mines sharply curtailed
mining in the area

Which is the country in India whose project was approved under the Clean Development
Mechanism (CDM) of Kyoto Protocol?
 218

Ans: Gujarat Fluorochemicals Limited (GFL)

CDM allows industrialized countries to provide investment in developing countries to reduce

greenhouse gas emissions. The CDM Executive Board of the United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change provides Credit for these emissions which can be traded on the
open market to help companies involved in these projects to offset the cost of the initial investment.
CDM has an explicit mandate to promote sustainable development.

Gujarat Fluorochemicals Limited operates a HCFC 22 plant in Ranjitnagar, Dist. Panchmahal,

Gujarat, India since 1989. The plant produces HCFC 22 by-product HFC 23, which is being vented
to the atmosphere. GFL wishes to take up thermal oxidation of HFC 23. This system in combination
with the existing HCFC plant will enable GFL to avoid HFC 23 emissions. It will also give economic
and technical benefits to the country by providing direct and indirect employment and transfer of
thermal oxidation technology to the country, which will contribute to sustainable development.
Assertion (A): Isostacy is the corresponding state of balance between extensive blocks of earth’s
crust which rise to different levels and appear at the surface as mountains, plateaus, plains or
ocean floor
Reason (R): There is a certain minimum depth below sea level where the pressure due to the
weight of overlying material in each unit column is everywhere the same
Ans: Both (A) AND (R) are correct but (R) is not the correct explanation of (A)

The ethical view which argues that any resource of nature is meant for human use/consumption
is termed as
1. Stewardship
2. Utilitarian
3. Ecocentric
4. Biocentric
Ans: Utilitarian
Ecocentrism is a term used in ecological political philosophy to denote a nature-centered, as opposed
to the human-centered, system of values. The justification for ecocentrism usually consists in an
ontological belief and subsequent ethical claim. Environmental stewardship refers to responsible use
and protection of the natural environment through conservation and sustainable practices. The term
biocentrism encompasses all environmental ethics that "extend the status of moral object from
human beings to all living things in nature".
 219

Which of the following measures of skewness is based on the distance of upper and lower
quartiles from the median value in the data set?
1. Karl Pearson’s Coefficient of Skewness
2. Kelly’s Measure of Skewness
3. Bowley’s Coefficient of Skewness
Ans: Bowley’s Coefficient of Skewness
Bowley skewness is a way to figure out if you have a positively-skewed or negatively skewed
distribution.

Above the earth’s atmosphere, 90% of the total atmospheric mass confined within first
1. 5 Km
2. 10 Km
3. 20 Km

Ans: 20 Km

Which of the following Rf value is not possible?

1. 0
2. 0.5
3. 1.0
4. 2.0
Ans: 2.0
 220

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