2022

INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS 1900-1939

CONCISE AND COMPREHENSIVE NOTES

 DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES: HISTORY

INTERNATIONAL FFAIRS 4044/2 -Australia -Britain

-France -Russia

THE FIRST WORLD WAR 1914-1918 Central powers during World War One
The First World War broke out in 1914. It started as a European war  -Germany -Austria-
but by 1917 it became purely a world war as it involved United Hungary
States of America, Asia, Canada, Australia, Brazil, China, the  -Turkey -Bulgaria
Caribbean Islands and most of Africa. The cataclysm came as a  -Jordan
disturbing calamity to the relative peace and tranquillity which the
people of Europe had enjoyed since the end of the Napoleonic wars. Methods of fighting used during World War One
Everyone had expected to enjoy the fruits of industrialisation and  -Air strikes -Submarine
scientific developments that had started in Europe but this was warfare
however, rendered null and void by this great war of 1914.The war  -Use of tanks -Trench warfare
was fought on land and above land[air],on seas and under the seas.  -Use of poisonous gas
The war was fought by Germany and Austria-Hungary and their
allies [Central powers] against Britain and France and their allies Seas where World War One was fought
[Allied powers].  -North Sea -English
Channel
Allied powers during World War One  -Pacific -Atlantic
-Canada -United States  -Red sea
of America
-Romania -Italy
-South Africa -Greece Weapons used during World War One
-Georgia -New Zealand  -Tanks -Hydrophone
-Japan -China  -Howitzers -Rifles
-Portugal -Spain  -Battle cruisers -
-Serbia -Belgium Aeroplanes[zeppelin]
-Montenegro -Armenia  -Destroyers -Poisonous gas

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 DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES: HISTORY

 -Torpedoes -Cruisers CAUSES OF WORLD WAR ONE

 -Light cruisers -Machine guns
 -Depth charge - Long Term Causes of World War One
Bombs[grenades]  -The system of alliances initiated by Bismarck caused the
 -Submarines[U-boats] -Cannons First World War.
 -Dreadnoughts [battle ships]  -The colonial clashes or conflicts by European powers
caused the 1914 war.
Types of ships used during World War One  -The naval race especially between Britain and Germany
 -Dreadnoughts -Light increased tension in Europe.
cruisers  -Arms race by European powers increased enmity among
 -Cruisers -Battle cruisers European powers.
 -Submarines[U-boats] -  -Militarism in Europe also caused the 1914 war.
Destroyers  -Nationalism was another cause of world war one.
 -The first Moroccan crisis [1905] and the second Moroccan
European countries that had colonial interests in North Africa crisis [1911] also contributed.
in early 1900s  -German Weltipolitik [a policy aimed at dominating Europe]
 -Britain -France also caused this war.
 -Germany -Italy  -War plans such as the Schlieffen plan by Germany caused
 -Turkey -Spain the 1914 war.
 -Kaiser’s utterances or tactless public statements by the
European countries that had interests in the Balkan region Kaiser provoked other countries.
before World War One
 -Britain -Russia Short term causes/Balkan Instability/Balkan crisis [1908-1914]
 -Germany -Austria–  -The Bosnian crisis [1908] caused the war.
Hungary  -The first Balkan war [1912] and the second Balkan war
 -Turkey [1913] caused the 1914 war.
 -The Sarajevo assassination [1914] sparked the war.

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 DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES: HISTORY

Causes of World War One [in detail] Terms of this Treaty

 -The league members agreed to cooperate in the suppression
1]The Alliance System of subversive activities in their countries.
The system of alliances was initiated by Otto von Bismarck who  -They agreed to consult each other if other powers threatened
was the Chancellor of Germany from 1871 to 1890.Following the European peace.
defeat of France by Germany in the 1870-71 Franco-Prussian war.  -The three monarchs agreed to consult each other about
Bismarck was determined to prevent any attempts by the French to events in the Balkans.
regain the mineral rich provinces of Alsace-Lorraine or to find allies  -The three agreed to assist each other in case of an attack of
in Europe who would be prepared to assist her in a war of revenge. any member by two or more powers.
Generally Bismarck’s foreign policy was geared towards isolating  -In case of an attack by one country, others were to remain
France who was seen as the greatest danger to the newly created neutral[not to intervene].
German Reich. Alsace-Lorraine had been absorbed into the newly
created German Empire. b]The Dual Alliance[1879]
It was signed by Germany and Austria-Hungary
a] TheDreikaiserbund Treaty/ The League of the Three
Emperors[1872] Terms of this treaty
 -The two countries promised mutual aid if one of them was
It was signed by Kaiser William I of Germany, Tsar Alexander II of attacked by Russia.
Russia and Emperor Francis Joseph of Austria-Hungary. By clever  -The two promised mutual aid if one of them was attacked
diplomacy, Bismarck managed to secure the friendship of both by any power assisted by Russia.
Austria-Hungry and Russia in spite of the conflicting ambitions of  -They promised each other aid if either of them were
these two countries. By this treaty Bismarck hoped that attacked by two or more powers.
monarchicalfriendship would form a common bond against  -They promised each other neutrality in the case of an attack
republican France [which was one reason why he wanted France to by any other country, for example, France.
remain a republic]. Bismarck was able to isolate France by  -The treaty clearly promised support to Germany in the event
befriending Austria Hungary and Russiawhom France could get into of a joint attack by France and Russia.
friendship with.

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 DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES: HISTORY

c]The Renewed Dreikaiserbund Treaty[1881] France into collision with Italy, who had ambitions and some 20 000
settlers in Tunis area.In 1881 the French reluctant to see an Italian
Bismarck feared that France might come into an agreement with colony established on the borders of French Algeria, took
Russia[He wanted to keep France isolated].As a result Bismarck Bismarck’s hint and occupied Tunis.This threw Italy into the arms
persuaded Russia and Austria-Hungary to renew the old of Germany and the following year [1882] Italy joined the two
Dreikaiserbund.Tsar Alexander II had died and Bismarck renewed powers of the 1879 Dual Alliance to form the Triple Alliance.
the League of the Three Emperors with Austria-Hungary and
Russia .Thus the possibility of a Franco-Russian alliance was Terms of this Treaty
banished.  -Germany and Austria-Hungary agreed to help Italy if she
Terms of this Treaty were attacked by France.
 -Italy agreed to help Germany if she were attacked by
 -The three powers agreed to consult each other in matters of France.
the Balkans.  -Each of these powers agreed to help if either of the powers
 -They promised each other neutrality if one of them was were attacked by any two or more powers.
attacked by a fourth power [single] power.  -Germany and Austria-Hungary agreed that they would help
 -Austria –Hungary was allowed to annex Bosnia and each other against a Russian attack of either of them.
Herzegovina.  -In case of any war that involved Britain, Italy was to remain
 -There was to be creation of a Big Bulgaria [the union of neutral.
Bulgaria and Eastern Roumelia] under Russian influence.  -Each of these powers agreed to remain neutral if either of
 -The alliance was to be renewed after every three years. them was attacked by a single.
 -the alliance was joined in the following year [1883] by
d]The Triple Alliance [1882] Romania and later on by Turkey.

It was signed by Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy.It was an

enlargement of the 1879 Dual Alliance to include Italy.Italy joined
because she resented French expansion in North Africa.Bismarck
secretly encouraged French ambitions in North Africa, mainly to e] The Re-insurance Treaty[1887]
divert her from scheming to recover Alsace –Lorraine and to bring

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 DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES: HISTORY

It was signed by Germany and Russia.The Dreikaiserbund Germany was likely to support Austria.Therefore in 1890
was supposed to be renewed in 1887 but failed, owing to when her existing treaty with Germany lapsed, she did not
Austro-Russian antagonism over the Balkan affairs.At that renew it.The dismissal of Bismarck in 1890 marked a turning
time the Russian press was actively anti-German and articles point in the relations of European countries.French isolation
were advocating a Franco-Russian alliance.This was a threat died a natural death as a result of Kaiser’s policies.When the
to Germany’s policy of keeping France isolated. To improve Re-insurance treaty needed to be renewed in 1890, Kaiser
the Russo-German relations, Bismarck secretly signed the William ignored.Russia signed the Dual Alliance with
Re-insurance treaty with Russia.It was signed without the France because since 1888 Russia was being given French
knowledge of Italy and Austria-Hungary. loans, which greatly helped her to finance her industrial
progress.
Terms of this Treaty
 -Both promised to remain neutral if either of them was at war Terms of this Treaty
with a third [single] power.  -If France was attacked by Germany alone or by Germany
 -If Russia attacked Austria-Hungary or if Germany attacked and Italy, Russia would help her.
France they were to remain neutral.  -If Russia was attacked by Germany alone or by Germany
 -They were also to try and localise the conflict. and Austria-Hungary, France would help her.
 -Germany was to support Russian claims to influence  -The alliance was to continue as long as the triple alliance
Bulgarian affairs. was in force[a clear indication that they were geared towards
a war].
f] The Franco-Russian Agreement/ Dual Alliance 1894  -If the members of the triple alliance mobilised, France and
Russia were to mobilise immediately.
It was signed by Russia and France. France was without an g]The Anglo- Japanese Alliance [1902]
ally but by 1890 she felt she needed one, partly because of
her weakness in relation to Germany and partly because she It was signed by Britain and Japan.Britain approached Japan
was increasingly coming into conflict with Great Britain and in 1902 because she wanted an ally who could check Russian
Italy over colonial matters. Russia had a tradition of alliance and German expansionist ambitions in the Far East
with Germany but she had come to realise that whenever especially China.The alliance was meant to guard against the
Austrian and Russian interests clashed in the Balkans, movement of Russia in the Far East, that is, in Manchuria

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 DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES: HISTORY

and Korea.Japan also wanted an ally who could help her plan  -Britain had the desire to control Russian expansion in the
for a war against Russia[Russo-Japanese war 1904].This Balkans.
alliance was the first step which Britain took to end her  -Arms race with Germany and other powers.
isolation.  -German gunboat diplomacy
 -Division of Europe into two hostile camps hinted the
vulnerability of Britain.
Terms of this Treaty  -The Fashoda incident of 1898
 -Britain was to support Japan in the Far East if Japan was in  -The congratulatory message of Kaiser William to Paul
a war with two other powers. Krugger in 1896 after the Jameson raid failure.
 -If either of them was to wage war against two powers, her  -The Anglo-Boer war of 1899-1902.In this war the Kaiser
ally was bound to join her. gave the Boers food supplies.
 -If either power went to war to maintain the Far Eastern  -The Kaiser’s proclaimed Weltipolitik threatened British
status quo, the other promised to remain neutral. supremacy
 -If Japan was at war with a third power [single power]  -Britain’s naval superiority was being challenged by USA,
Britain was to remain neutral. Japan and Germany
 -If Britain was at war with a third power [single power]  -Germany looked for colonies next to British ones
Japan was to remain neutral.
 -Britain recognised Japan’s interests in Korea. h] The Entente Cordiale/Anglo-French-Entente/ Anglo-French
agreement [1904]
Why Britain abandoned the policy of splendid isolation/Why It was signed by Britain and France. An entente is an
Britain looked for allies agreement to settle areas of dispute.This agreement was
mainly concerned with colonial matters.It was not directed
 -She wanted an ally who could check Russian and Germany against specific enemies.It was not a military alliance.It was
expansionist ambitions in the Far East especially China. aimed at fostering co-operation between Britain and France,
 -All the major powers had aligned themselves, for example, especially in settling disputes concerning overseas
the dual alliance of 1879,the Franco-Russian alliance of territories.Britain and France abandoned their traditional
1893-4 and the Triple alliance and so on. differences.The two were drawn together by the common
fear of Germany’s intentions.To Kaiser William and the rest

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 DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES: HISTORY

of the world, it showed that Britain preferred France to  -The two also settled their differences over India.
Germany.This alliance made France to work hard to draw  -Tibet which was of interest to both was declared to be
her two friends [Russia and Britain] together. neutral.
 -They agreed that neither of them would interfere in Tibet’s
Terms of this Treaty internal affairs.
 -Britain agreed not to oppose French aims in Morocco.  -The treaty recognised Britain’s influence over Afghanistan.
 -Britain promised France a free hand in Morocco whilst  -Russia gained control over Northern Persia.
Britain’s occupation of Egypt was not to be opposed.  -Britain gained control of South East and the Persian Gulf.
 -Thus they recognised each other’s interests in Africa.
 -The two agreed to work together in the event of a conflict. j]The Triple Entente [1907]
It was signed by Britain, France and Russia.France brought
i]Anglo-Russian Agreement [1907] her two friends together.Britain and Russia ironed out their
It was signed by Britain and Russia.It was signed in St differences.The support given by Russia to France and
Petersburg in Russia.It was also known as the Anglo-Russian Britain at Algeciras Conference in 1906 drew them
agreement.The fear of a Franco-Russian drive against India together.This alliance was described as the anti-German club
forced Britain to oppose the extension of Russian of Britain, Russia and France. This alliance was meant to
influence.Even the downfall of Napoleon III did not make counter the triple alliance
the British feel secure in their possession of India.At the end .
of the nineteenth century Russia’s position was growing Terms of this Treaty
progressively stronger than Britain.Russia conquered most of  -They agreed to divide Persia [Iran] into three spheres of
Central Asia and extended her influence to Manchuria and influence.
Korea, posing a threat to British interests in China.It was not  -The Northern sphere including Tehran was to be under
a military alliance and not necessarily anti German.The Russian influence.
agreement led to the formation of the triple entente.  -The Southern sphere was to be under British influence.
 -Tibet which was of interest to both was declared to be
Terms of this Treaty neutral.
 -Britain and Russia settled their colonial disputes in Persia,  -They agreed that neither of them would interfere in Tibet’s
Afghanistan and Tibet. internal affairs.

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 -China’s sovereignty was to be recognised.  -Colonial clashes which increased enmity among European
 -A complete balance of power was struck powers
.  -The Sarajevo assassination which brought the fatal clash
between allied and central powers

Contribution of the Alliance System to the outbreak of European powers involved in the System of Alliances
World War One  -Germany -Austria-
Hungary
 -Russia -Britain
 -It called for the inconvenience of many countries because of
 -Turkey -Italy
the feeling of insecurity.
 -France -Bulgaria
 -Bismarck’s alliances helped to increase the fears of other
nations especially France, which began a frantic search for
2] Colonial clashes/conflicts/rivalry
allies to counter the triple alliance.
They also helped to produce the cataclysm of
 -It led to the division of Europe into two armed and equally
1914.Misunderstandings which took place among European nations
opposing camps, that is, triple alliance and triple entente.
as they competed to control African territories caused the war.These
 -The two camps increased strength year after year.
imperial conflicts strained relations between major powers.Almost
 -The relations between the two camps worsened. all European countries rushed to control African land and this
 -The alliances operated to convert a local quarrel into a resulted in disputes over control of some territories, for example the
general war. clash between Italy and France over Tunisia, the Fashoda incident
 -These two camps were the ones that fought the war of 1914. and so on.In 1905 and 1911, France and Germany conflicted over
 -The armies ready for war on the continent were the largest Morocco.Morocco was taken as a threat by the members of the
ever formed in Europe in time of peace. Entente Cordiale of 1904 and therefore they cemented their
relationship against Germany.
Other Factors which led to the outbreak of World War One
3] Naval race
 -Naval race which increased tension between Britain and -It was the competition for building warships especially,
Germany between Britain and Germany.

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-In 1870 Germany passed naval laws aimed at the -By 1914 Britain had built 32 dreadnoughts while Germany
construction of big warships. had 20.
-Britain who considered herself as the mistress of the sea felt -Naval race increased tension between Britain and Germany.
threatened. -Together with militarism, naval race cemented the system of
-In 1889 Britain vowed to make her navy twice stronger than alliances which had brought Europe nearer to war than to
any two European countries combined. peace.
-After 1890 Germany challenged this view and began
competing with Britain and passed naval laws aimed at Types of ships involved in naval race
speeding up ship production. -Dreadnoughts -Battle cruisers
-Between 1898 and 1900 Germany doubled her warships -Light cruisers -Cruisers
from 31 to 62. -Submarines -Destroyers
-Britain felt threatened and went on to introduce new type of
ship known as dreadnought. 4] Arms race
-This type of ship dominated the seas during world war one.  -It was the competition in the production of armaments.
-This put Germany at a disadvantage because the  -During the period after 1870 Germany had the finest
dreadnought was comparably more powerful than any other military machine yet she continued to arm.
battleship in existence at that time.  -France and Russia looked upon Germany’s own might army
-It was faster and stronger than any other ship. with fear and began to arm.
-This rendered other ships virtually useless.  -They increased arms to counter Germany’s military
-Germany not wanting to be outcompeted made her own machine.
dreadnought in 1909.  -Almost all European countries embarked on making
-Between 1909 and 1912 Germany built 9 dreadnoughts weapons in order to fully equip their armies.
while Britain consequently laid down 18 to maintain her  -Ammunition firms mushroomed all over Europe.
supremacy.  -Attempts to limit armaments had failed at the Hague
-The naval race reached its peak in 1906 with the launching Conference of 1899.
of the dreadnought by Britain, which stimulated German  -Tsar Nicholas II had suggested a 5 year halt in arms
naval rivalry. increases but no positive proposal of that kind was accepted.
 -The lead in the rejection came from Germany.

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 DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES: HISTORY

 -As a result the mood of militarism pervaded Europe by  -Various war plans were drawn, for example, Schlieffen
1914. plan.
 -Each announcement of increased armaments expenditure by  -Railway lines were constructed to reach possible battle
a European power was viewed as a threat by its perceived fields.
rival and this created an atmosphere of mutual fear and  -These armies were not to remain idle. A chance to put their
suspicion which played a major part in creating the mood for training into use was inevitable.
war in 1914.
 -Once started it was difficult impossible to slow down arms 6] Nationalism
race.  -It is the wish of people with a common origin to be united
 -On each side there was a complete lack of trust in the or to form an independent country.
intentions.  -The Balkan people, for example, were struggling to win
 -European powers piled and piled arms and once armaments their national independence from Turkey and Austria-
were produced what was left was an opportunity to pull the Hungary.
trigger.  -They were anxious to win all people of the same race under
 -Arms race increased insecurity among nations. their national flags and they were anxious to establish
themselves in the world so that they would be at par [same
5] Militarism` level] with other great powers.
 -It was an increase in soldiers by European powers.  -Some nations, for instance, in the Balkans were anxious to
 -From the end of the nineteenth century most European extend their rule over people of the same nationality.
powers had been increasing their armies.  -Serbia, for example, had freed many of her fellow
 -Most European countries began to introduce compulsory countrymen from the rule of Turkey.
military service.  -She was therefore anxious to complete the task.
 -Able bodied men were forced to join the army.  -Serbia wanted to wrest [take] from Austria-Hungary the
 -France,for example, went on to increase military service territory on the Adriatic coast which was inhabited by Slavic
from 2 to3 years. people [Slavs].
 -Russia increased military service from three to three and  -This explains why Serbia and Austria-Hungary were at
half years. loggerheads up to 1914.
 -Germany increased her soldiers up to 5 million.
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 DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES: HISTORY

 -Thus world war one grew out of a clash between Slav

nationalism and the multi- ethnic Austro-Hungarian Empire.
 -Austria-Hungary had incorporated the Slav people into her 10] The Moroccan Crisis
empire.
 -This led straight to the Sarajevo assassination. a] First Moroccan Crisis of 1905 / The Tangier Crisis
[1905]
7] Germany Weltipolitik
After the resignation of Bismarck in 1890, Germany adopted
a policy of Weltipolitik, a policy aimed at leadership and  -Germany learnt about the secret agreement [Entente
even dominating the whole world.Britain was not prepared to Cordial] between France and Britain.
let anyone country dominate Europe. She had fought  -On this agreement French claims on Morocco were
Napoleon I for this reason and was now prepared to fight recognised by Britain while France accepted British control
Germany. over Egypt.
 -Morocco had been regarded by Europe as officially
independent and under joint supervision by all powers since
8]Kaiser’s utterances /Tactless public statements by the
1900.
Kaiser  -The Entente Cordiale meant France would ignore the
Kaiser’s public statements caused the 1914 war.For instance, independence of Morocco.
the Kaiser congratulated Paul Krugger after the Jameson raid  -The cordiale was also meant to exclude German interests in
failure.This provoked Britain Morocco.
 -Germany which had economic and trading interests in
9] The Schlieffen plan Morocco could, in no way, accept the takeover of Morocco
It also caused the 1914 general war.It was a German war by France.
plan devised by General Alfred von Schlieffen in  -The Germany Kaiser felt that Germany’s interests had been
1905.According to this plan Germany wanted to invade sidelined since Germany had been left out of the negotiations
France via Belgium yet Britain and Germany had agreed not over the fate [destiny] of Morocco.
to violate Belgian neutrality [1839 London treaty].It was the
violation of Belgian neutrality which brought Britain into the
war.

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 DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES: HISTORY

 -In 1905 the Kaiser and his chancellor Bulow, visited  -Instead, his views were rejected.
Tangier, a coastal city in Morocco, in an attempt to teach  -He was particularly bitter about the way he was treated, as if
France a lesson that she cannot depend on Britain alone. he had no right to speak on such matters.
 -The Kaiser was keen to show that Germany was now an  -Only Austria-Hungary supported her, the rest supported
important power in the area. French control of Morocco.
 -The Kaiser also wanted to test the strength of the Anglo-  -It was agreed that Morocco should remain independent, but
French entente [Entente cordial of 1904]. French and Spanish police forces were to keep order there.
 -By that time Russia was too weak to be a reliable ally as she  -The Kaiser who felt humiliated vowed to reverse the
had been defeated by Japan in the Russo-Japanese war of decision when Germany’s navy was powerful enough.
1904.
 -In a speech the Kaiser supported the Sultans [Moroccans] in b] The Second Moroccan Crisis/ Panther Crisis/ Agadir
their struggle against the French. He made a bold speech Crisis of 1911
trying to convince the Sultans that Germany would support
the independence of Morocco.
-The Kaiser William II had been disappointed by the
 -Both Britain and France were angered by this behaviour of
outcome of the Algeciras conference in 1906.
the Kaiser and threatened war.
-In 1908, the French secured the election of a new Sultan of,
 -Germany went on to demand a conference to settle the
Morocco because the previous one was against the French
dispute and this conference was held at Algeciras in Spain in
policy in Morocco.
1906.
-In 1911, a rising occurred against this new Sultan and in
order to suppress it the French forces occupied the Moroccan
The Algeciras Conference of 1906
capital, Fez.
 -This conference was held in Spain.
-The French claimed that the French citizens were in danger.
 -It was attended by Britain, France, Germany, Austria-
-The Kaiser sensing danger of total control of Morocco by
Hungary, Spain, Russia and Italy.
France sent a German gunboat called the Panther, to the west
 -At this conference it became clear that British backing for
coast port of Morocco at Agadir claiming to protect Germans
France was real.
who lived there but there were none.
 -At this conference the Kaiser was humiliated. He had
-The real reasons were [a] to frighten France into giving her
wanted to appear as a major power in Africa.
some colonial territory in compensation for the likely

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 DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES: HISTORY

occupation of the whole of Morocco by France. [b] Germany  -It made Germany to speed up her war preparations.
also wanted to test the strength of the Anglo-French Entente  -Although war was averted it was only a matter of
of 1904. postponement.
-The Germany action excited British opinion as Agadir was  -French hopes of a better relationship with Germany were
close to Gibraltar, a British territory in the Mediterranean. wrecked.
-The British and French suspected that the Kaiser wanted to  -It led to further division of Europe into twohostile camps.
establish a naval base at Agadir which would threaten  -The relationship between Britain and France was further
Britain’s trade routes. strengthened. Britain and France signed a naval agreement in
-They also suspected that Germany wanted to destroy the 1912.
Anglo-French Entente or the Triple Entente.  -The British and French realised that they had to take a firm
-This resulted in the British standing firmly behind France stand against the Kaiser’s bullying tactics.
and it was indicated that Britain would not accept German  -It increased opposition against Germany in Europe.
bullying.
-The British fleet was prepared for action. 11] The Bosnian Crisis of 1908
-For some weeks tension was high and there was the danger  -After the Congress of Berlin in 1878, Austria-Hungary was
of an armed collision. given the mandate to govern Bosnia and Herzegovina.
-The three countries [Britain, France and Germany] made  -On the other hand Serbia wanted to control them since the
preparation for war. inhabitants of the two provinces were Serbs/ Slavs.
-Tension was only eased when France decided to give part of  -In 1908, a revolution to receive the Turkish emperor, Abdul
French Congo [100 000 square miles] to Germany. Hamid was organised by the Young Turks.
-However Germany had demanded the whole of French  -The Young Turks’ central aim was to revitalise the
Congo. weakening Turkish / Ottoman Empire and then maintain the
-In return Germany recognised the French occupation of autocracy.
Morocco and withdrew the Panther.  -The revolution shocked the major powers of Europe,
-The crisis ended without a war. especially Russia and Austria-Hungary since a strong Turkey
would disturb their interests.
Contribution of the Moroccan Crisis to the outbreak of World  -Such a strong Turkish government could make Austria-
War One Hungary lose her control over Bosnia and Herzegovina.

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 DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES: HISTORY

 -Therefore, before the government of the Young Turks could  -German threatened to give maximum support to Austria-
be established, Austria-Hungary met Russia and agreed that Hungary. Russia and Serbia gave in.
Austria-Hungary should annex Bosnia and Herzegovina.  -Although Britain and France did not recognise the
 -Russia was allowed to move her warships through the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina by Austria-Hungary,
Dardanelles and Bosphorus to the Mediterranean. they were not prepared to help Russia or Serbia.
 -In October 1908, Austria-Hungary annexed Bosnia and  -Neither Russia nor Serbia was prepared to risk war with
Herzegovina, confident of support from Germany. Germany over the issue.
 -This was a blow to Serbia who wanted to acquire the two  -Austria-Hungary kept Bosnia and Herzegovina.
provinces which had 3000000Serbs.
 -Serbia wanted to create a South Slav state, that is, Contribution of the Bosnian Crisis to the outbreak of World
Yugoslavia [a union of Serbia with Bosnia and War One
Herzegovina].She wanted to create a union of all Southern  -It encouraged Russia to increase her army further.
Slav states under the Serbian crown.  -It worsened relations between Germany and Russia.
 -Russia felt cheated by Austria-Hungary since she failed to  -The enmity between Russia and Austria-Hungary was
get international support of her plans for the straits. increased.
 -The annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina blocked Serbian  -It increased tension between Serbia and Austria-Hungary
path to the Adriatic Sea. that at any given time the two countries would fight over
 -The Serbian government prepared to mobilise her army. Bosnia and Herzegovina.
 -Serbia appealed for help from fellow Slavs.  -It led to the formation of the Black Hand.
 -Russia called for a European Conference and expected
support from Britain and France.
 -However, Russia did not get support from Britain and
France.
 -Russia alone could not fight Austria-Hungary because she
had not fully recovered from the defeat by Japan in the 1904
Russo-Japanese war and she was weakened by the 1905
revolution. 12] The Balkan Wars

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 DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES: HISTORY

a] First Balkan War of 1912 -Austria-Hungary and Germany had stood aside expecting
-On 12 October 1912 the First Balkan League which that the Turks would defeat the Balkan League, but both had
comprised of Greece, Serbia, Montenegro and Bulgaria gravely miscalculated.
declared war on Turkey. -Turkey was defeated in roughly 6 weeks.
-They gained a swift victory. -The great powers were shocked by this remarkable success
-They drove Turks out of most of the European territory of of the Balkan states.
the Balkans. -They immediately called for a meeting in London to decide
-The Turkish government attempted to introduce a common the future of the Balkan affairs
law, a national language and so on.
-In addition, real power in Turkey rested with a few The Treaty of London [1913]
ambitious army officers who suppressed the subject peoples.  -By this treaty Turkey lost nearly the whole of her territory
-The renewed Turkish persecution forced the Balkan states to in Europe to the Balkan states.
cast their rivalry and jealousies.  -Greece was to get Thrace and Salonika.
-All these caused resentment to the minorities against  -Serbia was to get a larger part of Macedonia.
Turkey.  -The Geek government felt cheated as it did not gain a larger
-The Balkan League wanted to drive Turkey out of all her territory in Macedonia.
European territories.  -Bulgaria was dissatisfied by this treaty and was determined
-Each member of the Balkan League hoped to obtain a to revise this treaty.
portion of the territory still under Turkish rule.  -Each government felt it gained little.
-The Balkan states witnessed the weaknesses of Turkey
 -As a result, the First Balkan League [coalition] soon fell
when it fought with Italy in 1911 in Libya.
apart.
-The Italians had declared war on Turkey in 1911 and
 -Austria-Hungary was concentrating on the setting up of a
attacked the Turkish province and very quickly defeated the
small state, Albania in the Eastern part of Serbia to block
Turkish forces.
Serbia from possessing a port in the Adriatic Sea.
-When the Serbians and Bulgarians captured Adrianople,
 -This angered Serbia as it was its key territorial objective
Turkey was forced to make peace.
since it was a landlocked country.
Balkan States involved in the First Balkan War
 -Greece -Serbia

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 DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES: HISTORY

 -Montenegro -Bulgaria  -Serbia, Greece and Romania had formed the Second Balkan
League.
Balkan States before World War One  -The Turks joined the war because they had seen in this
-Albania -Macedonia dispute an opportunity of regaining some of their lost
-Bulgaria -Serbia European territory.
-Greece -Bosnia  -In less than a month Bulgaria had been quite easily
-Herzegovina -Montenegro defeated.
-Romania -Thrace
-Crete -Salonika The Treaty of Bucharest [1913]
 -This treaty was signed after the Second Balkan War.
 -Bucharest was the capital city of Romania.
b] The Second Balkan War of 1913  -By this treaty, Serbia and Greece kept those parts of
 -This war was fought over how to distribute the spoils of Macedonia, but under the Austro-Hungarian and Germany
victory of the First Balkan War. pressure.
 -Bulgaria was angry with the settlement [Treaty of London]  -For its part, Turkey regained Adrianople. Bulgaria was
of 1913. forced to give up Adrianople.
 -She was not satisfied by her spoils of the war.  -The Serbs were once again denied the Adriatic port.
 -She felt other countries gained at her expense.  -Romania got part of Bulgarian Dobruga.
 -Bulgaria greatly resented the Greeks getting Salonika.  -Austria-Hungary was again determined to keep Serbia
 -Bulgaria was not happy about Serbia being given part of landlocked.
Macedonia because these areas were supposed to have been
part of Bulgaria’s share of the spoils.
 -Bulgaria claimed part of Macedonia which Serbia refused to
give up.
 -The war broke out in June 1913 when Bulgaria attacked Balkan States which took part in the Second Balkan War
Serbia. -Serbia -Greece
 -This forced Greece, Romania and Turkey to declare war on -Romania -Montenegro
Bulgaria. -Bulgaria

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 DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES: HISTORY

 -Serbia began to encourage Pan-Slavism in Austria-Hungary

Contribution of the Balkan Wars to the outbreak of World War while Austria-Hungary was determined to crush Slav
One nationalism in her country.
 -The wars intensified bad relations between Serbia and  -Thus after the two Balkan wars, Austria-Hungary was
Austria-Hungary. prepared to wage a preventive war while Serbia was
 -Austria-Hungary with German support was determined to prepared to wage a war of liberation.
suppress or to destroy Serbia.
 -Serbia emerged from the war victorious, stronger, more Balkan States that had become independent from Turkey by
confident and aggressive than ever. 1912
 -Austria-Hungary frustrated Serbian national aims when after -Montenegro -Romania
the Balkan wars she insisted on the formation of Albania as -Bulgaria -Serbia
an independent state on the Adriatic. This move deterred -Greece -Albania
Serbian expansion to the Adriatic coastline. This means -Macedonia -Thrace
Austria-Hungary was determined to keep Serbia a -Salonika -Crete
landlocked country.
 -The Serbs were now confident that the Austrians wanted to Ethnic Groups in the Balkan States
gain a continuous territory across the Peninsula from the  -Albanians -Serbs
Adriatic to the Aegean Sea and for this purpose Serbia which  -Bulgarians / Bulgars -Greeks
stood directly in theirpath would have to be removed from  -Macedonians -Croats
the map as an independent state.  -Bosnians -Montenegrins
 -The wars made the Franco-Russian and the Austro-German  -Romani / Romanians
commitments tighter.
 -The Kaiser assured the Austrians of his support if they
fought a war with Serbia [the so called blank cheque].
 -Turkey of course would be relied upon to support such a 13] The Sarajevo Assassination [28 June 1914] /
move. Sarajevo incident

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 DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES: HISTORY

 -On 28 June 1914, the Archduke Francis Ferdinand [an  -There was no evidence to show involvement of the Serbian
Austrian crown Prince], the heir to the Austro-Hungarian government.
throne and his wife were driving through the streets of  -Austria-Hungary consulted Germany and was given a
Sarajevo, the capital of Bosnia. ‘blank cheque’ full of military support.
 -They were murdered by a 19 year old terrorist, Gavrillo  -The spark had now been lit by the assassination, which was
Princip, a local Serb. shortly to turn the whole of Europe into a furnace.
 -Princip was an ardent supporter of the Pan-Slav movement  -On 23 July 1914, Austria-Hungary sent an ultimatum to
called Black Hand [which was sponsored by Serbia]. Serbia whose demands were framed in such a way that
 -The murderer had come straight from a meeting of an anti- refusal was bound to be the answer. A satisfactory answer
Austrian society [Black Hand] in the Serbian capital, was demanded within 48 hours.
Belgrade.  -The three demands in the ultimatum were [a] That Serbia
 -Gavrillo Princip was allegedly said to have been sponsored was to suppress all societies organising anti-Austrian
by the Serbian Black Hand. propaganda. [b] That Serbia was to dismiss all officials to
 -The gun which Princip used was supplied by the Serbian whom Austria-Hungary objected. [c] That Austrian police
Black Hand. and officials were to enter Serbia to ensure that these two
 -Princip was given the task of assassinating the Archduke demands were carried out.
and he shot him.  -Of these demands Serbia accepted the first two, but refused
 -Serbia was bitter about the annexation of Bosnia and the third.
Herzegovina by Austria-Hungary as this thwarted her dream  -The terms of the ultimatum, especially the third term,
of the formation of a Yugoslav nation. werean impractical possibility to be undertakenas they meant
 -This is why Serbia encouraged Pan-Slavism in Austria– loss of sovereignty.
Hungary.  -Serbia suggested that the third demand should be submitted
 -There were several organisations which were formed and to arbitration by the international court of justice at Hague.
Black Hand was one of them.  -The Austrian government refused to consider this course
 -Betchtold, the Austrian Chancellor, welcoming an excuse and on 28 July 1914 Austria-Hungarydeclared war on Serbia
for war,claimed that the Serbian government had planned the and within a week the whole of Europe was ablaze.
assassination.  -Britain, France and Russia had been warned by Germany
not to interfere.

