THE SKELETAL

SYSTEM
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THE SKELETON
The skeleton provides the framework which
supports the body and maintains its shape.

The joints between the bones allow movement,

some allowing greater ranges of motion than others
– we will look at the different types of joints in
upcoming slides.

At the ends of long bones such as the femur (thigh

bone) or tibia (shin bone), we find bony
prominences called “tuberosities”. These are where
tendons and ligaments attach.

The skeleton also protects many vital organs (the

skull protects the brain and the ribcage protects the
heart and lungs) and is involved in storage (calcium
and phosphorus) and endocrine regulation.
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FUNCTIONS
The skeletal system gives the body its basic shape.
Shape

For example, the skull protects the brain and the ribs protect the heart
Protection and lungs.

Ligaments, tendons and muscles attach to bones to create stability

Attachment and movement.

Muscles pull on bones to create movement.

Movement

Some bones produce red (to carry oxygen) and white (to fight
Production infection) blood cells from their marrow.

For example, calcium and phosphorus, which support growth and

Storage development.
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AXIAL & APPENDICULAR

Axial Skeleton: Spine, ribs,

sternum and skull.

Appendicular Skeleton: Limbs

and anchoring bones.

Of the 206 bones in the body, the

axial skeleton is made up of 80,
and the appendicular skeleton is
made up of 126.
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BONE FORMATION
Bones are made up of calcium, phosphorus, sodium and
other minerals.

The “living” bone consists of:

• Blood vessels.
• Nerves.
• Collagen.
• Living cells.

Osteoblasts build new bone (remember ‘b’ for blast, ‘b’ for
build).

Osteoclasts clear existing bone (remember ‘c’ for clast, ‘c’

for clear).

Factors that affect bone growth include nutrition, hormones,

sunlight, physical activity type and levels, smoking and
alcohol, and genetic make-up.
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BONE FORMATION
In the foetus, most of the skeleton is made
up of cartilage – a tough, flexible
connective tissue that has no minerals or
salts.

As the foetus grows, the bones harden (by

the laying down of calcium). This is called
‘ossification’.

Different bones stop lengthening at different

ages but are fully grown in length between
the ages of 18 and 30 years.

Bone density and strength change during

our whole lifetime.

Physical activity places stresses on the

bones and strengthens bone tissue.
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SKELETAL LIFECYCLE: FOETAL STAGE

Foetal Stage:

• Bone is mainly made up of cartilage.

• Ossification begins, and many bones

are at least partly formed, at the time
of birth.

• A newborn baby has around 300

bones, some of which fuse together
during early life.
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BIRTH-ADULTHOOD
Birth to Adulthood:

• Bone growth continues from birth to adolescence.

• This takes place in the epiphyseal plates of long

bones (at the end of the long bone) – these are
replaced by epiphyseal lines (a plate that has
become ossified) in adults who have stopped
growing.

• The process of ossification is normally complete

between the ages of 18 and 30.

• An adult skeleton has 206 bones.

• The strength and thickness of bone needs to be

maintained through positive lifestyle behaviour.
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LATER-LIFE

Later-Life:

• Calcium is progressively lost, and bone

strength deteriorates.

• Breakdown of bone happens earlier in

women as a result of hormonal
differences.

• The risk of osteoporosis increases, along

with fractures.

• Weight-bearing exercise and a good diet

are important in reducing these risks.
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OSTEOP0ROSIS
The measure of appropriate bone mass is
called a T score.

T score = the difference between actual bone

mass and expected bone mass and is
measured as a standard deviation (SD) from
the norm.

Osteopenia is:
A condition where bone mass is below what is
expected, but not yet classified as
osteoporosis.
Between -1 and -2.5 SD.

Osteoporosis is:
Significantly reduced bone mass where bones
are becoming fragile and brittle.
>-2.5 SD
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TYPES OF BONES
There are 5 types of bones in the human
body:

• Flat.
• Long.
• Short.
• Irregular.
• Sesamoid (seed like).

Wormian bones, also known as intrasutural

bones or sutural bones, are extra bone pieces
that can occur within a suture (joint) in the skull.

