London South Bank University

The School of Built Environment and Architecture

Mathematics A Maclaurin Series Lecture 10

Solutions

Ex. 1 – Find the Maclaurin series for:

a)
𝑓(𝑥) = sin(𝑥) 𝑓(0) = sin(0) = 0
𝑓′(𝑥) = cos(𝑥) 𝑓 ′ (0) = cos(0) = 1
𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) = −sin(𝑥) 𝑓 ′′ (0) = −sin(0) = 0
𝑓 ′′′ (𝑥) = −cos⁡(𝑥) 𝑓 ′′′ (0) = − cos(0) = −1
𝑓 (4) (𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓 (4) (0) = 𝑓(0) = 0

𝑥3 𝑥5
𝑓(𝑥) = sin(𝑥) = 0 + 𝑥 + 0 − +0+ +⋯
3! 5!
𝑥3 𝑥5 𝑥7
𝑓(𝑥) = sin(𝑥) = 𝑥 − + − +⋯
3! 5! 7!

b)
𝑓(𝑥) = cos⁡(𝑥) 𝑓(0) = cos⁡(0) = 1
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = −sin(𝑥) 𝑓 ′ (0) = −sin(0) = 0
𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) = −cos(𝑥) 𝑓 ′′ (0) = −cos(0) = −1
𝑓 ′′′ (𝑥) = sin⁡(𝑥) 𝑓 ′′′ (0) = sin(0) = 0
𝑓 (4) (𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓 (4) (0) = 𝑓(0) = 1

𝑥2 𝑥4 𝑥6
𝑓(𝑥) = cos(𝑥) = 1 + 0 − + 0 + + 0 − + ⋯
2! 4! 6!
𝑥2 𝑥4 𝑥6
𝑓(𝑥) = cos(𝑥) = 1 − + − +⋯
2! 4! 6!
 c)
𝑓(𝑥) = ln(1 + 𝑥) 𝑓(0) = ln⁡(1) = 0
1 1
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑓 ′ (0) = =1
1+𝑥 1
1 1
𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) = − 𝑓 ′′ (0) = − = −1
(1 + 𝑥)2 1
2 2
𝑓 ′′′ (𝑥) = + 𝑓 ′′′ (0) = =2
(1 + 𝑥)3 1
6 6
𝑓 (4) (𝑥) = − 𝑓 (4) (0) = − = −6
(1 + 𝑥)4 1

𝑥 2 2𝑥 3 6𝑥 4 24𝑥 5
𝑓(𝑥) = ln(1 + 𝑥) = 𝑥 − + − + +⋯
2! 3! 4! 5!
𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥4 𝑥5
𝑓(𝑥) = ln(1 + 𝑥) = 𝑥 − + − +
2 3 4 5

d)
1 1
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(0) = =1
1+𝑥 1
1 1
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = − 𝑓 ′ (0) = − = −1
(1 + 𝑥)2 1
2 2
𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) = + 𝑓 ′′ (0) = =2
(1 + 𝑥)3 1
6 6
𝑓 ′′′ (𝑥) = − 𝑓 ′′′ (0) = − = −6
(1 + 𝑥)4 1

1 2𝑥 2 6𝑥 3 24𝑥 4 120𝑥 5
𝑓(𝑥) = =1−𝑥+ − − + +⋯
1+𝑥 2! 3! 4! 5!
1
𝑓(𝑥) = = 1 − 𝑥 + 𝑥2 − 𝑥3 + 𝑥4 − 𝑥5
1+𝑥
 e)
𝑓(𝑥) = tan−1 𝑥 𝑓(0) = tan−1 (0) = 0
1 1
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑓 ′ (0) = =1
𝑥2 + 1 1
2𝑥 0
𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) = − 2 𝑓 ′′ (0) = − = 0
(𝑥 + 1)2 1
6𝑥 2 − 2 2
𝑓 ′′′ (𝑥) = 𝑓 ′′′ (0) = − = −2
(𝑥 2 + 1)3 1
24𝑥 3 − 24𝑥 0
𝑓 (4) (𝑥) = − 𝑓 (4) (0) = − = 0
(𝑥 2 + 1)4 1
120𝑥 4 − 240𝑥 2 + 24 24
𝑓 (5) (𝑥) = 𝑓 (5) (0) = = 24
(𝑥 2 + 1)5 1

2𝑥 3 24𝑥 5
𝑓(𝑥) = tan−1 𝑥 = 0 + 𝑥 + 0 − +0+ +⋯
3! 5!
𝑥3 𝑥5 𝑥7
𝑓(𝑥) = tan−1 𝑥 = 𝑥 + − + − +⋯
3 5 7

Ex. 2 – Using the previous work done in this class, find the Maclaurin series for:
a)
𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥4 𝑥5
𝑒𝑥 = 1 + 𝑥 + + + + +⋯
2! 3! 4! 5!
2 𝑥 4 𝑥 6 𝑥 8 𝑥 10
𝑒 𝑥 = 1 + 𝑥2 + + + + +⋯
2! 3! 4! 5!
b)
𝑥3 𝑥5 𝑥7
sin(𝑥) = 𝑥 − + − +⋯
3! 5! 7!
𝑥 6 𝑥 10 𝑥 14
sin(𝑥 2 ) = 𝑥 2 − + − +⋯
3! 5! 7!
c)
𝑥2 𝑥4 𝑥6
cos(𝑥) = 1 − + − +⋯
2! 4! 6!
4𝑥 2 16𝑥 4 64𝑥 6
cos(2𝑥) = 1 − + − +⋯
2! 4! 6!
d)
𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥4 𝑥5
ln(1 + 𝑥) = 𝑥 − + − +
2 3 4 5
𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥4 𝑥5
ln(1 + (−𝑥)) = −𝑥 − − − −
2 3 4 5
 e)
1+𝑥
ln ( ) = ln(1 + 𝑥) − ln(1 − 𝑥)
1−𝑥
1+𝑥 𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥4 𝑥5 𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥4 𝑥5
ln ( ) = (𝑥 − + − + + ⋯ ) − (−𝑥 − − − − + ⋯ )
1−𝑥 2 3 4 5 2 3 4 5
1+𝑥 2𝑥 3 2𝑥 5 2𝑥 7
ln ( ) = 2𝑥 + + +
1−𝑥 3 5 7