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 DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES: HISTORY

 -Russia was not willing to see a fellow Slav country [Serbia] Contribution of the Sarajevo Assassination to the outbreak of
crushed by a stronger opponent while Germany held the ring. World War One
 -Russia too had Balkan ambitions of her own and here was a  -It increased enmity between Austria-Hungary and Serbia.
chance to pursue them.  -It became the match stick that lit the bone fire.
 -Accordingly on 30 July 1914 Nicholas II ordered the  -The incident showed the extent of German support for
general mobilisation of Russian armies, in order to protect Austria-Hungary and Russian support for Serbia.
Serbia. This was a threat to Germany which sent two  -The event brought the clash between the Triple alliance and
ultimatums .One demanded that Russia should stop her the Triple entente.
mobilisation. The other insisted that France should give clear  -The incident heightened Slav nationalism and the desire for
guarantees of her neutrality. self determination.
 -After receiving a refusal, Germany declared war first on  -It was important in that it started the war.
Russia [1 August 1914] and secondly on France [3 August  -There were many long term causes of the 1914 war but this
1914]. incident came as an immediate cause.
 -By the treaty of London of 1839, Britain and Prussia had
promised to guarantee Belgian neutrality. Powers involved in the Balkan Crisis between 1908 and 1914
 -But on their way to France, German troops entered -Bulgaria -Romania
Belgium. -Greece -Serbia
 -On 4 August 1914, Britain declared war on Germany. -Albania -Montenegro
 -This was because German militarists had violated the -Germany -Turkey
sanctity of the London Treaty. -Austria-Hungary -Russia
 -Germany thought Britain would not intervene to protect the -Britain
Belgian neutrality since it was a ‘scrap of paper’.
 -On 4 August 1914 Austria–Hungary declared war on
Russia.
 -Thus one after another, honouring commitments made in
treaties with allies, the major powers of Europe were
engaged in the most costly war the world had yet witnessed.

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 DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES: HISTORY

Who was to blame for the outbreak of World War One? / b] Austria-Hungary
Contribution or part played by European powers in the  -Austria-Hungary is blamed for declaring war on Serbia.
outbreak of World War One?  -She pursued a careless foreign policy towards the Balkans.
 -She failed to respect the sovereignty of the Balkan states by
a] Germany annexing Bosnia and Herzegovina which angered Russia and
 -Bismarck’s alliance system which was an attempt to isolate Serbia breeding hatred and grudge.
France led to the division of the world into two hostile  -She wanted to destroy Serbia once and for all.
camps. This made it difficult to localise the war.  -She made unreasonable demands meant to punish Serbia for
 -The German Schlieffen plan [war plan] was an indication the death of Archduke Francis Ferdinand.
that she was anticipating war.  -She supported the creation of an independent Albania at the
 -Germany took part in arms race which caused the war. treaty of London [1913] which created enmity with Serbia.
 -German naval race with Britain caused the war.
 -Austria-Hungary made an agreement with Russia to
 -Kaiser’s utterances provoked Britain, for example, he
partition the Balkans which angered Serbia.
congratulated Paul Krugger after the Jameson raid failure.
 -She opposed the creation of a Russian backed Slav nation in
 -The colonial clash between Germany and France over
Serbia.
Morocco in 1905 and 1911 caused tension.
 -This would attract the support of the Slavs inside Austria-
 -After the Sarajevo incident Germany gave Austria-Hungary
Hungary.
a blank cheque to attack Serbia.
 -She was involved in the system of alliances.
 -Germany violated the neutrality of Belgium which brought
Britain into the war.  -She involved herself in the Balkans to make up for the
 -Germany supported Austria-Hungary in the Bosnian crisis. losses in Italy and Germany [which became unified in 1870
 -She fully backed Austria-Hungary’s aggressiveness over and 1871 respectively].
Serbia thinking that Britain would not intervene.
 -German’s Weltipolitik since 1890 was a threat to world
peace. c] France
 -She declared war on France  -She refused to remain neutral when Austria-Hungary
 -She declared war on Russia. declared war on Serbia and this forced Germany to declare
war on France.

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 DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES: HISTORY

 -She took part in arms race. -She supported France against Germany over Morocco in 1905 and
 -She took part in militarism. 1911.
 -She took part in the alliance system. -She declared war on Germany on 4 August 1914.
 -France had a war plan called plan 17.
f] Serbia
-She engineered the Sarajevo assassination which led to the
outbreak of the 1914 general war.
d] Russia -She sponsored anti-Austrian propaganda and terrorist
 -She gave unrestricted support to Serbia making Serbia more activities in Austria-Hungary.
reckless.
 -She refused to remain neutral [and mobilised against
Austria-Hungary]when Austria-Hungary declared war on
Serbia and this forced Germany to declare war on her.
 -She took part in arms race and militarism.
 -It was opposed to Austrian and German influence in the
Balkans.
 -She was involved in the system of alliances.
 -It protected other Slav peoples as it was the largest of Slav
nations.
 -It was hostile to Germany which ruled Polish Slavs.
 -She made an agreement with Austria-Hungary that Austria- COURSE OF WORLD WAR ONE[1914-1918]
Hungary should take Bosnia and Herzegovina.
 -She influenced the formation of the Balkan League. Battle Fronts during World War One
 -She supported Pan Slavism. a]The Western Front
b] The Eastern Front
e] Britain c] The Balkan Front
-She should be blamed for arms race. d] The Turkish Front
-She took part in naval race. e] The Austro-Italian Front

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 DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES: HISTORY

 -After defeating France, German soldiers were to be

a] The Western Front transferred to the East to fight Russia.
 -This refers to the areas /states where the war was fought  -This was meant to avoid fighting war on two fronts at the
situated to the West of Germany.- same time.
 -Countries which fought on this front included Germany,  -The Germans were to defeat Russia within six months.
France, Britain, Belgium and United States of America.  -The German forces were to occupy the Channel ports in
 -The Franco-German border and Belgium was the first area order to prevent the landing of British reinforcements.
to be affected by the First World War.  -When war broke out in 1914, Germany moved quickly to
 -Thus the war broke exactly in accordance with to the implement the Schlieffen plan.
Schlieffen plan.  -Troops moved swiftly through Belgium.
 -The Schlieffen Plan was a German war plan which was  -The Germans however met resistance from the Belgians and
devised by General Alfred Count von Schlieffen in 1905. the British Expeditionary Forces [BEF].
 -Schlieffen was the chief of the General Staff in Germany.  -The Germans were held for 3 weeks in Belgium.
 -The plan was based on the assumption that Germany was to  -This delayed the German strike against France.
fight war on two fronts against France and against Russia  -The British came in to strengthen French defences a little
simultaneously. earlier than Germans anticipated.
 -It was based on the use of railways to move troops.  -As a result some German forces withdrew to fight the
 -According to this plan Germany would invade France via Russians in the East.
Belgium / Holland and Luxembourg.  -The Germans were temporarily stopped by allied counter
 -The Germans were to march through Belgium within two attacks thereby disturbing the speed and timetable.
weeks.  -The French army was sent to deal with German invasion
 -The plan aimed at swift victory against France in the West. instead of invading Alsace-Lorraine.
 -France was to be defeated within six weeks.  -Germany thus made changes to the plan.
 -France was to be defeated before Russia mobilised her  -Germany sent forces through a shorter route East of Paris
troops. instead of West.
 -The Germans also aimed at capturing Paris and  -The French and British checked German troops at the River
encirclement of French armies as well as attacking Alsace- Marne and were pushed back to river Aisne.
Lorraine before Russian mobilisation was complete.

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 DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES: HISTORY

 -The end result was that Germans were not able to penetrate -Germans were able to enter Belgium although they later met
into the West of Paris and the Schlieffen plan collapsed. The Belgian and British resistance.
German High Command lost contact with the operation. -Although altered a little the plan allowed the Germans to avoid
 -Germans retreated 60km and dug trenches. fighting war on two fronts for a short while.
Failures of the Schlieffen plan
-The plan failed to anticipate that Britain might enter the war to
defend Belgium.
-The quick mobilisation of France and Russia forced Germans to
Aims of the Schlieffen plan alter the movement of their troops.
 -The Germans wanted to fight war against France and Russia -Resistance by the Belgians and the BEF forced Germans to fight
on one front at a time. with many powers at the same time.
 -The Germans were to rely on the speedy movement of -Paris could not be encircled as originally intended.
German forces through Belgium.
 -The Germans were to march through Belgium within two Events or factors which led to the failure of the Schlieffen Plan
weeks.  -The Belgians offered stiff resistance.
 -The Germans aimed at defeating France within six weeks.  -The plan failed to anticipate that Britain might enter into the
 -They were to conquer France before Russia mobilised. war to defend Belgium.
 -When France was defeated they were to attack Russia.  -The British Expeditionary Forces [BEF] landed in France
 -Russia was to be defeated within 6 months. holding up the German advance at Mons.
 -They were to allocate the bulk of the German soldiers on the  -France mobilised earlier than the Germans anticipated.
Western front.  -Russians mobilised earlier than the Germans anticipated.
 -They were to hold the French in Alsace-Lorraine.  -This forced Germans to divide her forces and resources.
 They were to occupy the Channel ports in order to prevent  -Germany forces in Belgium were weakened when some
the landing of the British reinforcements. forces were withdrawn to go and fight the Russians.
Successes of the Schlieffen plan  -British rifle fire was so rapid that the Germans thought the
-It motivated German declaration of war on Russia and France. troops had machine guns.
-War broke out in accordance with the Schlieffen plan.  -British resistance at Mons slowed German advance and
gave the French more time to prepare.

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 DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES: HISTORY

 -Von Kluck the German commander in France realised that

he could not keep to the Schlieffen plan. Other factors which led to the failure of the Schlieffen plan
 -He changed the plan to attack and instead of going round -British entry into the war on the side of the Belgians.
Paris he turned to the East of Paris. -British fire power proved too much for the Germans.
 -This left the Channel ports along the coast free from attack -The French mobilised too quickly for the Germans.
and enabled the British to reinforce to get to France. -The Russians mobilised much earlier than was anticipated.
 -The French and British checked the Germans at the river -British naval blockade
Marne. -Fighting war on many fronts.
 -Germans were forced to retreat to 60 km and dug defensive -The Battle of Marne and Ypres forced the Germans to reconsider
trenches. the Schlieffen plan.
 -At Ypres the British troops under Sir Douglas Haig checked
German forces. The Battle of Marne [September 6-10 1914]
 -British naval blockade starved Germans of supplies. This battle was fought between Germany and France.France
 -Fighting war on many fronts led to the failure of the was invaded by Germany.On 6 September 1914, the French
Schlieffen plan. commander made a counter attack.Troops were rushed from
 -German allies were too weak to supply materials. Paris in every form of transport available.The battle of
Marne involved 1300000 French soldiers.The French
How important was the role played by Belgium in the failure of managed to push the Germans 48km but at a heavy loss of
the Schlieffen plan? 600000French soldiers.The French could not make a follow
-The Belgians resisted and slowed down the German army. up and take advantage of the victory because of heavy
-After the Belgian attack Britain sent the BEF of 90000 soldiers. human and material losses.
-Germany exhausted her resources in Belgium.
-At Mons inside the Belgian border the German progress was Impact of the battle of Marne
stopped. -The defeat by France was a setback for the Central powers as
-This affected their plan of a swift knockout blow to France through human and material resources were lost.
neutral Holland, Luxemburg and Belgium. -French victorymeant that Germany had to re-strategise and fight on
-It affected their plan of attacking Paris because they were delayed two war fronts, especially after the failure of the Schlieffen plan.
in Belgium.

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 DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES: HISTORY

The Battle of Ypres  -There were millions of soldiers on each side.

It was between Germany and Britain.It was fought in Belgium in  -The soldiers confronted each other below ground level.
October and November 1914.Poisonous gas was used for the first  -In between the soldiers lay the no man’s land.
time with the Germans.The German Zeppelin [air ship] was  -Those who tried to advance to the no man’s land were killed
used.The French and British defenders managed to maintain control by machine guns. They were sure to die a cruel death.
of the Channel ports and war became bogged down in trenches.By  -Heavy artillery was used to pound down defences.
the end of 1914 there was a deadlock on the Western front.  -Poisonous gases were used.
 -There was loss of morale as soldiers spent too much time in
The Trench Warfare trenches.
 -The trench warfare was the brainchild of the German  -Diseases affected them in trenches.
soldiers.  -Soldiers also experienced starvation and drowning.
 -One of the German soldiers was defeated at Marne and  -There was also use of tanks in this war.
forced to retreat beyond river Aisne.  -The trench warfare resulted in a deadlock and this
 -The Germans could have surrendered at Marne and the war prolonged the war.
would have ended within two months.  -This meant that from December 1914 to November 1918 the
 -Instead of surrendering the Germans retreated some 48km to Western front was a scene of stalemate.
river Aisne. *In October 1915, Bulgaria joined the war on the side of Germany
 -There they began to dig trenches. while Romania joined the Entente powers in August 1916 but was
 -The French and British forces also adopted the idea of quickly over ran by Germans and Austrians in November 1916.
trench warfare.
 -They began to live and fight in trenches. The Battle of Verdun [February 1916]
 -Trenches protected them from machine gun fire and the This was between France and Germany.The German army
explosions of artillery shells. commander devised a plan to frustrate the allied forces on the
 -Trenches were heavily fortified with barbed wire. Western front.According to this commander [Falkenhayn], Britain
 -The trenches were extended into elaborate systems of was the iron pillar of the allied forces; however, it could easily be
defence and communication. removed out of allied war by a serious submarine action.Falkenhayn
 -It was the first of its kind. viewed that France was the main German objective.Verdun was a

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 DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES: HISTORY

very important French fortress and the hub [central point of activity] The Battle of Somme [July 1916]
of the French defensive system which threatened the German lines The British launched an attack on Somme.The aim was to reduce /
of communication.By pulling the French manpower into the defence relieve pressure on the French at Verdun.This battle was initiated by
of the Verdun, Falkenhayn hoped to destroy the forces, capture Haig.He aimed to break the German defence forces and capture
Verdun and knock France out of war.On 21 February 1916, the German fortress at Cambria and Bapaume.The battle was a series of
Germans opened the barrage.A concentrated German infantry attacks commencing / starting on 1 July lasting through to
caused the French to retreat.The fall of Verdun was imminent with November 1916.On both sides, many soldiers died.Germany lost
high casualties.The British, Russians and the Italians came to help morale and failed to capture Verdun though, the French and the
France.The British under the commander Haig took control of the British failed to defeat German.France changed its General Joffre,
French Arras sector.Britain and her allies raised the offensive which with a younger General Neville.The British Haig was replaced by
compelled Falkenhayn to withdraw.The French strengthened their other more active generals to work with Neville to put off German
resistance and under the command of Marshal Petain, they put off attacks.It was at the battle of Somme that Britain used for the first
the Germans.The Germans retreated to their trenches having failed time the tanks which they had invented against Germany.It was this
to capture Verdun.Hindenburg and Ludendorff replaced Falkenhayn Somme battle that discredited Douglas Haig, the commander in
as the new German commanders.The French lost 350000men while chief of the Western front and that led to the resignation of the
the Germans lost 330000 but Verdun did not fall to the Germans British Prime Minister, Asquith who was replaced by Lloyd
George.When the allied forces finally abandoned the attack, losses
Contribution of the Battle of Verdun to the defeat of Germany on both sides were quite high.At Somme, the Germans lost over
 -Germany lost heavily in [in terms of manpower and 500000 men, Britain lost over 200000 and France lost about 400000
resources] but neither side won a decisive victory.Japan also fought on the side
 -German advance to capture Verdun was checked by Petain of Britain.
who defended the fortress stubbornly.
 -The allied powers poured in reinforcements. The Battle of Jutland [31 May 1916]
 -German onslaught was held. It was fought between Germany and France. The British suffered
 -Huge offensive against Germans at Somme by the allies. heavy losses but they remained in command of the seas.
 -Russian offensive under the General Brussilov in Galicia
against German ally Austria-Hungary.
The Battle of Passchendaele [July 1917]

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 DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES: HISTORY

It was fought between Germany and Britain.They fought in the stretch of water connecting two seas].It therefore became difficult
mud.The British won. for France and Britain to supply their Eastern ally with her war
needs.Russia suffered not only from shortage of weapons and
b] The Eastern Front ammunition, but also of food.The devastating defeats of Russian
troops made them to refuse to fight and streamed homewards from
the war front in increasing numbers.By the end of 1916, strikes and
On this battle front Russia fought Germany and Austria-Hungary.On
food riots were rampant and in March 1917 a revolution broke out in
this front the war had opened with a Russian invasion of East
Russia and Tsar was overthrown.
Prussia.This resulted in the dispatching of some German forces by
Moltke of Germany from the Western front.When war broke out
Russia mobilised her forces swiftly than the Germans had
anticipated.Germany was thus forced to divert much of her forces to
c] The Austro-Italian Front
the Eastern front.Germany thus began fighting war on two
Italy, Austria-Hungary and Germany fought on this front.Italy who
fronts.The German forces on the Eastern front were commanded by
was a member of the Triple Alliance declared war on Austria-
Hindenburg.Hindenburg retreated and was replaced by Ludendorff
Hungary [in May 1915], which was also a member of the Triple
who defeated the two main Russian armies at Tannenberg
Alliance. She had signed a secret treaty of London with the Entente
[August1914] and Masurian Lakes.This achievement was facilitated
[Allied] powerswhich promised her Istria, the city of Trieste,
by the failure of Russian commanders to co-operate.
Trentino, Southern Tyrol and some Dalmatian Islands. Italy thus
changed her mind and fought on the side of the allied powers. Italy
The Battle of Tannenberg [August 1914]
fought the Austrians at Isonzo, North of Trieste. A series of
This battle was between Germany and Russia.Russia was defeated.
inconclusive battles [11 battles] were fought here in 1916. In
The Russian disaster in the North was partly compensated for by
October 1917, combined Germany and Austro-Hungarian forces
important successes against the Austrians in Galicia. The Russian
defeated the Italians at the battle of Caporetto. Italy lost 600000
were forced to retreat.Germany diverted much of her forces away
men. Despite such a blow, Italy remained in the war and was
from the Western front in 1915 to give assistance to the Austro-
counted among the victors after world war one.
Hungarians.In September 1915, the Russians were driven to the
Bukovina and Carpathians.They were also driven out of the Austro-
d] The Turkish Front
Hungarian territory.Turkey entered the war on the side of Germany
and this resulted in the closure of the straits [a strait is a narrow

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 DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES: HISTORY

In November 1914, Turkey entered into the war on the side of To what extent did the outcome of the Gallipoli campaign
Germany and Austria-Hungary. The Western allies, who had benefit the Central powers?
supplied Russia with her war time needs through the straits and the -Bulgaria joined the central powers after the victory of the central
Black Sea, could no longer continue to do so. This starved Russia of powers.
weapons, ammunition and food. This helped to force her out of the -The defeat of the allies made it difficult for the allies to assist
war in 1917. Russia via the straits.
-It boosted the morale of the Central powers.
The Gallipoli Campaign/ Battle of Gallipoli -The straits remained closed for the allied powers.
This campaign was inspired by Winston Churchill, the British Prime -This starved Russia of ammunitions, weapons, food and other war
Minister.The aim of this campaign was to knock Turkey out of the necessities which forced her out of the war.
war.The Western allies, who had supplied Russia with her war time *However, fighting on the Western front continued.
needs through the straits and the Black Sea, could no longer -USA entered into the war on the side of the allied powers.
continue to do so.This starved Russia of weapons, ammunition and -Austria continued to lose battles.
food as well as other war necessities.The allies thus wanted to open
up direct contact with Russia through the straits and the Black e] The Balkan Front
Sea.They also wanted to win Bulgaria over to the allied side.The In this front, several countries were involved in the war. Romania,
first attempt was to enter through the straits and Sea of Serbia Albania, Montenegro, Russia, Greece, Britain, and France
Marmora.They tried to bombard Constantinople and cause the fought Bulgaria, Turkey and Austria-Hungary.
collapse of the Turkish government.The naval attempt failed as the The Entrance of United States of America [USA] into the First
strong forts at the narrow waters of the Straits were defended.A World War /The German Submarine warfare /The German U-
second attempt was made when a combined force of British, boat campaign during World War One
Australian and New Zealand troops landed on the Gallipoli  -In 1917 United States of America ended her so called
peninsula.They destroyed the forts to clear the way for ships to try isolation and entered the First World War on the side of the
again to enter.The Turks were helped by the Germans under Liman allied powers against the central powers.
Von Sanders.The allied troops were defeated and they withdrew in  -In December 1916 Woodrow Wilson [United States
December 1915.There was loss of morale among the allied powers. President] had tried to mediate between the allied powers
and the central powers but this was a failure.
 -Neither side was willing to give up war for peace.

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 DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES: HISTORY

 -The British had imposed a strict naval blockade, designed to  -In 1916 Germany resumed the unrestricted U-boat
starve the enemy [Germany] of vital products like rubber, campaign / submarine warfare.
cotton, crude oil and many other commodities vital for the  -They attacked both neutral and enemy ships /vessels alike.
war.  -It was a successful blockade on German supply lineswhich
 -The Germans responded with submarine warfare or the U- forced the German High Command to accept Admiral
boat campaign which was meant to destroy British shipping. Scheer’s demand for a renewal of unrestricted U-boat
The Germans aimed at starving Britain by cutting off British warfare.
supply lines by sinking her merchant ships.  -The Germans also resumed the U-boat warfare after
 -This was thus a characteristic of war at sea. realising that they now had sufficient U-boats [300] to win
 -The Germans declared all the waters around the British Isles war before the United States of America intervened.
[Islands] a war zone and this threatened ships of neutral  -In March 1916, Germans sunk another British ship, the
countries doing regular trading business. Sussex, again with some Americans.
 -This German U-boat campaign was initiated by Admiral  -The unrestricted submarine warfare created food shortages
Scheer of Germany in 1915. in Britain.
 -The raiding of British merchant ships by Germans caused  -The U-boat campaign initially proved very successful with
havoc in Britain. several British ships being destroyed.
 -Germany wanted to control the Seas.  -By April 1917 about 450 ships had been lost and many
 -In May 1915 the Germans sunk without warning the British people died.
ship, the Lusitania.  -To reduce the losses in the Sea the British admiralty
 -1200 people were drowned including 118 Americans. introducedthe radar and the convoy system.
 -This angered the United States President, Woodrow Wilson  -Warships were also assisted by newly developed Depth
who sent a warning to the Germans that a repeat of such an Charge and Hydrophones.
action would result in serious consequences.  -On 6 April, the USA responded to German submarine
 -USA thus protested against German barbarism. warfare by declaring war on Germany and her allies.
 -Germany temporarily stopped the U-boat attacks.  -Japan also gave naval assistance to the allied powers.
 -The major reason for temporarily stopping the U-boat  -The Germans had wrongly calculated that America would
campaign was the realisation by Germany that they lacked take time to mobilise her forces.
sufficient U-boats to risk American intervention.

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 DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES: HISTORY

 -The Germans also sent a telegram to Mexico and the  -Tanks were brought into operation and Germans had no
German intention was to ally with Mexico in an attempt to effective reply to them.
recover for Mexico, the states of Texas, New Mexico and  -It was thus impossible for Germans to escape defeat.
Arizona which the United States had conquered in 1848.  -At 11:00 AM, on 11 November 1918, Germany surrendered
 -Thus this is another factor which brought USA into the war. and the world war one came to an end.
 -By the beginning of 1918, American industries were Contribution of the entrance of USA to the defeat of Germany
manufacturing armaments for both the American forces and -USA joined the war later when others were weak and tired of
allied forces. fighting.
 -Weapons, loans, food and ammunition poured into Europe -USA had a powerful navy, fresh and many soldiers to aid the allies.
in unlimited quantities. -More tanks were made available by USA.
 -Fresh American troops also reinforced the exhausted British -USA aided the allies with food, funds, weapons and ammunition in
and French forces. loan to ensure that Germany and her allies were defeated.
 -The US navy helped to effect naval the blockade on -The entrance of USA was very timely.
Germany. Other factors which led to the defeat of Germany
 -The entrance of USA into the war boosted the morale of the -Germany had weak allies
allied powers. -Germany fought on many fronts
 -The Americans arrived on the Western front [in France] and -Central powers were outnumbered by allied powers
they did swig the balance of power against Germany.
 -Italy gained new life and started to deliver effective blows Contribution of the US Navy to the defeat of Germany
against Austria-Hungary in the South. -US navy increased the scope of the war.
 -Italy had been defeated by Germany and Austria-Hungary at -German troops were demoralised by the entry of USA.
Caporetto. -There were fresh marines from USA.
 -The Austro-Hungarian Empire disintegrated in October -US navy brought a steady supply of war materials for the allies.
1917 and Germany was fighting literally single handed. -The US navy helped to effect naval blockade on Germany.
 -Although the Germans fought courageously they lacked the
necessary reserves of men yet the American forces were still The War at Sea during the First World War
pouring in.

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 DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES: HISTORY

-Initially the battle between Britain and Germany was

signalled by the sinking of a smaller British squadron off the Battles fought during the First World War
coast of Chile in 1914 by the German Pacific fleet. -Battle of Somme -Battle of Verdun
-The British Royal Navy fleet responded by having a -Battle of Dardanelles -Battle of Gallipoli
blockade around Germany which continued until the end of -Battle of Jutland -Battle of Marne
the war. -Battle of Ypres -Battle of
-The most significant naval battle was the Battle of Jutland, Passchendaele
in 1916 the Royal Navy recorded considerable loss to the -Battle of Heligoland -Battle of Arras
Germans. -Battle of Caporetto -Battle of Tannenberg
-Although German surface ships made poor showing their -Battle of Masurian Lakes -Battle of Folk lands
submarine campaign was the most effective and almost Islands
brought Britain to defeat in 1917. -Battle of Cambria -Battle of Amiens
-Germany crippled the British supply lines by sinking a
majority of her merchant ships. Why Germany and her allies [Central Powers] were defeated
-Britain remained with only six weeks of supply of food. during the First World War?
-The unrestricted use of the U-boat, in 1915 led to the
sinking of the British ship, the Lusitania in which 1200 lives Weaknesses of the Central Powers
were lost.
-Among these were 118 Americans.  -Austria-Hungary and Turkey were weakened by nationalist
-This was followed by the sinking of another British ship, the movements at home and could not give maximum help to
Sussex by the Germans in 1916. Germany.
-Again there were also some Americans in this ship.  -Germany fought war on many fronts. This divided her
-Thus it was this German submarine warfare which brought resources.
USA into the First World War.  -The German revolt at home by the socialists led to its
-The entrance of USA demoralised the German soldiers. defeat.
-Some mutinied [rebelled] and the allies took control of the  -The failure of the Schlieffen Plan also led to the defeat of
seas, thus contributing to a larger extent to the defeat of Central powers.
Germany.  -The Germans under estimated the duration of the war.

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 DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES: HISTORY

 -The Central powers had poor food supplies.  -The capture of German scientists by allied powers led to the
 -The failure of the U-boat campaign also contributed to the defeat of central powers.
defeat of Central powers. The German war ships failed to  -The allied powers outnumbered the central powers.
overpower those of the allied powers.  -Britain’s superiority at sea which Germany failed to break
 -There was poor communication among the German soldiers. led to her defeat.
 -Germany had some inexperienced soldiers and  -The entrance of USA into the First World War on the side
commanders. of allied powers led to the defeat of central powers.
 -Germany had weak allies, that is, Austria-Hungary, Turkey
and Bulgaria. The fought half- heartedly. RESULTS / EFFECTS OF THE FIRST WORLD
 -Germany and her allies had a restricted number of soldiers WAR
yet almost the whole of Europe was against Germany and her
few allies. Political Results / Effects of world war one
 -The Central powers were few and were outnumbered by the  -The Central powers were defeated.
Allied powers.  -Self determination was given to some minorities.
 -The disintegration of Austria-Hungary in 1918 led to the  -There was rise of dictators like Mussolini and Hitler in
defeat of Central powers. Europe.
 -Franchise [voting] was introduced for women in countries
Strengths of the Allied Powers like USA, Britain and France.
 -Four empires collapsed, that is, Germany, Austria-Hungary,
 -The Allied leaders were competent. Turkey and Russia.
 -The allied blockade brought about starvation of the Central  -There was creation of new states like Poland, Yugoslavia,
powers in both food and raw materials. Czechoslovakia and Latvia.
 -Italy joined the war on the side of the allied powers.  -There was signing of peace treaties with the defeated
 -Belgian resistance also contributed to the defeat of central powers.
powers.  -There was rise of extremist parties such as Nazi part in
 -The allied powers gave a high joint command. Germany, Fascist part in Italy and Communist part in Russia.
 -The inexhaustible wealth of the British Empire also  -There was development of new ideologies such as
contributed. Communism in Russia.

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 DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES: HISTORY

 -There was creation of the League of Nations.  -Homeless societies were created.
 -There was rise of banditry [robbery], especially by  -There was widespread poverty and destitution.
demoralised soldiers.  -There was widespread starvation and hunger.
 -There was establishment of democratic governments in  -There was an improvement in communication, for example,
Germany and Austria, thus there was fall of monarchism. radios, televisions and the code language were introduced.
 -There was abdication of the Kaiser in Germany.  -There was equality of men and women as women worked in
 -A legacy of hatred, bitterness and suspicion was left among ammunition factories together with men.
nations which helped to bring world war two.  -There were poor living and sanitary conditions.
 -New methods of warfare were introduced, for instance,
trench warfare. Economic Results / Effects of world war one
 -There was introduction of new weapons of mass  -War gave great commercial advantage to industrialised
destruction, for instance, tanks, bombs, aeroplanes, machine nations outside Europe, for example, USA and Japan.
guns and gas.  -America got a large share of world trade and became the
 -The map of Europe was redrawn. greatest creditor nation.
 -There was a shift in balance of power, for instance.  -Europe became relatively poor and the people of Europe
Germany was left a weaker state. were heavily taxed to pay off the war debts.
 -Countries like India now began to build industries of their
Social Results /Effects of world war one own instead of depending on European countries.
 -Many children were orphaned.  -There was increased production.
 -Many women became widows.  -There was availability of cheaper goods.
 -Unemployment was rampant [widespread].
 -Workers earned low wages.
 -There was erosion of class and sex barriers as men of all
 -There was land degradation.
classes had shared the same hardships in the trenches and
 -Inflation was high.
had been forced into conduct.
 -Unemployment was widespread.
 -Prostitution was rampant.
 -There was emergence of incurable diseases like influenza.  -There was an economic depression [not of 1929].
 -There was great loss of human lives, for example, Germany  -There was closure of factories.
lost 1900000 soldiers.  -There was destruction of infrastructure.