These are irregular isolated bones that can

appear in addition to the usual centers of
ossification of the skull and, although unusual,
are not rare.
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STRUCTURE OF A LONG BONE

Long bones are capped with wide areas on each end which are called
epiphyses. The epiphysis closer to the torso is called the proximal epiphysis
while the distal epiphysis is at the farther end.

Epiphyses are filled with spongy bone (softer) containing red bone marrow,
which is red in color because it makes red blood cells. Each epiphysis is
capped with articular cartilage that connects the bone to the rest of the body
while simultaneously cushioning the end of the bone.

The largest part of any long bone is the long cylindrical middle, called the
diaphysis. The diaphysis takes the brunt of the force that long bones must
support and is made up primarily of compact bone, also known as cortical
bone, which is a denser material used to create much of the hard structure of
the skeleton.

The periosteum is a membrane that covers the outer surface of all bones,
except at the joints of long bones.

Endosteum lines the inner surface of the medullary cavity of all long bones.
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JOINT CLASSIFICATIONS
A joint is where two or more bones meet or
join.

Joints allow you to move parts of your body

in specific directions.

• Fibrous – immovable joints, for example,

cranium, sacrum, coccyx.

• Cartilaginous – semi-movable joints, for

example, vertebrae.

• Synovial – freely movable joints, for

example, knee, hip, shoulders and elbows.
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TYPES OF JOINTS
Joint Types:

• Ball and socket: Shoulders and hips – allows

movement in almost any direction.

• Hinge: Elbows and knees – allows flexion and

extension.

• Condyloid: Wrist joint – allows flexion, extension,

abduction and adduction.

• Pivot: Neck – allows rotation.

• Saddle: Thumb – allows flexion, extension, adduction

and abduction.

• Plane / Gliding: Acromioclavicular joint – allows 2

bones to slide past each other i.e. Elevation and
depression of the shoulder girdle.
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JOINT ANATOMY
It is the synovial joints we are most interested in, as these are
the joints that muscles cross to create lever systems i.e. The
biceps brachii crosses the elbow joint and therefore, when it
contracts and shortens it bends the elbow.

• Bone ends are covered with hyaline (articular) cartilage.

• Stabilized by ligaments.
• Enclosed within a fibrous capsule.
• Capsule contains a synovial membrane that secretes
lubricating fluid (synovial fluid).

Cracking Joints:
Cracking, clunking and popping noises can be caused by a few
things, such as structures rubbing/impinging on each other.
However, joint cavitation if often the cause: Synovial joints
capsules are filled with synovial fluid. Just as in any fluid, small
partial vacuums can form and therefore, when the joint is bent
or pulled, it can cause a change in pressure and these
vacuums collapse producing a sharp sound. This is all
absolutely normal, but if it causes pain or discomfort, you
should see a professional who can assess the area.
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CARTILAGE
Cartilage:

• Is dense, durable and can withstand

compression forces.

• Is formed from collagen and elastin.

• Has a poor blood supply.

There are three type of cartilage:

• Hyaline: Articular cartilage found at the

ends of bones.

• Fibrous: Pads of fibrocartilage between

some joints.

• Elastic: Found in tubes and areas

which need to maintain a shape.
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LIGAMENTS
Ligaments:

• Connect bone to bone.

• Support and add stability to joints.

• Have a poor blood supply.

• Ligaments that are presented as thickening of the

articular capsule are called capsular ligaments,
while the ligaments located outside the capsule are
called extracapsular and those inside the capsule
are called intracapsular.

• Mainly formed by collagen and elastin:

➢ Collagen increases toughness and strength. Fibres
are resistant to stretch.
➢ Elastin increases elasticity and stretch. Fibres allow
stretch and return to original shape.
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JOINT ACTIONS
Movement Terminology Description

Flexion Bending a body part.