Ex. 3 – Using the previous work done in this class, find the error associated with the
Maclaurin series with 3, 4 and 5 terms:
a)
Percentage error
Number Difference
Approximation Exact value |𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑥 − 𝑒𝑥𝑎𝑐𝑡|
of terms (always positive) 100 ×
𝑒𝑥𝑎𝑐𝑡
3 5.0 7.389056099 2.389056099 32.33%
4 6.33333 7.389056099 1.055722766 14.29%
5 7.0 7.389056099 0.389056099 5.27%
6 7.266667 7.389056099 0.122389432 1.66%

b)
Percentage error
Number Difference
Approximation Exact value |𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑥 − 𝑒𝑥𝑎𝑐𝑡|
of terms (always positive) 100 ×
𝑒𝑥𝑎𝑐𝑡
3 1.0 0.135335283 0.864664717 638.91%
4 -0.33333 0.135335283 0.46866862 346.30%
5 0.33333 0.135335283 0.19799805 146.30%
6 0.066667 0.135335283 0.068668617 50.74%

c)
Number Percentage error
Difference
of Approximation Exact value |𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑥 − 𝑒𝑥𝑎𝑐𝑡|
(always positive) 100 ×
terms 𝑒𝑥𝑎𝑐𝑡

3 0.50179620150 0.48480962 0.0169866 3.50%

4 0.499964565329 0.48480962 0.0151549 3.13%
5 0.50000043343 0.48480962 0.01519081 3.13%
6 0.499999996391 0.48480962 0.015190376 3.13%
 d)
Number Difference Percentage error
of Approximation Exact value (always |𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑥 − 𝑒𝑥𝑎𝑐𝑡|
100 ×
terms positive) 𝑒𝑥𝑎𝑐𝑡

3 0.0953333333 0.0953101798 2.315 x 10-5 0.02%

4 0.0953083333 0.0953101798 1.846 x 10-6 0.002%
5 0.0953103333 0.0953101798 1.535 x 10-7 0.0002%
6 0.0953101667 0.0953101798 1.314 x 10-8 0.00001%

2 𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥4 𝑥5
lim ((1 + 𝑥 + + + + + ⋯ ) − 1) =
𝑥→0 𝑥 2! 3! 4! 5!

2 𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥4 𝑥5
lim ((𝑥 + + + + + ⋯ )) =
𝑥→0 𝑥 2! 3! 4! 5!

2𝑥 2𝑥 2 2𝑥 3 2𝑥 4
lim (2 + + + + + ⋯) = 2+ 0+ 0+ 0+ 0 = 2
𝑥→0 2! 3! 4! 5!

Ex. 4 – Evaluate the following limits:

a)
𝑥 6 𝑥 10 𝑥 14
sin⁡(𝑥 2 ) 𝑥2 − + − +⋯ 𝑥 4 𝑥 8 𝑥 12
lim = lim 3! 5! 7! = lim 1 − + − +⋯=1
𝑥→0 𝑥2 𝑥→0 𝑥2 𝑥→0 3! 5! 7!
b)
𝑥3 𝑥5 𝑥7 𝑥3 𝑥5 𝑥7
sin(𝑥) − 𝑥 𝑥 − 3! + − 7! + ⋯ − 𝑥 − 3! + − 7! + ⋯
lim = lim 5! = lim 5!
𝑥→0 𝑥3 𝑥→0 𝑥3 𝑥→0 𝑥3
1 𝑥2 𝑥4 1
= lim − + − +⋯=−
𝑥→0 3! 5! 7! 6
c)
4𝑥 2 16𝑥 4 64𝑥 6
2𝑥 2 + cos(2𝑥) − 1 2𝑥 2 + 1 − + − +⋯− 1
lim = lim 2! 4! 6!
𝑥→0 𝑥 4 𝑥→0 𝑥 4

16𝑥 4 64𝑥 6
− 6! + ⋯ 16 64𝑥 2 16 2
= lim 4! 4
= lim − +⋯= =
𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0 4! 6! 24 3
d)
𝑥3 𝑥5 𝑥7 𝑥5 𝑥7
sin(𝑥) − 𝑥 + (1/6)𝑥 3 𝑥 − 3! + − 7! + ⋯ − 𝑥 + (1/6)𝑥 3 − +⋯
lim = lim 5! = lim 5! 7!
𝑥→0 𝑥5 𝑥→0 𝑥5 𝑥→0 𝑥5
1 𝑥2 1
= lim − +⋯=
𝑥→0 5! 7! 120
e)
𝑥3 𝑥5 𝑥7 𝑥3 𝑥5 𝑥7
−1
sin(𝑥) − tan (𝑥) 𝑥 − +
3! 5! 7! − + ⋯ − (𝑥 + − 3 + 5 − 7 + ⋯)
lim = lim
𝑥→0 𝑥3 𝑥→0 𝑥3
1 1 1 1
𝑥 3 (− 6 + 3) + 𝑥 5 (120 + ) + ⋯ 1 25 1
= lim 5 = lim + 𝑥 2 ( )+⋯=
𝑥→0 𝑥 3 𝑥→0 6 120 6