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 DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES: HISTORY

 -British and French industries were concentrating on war  -Women were freer than before, for example, in USA they
materials and could no longer supply customers with the day could now drive cars, smoke, discuss sex openly and move
to day goods. freely without accompaniment by men.
 -Europe lost its lead in industrial development and its people Non Benefits
became poorer. -Some women were left widows and took up roles of bread winners.
 -Some countries lost raw materials to newly formed states. -Not all women were given franchise.
 -There was technological advancement, for example, -The return of men from war meant that some women lost their jobs.
washing machines, gramophones, radios; vacuum cleaners
and so on were introduced. To what extent did the minority groups benefit from the effects
 -Many countries were left with war debts. of the First World War?
 -There was payment of reparations, especially by defeated
Central powers. Benefits
-Women were made free than before, for example, they had the right
 -There was bankruptcy in Europe.
to vote, move freely without male accompaniment.
 -There were strikes, lockouts and demonstrations in Europe.
-Minorities like Slavs and Czechs had states created for them.
-There was recreation of states like Poland swallowed by Germany
To what extent did women benefit from the results of the First
and Russia.
World War?
Non Benefits
Benefits
-The Jews were scattered all over the world due to the war.
 -War situation created jobs for several women who would
-The return of men from war meant loss of jobs by some women.
otherwise have spent much of their time at home.
 -Women took up tasks usually the preserve of men, for
To what extent did the people of Europe benefit from the results
example, in industries, the military and so on, proving wrong
of the First World War?
the notion that they were of a weaker and inferior
orientation.
Benefits
 -Franchise [voting] was opened to women in some countries
-People benefited from technological developments that occurred in
like USA, France and Britain.
production of goods during the war.

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 DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES: HISTORY

-Greater benefits only came when their countries had introduced -After the war some European countries introduced tariffs on
tariffs against American goods. America.
-Railways were built. -Some countries failed to pay back the American loans.
-Hydro-electric power plants were incepted.
-There was an improvement in communication, for example, radios, New States created in Europe after the First World War
televisions and code language. -Poland -Czechoslovakia
-Equality of men and women came about as women worked in -Austria -Hungary
ammunition factories. -Yugoslavia -Finland
-Lithuania -Latvia
Non Benefits -Estonia
-Europe lost its lead in industrial development and the people
became poorer.
-The people of Europe were heavily taxed to make up for war debts.
-Unemployment was widespread.
-There was destruction of industries.

To what extent did United States of America [USA] benefit

economically from the First World War?

Benefits
-War gave great commercial advantage to the USA.
-She exported cars and chemicals to Europe.
-USA loaned money to the fighting countries. THE PARIS PEACE SETTLEMENT /
-USA overtook Europe to become an economic giant. CONFERENCE
Non Benefits
-The war also brought some economic disadvantages.
After the First World War, many treaties were signed from 1919 to
-Overproduction later led to the Great Depression.
1923 between the victorious and the defeated powers. The collective

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 DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES: HISTORY

name for all these treaties was Paris Peace Settlement. The specific The victorious powers represented at Paris Peace Settlement
treaties were--- a] USA represented by Woodrow Wilson
a] Treaty of Versailles signed with Germany [1919] b] Britain represented by Lloyd George
b] Treaty of St Germain signed with Austria [1919] c] France represented by Georges Clemenceau
c] Treaty of Neuilly signed with Bulgaria [1919] d] Italy represented by Vittorio Emmanuel Orlando
d] Treaty of Trianon signed with Hungary [1920] e] Japan represented by Ikhali
e] Treaty of Sevres signed with Turkey [1920] f] Greece represented by Venizolos
f] Treaty of Lausanne signed with Turkey [1923] g] South Africa represented by Jan Smuts
Jan Christian Smuts was the only one who signed both peace
The Turkish government had refused to ratify [approve and make settlements, that is, after World War One and after World War Two.
official by signing] the treaty of Sevres and signed another one He was born in 1870 and died in 1950. He was the Prime Minister of
[Lausanne]. Lausanne was the only one which negotiated while all South Africa from 1939 to 1948.
others were dictated [imposed].The names of the treaties were
determined by the venues the negotiations were held. The leading Woodrow Wilson’s 14 points
states at the negotiations at Paris were the Big Three which are- 1] There was to be an end of secret diplomacy and secret treaties.
a] USA-represented by Woodrow Wilson 2] There was to be freedom of navigation on seas.
b] Britain-represented by Lloyd George 3] There was to be removal of economic barriers to trade.
c] France-represented by Georges Clemenceau 4] There was to be reduction of armaments to a level consistent with
The peace settlement was in accordance with Woodrow Wilson’s domestic safety.
14 points which were accepted as the basis for making peace. All the 5] There was to be settlement of colonial claims with proper regard
defeated powers were not represented for the interests of the inhabitants.
6] German troops were to evacuate [move out of] the Russian
territory.
The defeated powers not represented at Paris Peace Settlement 7] There was to be restoration of Belgian sovereignty.
-Germany -Austria 8] Alsace-Lorraine was to be returned to France.
-Hungary -Bulgaria 9] Italy was to recover her proper boundaries [frontiers].
-Turkey 10] The subject peoples under Austria-Hungary were to be
independent.

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 DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES: HISTORY

11] Romania, Serbia and Montenegro were to be evacuated and  -Britain and France increased their colonial holdings [5].
Serbia was to be given access to the sea.  -The allies sent troops to attack the Bolsheviks [6].
12] The people under Turkish rule were to be autonomous and the  -The boundary of Italy was not settled [9].
Dardanelles were to be open to ships and commerce of all nations.  -Post war Poland contained millions of Germans [13].
13] An independent Poland was to be created and given access to the  -The League of Nations never works as Wilson had hoped
sea. [14].
14] An international Organisation was to be formed to guarantee the
independence of all states, both great and small. The Aims [Views] of the Big Three at Paris Peace
Settlement / Conference of 1919
QN: To what extent were Woodrow Wilson’s 14 points
followed? a] David Lloyd George of Britain
 -He wanted an end of the German threat to the British navy
Points followed and empire.
 -Points number 7, 8, 10, 11 and12 were accepted  -To make Germany a non aggressive country without
 -Belgian sovereignty was restored [7] colonies.
 -Alsace-Lorraine were returned to France [8]  -To prevent Germany from becoming economically weak so
 -The subject peoples under Austria-Hungary were made that a revival of European industry and trade is not hindered.
independent [10]  -To prevent Germany from becoming very poor such that the
 -Romania, Serbia and Montenegro were evacuated and Germans won’t turn to communism.
Serbia was given access to the Sea [11]  -To avoid humiliating Germans so that they have no reason
 -The people under Turkish rule were given autonomy [12]. to seek revenge.
 -To help secure France against Germany but prevent France
Points not followed from becoming too powerful.
 -The Allied powers met in secret [1].  -To create a balance of power so that no one European
 -Britain refused to give up its right to search ships trading country can threaten others.
with an enemy during war time [2].  -To hang the Kaiser
 -Tariff barriers were retained and increased [3].  -To make Germany pay for war damages.
 -There was no real attempt at disarmament [4].

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 DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES: HISTORY

b] Georges Clemenceau of France  -To punish Germany for her aggression.

-To have revenge on Germany for France’s suffering.  -To avoid forcing Germany to pay heavy damages.
-To make Germany pay for the cost of damage.  -He wanted self determination and to give nations
-To punish Germany for the humiliation she had inflicted on democratic governments of their choice.
France after defeating her in the 1870-71 Franco Prussian *NB Anyone of Woodrow Wilson’s 14 points is accepted.
war.
-To ensure that Germany would never be able to attack To what extent were the aims of Wilson fulfilled?
France again.
-To take away German lands. Aims fulfilled
-To weaken German industries. -Alsace-Lorraine was given to France.
-To reduce her armed forces. -An international organisation [League of Nations] was formed.
-To weaken Germany militarily and economically. -Self determination was given to minorities.
-To have Germany divided into small state.
-To hang the Kaiser. Aims not fulfilled
-The return of Alsace-Lorraine to France. -Reparations were too high.
-Prevention of Union of Germany and Austria. -The defeated powers were excluded from the Conference.
-Return of French flags taken by Germany. -Disarmament was applied only to the defeated powers.
-Germany was to accept the responsibility of causing the war -Self determination was denied to Germans, for example, post war
Poland contained millions of Germans.
c] Woodrow Wilson of USA -The terms of the treaties were too harsh.
 -To establish peace without humiliating defeated powers.
 -To reduce armaments. To what extent were the aims of Gorges Clemenceau fulfilled in
 -To prevent Germany from becoming aggressive again. the treaty of Versailles?
 -To establish lasting peace.
 -To have a fair settlement. Aims fulfilled
 -To establish an international association of nations. -Germany was weakened which Clemenceau wanted.
 -To base the peace treaties on the 14 points. -Alsace-Lorraine went back to France.
 -To create a world made of safe democracy. -Germany was made to pay reparations.

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 DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES: HISTORY

-The Saar and Ruhr coal fields were to be managed by France who THE SPECIFIC TREATIES
would take profits as compensation for war damages.
-German military strength was weakened as her air force was
1] Treaty of Versailles
disbanded.
-The Rhineland was demilitarised. It was signed with Germany at Versailles in France. It was signed
-Germany was forced to sign the war guilty clause. exactly five years after the Sarajevo assassination. The German
delegates were never directly involved in the negotiations. They
Aims not fulfilled were invited only to endorse [sign] the treaty. Thus it was a diktat
-Germany sought revenge which the French did not want because of settlement.
the loss of her territory.
-Germany never paid the reparations in full because they were too The Territorial Terms of the Treaty of Versailles
harsh.  -Germany lost Alsace-Lorraine to France.
-British and American views were also considered.  -The Saar was to be administered by the League of Nations
-Germany was not divided into smaller states as Clemenceau for 15 years.
wanted.  -Eupen, Malmedy and Moresnet went to Belgium.
To what extent were the aims of Lloyd George fulfilled?  -North Schleswig was given to Denmark.
 -The Port of Memel and surrounding land was placed under
Aims fulfilled international control.
-Germany was made to pay reparations.  -The Rhineland remained part of Germany but it was
-Germany lost colonies which Lloyd George wanted. demilitarised permanently.
-The Rhineland was demilitarised so as to make France secure.  -Poland was made independent.
-German army was reduced so as to make her a non aggressive state.  -The Polish Corridor and Posen were given to Poland.
 -The Port of Danzig, a predominantly German area, was
Aims not fulfilled made an independent city under the League of Nations. But
-Germany never paid the reparations in full. in practise it fell under Polish control as this was to allow
-French and American views were also considered. Poland direct access to the Sea though the creation of the
-Germany sought revenge because of her loss of territory. Polish Corridor which led to Danzig.

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 DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES: HISTORY

 -The coal and rich iron of Upper Silesia was again given to -East Prussia -Estonia
Poland. -Lithuania -Latvia
 -The union of Germany and Austria [Anschluss] was
forbidden yet Austria was a German state. Territories lost by Germany in Africa at the Treaty of Versailles
 -The Kiel Canal was opened to the shipping of all nations. -New Guinea -Burundi
 -The Baltic states of Lithuania, Estonia and Latvia were -Namibia -Tanganyika
granted independence from Germany. -Rwanda -Cameroon
 -Finland was made an independent state. -Togoland
 -Strasbourg and Metz were given to France.
 -All German Islands in the Pacific Ocean were divided
amongst Australia, New Zealand and Japan. QN: Were the Territorial Terms of the Treaty of Versailles fair
 -South East Asia [Samoa Islands] went to New Zealand. to the Germans?
 -Caroline Islands were given to Japan.
 -New Guinea was given to Australia. Unfairness of the treaty of Versailles
 -Tanganyika [German East Africa] was given to Britain. -The terms were dictated to Germany
 -Germany lost Namibia [South West Africa] to South Africa. -Germany was greatly reduced in size.
 -Rwanda and Burundi went to Britain. -Germany lost colonies which were a source of raw materials.
 -Cameroon and Togo were given to Britain and France who -Germany was not allowed to have colonies yet other countries were
governed them jointly. allowed to.
-Germans found themselves as minorities in newly created states.
Territories lost by Germany in Europe at the Treaty of -Germany was forbidden to unite with Austria which was a German
Versailles state.
-Alsace-Lorraine -Eupen
-Malmedy -Upper Silesia Fairness of the treaty of Versailles
-Danzig -Memel  -The return of Alsace –Lorraine to France was fair as they
-Northern Schleswig -Saar Basin belonged to her.
-Moresnet -Strasbourg  -The return of North Schleswig to Denmark was fair as it
-Rhineland -Posen belonged. [It was taken by Germany in 1864].

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 DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES: HISTORY

 -Germany had taken one third of Russian territory through

the treaty of Brest Litovsk, so these territories had to gain b] The reparations Clause
independence.  -Germany was forced to pay compensation for the damages
 -Germany had caused great destruction to France and she had caused to the allied powers.
Belgium.  -The compensation was also to cover the suffering incurred
 -The demilitarised Rhineland was to act as a buffer zone [a by individual family members.
barrier] against French insecurity.  -Germany was to pay 6,6million pounds [132 million gold
marks] to the allied powers.
Non Territorial Termsof the Treaty of Versailles  -The payment was to be done in 30 years.
These included the disarmament clause / military clause, the war  -France was to get 52% of the total amount, Britain 22%,
guilty clause and the reparations clause. Italy 10%, Belgium 8 % and the rest of the allies were to
share 8%.
a] The War Guilty Clause  -Part of the reparations was to be paid in form of warships
 -Germany wasforced to accept responsibility of causing all which were to be builtby Germany for Britain for the next 5
the loss and damage to which the allied and associated years.
powers have been subjected as a consequence of a war  -France was to be paid with minerals like coal from
imposed upon them by the aggression of Germany and her Germany.
allies.  -Belgium was to be paid with cattle.
 -Germany was given the entire blame for causingthe war.  -Germany was to surrender part of her fishing fleet to the
 -The clause accused Germany of being a war criminal who allies.
among other things violated Belgian neutrality, destroyed  -Germany was to surrender the Saar coal fields to France for
occupied territories, bombed civilians and sunk merchant 15 years.
ships [through the U-boat campaign or submarine warfare].  -German railway engines and wagons were to be handed
 -Germany was forced to accept all these and was to suffer a over to the allies.
heavy penalty.
 -French flags captured in 1871 were to be returned. c] Disarmament Clause / The military Clause
 -The Kaiser and other officials were to be handed over for  -German army was reduced to 100000 men [it was reduced
trial. to the size of the army of Greece].

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 -Conscription was forbidden. Thus soldiers were to be Other side

recruited voluntarily. -Germany retained the capacity to rearm because of its industrial
 -German soldiers were to serve for a period of less than 12 capacity.
years. -The demoralised soldiers were disgruntled and wanted to revenge.
 -The German General Staff of 1914 to 1918 was dissolved
and was not to be reformed. QN: Were the Non Territorial Terms of the Treaty of Versailles
 -Germany was not allowed to have warships or submarines. fair to the Germans?
 -Germany was allowed to have only 6 battleships.
 -Germany was not allowed to have tanks. Unfairness of the non territorial terms of the treaty of Versailles
 -Germany was not allowed to have an air force.  -Germany did not cause the war alone.
 -Germany was allowed to have 6 cruisers [vessels].  -Reduction of army and navy posed a threat to German
 -Germany was to have 12 destroyers. security,
 -Germany was to have 12 torpedo boats.  -The terms were dictated on Germany,
 -Germany navy was reduced to 15000 men.  -The reparations were too high for German’s ability to pay.
 -German naval base at Heligoland was demolished.  -Germany was forced to surrender the Saar coal fields yet
 -Germany was banned from manufacturing heavy artillery she was to pay coal as reparations.
and heavy guns.  -She had to build warships for allies yet Germany’s warships
 -Germany was not allowed to have armoured cars. were destroyed.
 -Germany was demilitarised on the Rhineland.
 -Germany was forbidden to have an air force yet other
countries possessed some.
QN: To what extent did the allied powers weaken German
 -Germany was not allowed rearm yet other countries were
military power?
allowed to do so.
-Germany army was left weak. She was left with a small sized army
 -The treaty punished innocent people of Germany instead of
and prohibited to conscript.
rulers.
-She was left without an air force.
-She was forbidden from having submarines [U-boats].
Fairness of the non territorial terms of the treaty of Versailles
-The German High Command was disbanded.
 -Germany was largely responsible for causing the war.
 -She had an aggressive foreign policy.

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 -She had a war plan showing her aggressive intentions.  -Bosnia and Herzegovina were given to Serbia.
 -Germany’s army was to be reduced to prevent her from  -Bukovina was given to Romania.
starting another war.  -Galicia was given to Poland.
 -German militarism needed to be checked hence the need for  -South Tyrol, Trentino, Istria, Trieste and Dalmatia were
disarmament. given to Italy.
 -France and Belgium needed compensation for destruction.  -Austria was made a republic [Monarch was banned].
 -Demilitarisation of the Rhineland was meant to give France  -Her army was reduced to 30000 men.
security and safety.  -Austria was to pay reparations.
 -The banning of conscription in Germany would ensure  -Conscription was banned in Austria.
security and safety of France and Belgium.  -Austria was made a landlocked country and had to make a
 -It was Germany which had for years prepared for war 100km journey across Italy to reach the coast.
through arms and naval race.  -Up to 80% of her industries were now under foreign control
 -If the Germans wanted a fair treaty they should have shown and mainly under Czech control.
this by treating Russia fairly at the treaty of Brest-Litovsk in  -The best of her agricultural land was placed under Hungary.
1917.  -Her population was reduced from about 30 million to 6, 5
 -Payment of reparations was a European phenomenon, for million.
example, France was asked to pay reparations by Germany in
the treaty of Frankfurt after the Franco-Prussian war. QN: Were the terms of the treaty of St Germain fair to Austria?

2] Treaty of St Germain [September 1919] Unfairness of the terms of the treaty of St Germain
It was signed by Austria and allied powers.  -The union of Austria and Germany [Anschluss] was
forbidden yet the Austrians were Germany in origin.
Terms of the treaty of St Germain  -Her territories with strong German population were taken
 -The union of Germany and Austria [Anschluss] was away.
forbidden.  -Austria was made a landlocked country.
 -Austria and Hungary were to be separated.  -80% of her industries were now in Czechoslovakia.
 -She lost Bohemia, part of Silesia, the lower part of Austria  -Her best agricultural land was now in Hungary.
and Moravia to Czechoslovakia.  -Her population was reduced from 30million to 6, 5million.

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-Bulgaria lost Western Thrace to Greece.

-Bulgaria lost some border areas to Yugoslavia.
Fairness of the treaty of St Germain -Bulgaria lost access to the Mediterranean Sea.
-Austria had been too ambitious in Bosnia and Herzegovina. -Bulgaria lost some of her Aegean coastline.
-Her ultimatum to Serbia was calculated to cause war. -Her army was reduced to 20000 men.
-Payment of reparations was a European Phenomenon. -She had to pay reparations to the allies.
-Bulgaria had played a relatively small part in the war and was
QN: How far were the terms of this treaty influenced by treated les harshly than its allies.
Woodrow Wilson’s 14 points?
Unfairness of the terms of the treaty of Neuilly
-Creation of new states like Poland and Czechoslovakia sympathised -Million Bulgars were under foreign rule.
with the principle of self determination. -Reduction of her army left the country insecure.
-The breakup of the Austrian Empire was in line with Wilson’s 14 -Her population was reduced.
points. -She lost her resources to other states.
-The restoration of Italian frontiers [boundaries] was part of the 14
points. Fairness of the terms of the treaty of Neuilly
-The covenant of the League was part of the 14 points. -Payment of reparations was a European phenomenon.
-She had been part of the losing side.
Other factors
-The desire to punish the defeated powers and to weaken them was 4] The Treaty of Trianon [June 1920]
also a strong point. It was signed by Hungary and the allied powers.
-The restoration of Italian frontiers had to be matched with later
settlements. Terms of the treaty of Trianon
 -Hungary became independent from Austria.
3] The Treaty of Neuilly [November 1919]  -She lost Bosnia, Croatia, Slovenia and part of Banet to
It was signed by Bulgaria and the allied powers. Yugoslavia.
 -She lost Trentino to Italy.
Terms of the Treaty of Neuilly  -Burgenland was passed to Austria.

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 -Transylvania was given to Romania. -Turkey lost Western Thrace and part of Aegean Islands to Greece.
 -She lost Ruthenia and Slovakia to Czechoslovakia. -She lost Syria and Lebanon to France.
 -She was to accept and recognise the newly formed states. -She lost Transjordan and Iraq to Britain.
 -She lost nearly 66% of her pre-war territory to new states. -Armenia became independent.
 -Her population was reduced from 22million to 8 million. -Adalia and Rhodes Islands were given to Italy.
 -Conscription was banned in Hungary. -The States of Arabian peninsula [Saudi Arabia] became
 -She was to pay a war indemnity [reparations]. independent.
 -Her army was reduced to 35000 men. -Palestine was given to Britain.
 -She was to observe the covenant of the League of Nations. -Turkish straits were put under the League of Nations. She lost
control of the Black Sea.
Unfairness of the treaty of Trianon -The covenant of the League of Nations was to be accepted.
-New frontiers [boundaries] left a number of Magyars under foreign -Anatolia [Smyrna] was given to Greece.
rule, for example, Romania, Czechoslovakia and the like. -Her army was reduced.
-Reduction of the army left the country insecure. -She was to pay reparations to the allies.
-She lost resources to newly created states. Turks were outraged by this treaty. The treaty of Sevres was never
-Her population was reduced ratified and in 1923 it was replaced by the treaty of Lausanne. The
treaty of Sevres became a dead letter when a nationalist revolution
Fairness of the treaty of Trianon led by Mustafar Kemal broke out against Turkey and received
-Hungary was made an independent state. military assistance from Soviet Union. Turkey declared war on
-Hungary could freely determine its own affairs outside Austrian Greeks and drove them out of Smyrna [Anatolia]. The allies made a
influence. new treaty of Lausanne.
-She had failed to recognise the sovereignty of the Balkan states.
-Payment of reparations was a European phenomenon. Unfairness of the treaty of Sevres
-She lost too many territories.
5] The Treaty of Sevres [August 1920] -The allies ignored Turkish national feeling.
It was signed by Turkey and the victors. -Occupation by foreign troops was unfair.
-The treaty was imposed on her.
Terms of the Treaty of Sevres -Reduction of her army left her insecure.

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 DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES: HISTORY

Fairness of the treaty of Sevres Countries which Italy wanted at Paris Peace Conference in 1919
-Payment of reparations was a European phenomenon. -South Tyrol -Trentino
-She had been part of the losing side. -Istria -Dalmatia
-It was fair as it resulted in the opening of the straits. -Trieste -Fiume
-Non Turkish territories were made independent. -Adalia -Rhodes
-Turkey had aided Germany during the war. -Albania

6] The Treaty of Lausanne [1923] Weaknesses of the peace treaties signed after world war one
-It was signed by Turkey and the victors. It was a revision of the -The treaties were just imposed / dictated upon countries.
treaty of Sevres. -The treaties created a group of discontented revisionists like Hitler
and Mussolini.
Terms of the Treaty of Lausanne -Russia took no part at Paris peace settlement so it was not bound by
-Turkey recovered Anatolia / Smyrna from Greece. it.
-Eastern Thrace was returned to Turkey. The treaties created many weak unstable governments.
-The Straits and the Greco-Turkish frontiers were demilitarised.
-Italy kept Dodecanese Islands.
-Britain’s possession of Cyprus was confirmed. THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS
-Rhodes Islands were given to Italy.
-Adalia was given to Italy.
It was set up in 1920, in Geneva, in Switzerland. It was the
-Turkey was to pay reparations to the allies.
brainchild of Woodrow Wilson’s 14th point.Woodrow Wilson had
-Her army was reduced.
argued that Europe was exhausted with war. However USA did not
belong to the League of Nations.
Leaders involved in the formation of the League of Nations
-Woodrow Wilson of USA
-Lloyd George of Britain
-Georges Clemenceau of France

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 DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES: HISTORY

-Vittorio Emmanuel Orlando of Italy -Germany

-Jan Smuts of South Africa Aims of the League of Nations
-Ikhali of Japan  -To maintain world peace and security.
-Venizolos of Greece  -To encourage international cooperation in solving social and
economic problems.
Members of the League of Nations  -To guarantee frontiers.
-Britain -France  -To protect member states from aggression.
-Japan -South Africa  -To solve disputes by peaceful means.
-Greece -Australia  -To reduce armaments to the level consistent with domestic
-Canada -Holland safety.
-Serbia -Belgium  -To supervise mandated territories.
-Italy -China  -To prevent secret diplomacy and secret treaties.
-Spain -Ethiopia  -To safeguard the rights of minorities and refugees.
-Brazil -Germany  -To assist needy countries economically.
-Russia  -Respect and preservation of territorial integrity.
 -To impose economic sanctions on aggressors.
Members of the League of Nations to 1934  -To help refugees.
-Britain -Italy  -To control drug trafficking.
-Holland -Japan  -To promote the health of mankind.
-France -Belgium  -To improve living and working conditions of people in all
-China -Spain parts of the world.
-Ethiopia -Brazil  -To fight against the spread of diseases.
-South Africa -Greece  -To stop the selling of girls as prostitutes.

Permanent members of the Council of the League of Nations The Structure / Organs / Organisation of the League of
before 1930
Nations
-Britain -France
-Italy -Japan

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 DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES: HISTORY

Main Organs  -It succeeded in appointing the Secretary General.

1] The General Assembly  -It debated issues concerning the world peace.
-It was the main body of the League of Nations in which all
states had representatives. Failures
-In 1920 it had 42 members. In 1924 it had 55 members. -Since it met once a year, it failed to debate matters fully thus
-It was the League’s debating Chamber. referring issues to the council.
-It met once a year. -It failed to stop the withdrawal of members from the League, for
-Each member had one vote. example, Germany, Italy and Japan.
-Each member had equal representation [3 delegates from -It failed to stop Germany from withdrawing from the Disarmament
each]. Conference organised by the League.
-All nations in this body were working on basis of equality.
-It discussed any matters relating to the peace or welfare of 2] The Council
the world and decided on appropriate course of action.  -It was the smaller body of four permanent members which
-All decisions had to be unanimous. became five after the admission of Germany in 1926.
-It prepared the League budget.  -The permanent members included Britain, France, Italy,
-It elected non permanent members of the Council. Japan and Germany. Russia joined the League in 1934 and
-It admitted new members and expelled members. became a permanent member to 1939.
-It was the League’s parliament.  -It also had non- permanent members, raised to 6 in 1926, to
-It elected the Secretary General. 9 in 1929 and to 11 in 1936.
-It proposed revision of peace treaties.  -Each of the permanent members of the council had a veto.
This meant one permanent member can stop the council from
QN: How successful was the League Assembly in carrying out acting even if all other members agreed.
the work of the League of Nations?  -It met more often, at least 3 times a year or whenever it was
necessary.
Successes  -Decisions were to be unanimous just like in the Assembly to
 -It was successful in preparing the League budget. prevent great powers from imposing their will on smaller
 -It admitted new members into the League, for example, states.
Germany in 1926 and Russia in 1934.

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 -It dealt with problems when the Assembly was not in -The League was serviced by a permanent Secretariat that worked at
session. the League’s headquarters in Geneva, in Switzerland.
 -It organised sanctions against aggressors. -It was a sort of a civil service. It was made up of civil servants from
 -It raised peace keeping forces. member states.
 -It mediated between conflicting members. -It dispatched information or reports to member states.
 -It enforced decisions of the Assembly. -It was a permanent body of officials drawn from all member states
and elected by the Secretary General.
QN: How successful was the Council in maintaining peace up to -The first Secretary General was an Englishman, Sir Eric
1939? Drummond.
-It implemented the decisions from the council.
Successes -It did most of the work of the League.
-It solved the problem of Vilna. -It looked after all paper work of the League.
-It settled the dispute between Greece and Bulgaria. -It carried out all administrative functions.
-It settled a dispute between Peru and Columbia. -It wrote down resolutions of the League.
-It settled a dispute between Turkey and Iraq. -It prepared reports for the Council and Assembly.
-It settled a dispute between Sweden and Finland. -It kept records of league meetings and debates.
-It settled a dispute between Germany and Poland. -It wrote down minutes during meetings.
-It settled a dispute between Serbia and Albania. -it carried out day to day activities of the league.
-It prepared the league agendas.
Failures -It had specialist sections covering areas such as health,
-It failed to stop Japanese invasion of Manchuria. disarmament and economic matters.
-It failed to stop Hitler’s acts of aggression, that is, over Austria, -It translated languages [it organised translators].
Switzerland, Czechoslovakia and Poland. -It collected information.
-It failed to stop Italian invasion Abyssinia [Ethiopia.
-It failed to prevent the outbreak of another world war [world war
two]. 4] International Court of Justice [CIJ]
-This body was meant to be a key part of the League’ job of settling
3] The Secretariat disputes between countries peacefully.

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-It comprised of 15 Judges from different countries at Hague in -It was concerned with such issues as child labour, women labour
Holland [Netherlands] who were to decide all disputes submitted to and rights of agricultural labourers.
them. -It discussed wages and work in different parts of the world.
-It originally had four Judges and eleven deputies who were chosen -Where the conditions were bad the ILO urged the nations
from various nations. concerned to pass laws to improve them but could apply no pressure
-The judges were appointed by the council and assembly. if the government concerned refused.
-It dealt with cases referred to it. -It was to create international labour standards.
-It had no way of making sure that countries follow its rulings. -It also aimed at enhancing employment opportunities for workers.
-It advised the assembly and country if asked. -It discouraged forced labour and monitored the situation.
-In practise only 32 cases were heard in 22 years as governments -It helped to bring cooperation between employers and employees.
were not willing to have judgements against them.
How successful was the ILO in improving the working
5] International Labour Organisation [ILO] conditions among member states?
-This body came into being in 1919.
-It distributed information on working conditions. Successes
-Its aim was to improve working conditions of people throughout the -It was successful in bringing about cooperation between workers
world. and employers across frontiers.
-It collected statistics and information about working conditions and -It created the 8 hour working day.
it tried to persuade member countries to adopt its suggestions. -Conditions of women increased [It brought maternity protection for
-Each member was to send 4 representatives to its Annual women].
Conference [2 from government, 1 employer and 1 worker]. -There was abolition of child labour and many countries stopped it.
-Its purpose was to deal with workers’ plight, for example, living -It helped in adoption of equal pay and benefit for work of equal
conditions, working hours and compensation. value.
-It regulated working hours. -It helped in crafting safety laws at the work place.
-It dealt with industrial and economic problems of the workers of the -It called for the introduction of minimum wages.
world. -Most member countries increased wages of workers.
-Its major task was to frame and apply international rules that -It recommended a system of international standards in all work
governed conditions of labour. related matters.

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Weaknesses of the League of Nations / Problems faced by the

Failures League of Nations in maintaining world peace up to 1939
-Use of child labour continued in some countries.  -It lacked a standing army to enforce its decisions.
-Wages continued to be low for most workers.  -The sanctions were not effective and were difficult to
-Some employees were still not allowed to form trade unions. enforce.
-It had no mechanism to force desire for change on government and -It had membership problem, for instance,
employers. a] USA [a major power] never joined the League.
b] Russia was not a member until 1934 and left in 1939.
Commissions / Subsidiary Organs / Committees of the League of c] Germany joined in 1926 but left in 1933.
Nations / Agencies of the League of Nations d] Italy and Japan left the League the moment it criticised their
6] Mandates Commission 7] actionsin 1935.
Minorities Commission e] Britain and France were the only great powers which remained
8] Drugs Commission 9] members continuously throughout the 20 years [from 1920 to 1939].
Refugees Commission  -The members signed treaties outside the League, for
10] Disarmament Commission 11] example, Anglo-German Naval treaty [1935] and Stressa
Health Commission Front.
12] Women Rights Commission 13]  -The League was associated with hated treaties like
Slavery Commission Versailles. Defeated powers felt the League was an
14] Undeveloped Nations Commission 15] instrument to oppress them.
Political Asylumists  -The Great Depression of 1929-1939 hindered its work.
16] Military Affairs Commission 17]  -The League was dominated by European powers. Its policy
Transport & communication was mainly determined by Britain and France though
18] Labour Commission 19] countries across the world belonged to it.
Child Welfare Commission  -The League Assembly did not have enough time to resolve
20] Reparations Commission 21] conflicts which piled because it met once per year.
Economic and Finance  -There was lack of cooperation among members, for
instance, Britain and France followed the policy of
appeasement.