Extension Straightening a body part.
Abduction Moving a body part away from the midline.
Adduction Moving a body part towards the midline.
Rotation Circular movement around a bone.
Circumduction Cone-shaped movement.
Lateral flexion Bending to the side.
Lateral extension Returning straight from a side bend position.
Horizontal flexion Moving a body part horizontally towards the midline.
Horizontal extension Moving a body part horizontally away from the midline.
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JOINT ACTIONS
Movement Terminology Description

Elevation Upwards movement of a body part.

Depression Downwards movement of a body part.
Protraction Forwards movement of a body part.
Retraction Backwards movement of a body part.
Plantarflexion Pointing the toes downwards.
Dorsiflexion Pointing the toes upwards.
Pronation Rotation of the palm of the hand to face downwards.
Supination Rotation of the palm of the hand to face upwards.
Inversion Moving the sole of the foot to face inwards.
Eversion Moving the sole of the foot to face outwards.
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TYPICAL RANGES OF MOTION

Joint Action Degrees of Motion Joint Action Degrees of Motion
Shoulder:
Flexion 160 Extension 50
Internal Rotation 45 External Rotation 90
Abduction 180
Elbow:
Flexion 160 Extension 0
Hip:
Flexion 120 Extension 0-10
Abduction 40 Adduction 15
Internal Rotation 45 External Rotation 45
Knee:
Flexion 140 Extension 0
Ankle:
Plantarflexion 45 Dorsiflexion 20
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PLANES OF MOTION
When we describe movement, we often use planes. A multiplanar movement would involve working through multiple
planes. For example, a lunge with a torso rotation works through the sagittal and transverse plane.
Sagittal Plane Frontal Plane Transverse Plane
Flexion & Extension Abduction & Adduction Rotation

Medial-Lateral Axis Anterior-Posterior Axis Longitudinal Axis

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POSTURE
Static posture is the position someone holds their body in while standing, sitting or lying, but is most commonly
assessed in a standing position. Dynamic posture refers to your positioning while performing movements.

For many years, some health and fitness professionals have promoted the utterly unrealistic notion that we should
be in what is the classed as “good posture” at all times, with our head and shoulders retracted, chest proud and our
spine neutral (unbent and untwisted). However, it is key to understand that it is fine to bend, twist and slouch,
ultimately the best posture is the next posture – spending hours in even the most ergonomic (efficiency and comfort)
position is going to get sore and uncomfortable.

Although a draconian level of maintaining “good” posture is a little silly, there is clearly optimal positions for
someone to take while static (standing in line) or performing an action (a deadlift) – optimal posture is often
described as the “neutral” position where the least stress is placed on the joints and the surrounding structures.

An imbalance can affect:

• Muscular length-tension relationships.

• Joint motion, range of motion.
• Forces placed on the body.
• Nervous input (sensory information) and output (motor responses).
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THE SPINE
The spine is made up of 5 regions which create 4 curves –
these curves help us to absorb impact.

The curves of the spine are described as kyphotic, which is

a convex curve as we look from the side, and lordotic which
is a concave curve as we look from the side.

It is normal for people to have varying degrees of curvature

in their spine. However, when these curves become
excessive, we refer to it as hyper-kyphosis and hyper-
lordosis.

Note: The terms lordosis and kyphosis are often used to

describe an excessive range.

As you can see from the diagram, the vertebrae from each
section of the spine are different and therefore, function in
different ways (sacrum and coccyx are fused). For example,
rotation of the torso is primarily performed through the
thoracic spine rather than the lumbar spine.
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VERTEBRAE
Below, we can see the relationship between the vertebral body, disc and spinal cord and the exiting nerve roots.
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THE PELVIS
The pelvis is made up between the sacrum and the ilium,
creating the sacroiliac joints at either side of the sacrum.
Therefore, pelvic positioning will impact on the spine,
specifically the lumbar spine – an anterior (forward) tilt will
exaggerate the lordotic curve.

The pelvis naturally tilts forward slightly. However, there

are 3 common ways in which the pelvis may tilt
excessively:

• Anterior tilt: Tilted forwards – increases lumbar lordosis

(a very common sight in gyms).

• Posterior tilt: Tilted backwards – causes the lumbar

spine to flatten.

• Lateral tilt: Tilted to one side with one ilium being higher
than the other.
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