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 -The acts of aggression committed by Germany, Italy and b] Veto power made it impossible to make
Japan made the League to fail to maintain peace. decisions.
 -The members were mainly interested in pursuing their own c] Many countries disagreed with the
national interests and were not committed to the League. constitution of the League which gave every
Most countries were concerned with events affecting them, state one vote only. Thus China with 500
for example, no country was prepared to impose sanctions on million people carried the same weight with
Japan because they felt such sanctions would destroy their Latvia with 2 million people. Britain with its
economies. Also half hearted sanctions were imposed on great industrial power had the same vote with
Italy because some countries like Britain wanted to benefit. Ethiopia.
 -There was favouritism, for example, Poland and Greece d] The need for unanimity on all Council and
received much favour during the 1920s. Assembly decisions made the League
 -The League attempt at general disarmament failed. inefficient in implementing decisions. It was
 -The League was viewed as a club of victors. Its work was impossible for all members to agree on the
biased towards the interests of the victorious powers and same issue.
their allies. The defeated powers were obliged not to respect
it. QN: To what extent did the structure of the League of Nations
 -There was also the problem of the Anglo-French differences contribute to its failure to maintain world peace?
on the role of the League. Britain did not want to give the -It had limited funds as there was no provision for this in the
League real authority and power while France wanted it to constitution of the League.
enforce the terms of the peace treaties. -The Assembly met only one a year and this was not
 -The League had limited financial resources. sufficient to deal with problems.
 -The rise of dictators like Hitler and Mussolini hampered its -The League had no army to enforce its decisions.
work. They were determined to reverse the peace treaties. -The League was closely tied with hated treaties like
 -Italy did not support the League fully because it did not gain Versailles and such it was viewed as the Victors’ club.
much from the peace settlement. -The unanimity clause meant that each member had a veto
 -The constitutional defects of the League hampered its over any decisions.
work. For instance, -It also depended too much on goodwill and good faith of its
a] The League Assembly met once a year. members.

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 -It settled a dispute between Chile and Peru in 1925.

Other factors which contributed to its failure  -It settled a dispute between Poland and Lithuaniaover Vilna
-The rise of dictators like Hitler and Mussolini. [through the Conference of Ambassadors which gave it to
-Failure of disarmament. Poland].
-Disagreements between France and Britain.  -It settled a dispute between Germany and Poland. It
-Absence of USA, which was one of the League’s key architects. confirmed the division of Upper Silesia between the two.
-The withdrawal of some powers such as Germany, Italy and Japan.  -It administered mandated territories like Danzig and Saar.
-The policy of appeasement.  -When the Austrian economy was on the verge of collapse in
1922 the League rescued her. It gave loans to Austria to help
Successes of the League of Nations [1920-1939] her industrial development.
The League was largely successful when dealing with smaller states  -It helped with resettlement of prisoners of war and refugees.
and minor disputes. Homes were found for white Russians who fled after the
 -It settled a dispute between Sweden and Finland in 1920 Bolshevik revolution.
over the Aaland Islands. It ruled in favour of Finland.  -It gave assistance to needy states and provided famine
 -It settled a dispute between Turkey and Iraq in 1921 over reliefs.
Mosul.  -The health commission combated the typhus disease in
 -It settled a dispute between Hungary and Czechoslovakia in Russia.
1921.  -Valuable work was done during the epidemics that struck
 -It settled a dispute between Guatemala and Honduras. mankind in the post war years.
 -It settled a boundary dispute between Albania and  -The ILO improved on wages, unemployment benefits and
Yugoslavia. working hours throughout the world.
 -It settled a dispute between Serbia and Albania in 1921.  -It ensured that minority rights were respected, for example,
 -It settled a dispute between Peru and Columbia. Germans in Czechoslovakia got the right to practise their
 -It settled a dispute between Paraguay and Bolivia. own religion and to support their own language.
 -It settled a dispute between Columbia and Venezuela in  -It established international control over opium and other
1922. dangerous drugs.
 -It prevented a potential war between Greece and Bulgaria in  -It worked to abolish all forms of slavery.
1925.

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 DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES: HISTORY

 -It rose the minimum age at which children could be -It failed to stop Hitler from invading the whole of Czechoslovakia
employed. in 1939.
 -It stopped girls from being traded as prostitutes. -It failed to stop Hitler from invading Poland in 1939.
Failures of the League of Nations -It failed to stop the outbreak of another world war [world war two]
The League was largely a failure when dealing with major powers in 1939.
and major disputes.
-It failed to stop the Russo-Polish war. The Invasion of Corfu by Mussolini [1923]
-It failed to stop the Polish-Lithuanian conflict which it referred to -There occurred a border dispute between Greece and Albania.
the Conference of ambassadors. -As a result an international commission had been sent to the
-It failed to take a decisive action against Mussolini’s seizure of the Balkans to settle the Greece-Albanian boundary line.
Greek Island of Corfu in 1923. -During the course of its work an Italian General, Tellin and four of
-It failed to deal with Japanese invasion of Manchuria in 1931. his staff were ambushed and shot dead while mapping the Greek-
-It failed to stop Hitler from withdrawing from the Disarmament Albanian frontier on behalf of the Conference of Ambassadors.
Conference 1933. -They were killed by unknown Greek assailants.
-It failed to punish Hitler from rearming Germany since 1933. -Mussolini resorted to revenge this insult.
-It failed to stop Hitler from withdrawing from the League of -He immediately issued an ultimatum to Greece demanding apology
Nations in 1933. and a salute to the Italian flag, an enquiry by Greece with the
-It failed to stop Hitler from invading Austria in 1934; instead it was assistance of an Italian official and the payment of a large
Mussolini who intercepted German soldiers. reparation.
-It failed to deal effectively with Mussolini’s invasion of Abyssinia / -Greece refused to accept the demands or the terms of the
Ethiopia in 1935. ultimatum, denouncing them as outrageous and violating the
-It failed to punish Hitler for remilitarising the Rhineland in 1936. sovereignty of Greece.
-It failed to punish Hitler for seizing Memel from Lithuania. -Mussolini who had been the Italian dictator for less than a year saw
-It failed to stop Hitler from annexing Sudetenland from an opportunity to obtain glory and triumph of a Fascist regime.
Czechoslovakia in 1938. -Mussolini in turn, ordered an Italian naval squadron to the Greek
-It failed to stop Hitler from invading Austria and completing the Island of Corfu to bombard the harbour.
Anschluss [union of Germany and Austria] in 1938. -This was a direct contravention of the League of Nations and the
Paris Peace Settlement.

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 DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES: HISTORY

-Fifteen civilians were killed and many wounded. -The Commission included an Italian [It was unfair].
-The Italian marines landed and took possession of the port [Corfu].
-Greece appealed to the League for help. The Japanese Invasion of Manchuria [1931]
-The League failed to take decisive action against Mussolini’s -In 1931 Japan invaded and annexed the Chinese province of
seizure of Corfu. Manchuria.
-It could do nothing because Italy was a major power. -The economic hardships of Japan had caused this invasion.
-The League left the issue to the Conference of Ambassadors which -This resulted from the tough tariffs which were imposed by China
persuaded the Greeks to apologise and pay the 50million Lira which and USA against Japan.
Mussolini demanded within a month. -This economic crisis was caused by the closure of the US markets.
-The amount was paid and Italian forces withdrew from Corfu. -Japan army leaders recommended the attack on Manchuria as the
solution to obtain wealth from her.
QN: How successful was the League of Nations in dealing with -The Japanese army controlled the South Manchurian Railway
the Corfu incident? which was sabotaged by the Chinese as claimed by Japan.
-Confronted by this defiance the League turned to the Committee of -In retaliation / revenge Japan invaded Manchuria, annexed it and
Ambassadors, a non League body. established a puppet government and renamed it Manchukuo.
-This body ordered a Commission of enquiry to investigate the -This invasion was a direct contravention of the League of Nations.
incident. -China appealed to the League for help.
-In September 1923 it presented its report without having discovered -Japan claimed it was not invading as an aggressor but it was simply
who was guilty of the murders. settling a local dispute.
-The Council of Ambassadors then ordered Greece to pay 50 million -The Committee sent by the League reported that Japan was the
Lira. aggressor.
-The amount was paid and Italian forces withdrew from Corfu. -The League condemned the invasion and ordered Japan to
*However war was avertedbut many members were indignant over withdraw but it refused to with draw from the Chinese province.
the handling of the whole affair. -The League then sent a Commission ender Lord Lytton to
-Some felt the League had allowed Italy to defy the body. investigate the affair.
-Others felt the evidence obtained by the Commission did not -The Commission suggested that Manchuria be governed by the
warrant imposition. League.
-The League took too long to solve the incident. -Japan disagreed with this verdict and later left the League [1935].

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 DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES: HISTORY

-Hence the League failed to effectively deal with Japan. -Mussolini poured troops in Italian Somaliland and Eritrea preparing
to invade Ethiopia.
Was the League successful in settling this dispute? -In October 1935 Mussolini attacked Abyssinia.
-The League accused Japan as the aggressor. -Haile Selasie was removed from power and fled to Britain.
-The League condemned the invasion. -The League condemned Italy as the aggressor and asked Mussolini
-It ordered Japan to withdraw from Manchuria. to withdraw troops from Abyssinia.
-Japan refused to withdraw from China. -Mussolini refused to withdraw troops from Ethiopia.
-The League failed to remove Japan from China. -Instead, Mussolini withdrew Italy from the League.
-Japan refused to accept the decision by the Lytton Commission that -The League ordered member states to impose sanctions on Italy.
Manchuria be governed by the League. -The sanctions were meant to starve Italy of necessities.
-Japan later withdrew from the League. -However, Britain and France imposed half hearted sanctions on
Italy.
The Italian Invasion of Abyssinia /Ethiopia [1935] -The sanctions were ineffective as they excluded vital resources like
-In October 1935 Italy invaded Abyssinia. coal, oil and steel, the very commodities Mussolini needed
-Ethiopia was also a member of the League of Nations just like Italy. desperately [for war].
-Mussolini invaded Ethiopia for various reasons. -Romania and other oil producing countries were ready to impose
-Mussolini thought that Abyssinia was rich in raw materials and sanctions but this was in vain.
would become a market for Italian goods. -USA and Germany continued to trade with Italy as usual. They
-Mussolini also wanted to avenge the defeat of Italy in 1896 at the were outside the League.
battle of Adowa by Ethiopians. -In May 1936 Italy completed her conquest.
-Mussolini also wanted to settle surplus Italian population. -The League withdrew sanctions and failed to stop Mussolini.
-He also wanted to create an empire for Italy.
-Mussolini also wanted to demonstrate that he was the true Caesar. Was the League successful in settling this dispute?
-Mussolini also wanted to cover up for the past humiliations and -The League accused Italy as the aggressor.
failures and to enhance Italian image and prestige. -It asked Mussolini to withdraw from Ethiopia.
-In 1935, Italy demanded compensation from Abyssinia after a -Mussolini refused to withdraw his troops from Ethiopia.
frontier incident on the border between Abyssinia and Somaliland. -The League asked members to impose sanctions on Italy.
-Abyssinian president Haile Selasie appealed to the League for help. -The sanctions were half hearted.

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 DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES: HISTORY

-USA and Germany who were not members of the League of

Nations continued to trade with Italy again pointing to failure. Social problems faced by Italy between 1919 and 1922
-A lot of corruption in some place -Poverty
-Hunger -Domestic violence was
DICTATORSHIP IN ITALY the order of the day
-The standard of living was low -Less advanced
education [78% illiteracy]
Problems faced by Italy between 1919 and 1922 -Strikes were rampant -The South was
Although Italy emerged on the winning side of the First World War, primitive and poor
she experienced serious economic, social and political problems -Increase in crime rates -Brigandage or
between 1919 and 1922. lawlessness
-Prostitution became the order of the day -Critical shortage of
Economic problems faced by Italy between 1919 and 1922 food
-There was low industrial production in Italy. -Demonstrations were rampant -Diseases
-Low agricultural production -There was no security in industries
-Unemployment especially in the industrial North.
-A huge war debt Political Problems faced by Italy between 1919 and 1922
-Inflation, for example, a loaf of bread which cost 120 Lira before -The Italians were disappointed with the Paris Peace Settlement.
the war was by 1919 costing 600 Lira. This is because Italy had not been given some promised territories
-Strikes were rampant like Albania, Fiume and some Aegean Islands.
-There was lack of capital -Weak governments / governments were unpopular
-Shortage of food -Political violence [Fascists frequently attacked socialists /
-Lack of raw materials communists].
-Closure of banks -Too many political parties
-Decline in trade -Unstable coalition governments
-There were lockouts of workers by employees. -Strikes and demonstrations were rampant
-High taxation -Clash between the Church and the State
-Use of outdated machinery -Inefficient and corrupt civil service

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 DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES: HISTORY

-Fear of communism /Communist threat -War debts

*All these problems led to the rise of Mussolini to power.
Political parties in Italy
To what extent did the political problems contribute to the rise -Fascist Party [Black shirts] -Nationalist Party [Blue
of Mussolini to power in 1922? shirts]
-Mussolini took advantage of political problems to win support. -Populari Party [Catholic party] -Socialist Party [Red
-There was a running quarrel between the government and the Pope. Guards]
-There were too many political parties which led to the formation of -Communist Party [Red shirts] -Liberal Party [Grey
weak and unstable coalition governments. shirts]
-The politicians and governments were not interested in solving the -Republican Party
problems in Italy.
-Weaknesses of the government made it to fail to deal with political Italian leaders before Mussolini
violence caused by Fascists and Communists. -Vittorio Emmanuel Orlando- [October 1917 to June 1919]
-Fear of Communism made the government to rely on the Black -Francisco Nitti-[June 1919 to June 1920]
shirts [Fascists]to suppress communists thus giving Mussolini -Giovanni Giolliti-[June 1920 to July 1921]
popularity. -Ivanoe Bonomi-[July 1921 to February 1922]
-Danger of a civil war forced the king to invite Mussolini to become -Luigi Facta-[February 1922 to October 1922]
Prime Minister.
Factors which led to the rise of Mussolini to power
Other factors which led to the rise of Mussolini  -Fear of communism led to the rise of Mussolini. The
-Inflation which affected the middle class and workers whose industrialists and land owners feared communism and began
savings were wiped out. to support Mussolini who was also against communism.
-Unemployment which swept the whole country They feared that if the communists seize power, their
-Mussolini’s ability to use propaganda property would be nationalised. So they supported Mussolini
-Poverty for protection. The Catholics were prepared to support
-Hunger Mussolini who was a strong hand to fight the communists.
-Strikes Fear of communism made the government to rely on Black
-Food shortages

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 DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES: HISTORY

shirts [Fascists] to suppress communism thus giving -Inflation

Mussolini popularity. -Poverty
 -Propaganda made Mussolini to rise to power. He used -Hunger
propaganda to appeal to all discontented groups. He knew -Diseases
the demands of all sections in Italy and he used propaganda -Social unrest
to win them. He deliberately distorted information to -Food shortages
discredit the government and other political parties. -War debts
 -Oratory led to Mussolini’s rise to power. His oratory
convinced many people in Italy. He promised a strong Stages in the rise of Mussolini to power / Steps taken by
government, to unite the church and the state, law and order, Mussolini in his rise to power up to 1922
adoption an adventurous foreign policy that would make -Mussolini’s rise to power was facilitated by various social,
Italy feared and respected. His oratory attracted many economic and political factors.
people. -These included a weak government, a general atmosphere of
 -Failure of socialist and communist parties [which were anti disillusionment and frustration, a weak economy and so on.
Fascist] to unite against the Fascists enabled Mussolini to -In 1919 Mussolini launched an organisation that was to
rise to power. become the Fascist party within the next two years.
 -Mussolini’s violent sermons against the government -Thus he formed the Fascist party in 1921.
received much sympathy. -The Fascist party members wore black shirts. They were
 -Use of intimidations led to his rise to power. named after their uniform / shirts.
 -Mussolini made conciliatory speeches about the Roman -The Fascist party was aggressive and believed in action.
Catholics. -As leader of the Fascist party, Mussolini initially
 -Personal abilities of Mussolini led to his rise. participated in the elections of May 1921.
 -The danger of a civil war made the king to invite Mussolini -They won 35 out of 535 seats.
to become Prime Minister. -Eventually Mussolini felt that parliamentary methods were
 -Use of attractive parades ineffective against the threat of socialism.
-A general atmosphere of disillusionment and frustration -He embarked on the use of force. In other words his party
-A weak economy adopted a policy of violence.
-Unemployment

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 DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES: HISTORY

-Meetings of socialists and communists were attacked by the -This refusal was one factor which determined Mussolini to
Fascists. make a show of force.
-Workers’ movements were broken by the Fascists, wealthy -Mussolini had demanded that the country should be given a
industrialists and land owners supported Mussolini. The strong government capable of restoring order.
banks alone gave him 1, 5 million pounds. -On 28 October 1922, the Fascists staged the famous ‘March
-His private army [Black shirts] went round beating and on Rome’ from various parts of the country.
intimidating opponents, at times forcing them to eat live -This posed a serious dilemma for the king Victor Emmanuel
toads and to drink castor oil. III, the Italian army and the police.
-Sometimes they beat them with rubber hoses. -The government appeared powerless to take action against
-Occasionally they murdered their opponents in public. Mussolini.
-He also adjusted his propaganda to appeal to all -Neither the royal family nor the army and the police took
discontented groups. any effective action to prevent the entry of the Fascist
-He got support from almost every direction, from the rich column into Rome.
and poor, monarchists and socialists, liberal idealists and -Thus Mussolini met little resistance if any.
thugs, anti-clericals and priests. -On 29 October 1922, the king, Victor Emmanuel III asked
-A general strike in the summer of 1922 gave Fascists the Mussolini to form a government with other anti-Socialist
opportunity to restore order. groups.
-The government had been unable to prevent the strike. -A coalition government was formed and Mussolini took the
-As the government was too weak to deal with the strike, the post of Prime Minister, Foreign Minister and Minister of
illegal actions of the Fascists won them popular support. Home Affairs [Interior] at the same time.
-Landlords and industrialists sympathised with a movement
which stood for strike breaking, lower wages and hostility to To what extent did the use of violence assist Mussolini’s rise to
communism. power?
-Eventually Mussolini was brought to power by the March -Violence forced opponents to support the Fascist movement to
on Rome, October 1922. avert death and injury.
-In October 1922 Mussolini demanded representation in the -Violence was one the several methods used to gain power.
government. -Force eventually prevailed over other methods in 1922
-The government refused to accept this demand.

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 DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES: HISTORY

Other factors -To stop the spread of communism -To ban trade
-Use of propaganda unions
-Use of attractive parades -To ban elections -To revalue
-Parliamentary methods like participating in elections Italian currency
-A general atmosphere of disillusionment and frustration
-A weak economy and a weak government Mussolini’s Domestic Policy from 1923 to 1939
 -Mussolini established dictatorship in Italy.
Government Posts held by Mussolini in Italy  -He banned all opposition political parties. He made Italy a
-Prime Minister -Minister of the one party state.
Interior [Home Affairs]  -He ruled by decree [command] starting from 1926.
-Minister of Foreign Affairs -Minister of  -Mussolini was opposed to democracy. In 1928 he banned
Corporations voting and members of parliament were to be chosen by the
-Minister of Army, Navy and Air force -Commander in Fascist Grand Council which was headed by Mussolini.
Chief of the Militia  -Mussolini made Italy a totalitarian state. All aspects of life
-Head / President of the Fascist Grand Council were controlled by the state.
 -In 1927 Mussolini formed a secret police called OVRA.
Aims of Mussolini’s Domestic Policy OVRA hunted for opponents in public places like cinemas,
-To create a very strong government -To make Italy funerals, wedding ceremonies, beer halls and playing
politically stable grounds. OVRA was thus meant to silence enmity.
-To create a strong economy -To establish  -In 1929 Mussolini bridged the gap between the church and
dictatorship in Italy the state through the Lateran Treaty. Through this treaty,
-To create a totalitarian state -To do away Italy recognised the Vatican City in Rome as a sovereign
with democracy state. Roman Catholic Church was made a state religion.
-To make Italy a great power once more -To increase the Religious education was surrendered to the church. In return,
population the Pope gave his blessing to Fascist dictatorship.
-To make Italy self sufficient [Autarky] -To provide  -All opponents were killed or exiled on the Lipuri Islands in
employment the Mediterranean. For example, Giacomo Matteotti was
-To establish friendly relations with the church -To ban strikes

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 DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES: HISTORY

murdered after accusing the Fascists of corruption and  -Trade unions were banned and their offices were closed.
violence. The trade unions had been built mainly under communist and
 -Mussolini was a male chauvinist. He looked down upon socialist leadership. This was followed by the establishment
women. For him, women were to be good at home where of a system of ‘Corporations’ in which workers, employers
they were encouraged to bear as many children as possible, and the state were represented. The corporations were to
about 12 children per family on average. settle all matters relating to conditions of work. The ministry
 -Mussolini inaugurated the battle for births. People were of Corporations was introduced to supervise these
encouraged to bear many children. He imposed a tax on corporations. The aim of this was to make both workers and
childless marriages and bachelors. He gave incentives to employers support the interests of the state before their own.
women so that they bear many children. Divorce was  -Lockouts of workers by employers were forbidden.
forbidden.  -Mussolini created employment in Italy.He did so through
 -There was education for all and this was free education. launching a number of public workssuch as draining marshes
School teachers were to take an oath of allegiance to like Pontine Marshes nearRome, electrification, construction
Mussolini and his Fascist regime. In 1931 the same was of roads, railway lines, bridges, railway stations, dams and
required of University lecturers. They were to promise that sports stadiums. He also created employment through
they would teach according to the Fascist principles. In launching industries which manufactured air craft, motor
schools pupils were encouraged to criticise their teachers and vehicles and weapons for his foreign ventures.
were taught to repeat the Ten Commandments of Fascism,  -In 1926 Mussolini inaugurated the battle of wheat. He
including’ Mussolini is always right’. There was encouraged farmers to concentrate on wheat production
indoctrination of children. Teaching was to be Fascist and aimed at self sufficiency which he claimed to have been
justify the ethics of violence, obedience and intellectual achieved in 1932.
uniformity. Teachers had to wear uniforms. New textbooks  -Iron, silk and steel production increased.
were written toconform with Fascism.  -Mussolini inaugurated the battle of lira. The currency was
 -There was strict censorship. Anti-Fascist newspapers and revalued.
magazines were either banned or had their editors replaced  -Hydro electricity was doubled.
by Fascist supporters.  -Industry was encouraged with government subsidies.
 -Elected town councils and mayors were abolished and
towns were run by officials appointed from Rome. To what extent did Mussolini’s Domestic Policy benefit Italians?

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 DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES: HISTORY

-The battle of wheat was counter- productive and strained the

Benefits / Positive effects budget.
-Banning trade unions brought about order and progress in -Although Mussolini restored law and order, however, this law and
industries. order applied only to non Fascists. The Fascists had the liberty
-Law and order was restored in Italy since brigands who terrorised [freedom] to do what they wanted with their opponents.
the people in streets had disappeared.
-A large number of people were employed through the public works.
-The battle of wheat made Italy self sufficient in terms of food.
-There was provision of good accommodation through flat
construction.
-There was improved transport for the people from one place to
another. Economic Policies of Mussolini
-The draining of marshes led to the increase in agricultural land.  -Industry was encouraged with government subsidies.
-The Italian nation which had been for long divided into two, the  -Mussolini introduced the battle of wheat.
supporters of the state and supporters of the Pope was united by  -Land reclamation was launched, for example, draining of
Mussolini. marshes and planting trees.
-The creation of employment improved the standard of living.  -Public works were introduced, for example, construction of
roads, bridges, railways, stadiums, dams and so on.
Non benefits / Negative Effects  -Mussolini introduced the battle of the lira.
-The abolition of trade unions led to the exploitation of workers  -Strikes were outlawed [banned].
who lost their right to strike for better working conditions.  -Trade unions were banned.
-Unemployment was not completely wiped out.  -There was expansion of silk, iron and steel production.
-Censorship of the press led to lack of freedom of expression.  -Hydro electric power was doubled.
-Italians lost their right to vote as members of parliament were to be  -There was creation of a corporate state to control
elected by the Fascist Grand Council headed by Mussolini. production, prices and working conditions.
-Italians lost their freedom and now lived in fear.  -Lock outs of workers were outlawed.
-The education system was blinkered. Pupils were being  -There was high taxation, especially for single and unmarried
indoctrinated instead of being educated. workers.

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 DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES: HISTORY

 -Price controls were to make public life easy. -There was rampant corruption and inefficiency.
 -Transport was developed with government subsidies. -Wheat production damaged other forms of agricultural output.
 -Railways were electrified. Farmers concentrated on wheat at the expense of other crops.
 -An eight hour working day was enacted. -Overvaluing of the lira made exports more expensive.
 -Workers were assured of such benefits as free Sundays, -Although prices were stable, they however remained high.
annual holidays with pay, social security, sports and theatre -Italy was still not self sufficient in food supplies.
to compensate for their loss of freedom. -Motorways [Austrada] were planned but only a few were actually
 -The textile industry was expanded. started.
 -There was development of synthetic rubber.
Mussolini’s Social Policy
Benefits of Mussolini’s Economic Policy -He encouraged high birth rates.
-There was stability in prices through lowering wages and -There was strict censorship of the press.
suppression of strikes and Trade Unions. -He introduced the Youth League.
-The government fixed rents and controlled food prices thus making -Education was made Fascist and was for all.
up for low wages. -He signed the Lateran treaty with the Pope.
-The lira was revalued. -Roman Catholic Church was made the state religion.
-There was development of infrastructure. -He looked down upon women.
-Hydro electric production increased. -Mussolini created employment in Italy.
-Iron and steel production doubled. -He gave workers some benefits, for example, free Sundays, annual
-Draining Pontine Marshes provided hundreds of thousands of acres holidays with pay, social security, sports and theatre to compensate
of new farmland and eradicated Malaria. for their loss of freedom.
-The public works created employment. -He banned strikes.
-Banning of strikes led to an increase in production. -Teachers were to wear uniforms.
-Inflation was reduced. -Pupils were encouraged to criticise their teachers.

Negative Effects of Mussolini’s Economic Policy Measures taken by Mussolini to introduce dictatorship in Italy /
-Unemployment was not completely addressed. Measures taken by Mussolini to consolidate his power in Italy /
-There was shortage of basic goods. Measures taken by Mussolini to establish total control in Italy

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 DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES: HISTORY

-He passed the Arcebo law [1923] which enabled him to get -The Black Shirts perpetrated terror, for example, beating
majority seats in Parliament. opponents with rubber hoses, forcing them to drink castor oil
-He eliminated opponents, for example, in 1924 Giacomo and to swallow live toads.
Matteotti and Giovanni Amenda were murdered.
-In 1925 he introduced censorship as radios, films; Benefits of Mussolini’s dictatorship to Italians
newspapers and theatre were put under strict control. -Dictatorship ensured peace, order and stability in Italy.
-In 1926 Mussolini banned all opposition political parties. -Banning of strikes, lock outs and demonstrations promoted a
-In 1927 he created a secret police [OVRA] which he used to peaceful environment for economic development.
silence all enemies. -It promoted a sense of nationalism.
-In 1928, the Fascist Grand Council was set up to choose -The Lateran treaty ended the long standing misunderstanding
members of Parliament. Elections were banned. between the church and the state.
-In 1929 there was the signing of the Lateran Treaty.
-Sloganeering and indoctrination of the youth promoted the Negative effects of Mussolini’s dictatorship to Italians
notion that the Duce is always right. -Civil and political liberties were suppressed.
-Education was brought under state control and was meant to -People were living in perpetual fear.
glorify Fascism. -People could no longer freely express themselves.
-He banned trade unions, strikes, lockouts and -Some people lost their property and life due to violence.
demonstrations. -Workers were exploited under the corporate state.
-He controlled key ministries like Home Affairs and Foreign -Parliament was turned into a farce.
Affairs. -There was no more democracy.
-He created the Youth League.
-He established a corporate state and Mussolini was the Features of Fascism in Italy
Minister of Corporations. -Totalitarianism -Glorification of
-He adopted the title the II-Duce [the leader]. violence
-He ruled by decree [command]. -Extensive propaganda -Abolition of elections
-He created a totalitarian state. -Dictatorship -Banning of trade
-He suppressed democracy, for instance, people were denied unions
to vote for Members of parliament. -Rule by decree [command] -Militarism

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 DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES: HISTORY

-One Party State -Corporate state  -In 1923 Mussolini recognised the Union of Soviet Socialist
-Extreme nationalism -A strong economy Republic.
-Suspension of human rights -Economic self-  -In 1924 Mussolini came to an agreement with Yugoslavia
sufficiency by which Italy gained Fiume.
-Strict censorship -Absence of democracy  -In 1924 Mussolini established friendly relations with
-Elimination of all opponents -Banning of strikes Greece, Hungary and Albania.
-Anti-Semitism -Anti-Communism  -In 1925 Mussolini signed the Locarno Pact with Britain,
-Banning of opposition political parties -National prestige France, Germany and Belgium. This treaty was meant to
-Glorification of the leader -Suppression of women promote a spirit of cooperation. It was Germany which
rights initiated this.
 -In 1928 Mussolini signed the Briand-Kellogg Pact.
Aims of Mussolini’s Foreign Policy  -In 1933 Mussolini signed a Non Aggression Pact with
 -To make a name for himself and his country Russia.
 -To pursue an adventurous foreign policy  -In 1933 Mussolini attended the Disarmament Conference at
 -To put Italy on the world map Geneva.
 -To make Italy great, feared and respected  -In 1934 Mussolini intercepted German forces at Brenner
 -To gain prestige Pass. The German forces wanted to invade Austria.
 -To make up for the lost past opportunities on earlier decades  -In 1935 Mussolini invaded Abyssinia [Ethiopia].
 -To civilise Africa and gain raw materials  -In 1935 Mussolini withdrew from the League of Nations.
 -To revive the greatness of the ancient Roman Empire  -In 1935 Mussolini signed the Stressa Front with Britain and
 -To make up for the past humiliations France guaranteeing the Eastern French border against
 -To create an empire as in the time of the Caesars German aggression.
 -To make Italy a bulwark against Bolshevism in Europe  -In 1936 Mussolini signed the Rome-Berlin Axis with Hitler.
 -To create enough living space for the Italians Mussolini came closer to Hitler because Hitler had refused to
impose sanctions on Italy after she invaded Abyssinia.
 -In 1936 Mussolini entered into the Spanish Civil War on the
Mussolini’s Foreign Policy [1922 to1939]
side of Germany and General Francisco Franco against the
 -In 1923 Mussolini invaded the Greek Island of Corfu.

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 DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES: HISTORY

Spanish Republican government. Franco was anti-communist -The Italians also began to sell their goods to Albania [market].
just like Italy and Germany. -There was creation of employment especially in the army.
 -In 1937 Mussolini signed the anti-Comintern pact with -There were some territorial gains.
Japan. -Foreign policy in general brought prestige.
 -In 1937 Mussolini signed the Rome-Berlin-Tokyo Axis
[Pact] with Germany [Hitler] and Japan [Tojo] against Non Benefits / Negative Effects
international communism. -Mussolini’s foreign policy created more enemies than friends.
 -In 1938 Mussolini attended the Munich Conference. -Mussolini tended to ignore domestic issues and concentrated on
 -In 1939 Mussolini invaded and annexed Albania. foreign affairs. For instance, there was misallocation of resources in
 -In 1939 Mussolini signed the Pact of Steel with Hitler. They Italy.
agreed to help each other in the event of a war. -Many Italians lost their lives during battles
-Many children were orphaned.
-Many women became widows.
-Creation of an alliance with Germany and Japan led to the upset of
QN: To what extent did the Italians Benefit from Mussolini’s balance of power and to the breakdown of international peace.
Foreign Policy? -Mussolini plunged Italy into the Second World War [1939]
unprepared and lost many human lives.
Benefits / Positive Effects
-Italian trade prospered and her credit stood high. In his early days To what extent was Mussolini’s Foreign Policy influenced by
Mussolini created friendly relations with other countries like Britain, that of Hitler?
France and Germany by entering Locarno Pact. -Initially Mussolini’s foreign policy was determined by Italian
-Italy’s prestige was strengthened at home after Corfu Incident. interests and aims.
-Italy became more secure by entering agreements with powerful -The Corfu incident was designed to advance national greatness in
countries like Japan and Germany. foreign policy.
-Mussolini improved relations with Albania which became an Italian -The Fiume incident and Albanian invasion by Italy was aimed at
satellite in 1926. showing Italian greatness and to secure control over entry into the
-Mussolini reduced population pressure in Italy by settling some Adriatic.
Italians in Abyssinia and Albania.

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 DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES: HISTORY

-Invasion of Abyssinia and Albania was meant to fulfil colonial Problems faced by the Weimar Republic [Germany] from 1919
interests. to 1933
-Germany’s attempted Anschluss with Austria in 1934 was strongly The Weimar Republic had serious problems from the beginning.
opposed by Mussolini. These problems helped in destroying it hence leading to the rise of
Adolf Hitler to power.
Other side
-After the Rome-Berlin Axis Mussolini became a protégé of Hitler. Economic Problems faced by the Weimar Republic [Germany]
-There was now mutual cooperation between the two countries [Italy -Payment of reparations
and Germany] leading to the signing of the following treaties--- -Hyper inflation. For instance, 1 billion marks bought a loaf of
-Rome-Berlin-Tokyo Axis [1937] bread. In November 1923,US $1 was equivalent to 4200000000000
-Anti- Comintern Pact [1937] marks.
-Pact of steel [1939] -Unemployment. This was largely due to the Great Depression
-Also the two entered into the Spanish Civil War on the side of [1929-1939].The population of the unemployed rose from 2258000
General Franco [1936]. in 1928 to 6000000 in 1932.
DICTATORSHIP IN GERMANY [1919-1939] -Closure of factories.
-The Great Depression of 1929 to 1939 which further caused many
problems like unemployment, inflation and so on.
The Weimar Republic [1919-1933] -Shortage of food
Germany after the First World War was called the Weimar -Low agricultural production
Republic. It was also known as the Second German Reich. A -Low industrial production
republic is a state completely governed by elected representatives. It -Strikes were the order of the day, for example, the 1920 General
is also a nation ruled by a president and not by a king. The German strike in Berlin.
Empire which was created by Bismarck in 1871 and destroyed -Bankruptcy especially due to payment of reparations
during the First World War in 1918 was known as the First German -War debts
Reich. Hitler’s Germany from 1933 to 1945 was known as the Third -Shortage of raw materials
German Reich or the Nazi Reich. A Reich is a German state. -Low wages and salaries

Social Problems of the Weimar Republic

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 DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES: HISTORY

-Critical shortage of food -Low living -Parliamentary paralysis

standards -Strikes and demonstrations
-Street fights -Burglary -Threat of Communism
-Brigandage / Lawlessness -Prostitution *NB All these problems led to the collapse of Weimar Republic and
-Demonstrations -Strikes and to the rise of Hitler.
food riots
-Sit ins -Lockouts QN: To what extent did the Economic problems of the Weimar
-Unemployment -Starvation Republic lead to the collapse of the Weimar Republic and to the
-Hunger -High crime rise of Hitler?
rates -Inflation made the middle class to lose confidence in the
-Diseases like tuberculosis -Theft government and began to support extremist parties like Nazi.
-Low wages -Domestic -Many of the unemployed joined the Nazi party which promised
violence them jobs.
-Homelessness -The Great Depression caused people to turn to extremist parties like
Political Problems of the Weimar Republic Nazi.
-The Weimar government was unpopular -Nazi and communist support increased during the time of the
-Socialist or Communist violence. They wanted to seize power. economic crisis.
-Unstable coalition governments. From February 1919 to January -The Great Depression made the parliament to be unstable resulting
1933 the Germans were ruled by 21 governments, each lasted an in chancellors resigning, for example, Von Papen and Von
average of about 7 months. Schleicher.
-Imposed democracy [inexperienced in democracy]
-Attempted coups, for instance, the 1919 Spartacist revolt, the 1920 Other factors
Kapp Putsch and the 1923 Munich Putsch. -Hitler’s ability to use propaganda
-Political assassinations [1920 to 1922]. Victims of such -Oratory
assassinations included the Jewish Foreign minister, Walter -Nazi violence
Rathenan and Gustav Erzberger. -Parliamentary paralysis
-Nazi violence -Fear of communism by industrialists
-Disappointment with the treaty of Versailles -Too many political parties

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 DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES: HISTORY

-Nazi violence
QN: To what extent did the political problems in Germany lead -Oratory
to the rise of Hitler and the collapse of the Weimar republic?
-Democracy gave way to the formation of many political parties. Political Parties in Germany between 1919 and 1933
-Too many political parties led to the creation of weak coalition -Social Democratic Party [Socialists]
governments. -German Nationalist People’s Party [Nationalists]
-Nazi violence forced opponents to support Hitler. -Catholic Centre Party [Catholics]
-The people resented the unpopularity of the Weimar government. -Communist Party [Communists]
-Attempts to overthrow the government also contributed. -Liberal Party [Liberals]
-Bavarian People’s Party
-Nazi Party
Other factors
-Unemployment Chancellors of Germany from 1918 to 1933
-Hunger -Ebert [Social Democrat 1918] -Gustav
-Starvation Stresemann
-Hitler’s personality -Franz Von Papen [Nationalist] -Herman
-Inflation Mueller
-Heinrich Bruning [Catholic Centre Party] -Von Schleicher
To what extent did the social problems in Germany led to the -Adolf Hitler [Nazi]
rise of Hitler to power?
-People resented the unrest due to closure of factories. Chancellors of Germany from 1923 to 1933
-Unemployment led to discontent in Germany. -Gustav Stresemann -Heinrich
-The Weimar republic promoted theft and brigandage. Bruning
-Hunger and starvation also led to discontent. -Von Papen -Von Schleicher
-Adolf Hitler
Other factors
-Inflation Attempts to overthrow the Weimar government between 1919
-Too many political parties and 1923

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 DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES: HISTORY

-In 1923 Hitler attempted to overthrow the Weimar government

a] The Spartacist Rising [1919] through the abortive Munich Putsch.
-This was the first of all the attempts to overthrow the government. -He was aided by General Ludendorff [the old war hero].
-Rosa Luxemburg [Red Rosa] and Karl Liebknecht made an attempt -They aimed to take over the state of Bavaria and then march to
to overthrow the government. Berlin to overthrow the government.
-The uprising was centred in Berlin. -This Putsch [coup] took place at the peak of inflation.
-It was inspired by the Bolshevik Revolution. -It was a failed attempt at revolution.
-They seized power in Berlin and major cities in Germany. -The French and Belgians had occupied the Ruhr and this angered
-The uprising was put down by only by the aid of the Freikorps [ex- most Germans.
soldiers]. -In 1923 [September] both the Chancellor Gustav Stresemann and
-However both leaders [Rosa Luxemburg and Karl Liebknecht were the President Ebert had called for Germany’s passive resistance in
murdered before coming for trial. the Ruhr.
-Hitler thought that it was now the time to topple the government of
b] Bavarian Uprising [1919] Bavaria in Munich [it was a regional government].
-Communist Eisner also tried to seize power. -This was to be a prelude to the takeover of the national government
-He was also detected by the Freikorps. in Berlin.
-Eisner was murdered by political opponents. -Thus after the march on Munich, the Nazi were to embark on the
march on Berlin in a similar gesture to the march on Rome.
c] The Kapp Putsch [1920] -Thus the Putsch was inspired by Mussolini’s successful march on
-In March 1920 Wolfgang Kapp, a right winger attempted to seize Rome.
power in Berlin [Revolt in Berlin]. -However, the consequences were different from those in Italy.
-He revolted when the government wished to disband the Freikorps. -In November 1923, Hitler hijacked a local government meeting in
-The army refused to take action. Munich and announced that he was going to take over the
-A general strike paralysed the capital but the government managed government of Bavaria.
to gain control. -The Storm Troopers [SA] began to take over official buildings.
-On the next day the Weimar government police hit back.
d] The Munich Putsch / Beer hall Putsch [8 November 1923] -They surrounded the Nazi and killed 16 of them.

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 DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES: HISTORY

-These 16 Nazi people were regarded as the first blood martyrs and -Ernst Rohm -Herman
were remembered by Hitler in the foreword of Mein Kampf. Goering
-Hitler had miscalculated the mood of Germans as they did not rise -Ernst Hanfs -Alfred
up to support him. Rosenberg
-Bavarian nationalists withdrew the support they had earlier -Rudolf Hess -Ulrich Graf
promised. -Johann Aigner -Max Amman
-Hitler escaped in a car with a dislocated shoulder. -Adolf Lenk -Wilhelm Adam
-Herman Goering badly wounded escaped to Austria. He was shot in -Ludwig Maximilian Erwin Von Scheubner-Richter
the groin.
-Scheubner Richter was killed by a bullet. People who died during the Munich Putsch [martyrs]
-The rest of the Nazi scattered or were arrested. -Felix Alfarth -Andreas
-Hitler and his followers were dispersed by few armed police. Bauriedl
-Hitler and other leaders were arrested, tried and imprisoned for -Theodor Casella -William
treason. Ehrlich
-He was given five years in prison and was fined 500 Rich marks. -Martin Faust -Anton
-He only served 9 months because he impressed the judges at his Hechenberger
trial and also because of influence from well placed Bavarians who -Oskar Korner -Karl Kuhn
sympathised with his right wing politics. -Karl Laforce -Kurt Neubauer
-At the trial Hitler condemned the Weimar government for its -Klaus von Pape -Theodor von
weaknesses. der Pfordten
-The Nazi Party headquarters were raided. -Johann Rickmers -Max Erwin
-Its newspaper [the People’s observer] was banned. von Scheubner-Richter
-While in prison Hitler wrote his book Mein Kampf [My Struggle] -Lorenz Ritter von Stransky -Wilhelm Wolf
in which he aired out his political and racial ideas.
Leaders and Commanders who participated in Munich Putsch Contribution of the Munich Putsch to the rise of Hitler to power
-Adolf Hitler -Erich Von -It convinced Hitler that the best way to seize power was through
Ludendorff legal means.

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 DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES: HISTORY

-Hitler used his trial as an opportunity for propaganda against the and revival of Germany into the mightiest nation in Europe
government. and the world to the nationalists. This made him to discredit
-While in prison he wrote a book Mein Kampf which later became the government and rival parties, posing as the only saviour
the Nazi Bible. of the nation.
-He used his trial as an opportunity to spread his ideas. -The Reichstag fire. In March 1933, the Reichstag building
-Every word he spoke was reported in the newspaper the next day. was burnt just a week before the elections. The Nazi laid the
-At the trial he gained publicity for himself and his ideas hence blame on the communists in order to discredit them. Hitler
gaining popularity. declared that the fire was the beginning of a communist
Other Factors uprising. He demanded special emergence powers to deal
-Oratory with the situation and was given them by President
-Weimar political suicide Hindenburg. The Nazi used these powers to arrest
-Inflation communists, break up meetings and frightened voters. As a
-Too many political parties result Hitler won the majority votes he wanted. Most people
-Unemployment voted in favour of Hitler. It is highly probable that the fire
was caused intentionally by the Nazi agents.
Factors which led to the rise of Hitler to power -Mistake by the Weimar politicians to appoint Hitler as
-The Communist danger. The men of property, the Chancellor [Weimar political suicide]. In 1932 the Nazi had
industrialists and land lords as well as the rest of the German won 230 seats in the Reichstag. It had no majority seats. It
aristocracy supported Hitler who was a strong hand against had two thirds out of 577 seats, but there was no single party
communists. with as many seats. Von Papen became chancellor but the
-Unpopularity of the Weimar government Reichstag with such a number of Nazi seats was becoming
-Hitler’s ability to use propaganda led to his rise. He ungovernable. General Von Schleicher approached President
deliberately distorted the truth on a vast scale so as to gain Hindenburg and stressed that there was a danger of civil war
support. in Germany if Von Papen continued as Chancellor. The
-Hitler’s oratory. He promised every sector of the German President removed Von Papen from power and replaced him
community whatever needed most. He promised security to with Von Schleicher. Soon after his removal from power,
men of property, employment to the unemployed, glory, Von Papen began to conspire with Hitler and he suggested to
praise and honour to the generals and army, reconstruction Hitler that he and his friends would be prepared to support

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 DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES: HISTORY

his appointment as Chancellor provided that he himself -Unemployment

became his deputy Chancellor. He then turned to the -Elections [Manoeuvring of elections]
President, Hindenburg, making the same proposals. The -Rallies
assumption was that, as Hitler was not an experienced -General discontent with the Treaty of Versailles
politician, he would not succeed as chancellor. In the event -The Munich Putsch
of failure, the country would cry for Hitler’s removal and -Industrial unrest
Von Papen would become Chancellor again. With these -Inexperienced democrats
assurances, Hindenburg appointed Hitler as Chancellor on 30 -The book, My Struggle, which became the Nazi bible
January 1933. Hitler however, did not fail and Schleicher -Hitler’s personality
was to lose his head in 1934. In 1934 Hindenburg died and -Hitler had extra ordinary political abilities
Hitler became both the Chancellor and President with the -Homelessness
title Fuhrer meaning leader. Thus the Weimar politicians had *NB All problems faced by the Weimar Republic led to the rise
committed political suicide by assisting Hitler to come to of Hitler.
power. Once Hitler was Chancellor, he called for elections so
as to complete Nazi take over. Ideas expressed by Hitler in his book Mein Kampf [My
-Impotence [weaknesses] of the Weimar government Struggle]
-Nazi violence -To bring back all lost German territories
-Low wages -To unify all Germans
-Use of force / coercion -To unify Germany and Austria
-The Great Depression -To expand Germany Eastwards
-Inflation -To expel Jews from Germany
-Hunger and starvation -To stop payment of reparations
-Parliamentary paralysis. The Great Depression made the -To expand territorial boundaries of Germany
parliament to become unstable resulting in Chancellors -To secure enough living space for the Germans
resigning. -To restore Germany to her dominant place in Europe
-The Storm Troopers [SA], Hitler’s private army was -He condemned the disarmament provisions of the treaty of
attractive to young people out of work. Versailles [100000 soldiers]
-Parades

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 DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES: HISTORY

The rise of Hitler to power in Germany between 1920 and 1933 / -Hitler’s political position was strengthened as he won 13, 4 million
Stages in the rise of Hitler to power in 1933 votes against Hindenburg’s 19, 4 million.
-In 1920 Hitler joined the German Workers Party which later -In July 1932, the Nazi won 230 seats out of 577 in the Reichstag,
became the National Socialist German Workers’ Party [Nazi]. Nazi making Nazi the largest party but with no overall majority.
is the German pronunciation of the letters NS. -Hitler demanded to be appointed Chancellor but Hindenburg
-In 1921 Hitler became the leader of the Nazi Party. refused.
-In 1921 the Storm Troopers [SA] was created as a private army to -The Nazi won 196 seats in the November 1932 elections.
deal with opponents. -Nazi terror increased.
-In 1923 at the peak of inflation, Hitler attempted to overthrow the -Von Papen persuaded Hindenburg to appoint Hitler Chancellor
Weimar government through the Munich Putsch or Beer hall Putsch. hoping that they would use him.
-Hitler was arrested and sentenced to five years in jail but he served -In January 1933 Hitler was appointed Chancellor of the Weimar
9 months. Republic.
-While in prison he wrote his book, Mein Kampf [My Struggle].
-In 1924 Hitler re-founded the Nazi. Aims of Hitler’s Domestic policy
-Hitler created his personal body guards [the Schutzstaffel] SS -To create employment -To expel Jews
headed by Heinrich Himmler. By 1933 there were 5200 of them. from Germany
-Hitler set up party branches nationwide. -To assemble the strongest army in Europe -To create a
-In the 1924 general elections, the Nazi won 14 seats in the totalitarian state
Reichstag. -To create a strong economy] -To restore
-Nazi popularity declined during the age of prosperity in Germany order in Germany
[1924 to 1929]. -To make Germany a great power once more -To establish
-In 1928 the Nazi won only 12 seats. dictatorship in Germany
-The Great Depression tilted the scales in favour of Hitler. -To create a one party state -To ban strikes
-Hitler’s oratory appealed to many Germans and Nazi support grew. -To ban trade unions
-In the 1930 general elections Nazi seats rose from 12 to 107 making
Nazi Party the second largest political party in the Reichstag. Hitler’s Domestic Policy from 1933 to 1939
-In the March 1932 presidential elections, Hitler challenged -Hitler created employment in Germany, for example, through
Hindenburg. conscription.

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 DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES: HISTORY

-He introduced a number of public works like the construction of -Hitler banned trade unions in May 1933.Their offices were raided
motorways, roads, bridges, hospitals and so on. by the SA and the SS. All German workers were to belong to the
-Rearmament programmes were put in place. Nazi run German Labour Front. Trade unions were banned because
-Hitler introduced conscription and developed the German air force they consistently opposed the Nazi party.
[Luftwaffe]. -In 1933 Hitler passed the Enabling Act in March which made
-Armament industries were incepted. Germany completely under his control and forced Von Papen to
-Education was put under Nazi control and it became Nazi in resign. This gave him power to govern without consulting the
orientation. Textbooks, especially, history books were re-written to parliament.
suit Nazi ideology. Children were indoctrinated. -Hitler banned elections in Germany.
-Boys were to join Hitler’s Youth League at the age of 14. -Hitler banned strikes in Germany.
-Girls were to join the League of German maidens and chanted -Hitler opposed democracy. In January 1934 the Parliament was
slogans, like, ‘The Fuhrer is always right’. dissolved and the Reich ratwas abolished.
-Concentration camps were established for all those who opposed or -In 1934, Hitler embarked on the Night of the Long Knives where
tried to criticise the Nazi government. he was killing opponents within the party, for example, Rohm and
-Hitler made Germany self-sufficient through his Four Year Plans other SA leaders who were homo sexual.
[Autarky]. -Joy organisations were formed and holidays were subsidised.
-Hitler established Nazi dictatorship as he ruled by decree. -All enemies were silenced, usually through the use of thugs,
-He banned all opposition political parties in Germany and arrested Gestapo and so on.
opposition leaders. He made Germany a one party state. -Hitler formed his secret police called Gestapo which hunted for
-In April 1933, the civil service came under Nazi control. Officials enemies in public places like cinemas, beer halls, soccer fields, and
who were not politically reliable or who could not prove they were wedding ceremonies under Himmler.
of pure Aryan race [descent] were dismissed. Judges were expected -Hitler created a totalitarian state.
to obey party instructions. They were to ignore crimes committed by -Children were encouraged to betray parents to Gestapo.
Nazi agents. -Mass rallies were organised throughout the country and ‘Hail
-In 1934 Hitler combined the post of President and Chancellor and Hitler’ became the compulsory German greeting.
became the Fuhrer after the death of President Hindenburg. -Hitler was a male chauvinist. He looked down upon women.
-There was no rule of law in Germany. Hitler himself was the law. -There was strict censorship in Germany. The press, radios,
newspapers and films were put under strict censorship.

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 DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES: HISTORY

-There was elimination of opponents through purges and murders. -Creation of employment improved the standard of living.
-Germany was made a police state. -Rearmament made the country secure.
-Propaganda was increased and Goebbels was appointed Minister of -Wages were improved particularly in strategic industries like
propaganda. This worked to perpetrate and exaggerate the goodness engineering and building by 30%.
of the Nazi government. -Factories were reopened and steel mills and coal mines resumed
-Religion was put under state control. production as new soldiers needed uniforms, equipment and
-Hitler signed the Concordat with Roman Catholic Church which weapons.
promised to keep out of politics. -A degree of nationalism was asserted.
-Hitler adopted the policy of Anti-Semitism, a deliberate policy to
exterminate the Jews. Non Benefits / Negative Effects of Hitler’s Domestic Policy to
-Local government was brought under the control of the Nazi. Germans
-There was control of food prices. -The Jews did not benefit as they were slaughtered, removed from
jobs and discriminated against.
Benefits of Germans from Hitler’s Domestic Policy -Education standards fell because of Nazification.
-Hitler created employment which pleased many Germans. -Women did not benefit as they were looked down upon and denied
-Germany’s dependence on imports was reduced by improving employment opportunities even if they had qualifications.
production in farms and industries. -People lost their freedom of speech and expression.
-Businessmen were happy as they were making profits because -Property and wealth of the Jews was taken.
workers were well disciplined. -Workers were denied their right to strike for better wages.
-Expulsion of Jews and anti Nazis from the civil service created jobs -Education system of the Jews was destroyed.
for ordinary Germans. -People were deprived of their civil and political rights through
-Production of steel increased thereby reducing importation of steel. banning of opposition parties, trade unions, press, introductionof
-Rearmament created employment for many, for example, in violence and murder.
armament industries. -Many Germans lived in perpetual fear.
-Inflation was reduced. -Church leaders were also critical of the Nazi as religion was
-Workers benefited from luxurious holidays. brought under state control.
-The country developed due to construction of roads, bridges,
hospitals and schools.

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 DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES: HISTORY

Hitler’s Policy towards Jewsin Germany up to 1939 -Germans filled up vacancies in employment left by the Jews, at
-Hitler was against Jews. He hated the Jews. universities, in schools, in the Judiciary and so on.
-Persecution of Jews was a policy with many Germans initially. -Germans took over enterprises and businesses abandoned by the
-Jews were members of the Semitic race [Semites]. Jews as a result of Hitler’s policy.
-The Jews were used as a scapegoat for everything from Versailles -Nationalist feelings were satiated especially those of Germans who
onwards [depression, unemployment, communism and so on]. blamed everything on Jews.
-The anti-Jewish campaign was given legal status by the 1935 Other side
Nuremberg Laws. -Germany lost several skilled Jews such as teachers, doctors,
-These laws deprived Jews of German citizenship. lawyers and so on.
-It forbade them to marry non Jews. -Citizenship of some innocent Germans and other opportunities were
-It ruled that a person with even one Jewish grandparent must be lost as a result of the Nuremberg laws.
classified as a Jew. -Families were separated.
-Jews were harassed in every possible way. Groups of people that were victims of Hitler in Germany
-Their property was attacked and burnt. -Jews -Communists
-Their shops were looted. -Trade unionists -Women
-Their homes were destroyed. -Youths -Lesbians
-A number of them were sent to concentration camps. -Homosexuals -Gypsies
-They were not allowed to join formal schools and universities. -Blacks -Industrialists
-Jews were not allowed to join the civil service. -Catholics -Disabled
-They were excluded from special public places like hotels. -Jehovah’s Witness [Watch tower] -Professionals
-Jews were put into exile. [teachers, doctors, lawyers]
-The Jews were put into gas chambers.
-The Jews were blamed for the defeat of Germany in world war one. Hitler’s Economic Policy in Germany
-By 1939 about 6000000 Jews lost their lives in Germany. -He introduced public works like construction of roads, bridge and
so on.
Did the Germans benefit from Hitler’s policy towards Jews? -Industry was expanded to meet the needs of rearmament.
-Production of synthetic fuel, rubber and other products was
Benefits increased.

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 DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES: HISTORY

-Wages were strictly controlled. -The 1935 Nuremburg laws were passed which denied Jews their
-Prices were also controlled. civil rights.
-Peasants’ debts amounting to 12 billion were suspended in October -Jews were stripped off their German nationality.
1933. -Marriage between Jews and Germans was forbidden.
-Imported food staffs were subjected to high tariffs. -Boys were to join Hitler’s Youth at the age of 14.
-The Hereditary farm Law of October 1933 gave smaller farmers -Girls were to join the League of German maidens and chanted
security of tenure by forbidding confiscation and division. However, slogans like, ‘The Fuhrer is always right’.
the law militated against the development of larger farm units and -Joy organisations were formed and holidays were subsidised.
even against new farming methods. -The civil service was brought under Nazi control.
-He created employment through conscription. -Hitler was a male chauvinist. He looked down upon women.
-He made Germany self sufficient through his Four Year Plan. -Religion was put under state control.
-He banned trade unions in Germany. -Hitler signed the concordat with the Roman Catholic Church.
-Strikes for better wages were outlawed. -Hitler adopted a policy of anti-Semitism directed against Jews.
-He created the German Labour Front. -People lost their right to vote.
-Factories were reopened.
Measures taken by Hitler to consolidate his power in Germany /
Hitler’s Social Policy in Germany Steps taken by Hitler to achieve total control or establish
-Hitler encouraged high birth rates by offering marriage loans, tax dictatorship in Germany
allowances for dependent children and other benefits for mothers. -He passed the Enabling Law [1933] which made him a complete
-There was strict censorship of the press. dictator.
-He introduced the Hitler Youth Organisation which was -He forced Von Papen to resign.
compulsory for those between 10 and 18 years. -He created a totalitarian state.
-The youth were indoctrinated. -He banned all opposition political parties in Germany.
-Children spied on their teachers and parents. -He banned elections.
-Education was brought under Nazi control. -He purged the civil service and all Jews and other suspected
-Strikes were banned. enemies were removed from civil service.
-Trade unions were banned. -He abolished trade unions.
-Religion was put under state control.

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 DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES: HISTORY

-He banned strikes. -He remained in power for 12 years [1933-1945].

-He abolished the parliament. -Nazi was the only political party remaining. All opposition political
-Education was put under Nazi control and children were parties were successfully suppressed.
indoctrinated. -Use of violence by Gestapo and SS enabled Germans to submit to
-Teachers, lecturers and professors were closely watched. Hitler’s demands.
-He created the Hitler’s Youth. -Jews, Hitler’s potential challengers were completely silenced,
-He created the League of German maidens. exiled or murdered.
-He encouraged children to betray their parents to Gestapo. -Communists were suppressed.
-He introduced strict censorship on newspapers, radios, magazines
and so on. Failures of Hitler in consolidating his rule in Germany
-There was intimidation of opponents, for example, killing them in -His rule continued to be resisted by the Catholic Church, for
public. example, Bonheoffer and some members of the armed forces.
-He made use of spies to identify and report opponents. -Some young people did not join the Hitler Youth Movement.
-Propaganda was increased. -Some nationalists resisted his rule.
-He used the secret police [Gestapo] to hunt for enemies in public -Socialists and communists continued to exist.
places. -Opposition was driven underground and not completely eroded.
-He used violent sermons. -It was not that people submitted to Hitler but, that people lived in
-He made use of posters and rallies. fear.
-He appointed Nazi leaders to top posts, for example, Goering. -Not all communists were killed on the Night of the Long Knives.
-He appointed Nazi governors in all states. -Hitler infringed on the human rights of the Germans.
-He embarked on the Night of the Long Knives [1934] where he
killed enemies within the party. Features of Nazism in Germany
-He combined the post of president and chancellor to become the -Totalitarianism -Dictatorship
Fuhrer after the death of president, Hindenburg. -Economic self-sufficiency -Glorification of
-School text books were re-written to suit with Nazi ideology. violence
Successes of Hitler in consolidating his power in Germany -Strict censorship -Extensive propaganda
-He became a complete dictator. -Absence of democracy -Abolition of elections
-No one could oppose him.

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 DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES: HISTORY

-Elimination of all opponents -Glorification of the -To bring back all lost Germans who lived outside, for example, in
leader Poland and Memel
-Banning trade unions -Banning strikes -To conquer Russia as a way of destroying communism there
-Rule by decree or command -Anti Semitism -To put Germany on the world map
-Militarism -Anti Communism -To make Germany a great power once more
-One Party State -Extreme nationalism Hitler’s Foreign Policy [1933 to 1939]
-A strong economy -National prestige *Hitler’s foreign policy was the major cause of world war two of
-Suppression of women rights -Suppression of human 1939 to 1945.
rights -In 1933 Hitler pulled Germany out of the Geneva Disarmament
-Banning of opposition political parties -Purity of Aryan race Conference.
-Reversing the treaty of Versailles -Creation of enough -In 1933 Hitler withdrew Germany from the League of Nations.
living space -In 1933 Hitler violated the Treaty of Versailles by ordering German
-Supremacy of the state -Imperialism rearmament and the creation of the German air force [Luftwaffe].
-Anti- women -Uniting all German- -In 1934 Hitler made a failed attempt to invade Austria. He was
speaking people thwarted by Mussolini.
-In 1934 Hitler signed a Non Aggression Pact with Poland. Poland
Nazi Leaders was to remain neutral when Germany was to attack Austria and
-Adolf Hitler -Herman Goering Czechoslovakia.
-Joseph Goebbels -Heinrich Himmler -In 1935 Hitler signed a secret naval agreement with Britain.
-Rudolf Hess -Martin Bormann Germany was allowed to rebuild her navy as long as it was
-Ernst Rohm -Ludendorff maintained at about 35% the size of the British navy.
-Albert Speer -Rommel -In 1935 Hitler publicly announced German rearmament.
-In 1935 the Saar was reunified with Germany. 90% of the
Aims of Hitler’s Foreign Policy Saarlanders voted for reunification with Germany.
-To create enough living space for the Germans [Lebensraum] -In 1936 Hitler remilitarised the Rhineland.
-To stop payment of reparations -In 1936 Hitler and Mussolini entered into the Spanish Civil War on
-To bring back all lost German territories the side of General Franco.
-To assemble the strongest army in Europe -In 1936 Hitler and Mussolini signed the Rome-Berlin Axis.

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 DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES: HISTORY

-In 1937 Hitler signed the Anti-Comintern Pact with Japan. -Moravia -Bohemia
-In 1937 Hitler [Germany], Mussolini [Italy] and Tojo [Japan]
signed the Rome-Berlin-Tokyo Axis or Pact. This alliance became Benefits of Germans from Hitler’s Foreign Policy
more powerful than the League itself. -Germany became a powerful state once more.
-In 1938 Hitler annexed the Sudetenland from Czechoslovakia. -There was creation of employment due to conscription, rearmament
-In 1938 Hitler attended the Munich Conference. and invasions.
-In 1938 Hitler invaded Austria and completed the Anschluss -Hitler created enough living space for the Germans by annexing
[Union of Austria and Germany] states like Czechoslovakia, Memel and other states.
-In 1939 Hitler signed the Pact of Steel with Mussolini. They agreed -Security of the Germans was enhanced as a result of rearmament
to help each other militarily. and conscription.
-In 1939 Hitler seized Memel from Lithuania. -German soldiers became experienced due to invasions.
-In 1939 Hitler and Stalin [of Russia] signed the Molotov- -Hitler united all Germans who were previously not under Germany,
Ribbentrop Treaty / Non-aggression pact. Hitler had seen the danger for example, some were in Austria and Sudetenland.
of war breaking out in 1939 and Germany being forced to fight on -The humiliations that Germany had suffered due to the treaty of
two fronts as what happened in the First World War. So the two Versailles were removed, for example, disarmament and payment of
countries agreed not to resort to war against each other. They also reparations.
agreed to invade Poland and partition it between themselves. By this -Their pride was restored by violation of the treaty of Versailles.
alliance and the invasion of Poland Germany wanted to frighten -Industry obtained raw materials from occupied territories like Saar
Britain and France from coming to the aid of Poland. Also in the basin and Czechoslovakia.
event of a war between France and Germany, Russia would keep out Non Benefits / Negative Effects of Hitler’s Foreign Policy to
of the war so that Germany would defeat France.
-On 1 September 1939, Germany invaded Poland. Britain and Germans
France knocked into the conflict on the side of Poland as they had -Many German soldiers died during wars or invasions.
promised. Hence theSecond World War broke out. -German soldiers did not have time to rest because of endless
Countries occupied by Germany between 1935 and 1939 campaigns.
-Rhineland -Sudetenland -Both human and material resources were wastedllll. uuiu
-Austria -Czechoslovakia
-Poland -Memel

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 DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES: HISTORY

-Hitler created more enemies than friends, for example, France,

Britain, Poland and USA combined their forces against Germany
during world war two.
-Many children were orphaned.
-Many women became widows due to invasions.
-Germany’s aggressions led to the outbreak of world war two which
was costly to the Germans.

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 DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES: HISTORY

 They had small families.

SOUTHERN AFRICAN HISTORY
4044 /01 Political organisation of the Late Stone Age
 There was no ruling class and subject people.
THE LATE STONE AGE PERIOD  There were no states.
 There was no a centralised political system.
The Late Stone Age was characterised by the use of bone, wood and stone  They settled their disputes communally.
tools. Tools of the Late Stone Age were digging sticks, scrappers, clubs,  They were ruled by a family head.
flakes, stone tipped arrows, hand axes and stone hammers.

Economic activities of the Late Stone Age

 They hunted small animals like hares and teamed up for bigger
ones like kudus and impalas. They used snares to catch rabbits and
they used traps catch big game like buffaloes. They also used
poisoned arrows to kill animals. They extracted poison from
reptiles such as snakes and from insects such as spiders and from
scorpions.
 They gathered wild fruits, roots, vegetables, and insects.
 They caught fish using hooks made from bones.
 They domesticated dogs

Social system of the Late Stone Age

 They lived in caves. THE CHANGES FROM LATE STONE AGE TO EARLY
 They were nomadic, that is they moved from one place to another IRON AGE
in search of animals, fruits and the like.
 They worked communally. Economic Changes during the Early Iron Age
 There was division of labour, for instance, women and children
gathered while men hunted.  People began to make iron tools like hoes, arrow heads, spear
 They married a single wife. heads, axes, knives, iron swords, fishing hooks and the like. These
 They lived and travelled in small groups. were more efficient than wood and stone tools of the Stone Age.

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 DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES: HISTORY

 Iron tools enabled people to cut trees and clear more land for  Iron axes -Iron hoes
agriculture.  Iron spear heads -Iron arrow heads
 They began to grow crops like sorghum and millet using iron  Iron mattocks -Iron swords
tools.  Iron knives -Iron fishing
 Production of food resulted in surplus. hooks
 There was food security.
 Hunting was improved by the use of iron tools which were more Crops grown by the Early Iron Age people
efficient than stone tools.  Sorghum -Finger millet
 Fishing was improved by the use of iron fishing hooks. They  Bulrush millet -Pearl millet
began to catch fish on a large scale.  Cowpeas -Beans
 They began to domesticate animals like cattle, goats and sheep  Gourds -Rapoko
along river valleys.  Melons -Pumpkins
 They began to mine minerals like gold, copper, iron and tin, lead
and silver. Crafts practised by the Early Iron Agers
 They began to trade in gold, iron and ivory as well as with surplus  Weaving -Basketry
products.  Pottery -Blacksmithing
 They began to raid each other for grain and cattle.  Leather work -Stone carving
 They began to pay tribute to the chiefs in form of grain, cattle,  Wood carving -Drum making
ivory and iron tools.  Making jewellery
 Basketry was introduced. They wove baskets like the winnowing
basket. Minerals mined by the Early Iron Agers
 Pottery was introduced. They made clay pots to carry and store  Gold -Copper
water and milk.  Iron -Lead
 Tin -Silver
Animals kept by the Early Iron Age People
 Cattle -Goats Social Changes during the Early Iron Age
 Sheep -Pigs
 Cats -Chicken
 Availability of food resulted in a rise in population.
 Donkeys -Dogs
 They began to build permanent shelters of pole and dagga.
 Polygamy was practiced. This was due to production of surplus.
Tools used during the Early Iron Age

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 They began to pay lobola to their in-laws in form of cattle and iron  The iron agers had more food and balanced diet [meat, milk and
tools. grain].
 Cattle were a symbol of status.  They were able to clear more land for crop cultivation.
 There was clear division of labour, women cultivated crops while  They began to settle at one place.
men hunted and herded.  They began to build more permanent shelters.
 There was specialisation in areas such as mining, blacksmithing,  They were able to kill larger animals due to efficient iron tools.
weaving, basketry, trade, fishing and hunting.
 Trade developed as a source of foreign goods.
 They began to live in large groups of about 200 people.
 They had better weapons.
 Classes emerged as some became rich whilst others remained
poor.
 Exploitation of men by men became more apparent, for example,
those with many cattle employed those without as herd boys.
Negative Effects of these changes to communities of Southern Africa
 There was development of cattle loaning system [kuronzera].
 There as competition for hunting grounds, pastures and land for
 They began to bury the dead in graves.
cultivation.
 There was emergence of religious ceremonies such as rain making
 Classes began to emerge-lower classes were exploited.
ceremony.
 Women were exploited as they were given more arduous tasks like
Political Changes during the Early Iron Age crop cultivation.
 They began to raid each other for cattle and grain.
 They lived in clans.  The manufacture of iron tools promoted warfare and increased
 There was emergence of chiefs and headmen. killing rate of animals.
 Chiefs and headmen made laws.  Poor classes in weaker societies began to pay tribute in form of
 Chiefs and headmen distributed land to the people. labour, cattle and grain to stronger and wealthy political units.
 Subjects paid tribute to the chiefs to show loyalty.
 Chiefs controlled trade. Contribution of iron technology to the rise of classes within the
 Stronger chiefs began to raid weaker ones. societies in Southern Africa
 Chiefs and headmen judged cases.  Iron technology engendered [resulted in] surplus production and
 Chiefs led at religious ceremonies emergence of haves and have nots.
 Iron technology led to the emergence of miners, blacksmiths and
Benefits of these changes to the communities of Southern Africa traders as separate classes.

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 DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES: HISTORY

 Surplus production begot [resulted in] polygamy, a source of

labour. THE CHANGES FROM EARLY IRON AGE TO LATE IRON AGE
 Craft workers such as potters, weavers, basket makers and the like,
could concentrate on their work. Political Changes during the Late Iron Age

Other factors which led to emergence of classes  There was formation of states like Great Zimbabwe,
 Lineage and clan leaders developed into ruling classes. Mutapa and Rozvi
 Defeat in wars resulted in vassalage.  There was emergence of kingship.
 Trade before iron technology also contributed.  The king was the head of the state.
 Charisma of people made them candidates for leadership  Kingship was hereditary.
 The king was the chief judge.
Contribution of Iron Age Changes to development of chiefdoms in this  The king was the religious leader.
period  The king controlled trade.
 Cattle loaning led to extension of political influence.  All subjects began to pay tribute to the king to show
 Surplus grain led to rise in status and need to control areas with loyalty.
valuable resources such as gold and ivory.  The king kept an army for raiding and for defence.
 The growth of larger communities necessitated the rise of  The king levied fines to his subjects who misbehaved.
chiefdoms to maintain law and order in the community.  Wars were arising out of disputes over succession.
 Polygamy promoted marriage alliances.  The king appointed chiefs.
 Desire to control trade routes led to rise of chiefdoms.
Contribution of trade to state formation
Other factors which led to the development of chiefdoms  Communities fought to control resources or trade like gold mines
 Rise of ambitious leaders and forests with elephants, leading to formation of large states.
 Military prowess leading to conquest of other people  Communities fought to control trade routes and expanded states.
 The desire to collect tribute  Rulers demanded tribute in form of valuable commodities.
 The desire for protection from invaders  Wealth and power developed from trade.

Other factors which led to formation of states

 The rise of ambitious leaders
]  Succession disputes

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 DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES: HISTORY

 State formation resulted from the need to control fertile soils and  They began to build more permanent settlements.
pastures.  During this period there began to appear stone buildings.
 Loaning of cattle to other communities led to spread of political  They began to prefer to settle near water sites and hills.
influence.  They preferred good farming lands and defensive sites.
 Polygamy was an important source of labour and power.  There was an increase in the size of settled villages.
 Strong armies helped in state formation.  They believed in God [Mwari].
 They believed in spirit mediums and ancestral spirits.
Importance of the king’s role in the Shona states during the Late Iron
Age Economic Changes during the Late Iron Age
 The king had overall authority.
 The king appointed chiefs.  They reared animals like cattle, goats and sheep on a large scale.
 The provided security to his people.  They cultivated crops like sorghum, millet and Rapoko on a large
 The king gave royal fire to the chiefs. scale.
 The king commanded the army.  They began to store grain for a long time in granaries.
 There was a clear association of wealth, cattle and social status.
 The king distributed land to the people.
 External trade became more pronounced.
 The king controlled trade.
 There was an increase in minerals mined.
 The king was the religious leader.
 Hunting and gathering continued but became less important as
 The king was the chief judge.
people mainly concentrated on crop cultivation and animal
rearing.
 Subjects began to pay tribute to the king in form of cattle, grain
Other factors important in the Shona states during the Late Iron Age and the like.
 Spirit mediums that chose and installed the kings  They raided weaker states for grin and cattle.
 The army defended the state, protected the king and collected
tribute Importance of cattle to the Late Iron Age communities of Southern
 The army commander was also important Africa
 Council of advisers was also important Cattle ownership was a status symbol.
 The ordinary people were also important for their allegiance Cattle were a source of food such as milk and meat.
Cattle were slaughtered on special occasions such as ritual
Social Changes during the Late Iron Age ceremonies.

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 DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES: HISTORY

Cattle skins were used for making drums, shields and leather Minerals mined during the Late Iron Age
clothes.  Gold -
Cattle were used for paying lobola. Copper
They were loaned so as to establish political influence.  Iron -
They were used for paying tribute. Lead
For paying fines  Zinc -
For trade Silver
For transport  Tin -
Draught power Coal
For inheritance  Salt -
Embodiment of spirits Diamonds
For paying avenging sprits [Ngozi]  Chrome -
For manure Nickel
 Lithium -
Importance of trade to the Late Iron Age communities of Southern Platinum
Africa  Asbestos
People of Southern Africa traded locally and externally. Items -
traded were cattle, grain, iron tools, ornaments, pottery and the Emeralds
like. Uses of gold during the Late Iron Age
They imported glass beads, cloth, sea shells, guns and the like.  Trade -status symbol
Glass beads were a sign of status.  Payment of tribute -making
Powerful rulers conquered new areas to control resources for trade jewellery like bangles and ear rings
in gold, ivory and trade routes.
Rulers demanded tribute in form of trade commodities, grew rich Problems faced by miners during the Late Iron Age Period
and powerful.  Flooding of mines in the rain season -loss of
Trade brought influence of foreigners like Swahili, Arabs and lives
Portuguese.  Poor mining tools -they
The king distributed trade items to reward subjects and lesser used slow methods of mining
chiefs.  Collapse of mines
Trade unified people.

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 DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES: HISTORY

 The decline of Mapungubwe state led to its rise. Its fall meant that
THE GREAT ZIMBABWE STATE wealth now flowed into the Great Zimbabwe state in form of
tribute and control of trade.
Origin of the Great Zimbabwe State  Peace and stability led to its rise.
 The hill top was probably chosen for defence against enemies and
The Great Zimbabwe state was one of the late Iron Age states in pre- as centre for religious worship.
colonial Zimbabwe. Its origin is controversial or debatable or unclear. Two  The rise of ambitious leaders who undertook conquest of other
theories emerged in trying to explain the origins of this state. [a] One lineages to control trade routes, resources and to levy tribute.
school argued that Great Zimbabwe was built by foreigners. According to  The place was suitable for taking refuge in war time [Nemanwa
this theory Great Zimbabwe was built by more civilised races than Hill].
Africans. Some of these theorists argue that Great Zimbabwe was built by  Control of religion by rulers led to its rise. Rulers were regarded as
Arabs. Some also argue that there is a Jewish influence on the origin of divinely appointed hence commanded universal respect.
Great Zimbabwe.[b] The other theory argues that Great Zimbabwe was
built by Africans. According to this theory Great Zimbabwe was local in Economic reasons for the rise of Great Zimbabwe
origin, thus it was built by local people. This theory argues that Great
Zimbabwe was built by indigenous Shona speaking people between  There was availability of fertile soils in the area around Great
1100AD and 1450AD. According to this theory artefacts found at Great Zimbabwe which promoted crop cultivation.
Zimbabwe indicated Shona traditional culture. More so, ceramics [pots]  Availability of good pastures which promoted livestock
found at Great Zimbabwe are local and similar to those of recent Shona production [pastoralism] led to its rise.
speaking people. The few foreign ceramics found at Great Zimbabwe can  Abundance of minerals like gold [in the neighbourhood] for trade
be attributed to long distance trade. People who built Great Zimbabwe and iron for tool making led to its rise.
were cattle herders, crop growers, iron smelters and designers of pottery as  Availability of game [fauna] for meat, skins and ivory in the area
well as builders in stone work. led to its rise.
 Favourable climate, that is, good rainfall led to its rise.
Reasons for the rise of Great Zimbabwe / Factors which led to the rise  Availability of water from nearby rivers such as Mutirikwi led to
of Great Zimbabwe its rise.
 The area was accessible to international trade with the Swahili,
Political reasons for the rise of Great Zimbabwe state Arabs, Persians and Chinese through Sofala.
 Control of surplus production by leaders also contributed.
 A strong army led to the rise of this state.

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 DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES: HISTORY

 The area was free from tsetse flies thereby promoting animal  Accessibility to international trade
rearing.  Availability to fertile soils
 Abundance of pastures
Social factors which led to the rise of Great Zimbabwe  Abundance of minerals

 Polygamy which ensured adequate labour supply and soldiers led To what extent did the economic factors contribute to the rise of Great
to its rise. Zimbabwe state?
 Loaning of cattle [kuronzera] helped to unify people and made the
leaders strong and it also attracted many people to come under Contribution of economic factors
their control.  Trade goods were used by rulers to strengthen their positions.
 The increase in population led to the rise of Great Zimbabwe.  Successful agriculture led to the availability of food.
 Religion helped in unifying people within the state.  The larger herds of cattle were used by dominant lineages in the
 The hill was regarded as sacred for religious purposes. creation of a strong state.
 Availability of granite rocks enabled people to build the stone  Availability of minerals promoted trade, tool making and the
walls. manufacture of weapons.
How important were political factors in the rise of Great Zimbabwe  Cattle loaning system made the rulers strong.
state?  Tribute enabled the rulers to become powerful over chiefs

Importance of political factors Other factors which led to the rise of Great Zimbabwe
 Rise of ambitious leaders
 Emergence of ambitious leaders  Hilltop area for defence purposes
 Accessibility of the area through rivers
 Control of religion by the rulers who were regarded as divinely
 Rise of population
appointed hence commanded universal respect.
 Religion which played a role of unifying people
 The desire to collect tribute by rulers
 The fall of Mapungubwe meant trade shifted to Great Zimbabwe.
 A strong army led to its rise.
 The fall of Mapungubwe state led to its rise
The Construction [Building] of Great Zimbabwe
 Unity among people
 Suitability of the area for defence in times of war Great Zimbabwe was built by the Shona people.
It was built between 1100 AD and 1450 AD.
Other factors important in its rise Granite rocks were used to build Great Zimbabwe.

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 DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES: HISTORY

The rocks were heated, cooled and split.  For environmental factors like pastures, rich soils and good
They were shaped into blocks. rainfall
No mortar was used.
The walls were thick at the base and narrower at the top. Importance of the king in the construction of Great Zimbabwe
Slave labour was possibly used.  Leader
The site consists of many areas.  Organiser
i] The Acropolis for the king and royal family  Mobilised people
ii] The Great Enclosure / Conical tower for the king’s  Commander of labour
wives
 Responsible for payment
iii] The Valley ruins
iv] Villages
Other factors important in the construction of Great Zimbabwe
Reasons for building Great Zimbabwe / Function / Purpose of Great
 Officials
Zimbabwe
 Vassal chiefs
 Labour
 As a symbol of power -As a religious centre  Availability of granite rocks
 For privacy -As an enclosure for  Availability of water and pastures
animals  Masons [people who shaped stones]
 For prestige -As an administrative
centre
Economic Organisation of Great Zimbabwe
 As a living place for nobles -As a fortress in times of
war
 For shelter -To show unity  They traded both among themselves and with foreigners.
 They gathered wild fruits, roots, berries, vegetables, wild honey,
 As a centre of trade -As a storage for grain
mushroom and insects.
and minerals
 They raided other states for grain, cattle and women.
 For receiving visitors -Tribute collection
 All subjects paid tribute to the king in form of grain, cattle, goats,
 As a cultural centre -Expression of art
sheep, labour, girls, boys, gold, ivory, tools, and precious skins.
 As a capital -To spot enemies
 They kept animals like cattle goats and sheep.
 As the mambos’ court / headquarters [Muzindawamambo]  They grew crops like sorghum, millet, rapoko, melons, pumpkins,
beans, cowpeas and gourds.

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 They hunted animals for meat, ivory and hides [skins].  Sacrifice -Ropes
 They caught fish to supplement their diet.  Strops from skins -Sandals
 They mined minerals like gold, copper and iron.  Payment of fines -In the blast
 They did art and craft, that is, furnace
a] Pottery. Women made different types of pots for  Paying avenging spirits
domestic use.
b] Basketry. They made different types of baskets like the Crafts practised by the people of Great Zimbabwe
winnowing basket.  Pottery -Basketry
c] Blacksmithing. They made iron tools like hoes, axes,  Weaving -Blacksmithing
mattocks and swords.  Stone carving -Wood carving
d] Weaving. They wove cotton into cloth.  Leather work -Making
e] Stone carving Jewellery
f] Wood carving  Drum making -Building in
g] Leather work stone
h] Drum making
i] Jewellery making Agricultural activities of the people of Great Zimbabwe
j] Building in stone
 They cultivated crops like millet, sorghum and gourds for food
Uses [Importance] of cattle in the Great Zimbabwe State and brewing of beer.
 Cultivation was done by hand using hoes.
 Payment of lobola [bride price] -Symbol of  They practised shifting cultivation.
wealth  Cultivation was mainly done by women.
 Loaning- for political influence -For trade  They also reared domestic animals like cattle, goats and sheep for
 Payment of tribute -For ritual meat and milk.
ceremonies  It was the task of men to herd cattle.
 For food, milk, meat and fat -For transport  They practised the transhumance system.
 For skins [mates, clothes and blankets] -For making  Cattle were normally slaughtered at ritual ceremonies like bira and
shields rain making ceremonies.
 For making drums -Provision of  They practised loaning of cattle.
manure  They used the slash and burn system of cultivation.
 Cow dung applied on floors -Draught power

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 DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES: HISTORY

 Lesser chiefs who controlled provinces were also important.

Trading Activities of the people of Great Zimbabwe  Religion which unified people
 Mining empowered kings and rulers
The people of Great Zimbabwe traded both internally and
externally. Artefacts [man made remains] discovered at Great Zimbabwe
Locally, they traded among themselves.  Chinese stone wares / porcelain / dishes -A copper box
Locally, they exchanged local products, such as iron tools, pottery,  Glass beads -Persian bowls
baskets, cattle and grain.  Mirrors -Iron gongs
Externally, they traded with foreigners like Arabs, Swahili,  Soapstone bowls -Bangles
Indians, Chinese, Portuguese, Persians and the Tonga.  Anklets -Near Eastern
They exported ivory, gold, baskets, ostrich feathers, grain, glasses
livestock, iron tools, precious animal skins and the like.
 Copper rings -Iron spoon
They imported glass beads, Chinese bowls, cloth, soapstone
 Iron lamp holder -Copper chains
bowls, bangles, mirrors, spirits, wires, copper chains, candles and
 -Figurines -Candles
the like.
 Soapstone bird -Ceramics [pots]
Sofala was the main port of trade.
Traders paid tribute to the king.  Brass wire -Iron wire
The king controlled and protected trade routes.  Sea shell
Social Organisation of Great Zimbabwe
Importance of trade and agriculture in the political system of Great
Zimbabwe  The society was patrilineal.
 Ownership of cattle was a status symbol.
 A strong economy ensured internal peace and stability.  The practiced polygamy.
 Loaning cattle ensured loyalty to the ruler.  There was sexual division of labour.
 Tribute is paid to the king in form of grain and cattle.  They practised kuronzera [loaning of cattle].
 Trade goods helped to increase the power and wealth of the king.  They paid lobola to their in-laws in form of cattle.
 The ruler was in charge of land distribution and control of trade.  They celebrated the birth of a new child.
 They celebrated the coming of a new daughter-in-law.
Other factors important in the political system of Great Zimbabwe  They practised the nhimbe system.
 A strong army for defence  Incest and bestiality were taboos.
 They believed in God, Mwari [Musikavanhu].

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 DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES: HISTORY

 They believed in spirit mediums [Masvikiro] and ancestral spirits

[Vadzimu].  The king was the head of the state.
 They also believed in national spirit mediums [Mhondoro].  Kingship was hereditary.
 The king was chosen by spirit mediums.  The king was the commander in chief of the army.
 They practised ceremonies like rain making ceremonies  The king was the judicial leader.
[Mukwerera / Mutoro].  The king was the chief judge.
 The king led at all religious ceremonies of national importance.  The king led at all religious ceremonies.
 They believed that spirits lived in thick forests, pools and thick  The king was the chief distributer of land.
forests.  The king was helped to rule by a council of elders called Dare in
 They believed in witchcraft. Shona.
 The districts were under district chiefs.
Importance of religion in the political system of Great Zimbabwe  Provinces were under provincial chiefs.
 Religion unified people.  The chiefs were appointed by the king.
 Rain making ceremonies brought people together.  The posts of chiefs were hereditary.
 The common belief in God unified people.  Subjects paid tribute to the king to show loyalty.
 The king commanded universal respect since his position was a  They raided other states for grain, cattle and the like.
divine one.  There were also important officials apart from the king in the state
 Spirit mediums appointed the kings. such as the Queen mother, King’s sons in law, army commanders,
 Spirit mediums stayed at the royal court providing advice and spirit mediums, royal doctor, district and provincial chiefs.
guidance to the king.
Importance of tribute in the political system of Great Zimbabwe
Other factors important in the political system of Great Zimbabwe  Payment of tribute ensured loyalty of lesser chiefs to the king.
 A strong economy ensured stability.  Tribute payment made sure that lesser chiefs would not become
 A strong army for maintaining law and order and defending the too rich, powerful and ambitious.
state against external attacks.  Tribute increased the wealth, power and influence of the king.
 Tribute made the king wealthy and he distributed part of it to
ordinary people. Other factors important in the political system of Great Zimbabwe
 Cattle loaning ensured increased support for the king.  Religion which unified people
 Spirit mediums which chose the king
Political Organisation of Great Zimbabwe

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 DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES: HISTORY

 The army which defended the state, maintained law and order,  The rise of new states like Torwa and Mutapa led to its decline.
discouraged revolts and collected tribute  Corruption and disunity in the ruling class led to its decline.
 There was emergence of ambitious people in the royal family like
Social groups within the Great Zimbabwe state Nyatsimba Mutota who also wanted to rule.
 Farmers -Soldiers  Wars and attacks from the Sotho and Tswana to the South West of
 Stone masons -Miners Great Zimbabwe led to its decline.
 Potters -Gatherers  The Dande region was occupied by weak people such as the
 Traders -Herbalists Tonga, Tavara and the Korekore.
 Sculptors -Hunters  Weaknesses of the army at Great Zimbabwe led to the decline of
this state.
 Blacksmiths -Fishermen
 Outdated means of state control led to its decline.
 Spirit mediums -War captives
 There was emergence of rivalry in the ruling family.
[slaves]

Other Madzimbabwe Economic reasons for the decline of Great

 Naletale -Khami Zimbabwe
 Munekwani -Ruanga
 Nhunguza -Tsindi  Loss of control of long distance trade to Mutapa led to its decline.
 Chipadze  There was shortage of resources like salt, pastures, wood and the
like.
The Decline of Great Zimbabwe State  Exhaustion of soil leading to poor harvests led to the fall of this
state.
 Exhaustion of minerals such as gold, copper and iron at Great
Political reasons for the decline of Great
Zimbabwe and its neighbours led to its decline.
Zimbabwe  Exhaustion of game [fauna] for meat, skins and ivory led to its
collapse.
 There were civil wars in the state, for example, between  The Dande area was rich in resources like game, especially
Nyatsimba Mutota and Chagwa [1450] leading to Mutota’s elephants for ivory and also gold and salt led to its decline.
migration.  There were poor harvests due to severe droughts.
 Succession disputes in the ruling family forced losers to move.  The soil in Dande was rich.
 The state became too big to be ruled by one ruler.

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Social reasons for the decline of Great Zimbabwe Origin of Mutapa State
 There was overpopulation which resulted in shortage of land.
 Successive droughts [between 1420 and 1430] led to the decline of The state was one of the late Iron Age states. The origin of Mutapa state is
Great Zimbabwe. not clear [is debatable]. According to oral tradition, Mutapa state was the
 Social instability in the state [social unrest] led to its decline. direct successor of Great Zimbabwe state. Oral traditions say Nyatsimba
 The plague of locusts also contributed to the decline of this state. Mutota migrated from Great Zimbabwe to the north in search of salt and
settled in the Dande area. The shortage of salt represented a general
Contribution of trade to the decline of Great Zimbabwe shortage of resources at Great Zimbabwe. The rapid growth of population
 Trade led to the exhaustion of resources such as gold, ivory, at Great Zimbabwe could have resulted in a critical shortage of such
ostrich feathers and the like. resources as firewood, pastures, fertile land, game and minerals. There was
 Trade with foreigners led to unfair trade practices which led to its a decline in trade with the East Coast and this could have forced people
collapse. like Mutota to migrate northwards. There was flourishing trade along the
 They received worthless items like jewellery for gold and ivory. Zambezi River with the Arabs and Swahilis. Perhaps, this forced people to
 The opening of the Zambezi trade route [which favoured Mutapa] leave Great Zimbabwe and moved north to control trade routes.
caused the decline of Great Zimbabwe. Succession disputes at Great Zimbabwe could have forced people to
migrate and establish their own state. Mutota had a strong army. He used
Other factors which led to the decline of Great his army to conquer the Tonga, Tavara and the Korekore. They gave him
Zimbabwe the praise name ‘Munhumutapa’, meaning ‘lord of the conquered people’.
He established his capital at Chitako hills near mount Fura in the Dande
area. Archaeologists however, argue that the direct successor of Great
 Exhaustion of pastures
Zimbabwe was the Torwa state whose capital was at Khami near
 Exhaustion of soil
Bulawayo. This was evidenced by the type of ruins and the artefacts
 Exhaustion of fire wood, game and other resources.
similar to those of Great Zimbabwe. But there is no evidence to support
 Persistent droughts forced many people to move away.
when the Torwa state existed. Documents written by Portuguese suggest
 Succession disputes also contributed.
that the Mutapa state existed before the collapse of Great Zimbabwe and
 Civil wars forced the defeated to migrate with their supporters.
these states were inter-related. Despite the failure to find concrete evidence
 There was also overpopulation at Great Zimbabwe.
of Mutapa origins historians agree that that the state grew into one of the
largest and powerful states in pre-colonial Zimbabwe.
THE MUTAPA STATE
Reasons for the rise of Mutapa state

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 It was one of the most powerful states in pre-colonial Zimbabwe.

 -Overpopulation at Great Zimbabwe led to its rise.  Mutota died in 1450 before completing his expansionist policy.
 -Civil wars at Great Zimbabwe also contributed.  Nyanhewe Matope, his son inherited the throne and continued the
 -Shortage of resources at Great Zimbabwe such as wood, salt, gold expansionist policy.
and land for cultivation.  Matope extended the territory eastwards by conquering
 -Exhaustion of soil at Great Zimbabwe led people to migrate independent kingdoms of Barwe, Manyika, Sofala, Uteve,
northwards. Madanda, Chidima, Sena, Guruuswa, Mbire and the like.
 -Inability of Great Zimbabwe to hold different lineages.  The main driving force behind this expansion was Matope’s desire
 -Succession disputes at Great Zimbabwe also contributed. to control trade routes and collect tribute, control gold mines and
 -Successive droughts at Great Zimbabwe led to the rise of this ivory sources.
state.  The Mutapa state was at its peak [zenith] during Matope’s reign.
 -Mutota’s military prowess led to the rise of this state.  In the East, Mutapa was bounded by the Indian Ocean, in the
 -Availability of gold deposits in Dande area. West, by the Kalahari Desert, in the North, by the Zambezi and in
-The need to start new states by some individuals like Mutota. the South by the Limpopo River.
 -Availability of game, especially elephants for ivory were found in  All conquered tribes paid tribute.
abundance in Dande area.  Mutota and Matope created a very vast empire and had to appoint
 -Imperial ambitions of leaders also led to its rise. vassal chiefs to control provinces.
 -Availability of resources like pastures and fertile soils also
contributed to its rise. Chiefdoms conquered by Nyanhewe Matope
 -The need to control long distance trade at the Zambezi valley.  Manyika -Barwe
 -The weaknesses of the local people in Dande area played an  Madanda /Sedanda -Teve / Uteve
important part in the rise of this state.  Sena -Guruuswa /
Expansion of Mutapa statestate Butua
 Mutapa state grew into a very large and powerful state.  Mbire -Sofala
 Mutota conquered many areas in Dande valley.  Chidima
 He conquered the Korekore, Tonga and the Tavara tribes.
 He was given the praise name Mwenemutapa meaning lord of Benefits of the expansion to the people of Mutapa
conquered land.  The state became conducive for trade and farming.
 He established his capital at Chitakochangonya near mount Fura in  They got peace and protection by a strong state.
Dande.  They had access to foreign goods through trade.

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 The rulers had a large base for collecting tribute from vassal chiefs  Mutapa army fought first Chimurenga when they defeated the
and ordinary people. Portuguese in the sixteenth century.
 They had access to more resources like wild game, gold, fertile  The army had problems when the empire became over extended.
soils and the like.  It faced many rebellions, for example, by the Rozvi in the South.
 The army had strengths and limitations.
Negative Effects of the expansion to the people of Mutapa
 May people were killed during the wars of expansion. Role of Mutota’s military ability in the rise of the Mutapa state
 Wars often resulted in destruction of whole villages as huts were It enabled Mutota to conquer the Tonga, Tavara and Korekore in
burnt. the Zambezi valley.
 There were rebellions by vassal chiefs which caused deaths and He got the name Mwenemutapa to respect his military genius.
destructions. He built his capital in their territory to show his strength.
 There were succession disputes by ambitious members of the royal He used his military ability to exploit resources.
family. He used the army to create a large state.
He created a strong state.
 The empire created was too big and difficult to control because of
poor communication.
Other factors which led to the rise of Mutapa
 Ordinary people and vassal chiefs resented the payment of tribute.
 Availability of resources like gold, ivory and fertile soils in the
 Many young people were forced to join the Mutapa armies.
Dande valley.
 Economic activities such as crop cultivation were often disrupted
 Long distance trade also contributed.
by these wars of expansion.
 Weaknesses of local inhabitants also led to its rise.

Provinces of Mutapa state

 Dande -Manyika
Role played by the army in the expansion of Mutapa state  Madanda / Sedanda -Barwe
 Forces were organised into several battalions under a chain of  Chidima -Mbire
command and Mutapa as commander in chief.  Matavara -Uteve
 Mutapa armies fought in open using the classic cow horn  Guruuswa / Torwa / Butua -Chikovo
formation to surround the enemy.  Pfura -Sango
 Because of uncertainty of food, the army could not go on long
campaigns. Names of Mutapa kings
 Nyatsimba Mutota -Nyanhewe Matope

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 Chikuyo Chisamarengu -Chivere Nyasoro Foreigners paid in form of curva for them to be allowed to trade
 Negomo Mapunzagutu -Gatsi Rusere and also for their protection whist they were in the state.
 Nyambo Kapararidze -Mavura Mhande  They hunted animals like hares and kudus for meat, elephants and
 Mukombwe -Nyahuma Mukombero rhinoceros for ivory and cheetahs and leopards for their precious
 Neshangwe -Chioko skins.
 Kapuratsine -Nyakunembiri  They caught fish to supplement their diet.
 They gathered fruits and vegetables.
Names of Mutapa rulers who resisted Portuguese control  They raided other states for grain, cattle, goats, women and boys.
 Nyambo Kapararidze -Mukombwe  They did art and craft, that is,
 Nyakunembiri -Kapuratsine  They did basketry, for instance, they made the
winnowing basket.
Names of Mutapa rulers who co-operated with the Portuguese  Pottery.
 Mavura Mhande -Gatsi Rusere  They did blacksmithing.
 Negomo Mapunzagutu -Chikuyo Chisamarengu  They wove cotton into cloth.
 Wood carving
 Stone carving
Economic Organisation of Mutapa  Leather work
 Jewellery making
 They grew crops like sorghum, millet, rapoko, beans, melons,  Building in stone
pumpkins and later on maize. Maize were believed to have been  Drum making
introduced by the Portuguese.
 They kept animals like cattle, goats and sheep for meat and milk. Items used to pay tribute to the king in Mutapa state
Cattle were also used for paying lobola.  Gold -Ivory
 They mined minerals like iron, gold, copper, tin, lead and silver.  Hoes -Spears
 They practised both internal and external trade. Externally they  Grain -Animal skins
traded with the Swahili, Arabs and Portuguese. They imported  Cattle -Goats
ceramics, jewellery, beads, knives, cloth, cowry shells and guns.  Sheep -Labour
 The subjects paid tribute to the king in form of gold, ivory, hoes,  Baskets -Iron tools
spears, grain, animal skins, livestock, baskets and labour.
Portuguese trading posts / towns / feiras in Mutapa state
 Massapa -Maramuca / Rimuka

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 DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES: HISTORY

 Masekesa -Angoche
 The society was patrilineal.
 Dambarare -Chitomborwizi  Ownership of cattle was a status symbol.
 Tete -Zumbo  There was sexual division of labour.
 Luanze -Chicoa  They practised loaning of cattle [kuronzera].
 Buccuto / Bukuto -Sena  They celebrated the coming of a new daughter in law.
 They celebrated the birth of a new child.
Benefits of the economic system of Mutapa to the Mutapa people  Polygamy was practised and this was a source of labour.
 Cattle, goats and sheep provided meat, milk and hides.  They paid lobola to their in laws in form of cattle.
 The growing of crops ensured food security.  They practised the nhimbe system.
 People obtained goods they did not have through local trade.  They believed in God [Mwari].
 External trade brought foreign goods especially exotic crops like  They believed in spirit mediums and ancestral spirits.
maize which became their staple food.  They believed in family, regional and national spirit mediums.
 Craftwork promoted self reliance in terms of tools and utensils.  They believed that spirits lived in pools, thick forests and
 Hunting, fishing and gathering supplemented their diet. mountains.
Non-Benefits of the economic system of Mutapa to the people of  The king was chosen by spirit mediums and they therefore
Mutapa believed in divine kingship.
 Women and children did most of the work in the fields.  The king was the link between God and ancestral spirits on one
 Mining was a dangerous activity since mines often collapsed side and ordinary people on the other side.
killing people.  They believed in life after death.
 The ruling class and the king benefited most from the mining of  They believed in witchcraft.
gold.  They consulted spirit mediums in times of crisis like wars,
 Trade in gold and ivory with the foreigners largely benefited the drought, epidemics and succession disputes.
king and the ruling class.  They also believed in avenging spirits [Ngozi] –so family
 Payment of tribute in form of cattle, ivory and gold was a form of members were not allowed to unnecessarily kill people.
exploitation.  They held ceremonies such as rainmaking ceremonies.
 Raiding of neighbouring chiefdoms often resulted in wars and the  They had good knowledge of herbs, magic and medicines.
killing of people. Duties / Importance of spirit mediums
 Installed the king -Gave
Social organisation of Mutapa state advice to the king

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 Healed the sick -Led at  -The king controlled long distance trade.
ceremonies  -The king was the judicial leader.
 Consulted ancestral spirits in times of crisis  -The king was the chief distributer of land.
 -The king was the chief judge.
Importance of religion in the political system of Mutapa state  -The king was helped to rule by a council of elders, Dare.
 -Spirit mediums installed the kings.  -They raided other states for grain, cattle and goats.
 -This made the king a divine ruler who was feared and respected.  -The king appointed lesser chiefs.
 -This reduced chances of rebellions in the state.  -Their posts were hereditary.
 -Spirit mediums were consulted by kings and chiefs during times  -Lesser chiefs were required to collect the royal fire annually to
of crisis such as drought, wars and epidemics. show loyalty.
 -The king led at all religious ceremonies.  -District chiefs were in charge of districts.
 -The kings also consulted spirit mediums when they wanted to  -Provinces were under provincial chiefs.
make any major decisions like going to war.  -The power of the king rested in the powerful army.
 -Religion played a role of unifying people.  -All subjects paid tribute to the king to show loyalty.
 -Religious ceremonies and rituals such as rainmaking and  -The king had final decisions.
reincarnation brought people together.  -King’s wives played an important role in the state.
 -The common belief in God unified people.  -The king kept an army to maintain law and order.
 -The king was the commander in chief of the army.
Other factors important in the political system of Mutapa  -There were also important officials apart from the king such as
 -The army maintained law and order. the Queen mother, king’s sons in law, army commander,
 -The payment of tribute by vassal chiefs and ordinary people provincial chiefs and spirit mediums.
ensured loyalty.
 -A strong economy ensured stability. Resident officials of the Mutapa state
-King -Queen mother
Political organisation of Mutapa -Army commander (mukomohasha] -Court councillors
-Spirit mediums -King’s sons in law

 -The king was the head of state.

Non Resident officials of Mutapa state
 -The king was called by the title Munhumutapa [Mwenemutapa].
-Provincial chiefs -District chiefs
 -Kingship was hereditary.
-Headmen -Village heads
 -The king was appointed by spirit mediums.

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 -Punished rebellious chiefs -Maintained law

Importance of tribute in the Mutapa political system and order in the state
 -It ensured loyalty of lesser chiefs to the king.  -Herded the king’s cattle -Cultivated the
 -It ensured lesser chiefs would not be too rich, powerful and king’s fields
ambitious.
 -This helped to reduce chances of rebellions.
 -It enhanced the wealth, influence and power of the king.

Military Structure / Military Organisation of Mutapa

 -The army was headed by the king as the commander in chief.
 -The king was helped by an appointed commander, Nengomasha,
who was the second most powerful official in the state. DECLINE OF MUTAPA STATE
 -There was a council of war [Dare rehondo].
 -The council ratified war decisions and conscripted soldiers. Reasons for the decline of Mutapa
 -The Mutapa had a large army which assembled when need arose.
Internal reasons for its decline
 -However, the Mutapa maintained a small regular force of 200 to
500 soldiers to guard the state maintain peace and order at the
 -Succession disputes led to the decline of this state.
king’s court.
 -Civil wars caused the decline of this state.
 -Drums were beaten and parapanda was sounded to assemble
 -The state became too big to be ruled by one ruler.
Mutapa soldiers.
 -Some chiefs broke away, for instance, Barwe, Uteve, Torwa,
 -N’angas [Spiritual healers] were consulted by the army before it
Mbire and Guruuswa who felt independent enough to start their
went to war.
own kingdoms.
 -The Mutapa armies were armed with spears, shields, battle axes
 -Some tributary states refused to pay tribute such a Barwe,
and bows and arrows.
Manyika and Uteve.
 -There were some weak leaders such as Mavura Mhande, Gatsi
Duties / Importance of the army in Mutapa state
Rusere and Nyahuma.
 -Protected the state from enemies -Collected tribute
 -Exhaustion of gold fields and ivory led to its decline.
 -Conquered neighbouring states -Raided other
 -Shortage of salt and other minerals led to decline in trade.
states for wealth
 -Outbreak of epidemics killed many people.

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 DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES: HISTORY

 -Revolts by vassal chiefs, for example, Changa-ruler of Rozvi.

External reasons for the decline of Mutapa

THE PORTUGUESE PENETRATION INTO THE
 -Loss of control of long distance trade to other states like Torwa MUTAPA STATE
and Rozvi.
 -Influence of Swahili traders Aims of the Portuguese in Mutapa / Reasons for Portuguese
 -Growth of Portuguese control undermined the authority of the penetration in Mutapa
Mutapa kings.  -Initially the Portuguese wanted to trade with The Mutapa people.
 -The prazo system led to loss of land by the local people.  -They wanted to drive the Swahili and Arabs away for they had
 -The Portuguese promoted civil wars. become competitors.
 -Interference in local politics by the Portuguese by installing  -They wanted to spread Christianity.
puppet rulers.  -They wanted to take control of the gold mines in Mutapa.
 -Interference from Arabs.  -They wanted to control trade routes in the interior.
 -Chikunda raids for manpower also contributed.  -They wanted land from the Shona.
 -Slave trade weakened the state.  -They wanted to fulfil the ambitions of the king of Portugal who
 -The spread of Christianity led to division in the state. was imperialistic.
 -The Portuguese refused to pay tribute.  -They wanted to civilise Africans.
 -Maravi invasion also led to its decline.  -They wanted to prepare Africa for Portuguese domination.
 -Invasion by mfecane groups caused its decline.  -They wanted to build trading posts [feiras].
 -The defeat by the Rozvi led to its decline.  -They also wanted to politically and economically control Mutapa.
 -Colonisation by the British led to its final collapse.  -The Portuguese were searching for the legendary Prester John.
 -They wanted to avenge the death of Father Goncalo da Silveira.
 -They were invited by Gatsi Rusere.

How the Portuguese got in touch with the Mutapa

The Portuguese arrived at Sofala in 1506 and took over the port of Sofala
from the Arabs and Swahilis. The Portuguese were able to use them as
middlemen. More reports about the interior were made by Antonio
Fernandez. This fuelled up their ambitions to monopolise and control gold
production of the region [Zimbabwe]. Between 1550 and 1630 the

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 DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES: HISTORY

Portuguese made several attempts to control the Mutapa state which they  -Gatsi Rusere sought the support of Portuguese by signing a treaty
were dealing with directly. They established a number of trading posts of military assistance with the Portuguese.
[feiras] in the interior. These trading posts included Massapa, Dambarare,  -The Portuguese helped Rusere to achieve the throne in 1596.
Masekesa, Zvengombe and the like. These feiras had churches. These  -The Portuguese were to help Rusere against attacks from Maravi
centres were headed by officers called Captain of the gates [Capitor mor]. kingdom and to suppress rebellions within his state.
Their duties were [i] To control individual traders. [ii] To handle  -Rusere agreed to cede all his gold, copper, iron, lead and tin
complaints from Portuguese traders to the Mutapa and vice versa. [iii] mines to Portuguese.
Settled all disputes within the community. [iv]They ensured that the  -Rusere was forced to give his child and his heir to the Portuguese
annual presents which were due to the king were given to him. This was who turned to bring him up as a Christian so that he will be loyal
done during their initial settlement in the interior. Initially relations with to Portuguese when he had come to Mutapa. This son was sent to
the Mutapa were of tributary nature, with the Portuguese paying tribute Goa, India where he became a catholic priest and he never
called curva, in form of cloth, beads, silks and ceramics. In 1561 Father returned to Africa.
Goncalo da Silveira was killed after he had converted Negomo  -Rusere gave the Portuguese the right to hunt.
Mapunzagutu and some members of his family. Goncalo was the first  -Portuguese were allowed to trade freely.
Jesuit Missionary to visit the Mutapa state. Negomo was influenced by  -He agreed to ban Muslim traders.
Shona traditionalists and Muslims to kill Goncalo. They told him that he  -In 1624 Rusere died and his death was followed by a civil war
was planning to take over the state. His death created tension between the between his sons.
Shona and the Portuguese. The Portuguese decided to gain direct entry into  -Rusere was succeeded by his son Nyambo Kapararidze in 1627.
the interior. They were now using military force of their way into the  -In 1629, Mavura Mhande sought and got the support of
interior. They also used the pretext of the death of Goncalo da Silveira to Portuguese to overthrow Nyambo Kapararidze.
directly interfere in Mutapa politics. They wanted to retaliate / revenge.  -Kapararidze was killed in 1629 by the Portuguese who installed
Mavura.
Puppet Mutapas  -Following his installation, Mavura was forced to sign a treaty of
vassalage with the Portuguese [1629].
 -The Portuguese sponsored puppet Mutapas.  -Mavura made land grants to the Portuguese.
 -The Mutapas of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries were  -The Portuguese were allowed to build churches and to preach
puppets. wherever they liked freely.
 -Between 1590 and 1607 there were several rebellions within the  -The Portuguese were allowed to build schools.
state and this created political instability and the Portuguese found  -The captain of Massapa was given authority over everyone in the
this an opportune moment to interfere in Mutapa politics. area [black and white].

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 DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES: HISTORY

 -The Portuguese would maintain Mavura on throne in the name of  -Erosion of culture through spread of Christianity.
the king of Portugal whose sovereignty he now acknowledged.  -Forced labour and slavery.
Mutapa was made a vassal of Portugal.  -Forced payment of tribute to the Portuguese.
 -He agreed to cede all his silver and gold mines to the Portuguese.  -Loss of political independence.
 -He agreed to allow complete freedom of passage throughout his
empire to all Portuguese traders. Names of Portuguese nationals [people] who penetrated the
 -He agreed to expel all Swahili-Arab traders from the empire. Zimbabwean Plateau between the sixteenth and seventeenth century
 -Mavura was to stop the curva system and instead he was to pay  -Antonio Fernandez -Goncalo da
tribute to the Portuguese. Silveira
 -He was to show great respect to the captain of the gate who was  -Francisco Barreto -Vasco
to stay at the king’s palace and not at Massapa. Fernandez
 -The king was to consult the captain of the gate in matters of war  -Diego Simeos Madeira -Miguel
and peace. Bernandes
 -Mavura depended on Portuguese until his death in 1652.  -Vasco Homen -Antonio Caiado
 -Portuguese power continued until Mukombwe became Mutapa in  -Gasper Boccaro -Joao dos Santos
1663.  -Diego da Menes -M Alveres
 -Mukombwe allied himself with the powerful Rozvi Changamire Pereira
and drove the Portuguese out of the state in 1690s.  -S Bayao -Dona Katarina
 -A joint Mutapa and Rozvi army attacked the Portuguese at
Dambarare and Massapa and drove them out of Mutapa and Problems faced by Portuguese armies during their invasion of Mutapa
Manyika. state in the 1570s
 -The Portuguese were now restricted to Sena and Tete. -Diseases -Hunger
-Resistance from local people -Loss of lives
Benefits of these treaties to the people of Mutapa -Some soldiers were wounded -Heavy armour
 -They got protection from external attacks and internal attacks. -Failure to find gold -Attacks from
 -There was temporary peace. hostile wild animals
 -They got Portuguese gods from trade. -Crossing difficult rivers
 -Literacy was spread
Negative Effects of the treaties to the people of Mutapa THE PRAZO SYSTEM
 -Loss of land and cattle.
 -Loss of resources like gold.

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 DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES: HISTORY

 -The Prazo system was introduced by the Portuguese.  -The Prazeros spoke African language.
 -Prazos [Mapurazi] were large farms largely owned by Portuguese  -They believed in witchcraft.
in Mutapa.  -They practised polygamy just like Africans.
 -Prazeros were owners of Prazos.  -They traded with and raided Africans.
 -The system began during the reign of Negomo Mapunzagutu  -Prazeros became African chiefs demanding tribute from Africans
when he gave land to Francisco Barreto. on their land.
 -Some of these Prazeros were given land as rewards for their  -They stripped African chiefs off their role.
military service.  -The Portuguese used old feudal laws to govern the Prazeros.
 -They gained control of the lower Zambezi through signing  -The Portuguese lived in luxury.
treaties with African chiefs or through military force.  -They controlled trade through vashambadzi.
 -In 1607 Gatsi Rusere gave land to a Tete trader, Diego Simeos  -Mining of gold, silver and copper was done.
Madeira. He became a powerful settler with 4000 Chikunda army.  -Prazos were a source of slaves who were exported to Brazil.
 -More land was given to Portuguese conquerors by Mavura. It is  -Shifting cultivation was practised.
said that he was forced to cede the whole of his kingdom to the  -There was sexual co-habitation between Portuguese and African
Portuguese crown as part of the price for Portuguese aid. women which resulted in the birth of a race called mulattos
 -Rulers of Uteve gave large tracts of land to Dias Bayao. The area [coloureds].
stretched from Pungwe to Zambezi.  -The Portuguese surrounded themselves with advisers, including
 -The Portuguese confirmed the Prazo system by giving official religious leaders who helped them in such ceremonies as
land titles to individual Prazeros. rainmaking.
 -The Portuguese government wanted Prazos to be centres of  -The Prazeros were responsible for deciding on all judicial cases
Portuguese civilisation and commercial agriculture. and settling all disputes.
 -The Portuguese grew crops like dagga, tobacco, rice, maize,
sorghum, millet, watermelons, sugar cane, coffee, cassava, squash, Contribution of the Prazo system to the growth of slavery in the
groundnuts, pumpkins, guavas, mangoes, cow peas, sweet Zambezi valley
potatoes, paw paws and potatoes.
 -Slavery began on Prazos and mines.  -Growth of plantations such as Zambezi Prazos demanded
 -The Prazeros used African chiefs and their subjects as labourers. increasing numbers of slave labourers.
 -Trusted slaves were recruited into personal armies of Prazeros.  -Mining activities in the Prazos required slave labour.
 -The Chikunda armies ill-treated the local people.  -There was need for slave armies.
 -Female slaves were used as cultivators.
 -Armies were used to raid chiefs to capture lands with minerals. Other factors which led to the growth of slavery

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 DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES: HISTORY

 -War captives became domestic slaves. -They spoke African language -Birth of
 -Criminals and witches were also treated as domestic slaves. Mulattos
 -Ivory trade required slave labour to ferry ivory to the posts and to -Rain making ceremonies -Adoption of
the coast. local culture

Names of Portuguese Prazeros Political Activities carried out on Prazos

 -Diego Simeos Madeira -Vicente Jose
Ribeiro -The Prazeros exercised judicial powers.
 -Manuel Antonio de Sousa [Kuvheya] -Sisuando Dias -Prazeros controlled Prazos like African chiefs.
Bayao -They raised Chikunda armies [Private armies].
 -Rodrigo Lobo -Matakenya -They demanded tribute from Africans.
-They used Chikunda to interfere in succession disputes.
-They forged Alliances with vassal Mutapas.
-Mutapas became their puppets.
-Prazos were independent.
Economic Activities carried out in Prazos -Prazeros appointed vassal chiefs.
-Crop cultivation
-Trading -Hunting
-Tribute payment -Mining Positive Effects of the Prazo system on Mutapa
-Animal rearing -Raiding  -New crops were introduced, for example, maize.
-Slave trade -Craft work  -Modern civilisation was introduced, for example, clothing.
 -Improvement of communication, for example, roads were
Social Activities carried out in Prazos constructed.
 -Africans received foreign goods such as guns.
-Preaching -Abuse of  -Manyika copied Portuguese words such as Prazo [Purazi].
African women  -Spread of Christianity reduced barbarism and paganism.
-Acculturation of locals -Intermarriage  -Trade improved
-Witchcraft -Polygamy  -They were taught new farming methods.
-Practice of slavery -Lived in mud  -They were taught new mining methods.
plastered and thatched huts  -They were protected against foreign forces.

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 DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES: HISTORY

 -They failed to locate and get the news of the Legendary Prester
Negative Effects of the Prazo system on Mutapa John.
 -Spreading of diseases
 -Abuse of African women Importance of Portuguese military power in controlling the state
 -A vast amount of minerals like gold was taken away from the  -They used guns to instil fear.
Zambezi valley.  -Military power weakened the Mutapa state in the 1570s.
 -Numerous deaths were incurred.  -They were able to control chiefs in the Zambezi valley.
 -African culture was destroyed.  -Military power was used to control trade.
 -Mutapa kings were forced to pay tribute.  -Military power was used to support rebels.
 -African chiefs were forced to supply slave labour.  -Military power was used to raid for manpower.
 -The Portuguese interfered too much in Mutapa politics.  -Military power was used for protection from attacks.
 -Christianity brought division among Africans.
 -Africans lost their land. Other factors which helped the Portuguese to control Mutapa state
 -Slavery was rampant.  -Christianity was used to gain influence on the Mutapa.
 -Prostitution was rampant.  -Weak leaders asked for Portuguese help during succession
 -Africans were raided and oppressed. disputes and became puppets.
 -The Portuguese promoted civil wars.  -The state was too big, so the Portuguese were able to control
 -Africans lost control of trade. distant chiefdoms.
 -The Portuguese monopolised trade.
Successes of the Portuguese in achieving their aims  -The prazo system where Chikunda armies were kept.
 -They monopolised trade.s  -The Portuguese now got tribute [Curva]
 -They converted some Africans into Christianity.
 -They managed to expel Swahili traders.
 -They established trading posts in the interior and outside.
 -They located the source of gold.
THE ROZVI STATE
Failures of Portuguese in achieving their aims
 -They failed to avenge the death of Goncalo da Silveira. Origins of the Rozvi State
 -They failed to convert many Africans into Christianity.
 -They failed to permanently colonise Zimbabwe.

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The origin of the Rozvi State is controversial. There are two main theories  -Insukamini -Umnukwana
which have been put forward in explaining the origin of the Rozvi state. [Munekwani
[a] Some historians believed that the Rozvi were once subjects of the
Mutapa people. Their leader Dombo [Dombolakonachimwango Names of Rozvi kings / Changamires
Chimuloyichamavengeni] was once a cattle herder under Mutapa  -Dombo [Changa] -Chirisamhuru I
Mukombwe. He was given some cattle and he managed to grow rich and  -Nechadzike -Nechagadzike
created his army. He is believed to have revolted against the Mutapa when  -Baswi -
the state was at its decline. With his powerful army he was able to conquer Rupandamanhanga
and subdue the Torwa people. It was the Torwa people who nicknamed his  -Gomoremvura -
people the Rozvi, meaning destroyers. He established his capital at Gumboreshumba
Danangombe [Dhlodhlo] in Matabeleland. The capital was transferred to  -Tohwechipi -Chirisamhuru II
different places by different leaders, for example, to Naletale and  -Rupengo -Dlembeu
Manyanga. At its peak the Rozvi is believed to have covered such areas as Shona Chiefdoms conquered by Changamire Dombo
Guruuswa, Mbire, Buhera, Bocha, Duma and parts of South Eastern  -Torwa -Seke
Highlands. In 1695 the Rozvi helped Mutapa Mukombwe to drive away  -Manyika -Uteve
the Portuguese from the Zimbabwean Plateau. The Rozvi took over from  -Madanda / Sedanda -Mutema
the Mutapa as a new force to reckon with in the Zimbabwean plateau. [b]  -Chikanga -Mutasa
Other historians have a simpler explanation on the origin of Rozvi. They
say that Rozvi was just a new name. They say Rozvi did not originate from  -Marange -Nyashanu
a place outside the Torwa state. They say that the Rozvi and the Torwa  -Bocha -Zvimba
were the same people. They say that it was only the name that changed. In  -Barwe -Chiweshe
other words, the Torwa state developed and changed its name to Rozvi.  -Duma -Makoni
There was no invasion or conquest which took place. The old Torwa state  -Buhera -Mbire
continued but it was just the name which changed. Thus Dombo was a Expansion of Rozvi state
descendant of a Torwa Changamire.
Changamire Dombo broke away from Mutapa state under
Rozvi Towns / Rozvi Capitals Mukombwe .There was a civil war and Dombo was forced to migrate to
 -Danangombe / Dhlodhlo -Naletale the South-western Zimbabwe. He defeated the Torwa and Kalanga people
 -Manyanga -Khami and established a powerful state in the Butua area. He built his capital at
 -Nhava yaTumbare -Matendere Danangombe in the 1680s. Dombo embarked on an expansionist policy
conquering surrounding areas. He attacked and reduced the Mutapa state

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 DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES: HISTORY

into a very small state in Dande area. Dombo conquered the kingdoms of  - The Rozvi were able to amass wealth and power and became the
Uteve and Manyika in the East in the 1690s. He also conquered and dominant state in the area
absorbed the Venda in the south. Dombo also attacked, conquered and  -The Rozvi controlled long distance trade along the Zambezi
absorbed the people of Buhera, Bocha, Duma and the south eastern valley
highlands. Changamire Dombo drove away the Portuguese from their  -The Rozvi defeated the Torwa and subdued theme
feiras at Dambarare, Tete and Manyika in 1693. Dombo forged a military
alliance with Mutapa Nyakunembiri and by 1695 the Portuguese had Economic Organisation of the Rozvi
abandoned their trading stations in the interior. The Rozvi became the
supreme power on the Zimbabwean plateau. After these wars the
 -They reared animals like cattle, goats and sheep.
Portuguese accepted Rozvi over lordship in the interior. Changamire
 -They cultivated crops like millet, sorghum, maize, melons and so
Dombo died in 1695 leaving behind a very strong state. Chirisamhuru, his
on.
son became the new Mambo and continued to expand the kingdom. By
 -They mined minerals like gold, copper and iron.
1700 the Rozvi kingdom was at its peak covering the whole of the
 -They hunted animals for meat, ivory and precious skins.
Zimbabwean plateau from Zambezi to the Limpopo. The Rozvi mambo
 -They gathered fruits, vegetables and mushroom.
maintained a very large army and forced many vassal states to pay tribute
 -They raided other states for livestock, grain, boys and girls.
from the 1690s until the period of Mfecane. The Rozvi succeeded to rule
 -Subjects paid tribute in form of cattle, goats and grain.
the whole of Zimbabwe directly or indirectly through vassal chiefs.
 -They practised both internal and external trade.
 -They caught fish to supplement their diet.
Reasons for the rise and expansion of Rozvi state
 -The Rozvi were skilful fighters
 -They did art and craft, that is,
 -This enabled them to defeat several groups
a] Pottery
 -The ability of the Rozvi to defeat the Portuguese and drive them
b] Weaving
to their former settlements at Masekesa.
c] Basketry
 -After they were defeated by the Rozvi, the Portuguese agreed to
d] Blacksmithing
come under the authority of the Rozvi.
e] Wood carving
 -The chiefs who were defeated by the Rozvi began paying tribute
f] Stone carving
to the Rozvi king.
g] Jewellery making
 -The Rozvi extended their rule to non Rozvi people
h] Leather work
 -The Ndau, Zezuru and Karanga voluntarily joined the Rozvi state
i] Drum making
for protection against Portuguese

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 DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES: HISTORY

Exports from the Rozvi state  -Rozvi marriages were exogenous.

 -Gold -Ivory  -They lived in pole and dagga houses.
 -Cattle -Sheep  -They believed in God, the Supreme Being and creator of
 -Pigs -Sorghum everything on earth.
 -Millet -Ostrich feathers  -They believed in national, regional and family spirit mediums.
 -Animal skins -Iron tools  -The king was the religious leader and led at all religious
 -Pots -Baskets ceremonies.
 -Goats -Pigs  -They brewed beer and slaughtered cattle at ceremonies called
Bira.
Imports into the Rozvi state  -They held rainmaking ceremonies.
 -Cloth -Glass beads  -They consulted N’angas.
 -Guns -Liquor  -They believed in witchcraft.
 -Maize -Fruits  -They believed that some spirits lived in larger pools, thick forests
 -Tobacco -Mirrors and mountains.
 -Ammunition -Ceramics  -They believed in life after death.
 -They consulted their ancestors through spirit mediums in times of
crisis like wars, droughts and other disasters.
Social Organisation of Rozvi  -They believed in divine kingship.

 -The society was patrilineal. Importance of the Social Organisation in the Political System of the
 -Ownership of cattle was a symbol of status. Rozvi
 -They paid lobola to their in laws in form of cattle.
 -They practised loaning of cattle [kuronzera]. -Religion was a unifying force.
 -They practised sexual division of labour. -The spirit mediums installed the king.
 -They practised the nhimbe system. -Religious leaders could reprimand a Mambo who misbehaved.
 -They celebrated the birth of a new child. -Cattle loaning system helped rulers to maintain influence and
 -They celebrated the coming of a new daughter in law. peace.
 -They were polygamous. -The king led at religious ceremonies.
 -Incest and bestiality were taboos. -Polygamy was used by the ruling class to maintain alliances and
 -They lived in villages according to lineages. important lineages.
 -They belonged to the Moyo totem.

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Other factors important in the Political system of the Rozvi  -The king’s power rested in the powerful army.
 -The provinces were under provincial chiefs.
 -Tribute ensured loyalty to the king.  -District chiefs were in charge of districts.
 -A strong economy ensured stability.  -The chiefs were appointed by the king.
 -Good relations with other states.  -The posts of chiefs were hereditary.
 -The army was important for maintaining law and order and  -Vassal chiefs paid tribute to the king to show loyalty.
suppressing rebellions.  -The king was the commander in chief of the army.
 -The Tumbare was the military commander and acted as regent
Duties of females in Rozvi when a king died until another one was installed. In the case of a
younger mambo Tumbare also acted as regent until the younger
 -Crop cultivation -House hold chores Mambo is grown enough to rule.
 -Gathering -Looking after children  -The Tumbare was the chief tribute collector.
 -The king led all religious ceremonies.
Duties of males in Rozvi  -The king was the chief judge.
 -The king was the custodian of state property.
 -Hunting -Herding cattle  -The king controlled long distance trade.
 -Mining -Thatching huts
 -Smelting -Trade Government officials in the Rozvi state
 -King / Mambo / Changamire -Tumbare
 -Fishing
 -Provincial chiefs -District chiefs
 -Queen mother -King’s sons in
Political Organisation of Rozvi law
 -Spirit mediums -Court
 -The king was the head of state. councillors
 -His post was hereditary.  -Village heads -King’s sons in
 -The king was the chief distributer of land. law
 -The king ruled with the assistance of a Court of officials which
included the spirit mediums, provincial chiefs, Queen mother, Military Organisation of the Rozvi
army commander and priests.
 -Mambo’s senior wives played an important role in the king’s
 -The Rozvi had a standing army.
court.

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 DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES: HISTORY

 -The mambo was the commander in chief of the army.  -Receiving and sharing tribute -Distributed food
 -The Tumbare was the commander of the army. So in other words in times of drought
the Mambo was deputised by the Tumbare.  -Controlled trade -Declaring war
 -The Mambo kept a small bodyguard for his own personal  -Protecting citizens -Controlled
defence. mining grounds
 -These were permanently armed and were called Ngwanangwana  -Appointed army generals -Receiving
[wide awake]. foreigners
 -The bulk of the army was composed of young men and unmarried  -Controlled hunting grounds -Judicial leader
cadres.  -Sanctioned ritual ceremonies -Appointed the
 -This army was well equipped with bows, arrows, assegais, shields council of advisers [Dare]
and battle axes.  -Punished wrong doers -Sent the army
 -The army underwent specialised training. for raiding expeditions
 -This training involved military exercise and archery [a technique  -Received and handled reports from various parts of the kingdom
of shooting effectively].
 -The army was very strong, efficient and well disciplined and this Reasons for the Decline of Rozvi State
enabled it to conquer neighbours and rule them for almost 150
years [1680 to 1850].
Internal reasons for the Decline
 -Because of its effectiveness [prowess] in battle, the Portuguese
ended up accusing this army of using supernatural powers against
 -Some vassal chiefs like Uteve and Madanda broke away and
enemies.
refused to pay tribute.
 -Successive droughts in the late eighteenth and nineteenth century.
Duties / Responsibilities of the Rozvi ruler or King
 -Succession disputes within the ruling family
 -Civil wars divided the state
 -Head of state -Distributing land
 -Overall economic decline
 -Chief Judge -Religious leader
 -The state became too big to be ruled by one ruler.
 -Defending the state from external attacks -Chief
 -Failure to fully incorporate some chiefdoms like Kalanga
administrator
 -Disputes with Chikanga and Barwe
 -Custodian of state property -Signing treaties
 -The death of Changamire Dombo
 -Concluding alliances -Installed chiefs
 -Dombo’s successors were weak and uncharismatic
 -Commander in chief of the army -Had custody
 -The Rozvi army became weak
over captives

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 DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES: HISTORY

 -There was depopulation due to Nguni incursions

 -Decline in gold production. Gold fields were now exhausted.  -The death of Dombo led to the decline of the state
 -Spirit mediums became too powerful  -Dombo’s successors were weak and uncharismatic
 -Fall in trade  -Succession disputes led to division within the state
 -Tumbare became too powerful  -Civil wars also contributed
 -Exhaustion of soil  -Refusal by some chiefs to pay tribute caused its decline
 -Exhaustion of hunting grounds  -The state became too big to be ruled by one king
 -Exhaustion of pastures
Other factors which led to the decline of Rozvi
External reasons for the decline of Rozvi  -Decline in trade
 -Exhaustion of gold
 -Loss of control of external trade to the Ndebele and later to the  -Depopulation due to Nguni incursions
British  -Successive droughts
 -The raiding of Portuguese trading posts of Sofala, Tete and Sena  -Exhaustion of soil
by Mfecane groups  -Exhaustion of pastures
 -Clashes with the Portuguese left the Rozvi state weakened  -Exhaustion of hunting grounds
 -Constant wars with the Hiya of the Dondo area disrupted trade
 -Invasion by the Nguni groups [Nguni incursions] such as, QN: To what extent was Mambo’s leadership to blame for the decline
a] The Tswana in 1800 of Rozvi state?
b] Ngwato in 1802
c] Ngoni under Zwangendaba in 1830s  -Dombo’s successors were less charismatic
d] Ngoni under Nyamazana in 1836  -They appointed incompetent subordinates
e] Sotho under Mpango in 1829  -Appointment of officials were on a kinship basis
f] Maseko-Ngoni under Nxaba in 1836  -They failed to rule the vast empire
g] Gaza-Nguni under Soshangane  -They failed to properly decentralise political powers
h] Ndebele under Mzilikazi in 1840  -They failed to repel Nguni incursions
 -The final destruction came with the British South Africa
Company [BSAC] Other factors which led to the decline of Rozvi
 -Serious droughts
QN :To what extent did the political factors contribute to the  -Civil wars
decline of Rozvi state?  -Succession disputes

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 DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES: HISTORY

 -Clashes with the Portuguese

 -Weak army  -Zulu -Khumalo
 -Nguni incursions  -Qwabe -Ndwandwe
 -Mthethwa -Swazi / Ngwane
 -Hlubi -Mpondo

Northern Nguni leaders and their respective chiefdoms involved in

Mfecane
MFECANE
 -Dingiswayo of Mthethwa -Sobhuza of the
Ngwane
This was a period of plunder and destruction among the Nguni and the  -Zwide of the Ndwandwe -Tshaka of the
surrounding tribes. It was a time of crushing wars accompanied by much Zulu
suffering among the northern Nguni. The Nguni called it mfecane,  -Dingane of the Zulu -Mzilikazi of the
meaning time of trouble. The Sotho called it defeqane, meaning time of Ndebele
crushing. Mfecane began towards the end of the eighteenth century.  -Matshobane of the Khumalo -Soshangane of
During mfecane tribes like the Ndwandwe, Mthethwa and Ngwane were the Gaza-Nguni
fighting against each other. Mfecane continued even during the time of  -Zwangendaba of the Ngoni -Matiwane of the
Tshaka. During the time of Tshaka, Zululand had become a storm centre. Nganeni
A number of people fled from Tshaka and these included the Jere- Ngoni  -Phakatwayo of the Qwabe
under Zwangendaba, Gaza-Nguni under Soshangane, Khumalo under
Mzilikazi, Kololo under Sebetwane and the Ngoni under Nxaba. The Groups that fled from Nguniland during Mfecane
people who fled from Tshaka knew his military tactics so they were able to
defeat people in other areas. Soshangane settled in Southern Mozambique Group Leader
and created the Gaza state. Zwangendaba destroyed the Rozvi capital and Destination
crossed the Zambezi River into present day Malawi. Mzilikazi and the Ndebele Mzilikazi
Khumalo fled north and settled in the south-western part of Zimbabwe. Zimbabwe
Sebetwane and the Kololo settled in Zambia. All these groups introduced Ngwane Sobhuza
their way of life and culture to the people they conquered. Swaziland
Sotho Moshoeshoe
Groups that existed in Nguniland before Mfecane Lesotho

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 DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES: HISTORY

Kololo Sebetwane  -Madhlatule drought of 1795 caused Mfecane.

Zambia  -The desire to acquire more cattle through conquest
Gaza-Nguni Soshangane  -The desire by some individuals to control trade with Portuguese
Mozambique at Delagoa Bay.
Jere-Ngoni Zwangendaba  -Shortage of grazing land
Malawi  -The need for creation of large states
Tlokwa Mantantis  -The rise of Tshaka also caused Mfecane.
Botswana  -Emergence of power hungry men like Mzilikazi
Ngoni Nyamazana  -Bigger powerful states like Ndwandwe, Ngwane and Mthethwa
Zimbabwe wanted to control economic and political activities of the people of
Msene-Ngoni Nxaba Nguniland.
Zambia  -Trade in ivory necessitated the creation of standing armies to hunt
elephants and guard the trade route.
Groups and their respective leaders which Tshaka fought during  -There was also need to control rivers.
Mfecane  -Boer expansion and Boer slave raids

-Ndwandwe under Zwide -Ngwane under Sobhuza Results / Effects of Mfecane

-Ngoni under Zwangendaba -Ngoni under Nxaba
-Khumalo under Mzilikazi -Gaza-Nguni under
 -There was reduction of population in Nguniland.
Soshangane
 -Homes were destroyed.
-Qwabe under Phakatwayo
 -There was great loss of lives in Nguniland.
 -There was destruction of property.
Causes of Mfecane  -Many people fled from Nguniland, for example, the Ngoni,
Hlubi, Tlokwa and the Sotho.
 -The desire by some individuals like Dingiswayo, Zwide, Ngwane  -Cases of cannibalism increased due to shortage of food.
and Tshaka to dominate others.  -Nguni religion such as inxwala spread throughout the region.
 -Development of advanced military tactics promoted aggression.  -Nguni language spread widely.
 -Overpopulation which resulted in pressure over arable land  -Many people lost their cattle and grain through raids.
caused Mfecane.  -Many people lost their farming land.
 -Powerful groups wanted to control some hunting grounds.  -Tshaka became dominant in Nguniland.

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 DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES: HISTORY

 -Wars disturbed farming resulting in food shortage, hunger and  -Need to control trade at Delagoa Bay
starvation.  -Boer expansion and Boer slave raids
 -There was spread of Nguni culture.  -Shortage of land
 -Trade with Portuguese at Delagoa Bay was disrupted.  -Population explosion
 -Some people lost their political independence.
 -Under populated areas left by Mfecane victims attracted
European settlers like Boers and the British.
 -Some states were completely destroyed.
 -It led to the creation of refugee problem.
 -There was great loss of lives as warfare was the order of the day.
 -There was emergence of defensive kingdoms such as Swazi,
Bapedi and Basotho.
 -It brought out high quality leaders like Mzilikazi, Soshangane,
Zwangendaba and Sebetwane.
 -There was emergence of powerful states like Ndebele and Gaza.
 -New political kingdoms were created, for example, Kololo and
Ndebele.
 -There was adoption of new fighting methods and weapons.

QN: To what extent was Mfecane caused by the ambitious

leaders in Nguniland?
Ambitious leaders
 -Tshaka
 -Dingiswayo
 -Zwide
 -Mzilikazi THE ZULU STATE UNDER TSHAKA
 -Sobhuza
 -Moshoeshoe
Origins of the Zulu State
Other factors

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 DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES: HISTORY

Tshaka came from a small Zulu chiefdom which had been absorbed into  -Tshaka defeated and conquered the Mthethwa.
Dingiswayo’s Mthethwa. Tshaka was born in 1787 and he was the son of  -Senzangakhona’s death created a vacuum for his rise.
Senzangakhona and a Langeni woman, Nandi. Senzangakhona was a Zulu  -Dingiswayo’s support on Tshaka.
chief. Tshaka was disowned by his father, so he grew up among the  -The death of Sigujana [He was killed by Dingiswayo].
Langeni. At the age of 16, Tshaka was taken to the Mthethwa to stay with  -The death of Dingiswayo made him to combine Mthethwa and
his father’s relatives. He became a herd boy. At the age of 23 [in 1810] he Zulu.
was recruited into Dingiswayo’s army. He proved to be a brave soldier and  -There was weak opposition from local chiefdoms.
was promoted to commander of a regiment. He introduced his own  -Mfecane led to the rise of Tshaka.
military innovations. He advised Dingiswayo on military matters.  -Raiding other states ensured him to create a powerful and secure
Senzangakhona [Tshaka’s father], died in 1816 and his son Sigujana state.
inherited the Zulu leadership. Dingiswayo killed Sigujana and made  -Betrayal of Dingiswayo by Tshaka led to the rise of Tshaka.
Tshaka the chief of the Zulu. Dingiswayo thus assisted Tshaka to takeover When Dingiswayo attacked Zwide, Tshaka delayed to join him till
power. Tshaka was chief of the Zulu as well as commander of the Zulu he was killed.
army. Dingiswayo died in 1818 and Tshaka became the leader of the entire
Mthethwa state. Dingiswayo was executed by the Ndwandwe. Tshaka Social Organisation of the Zulu
conquered Mthethwa and the combined Mthethwa, Zulu and other tribes to
form the Zulu state. Tshaka united about 100 chiefdoms under his rule.
 -There was sexual division of labour.
Tshaka continued Dingiswayo’s expansionist policy. He conquered the
 -They practised loaning of cattle.
Ndwandwe under Zwide and took over a large state extending from
 -They lived in dome shaped huts arranged in a circular manner
Pongola River to Tugela River in the South. He also defeated the Ngwane
with a cattle kraal inside the circle.
under Sobhuza.
 -They believed in God.
 -They did rain making ceremonies.
Reasons for the rise of Tshaka  -The king led at ceremonies.
 -Marriage was allowed to men after retiring from the army.
 -Tshaka was a brave soldier.  -Females were also organised into regiments.
 -Tshaka was a courageous and innovative fighter.  -Regiments of women were used to cultivate land and for
 -Tshaka became an effective army commander who advised the ceremonial dances and displays.
king.  -The king officiated at the annual inxwala ceremony.
 -Tshaka’s ability to develop new fighting skills which enabled him  -The king’s spiritual power was renewed through traditional
to defeat others. mediums.

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 DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES: HISTORY

 -Zulu was made the official language.  -The Council of advisers was rendered irrelevant as Tshaka
 -They practised polygamy. became an autocratic ruler.
 -Traditional chiefs were reduced to administration of local affairs.
Economic Organisation of the Zulu  -The king was the commander in chief of the army.
 -The king had a standing army.
 -The army went on annual raids.
 -They did external and internal trade. Externally they traded with
 -The king used the army to control the state.
ivory at Delagoa Bay.
 -Vassal chiefs were rewarded to remain loyal.
 -They raided other states for women, children, grain and cattle.
 -The state was divided into regimental towns under Izindunas who
 -They grew crops.
were helped by a female member of the royal family.
 -They kept animals like cattle, goats and sheep.
 -The king was the chief distributer of land.
 -They smelted iron to make iron tools.
 -The king controlled long distance trade.
 -They mined minerals like iron, copper and gold.
 -The king was the chief judge.
 -They hunted wild animals.
 -The king was the religious leader.
 -All subjects paid tribute to the king in form of cattle, goats, sheep
Importance of the army in the Zulu political system
and grain.
 -It was used to raid other states.
 -They caught fish to supplement their diet.
 -It was used to expand the state.
 -They did gathering.
 -It protected both the king and the state.
 -It was used to collect tribute.
Political Organisation of the Zulu under Tshaka  -It was used to protect trade routes and hunting grounds.
 -It was used to maintain law and order in the state.
 -The king was the supreme ruler.  -It was use to punish rebellious chiefs.
 -The state was highly centralised.
 -Defeated chiefs were often deposed and replaced by Tshaka’s Other factors important in the Zulu political system
appointees.  -Chiefs, councillors and the king’s relatives helped to administer
 -The defeated were forced to speak Zulu language. the state.
 -Tributary states were left in peace as long as they paid tribute to  -Tribute payment ensured loyalty to the king.
the king.  -Religion was a unifying factor.
 -The king was assisted by chiefs and councillors most of whom  -The cattle loaning system unified people.
were relatives and those the king trusted.
Benefits of Tshaka’s political system to the Zulu

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 DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES: HISTORY

 -He created a standing army

 -Organisation along military lines strengthened the state against  -He introduced the cow horn formation.
external aggression.  -All men under the age of 40 were conscripted into the army.
 -Vassal chiefs obtained rewards.  -He introduced age regiments.
 -There was peace and security due to a standing army.  -He introduced female regiments [Fasimba].
 -Age regimental system fostered unity amongst people of the same  -He banned circumcision which he viewed as wastage of time.
age.  -He used spies so as to catch enemies by surprise.
 -Tribute payment ensured loyalty.  -He used smoke signals for communication.
 -He introduced mock battles in training.
 -Raids provided wealth in form of cattle and grain.
 -Cowardice was punished for. Tshaka’s soldiers were not allowed
 -It incapacitated vassal chiefs from rebelling thereby thwarting
to be wounded at the back. Those who were stabbed at the back
civil wars.
were killed.
 -He made use of witch doctors.
Disadvantages of Tshaka’s political organisation to the Zulu
 -His soldiers wore head gears [uniforms].
 -Tshaka’s soldiers were allowed to marry at the age of 40 when
 -All power was centred on the king.
they retired from the army.
 -The regimental system was resented by young men for delaying
 -He introduced the idea of total warfare, that is, total destruction of
marriage and for perennial warfare.
the enemy, killing the ruling families of defeated tribes and
 -The political system made the king an absolute ruler who ignored incorporating the defeated tribes.
Indunas and traditional chiefs.  -He introduced the scorched earth policy.
 -People lived in fear due to king’s harsh policies.  -Tshaka introduced strict discipline in the army.
 -There was loss of independence by the conquered.
Was Tshaka responsible for all the military reforms made in
Military reforms introduced by Tshaka Zululand?
Tshaka’s initiatives
 -Use of long shields  -He used spies
 -Use of short stabbing spears [assegais]  -He introduced the idea of total warfare
 -Absorption of defeated tribes  -He introduced a highly trained army
 -Going to war barefooted for greater speed  -He introduced female regiments
 -Introduction of baggage boys  -He introduced assegais
 -He introduced headgears

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 DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES: HISTORY

 -Use of a standing army

Initiatives of others  -He set up military settlements all over Zululand
-Dingiswayo, Zwide and Sobhuza had initiated some of Tshaka’s  -Fasimba army was always at the king’s court.
innovations.  -Practice of autocracy.
-The regimental system was already in use in the states.  -Tshaka appointed chiefs and headmen who were loyal to him.
-Long shields were adopted from Dingiswayo.  -He encouraged rivalry amongst his subjects so as to exploit such
-The cow horn formation was borrowed from Dingiswayo. conflicts.
-Banning circumcision was borrowed from Dingiswayo.  -Full absorption of lineages closer to the centre of the Zulu state.
-Creation of a standing army was adopted from Dingiswayo.  -Exploitation of lineages in the periphery
 -Holding of ceremonies like inxwala ceremonies
Tshaka’s Generals / Military Indunas / Commanders  -Use of national symbols like inkatha
-Dingane -Mhlangana  -Speaking Zulu language was made compulsory.
-Mgobozi -Mzilikazi  -Tshaka personified the kingdom.
-Mdlaka  -The king led at all religious ceremonies.
 -He subjugated all independent rainmakers.
Features of Tshaka’s policy of total warfare  -Rewarding warriors [they were given beef].
-Burning of homesteads  -Maintaining a tight discipline of Amabutho [soldiers]
-Absorption of enemy women and children  -Control of religion
-Capturing of enemy livestock  -Punishment by death
-Killing of enemy royal family members  -Perennial warfare
-Destruction of enemy food reserves  -Demanding tribute
-Poisoning of water sources  -Marriage at 40 years
 -Displacement of conquered chiefs
Weapons used by Tshaka’s soldiers
-Long shields -Assegais Did these methods show that Tshaka was cruel?
-Knobkerries -Knives
-Guns -Battle axes Cruelty of Tshaka’s methods
-Killing as a punishment was extreme cruelty.
Methods used by Tshaka to control the Zulu state -Strict discipline denied freedom.
 -Use of spies -He infringed on people’s rights by prohibiting soldiers to marry before the
 -Idea of total warfare age of 40.

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 DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES: HISTORY

-Tshaka was a dictator. He solely made decisions.  -The Zulu lived in constant fear of Tshaka.
-The idea of total warfare was an extreme exercise where there was  -Tshaka ruled as a dictator.
complete destruction.
-Forcing people to speak Zulu Problems faced by Tshaka as the Zulu king
*However, Mfecane period demanded a strong leader like Tshaka
-Tshaka was a product of Mfecane. -Tshaka’s expansion characterised by violent warfare, plundering
-A period of warfare need to constantly fight. and raiding other states created enemies for himself.
-There was need for unity. -Death of Nandi [Tshaka’s mother] created problems for him as he
-He wanted to create more space for the Zulu [expansionist policy]. killed many people. This created enemies for him. Even his sister
-He wanted to gain cattle, grain and boys [booty]. suspected that he was responsible for the death of Nandi.
-For defence of the state -Tshaka had jealous relatives who ultimately killed him.
QN: Did the people of Zulu state benefit from Tshaka’s -High rates of executions created enemies for him.
leadership at that time? -Mzilikazi rebelled against him in 1822.
-Tshaka had fear of further rebellions after Mzilikazi broke away.
Benefits -There were threats from expansionist Boers and the British who
wanted to colonise the Zulu kingdom.
-Tshaka battled to control the Delagoa Bay trade route.
 -They defeated the Ndwandwe.
-There was shortage of resources such as land.
 -This enabled the Zulu state to survive.
-Tshaka was not trusted by his commanders.
 -He created a strong and superior army.
-Tshaka’s incessant imperialism [wars] created hatred from
 -The Zulu became dominant in Natal.
soldiers and generals though they could not show it for fear of
 -They obtained cattle and grain through raids.
being killed.
 -Tshaka managed to unite the Zulu nation.
-Scarcity of land resulted in wars against the Boers and the British.
 -The Zulu had more land for cultivation after Mfecane.
-Tshaka’s soldiers were tired of his military campaigns.
 -The Zulu had access to trade.
 -Zulu became politically stable.

Non benefits

The death of Tshaka

 -Perennial warfare led to dissatisfaction.
 -Soldiers were keen to marry early.
 -Tshaka died in 1828.

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 DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES: HISTORY

 -He survived the first attempt on his life in 1824 but was killed 4  -Tshaka ignored traditional chiefs.
years later.  -Tshaka’s failure to work with his brothers and sisters who should
 -Tshaka’s death was plotted by Dingane, Mbopha, Mhlangana and have assisted him.
Mkabayi.  -Frequent raids exposed him.
 -Dingane and Mhlangana were Tshaka’s brothers.  Use of throne usurper
 -Mkabayi was Tshaka’s father’s sister. QN: To what extent was Tshaka responsible for his downfall?
 -After Tshaka’s death Dingane became the king of the Zulu state,  -He was a dictator
but he was not as strong as Tshaka. During his reign, Europeans  -He ignored traditional chiefs
began to enter Zululand.  -He failed to work with his brothers and sisters
 -He was too cruel
People who plotted the death of Tshaka  -He embarked on endless campaigns
 -He killed subjects for minor offences
 -Dingane -Mhlangana Other factors responsible for his death
 -Mkabayi -Mbopha -He had jealous relatives
 -Mfokazana -He was an illegitimate son
Reasons for the assassination of Tshaka -Use of throne usurper
 -Killing of subjects for minor disputes or petty offences -Soldiers were tired of continuous wars
 -Tshaka’s autocratic rule [he was a dictator]
 -Tshaka’s endless warfare
 -He maintained a cruel system even when it was no longer
THE NDEBELE STATE
justified.
 -Tshaka’s strict discipline
Origins
 -Execution of people for not mourning his mother.
 -People were jealous of Tshaka’s power.
 -Tshaka had jealousy brothers and sisters Mzilikazi was the founder of the Ndebele state. The state was born out of
 -There were ambitious people in the Zulu kingdom who wanted to Mfecane and originated from Nguniland. Mzilikazi was the son of
rule, for example, Dingane and Mhlangana. Matshobane. His mother Nompethu was Zwide’s daughter Mzilikazi was
 -His ruthless military reforms of the Khumalo clan which was under Zwide’s Ndwandwe. Zwide was
 -Tshaka was an illegitimate son. Mzilikazi’s grandfather. Zwide killed Matshobane [Mzilikazi’s father]
 -Tshaka was too cruel. accusing him of allegedly plotting against him in the Ndwandwe-
Mthethwa wars of 1818. Mzilikazi succeeded his father in 1818. Mzilikazi

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 DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES: HISTORY

was helped by Zwide to become chief of the Khumalo. Mzilikazi quickly  -In 1830 the Khumalo were attacked by Dingane’s Zulu, the Kora
joined Tshaka’s Zulu state and Tshaka was pleased and left Mzilikazi in and the Khoisan forces, the Rolong and the Griqua forces.
charge of his Khumalo. The possible reasons for Mzilikazi’s change of  -Mzilikazi attacked the Kwena.
masters were that he was not happy that Zwide killed his father,  -Mzilikazi abandoned Emhlahlandela because it was too close to
Matshobane. He had also foreseen the potential military strength of the Zululand.
Zulu under Tshaka. Mzilikazi was sent by Tshaka in 1822 to go and raid a  -In 1832 the Ndebele settled at Egabeni.
certain Sotho chief and capture him. Due to greediness he decided to keep  -They left Egabeni because of attacks from the Kora and Griqua.
the loot for himself. When Mzilikazi denied submitting the loot, Tshaka  -Between 1833 and 1837 they settled at Mosega.
sent a small force [Izimpondo] to punish the Khumalo but was defeated by  -In 1836 the Ndebele were again attacked by Dingane’s Zulu
Mzilikazi. Tshaka then sent the fierce Umbelebele to destroy Mzilikazi’s while his Mzilikazi’s army was away in Sotho land.
tribe. Both sides experienced heavy losses in the fight. Mzilikazi escaped  -In the same year, Mzilikazi was attacked by the Boers of
with about 300 men, a few women and children. They established their Portgieter.
state in Western Zimbabwe [1840].  -In 1837, a combined force of the Griqua, Kora, Tlokwa, Rolong
and Boer warriors attacked the Khumalo.
Mzilikazi’s Journey from Nguniland to Western  -Mzilikazi met Robert Moffat who advised him to move further
north.
Zimbabwe
 -Mzilikazi felt insecure and decided to abandon Mosega so as to
protect his people.
 -When the Ndebele escaped from Tshaka they crossed the  -Before crossing the Limpopo, Mzilikazi split his group into two,
Drankensburg Mountains and settled in the Transvaal area in one was led by Gundwane Ndiweni Khalipi.
1823.  -This group consisted of old people, Mzilikazi’s wives, women,
 -They raided the Pedi and Tswana. children and livestock.
 -Mzilikazi established his capital Ekhupumuleni [resting place]  -Nkulumane, the eldest son of Mzilikazi was also part of this
near Oliphant river. group as well as Lobengula [Mzilikazi’s son].
 -This area was not suitable for grazing and they also experienced  -The group took a direct route towards Zimbabwe and crossed the
raids from the Pedi, Rolong, Griqua and the Hurutshe. Limpopo River [1838].
 -In 1825-1826 Mzilikazi went on to settle near present day  -They followed the Umzingwane River and settled not far away
Pretoria and established his capital at Emhlahlandela. It is from from Matopo hills.
here that Mzilikazi met Robert Moffat of the London Missionary  -The second group which was led by Mzilikazi himself crossed
Society in 1829. Limpopo River into Botswana.
 -They travelled through Ngwato territory.

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 -They turned northwards to the Zambezi in pursuit of the Kololo Reasons for the Ndebele settlement in western Zimbabwe
led by Sebetwane.
 -They failed to defeat the Kololo and turned southwards in order Pull factors
to meet the main group. -The area was free from tsetse flies.
 -Mzilikazi heard of the installation of Nkulumane as king. -The inhabitants of the area were weak.
 -After two years of separation, Gundwane’s group thought -The area had good pastures.
Mzilikazi would not come back so he decided to choose another -The Rozvi capital had available infrastructure.
king. Nkulumane was made king. -The Ndebele were exhausted by previous wars.
 -Mzilikazi quickly rushed to Matopo hills.
 -When he rejoined the group in 1940, he regarded the act of Push factors
installing Nkulumane as treason. -The area was far away from traditional enemies, that is, the Zulu, Boers,
 -He killed all those responsible. He summoned all chiefs and Kora and Griqua.
indunas who were involved in the installation of Nkulumane and -They were advised by Robert Moffat.
executed them at a place called Thabayezinduna.
 -No one knows what happened to Nkulumane. Some say he was Groups which clashed with the Ndebele during their migration south
secretly executed while others say he was exiled to Nguniland. of the Limpopo
 -Mzilikazi settled at Inyati, near modern Bulawayo.  -Zulu -
 -He went on to subdue and absorb members of the already Hurutshe
crumbling Rozvi kingdom who offered less resistance.  -Sotho -Khoisan
 -He was able to build up the most powerful kingdom north of the  -Boers -Kora
Limpopo River.  -Pedi -Tswana
 -Mzilikazi married Nyamazana, a Ngoni leader who had broken  -Taung -Tlokwa
away from Zwangendaba.  -Thlapin -Rolong
 -Griqua -Kgabo
Settlements established by the Ndebele South of the Limpopo on their  -Kwena -
way to Western Zimbabwe Ngwaketse
-Ekhupumuleni -Mhlahlandela  -Ndzundza
-Endinaneni -Egabeni
-Enkunqwini -Mosega Ethnic groups that the Ndebele met in Western Zimbabwe
-Tshwenyane
-Shona [Rozvi] -Kalanga

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-Leya -Tonga  -Loss of lives as many were killed during wars -Ndebele
-Venda -Nanzwa homes were burnt
-Hlengwe  -Succession disputes -Diseases
like malaria
QN: To what extent was the migration of the Ndebele caused by  -Tsetse fly problem -Attacks
Mfecane from wild animals
 -Disruption of trade and farming activities -Constant
Contribution of Mfecane attacks
-Mzilikazi left Zululand during Mfecane.  -Loss of women to other groups -Crossing
-He left Zululand after he was defeated by Tshaka. flooded rivers
-He abandoned settlements near Zululand.  -Fatigue due to walking long distances -Crossing
-He was forced to cross Limpopo River due to attacks from Boers and Mountains
other groups.  -Mixing of people of different cultures -Family
separation
Other factors which caused the migration of the Ndebele from  -Language barrier -Constant
Nguniland fear of attacks
-Mzilikazi’s greediness  -Wars with the Pedi, Zulu, Griqua, Rolong, Boers and the like
-Mzilikazi’s desire to form his own state
-Weaknesses of the Rozvi QN: To what extent did wars with other groups unite the Ndebele?
-Moffat’s advise Unity as a result of war
-Fertile soils
-Availability of pastures  -Mzilikazi created a formidable defence
-Availability of gold  -They protected their people
-Western Zimbabwe was free from tsetse flies  -He created a strong raiding army
 -They had fear of attacks from the Zulu
Problems faced by the Ndebele during their migration from  -They established a strong nation
Nguniland to Western Zimbabwe
 -Lack of grazing areas -Lack of Unity caused by other factors
food  -Religion unified people
 -Droughts -Loss of  -Fear of Mzilikazi unified people
livestock like cattle  -Speaking one language unified people

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 -Able leadership of Mzilikazi unified people Importance of settlements in the building of the Ndebele nation
 -Age regiments-  -Mzilikazi Mzilikazi defeated local inhabitants like the Hurutshe,
 -Trade Kwena, Sotho and Ndzundza and absorbed them to swell up the
 -Mafisa system unified people numbers of his group.
 -The Khumalo were given the name Ndebele by the Sotho-
Why Mzilikazi abandoned various settlements south of the Limpopo Tswana.
 -Raids on neighbours yielded cattle and grain for Ndebele
 -Failure to pay booty to Tshaka and defeat by Tshaka led economy.
Mzilikazi to flee Zululand.  -He also raided for boys of military age for his regiments.
 -Ekhupumuleni was too close to Zululand and at this place there
were threats from the Pedi.
 -Ekhupumuleni was also meant to be a resting place.
 -Ekhupumuleni lacked enough pastures especially during the Other factors important in the building of the Ndebele nation
drought of 1823.  -Mzilikazi’s wisdom and military genius
 -They abandoned Endinaneni because it was still too close to  -Weaknesses of groups encountered
Zululand.  -Continuous movement together led to unity
 -Zulu warriors attacked the Ndebele in 1830.  -Adoption of religious practices of conquered people like Mlimo
 -Other Ndebele enemies included the Kora, Griqua and Rolong cult encouraged unity and harmony with absorbed groups.
who had guns and horses.
 -They left Emhlahlandela because they were attacked the Zulu QN: Did the Ndebele settlement in Western Zimbabwe bring security
under Dingane, the Griqua, Kwena, Khoisan, Boers and the to the Ndebele state?
Rolong. Security
 -They left Mosega because they were attacked by the Griqua and  -They settled in the Rozvi country where there was little
Kora as well as by the Boers under Portgieter in 1837. resistance.
 -Finally they were attacked by the Boers, Griqua, Tlokwa, Kora  -Mzilikazi married Nyamazana, a Ngoni leader who had killed the
and Rolong. Rozvi king, Chirisamhuru II.
 -Mzilikazi was forced to cross the Limpopo into Zimbabwe.  -The area was rich in resources.
 -The neighbouring Tsana were weak.
To what extent did these settlements contribute to the building of the  -The area was far away from Boers, Griquas and the Zulu.
Ndebele nation?  -The area was free from tsetse flies.

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 DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES: HISTORY

 -The climate as good and the area had good fertile soils which
produced good pastures. Measures taken by Mzilikazi to consolidate his rule in Western
Zimbabwe
Insecurity -Mzilikazi was a dictator [absolute ruler].
 -The Rozvi resisted the Ndebele intrusion, though the resistance -He was the chief judge.
was not stiff and some moved away. -He again was the commander in chief of the army.
 -Independent Shona chiefdoms to the East resisted Ndebele raids. -He appointed all state officials.
 -The area was drought prone. -Ndebele homesteads were built close to one another as a security
 -Traders, hunters, explorers and concession seekers infiltrated the measure and the furthest was not more than 80km from the king’s
area. capital.
 -BSAP infiltrated the Zimbabwe plateau. -Mzilikazi also paid regular visits to the provinces to ascertain
problems there.
Measures taken by the Mzilikazi to establish his rule in Western -The state was organised along military lines, with military towns
Zimbabwe scattered throughout the state.
-He also stationed female members of the royal family in every
-He dealt with the rebellion of 1840 to 1842, killing Gundwane military town as his informers.
Ndiweni and other indunas who had installed Nkulumane as king. -Some of these women were his wives.
-He forced Nkulumane into exile -All regiments were required to attend the annual inxwala
-He married Nyamazana whom he thought to be a threat ceremony for unity.
-As the Ndebele needed peace and rest, Mzilikazi incorporated -Also Ndebele was made the official language.
Shona chiefs who accepted Ndebele rule as vassal chiefs.
-He entrusted vassal chiefs the task of collecting tribute on his Economic Organisation of the Ndebele
behalf.
-Mzilikazi in turn loaned cattle to vassal chiefs to buy their
-They reared animals like cattle, sheep and goats.
allegiance.
-They grew crops like bulrush millet, finger millet, pearl millet,
-Mzilikazi conscripted young men and women from the Shona
maize, pumpkins and water melons.
vassal chiefdoms into his regiments to deny the chiefs an
-They hunted animals for meat, ivory and precious skins.
opportunity to build their armies.
-They raided the Shona, Tswana and Kololo for cattle, grain and
-At the same time Shona chiefs who resisted his rule were raided
women.
for cattle, grain, boys and boys.
-They gathered fruits, vegetables and mushroom.
-Ndebele influence extended as far as Gwanda and Gweru Rivers.

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-They caught fish to supplement their diet. -Mafisa system unified people.
-They did internal and external trade. Internally they traded among -Religion was a unifying factor.
themselves. Externally they traded with the Portuguese and later -A strong army led to the survival of the state.
with the British. They mined minerals like gold for trade, iron and -Strong leadership led to its survival.
copper for making tools. -The caste system
-All subjects paid tribute to the king in form of grain, cattle, goats, -Military tactics
sheep, skins, iron tools and gold.
-They did art and craft, that is, Items the Ndebele received as tribute
a] Pottery -Cattle -Goats
b] Weaving -Sheep -Grain
c] Basketry -Gold -Skins
d] Blacksmithing -Iron tools -Guns
e] Wood carving -Cloth
f] Stone carving
g] Leather work Social Organisation of the Ndebele
h] Jewellery making
i] Drum making
 -The Ndebele society was divided into 3 castes [classes], the
Zansi, Enhla and Hole.
Importance of Ndebele economic system to the survival of the state
 -Zansi was the highest class of the original Khumalo from
Nguniland.
-Blacksmiths smelted iron and forged iron tools and weapons.
-Zansi was about 15% of the total population.
-Fishing supplemented their diet.
 -Enhla consisted of the Sotho, Tswana, Pedi and Griqua captured
-Raiding brought wealth and manpower.
on the way from Nguniland.
-Raiding was important because the area was dry.
-This was the second class.
-Tribute ensured loyalty of chiefs to the king and ensured that the chiefs
-Enhla consisted of about 25% of the total population.
would not be too rich, powerful and ambitious.
 -The Hole was the lower class.
-Crop cultivation was a source of food.
-The Hole consisted of the San, Kalanga and the Shona captured in
-Cattle were a symbol of status [wealth].
Zimbabwe.
-Trade with the Shona.
-They were about 60% of the total population.
Other activities important to the survival of the state

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 -Marriage across castes was discouraged. However intermarriage  -Distribution of tribute and raided items [booty] by the king
took place. unified people.
 -They were polygamous.  -Able leadership unified people.
 -Cattle were used to pay lobola.
 -The society was patrilineal. Political organisation of the Ndebele
 -They practised loaning of cattle [Mafisa system].
 -Ndebele was made the official language.
-The king was the head of state.
 -Ownership of cattle was a status symbol.
-Kingship was hereditary.
 -Women pierced their ears.
-The king was the commander in chief of the army.
 -The Ndebele believed in the High God [Unkulunkulu].
-He created age regiments.
 -They also began to worship the Sotho God, Mlimo and their
-The king was the religious leader.
ancestors Amadhlozi.
-The king ruled with the assistance of two advisory councils,
 -They adopted the Shona Mhondoro rain making ceremonies.
Umphakati and Izikhulu. Umphakati was made up of selected
 -They practised the inxwala ceremony [first fruit ceremony].
chiefs and members of royal family. They made all important
 -The Ndebele respected the mediums of the great Shona spirits.
decisions. The Izikhulu were all other chiefs in the state including
 -They believed in ancestral spirits.
elders who were needed for their wisdom in traditional issues.
Izikhulu discussed national issues and after the discussion they
Contribution of Ndebele religious practices to the unity of the state
referred them to the Umphakati and the king.
-The state was more centralised.
 -The common belief in Mlimo brought the Ndebele and the Sotho
-The king was an absolute ruler.
together.
-The king made all major decisions.
 -The common belief in God unified people.
-The king had power of life and death over subjects.
 -Inxwala ceremonies brought people together.
-The state was organised into regimental towns under Izindunas
 -The adoption of the Shona Mhondoro rainmaking ceremonies
[territorial chiefs].
united the Ndebele and the Shona.
-Conquered people were encouraged to speak Ndebele.
 -The Ndebele and the Shona worked together as a result of
-They raided the Shona, Tswana and the Kololo.
common beliefs and respect for the great Shona spirits.
-The king was the judicial leader.
 -Use of Ndebele language unified people.
-The king was the chief distributer of land.
-The king was the chief judge.
Other factors which contributed to unity in the state
 -Age regiments unified people.

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Military Organisation of the Ndebele -The army could punish offenders -The army protected trade
routes
-The army protected the king -The soldiers were miners
 -The king was the commander in chief of the army.
-To suppress internal revolts
 -The king raised the Amabutho
 -There were age regiments.
QN: Why Mzilikazi was able to lead the Ndebele for so long
 -The state was organised into regimental towns.
 -Each regimental town was under an induna.  -Mzilikazi had superior military tactics than those of most of his
 -Regimental towns joined to form provinces under a senior induna. opponents.
 -Captives were included in the army.  -Military leadership of Mzilikazi also contributed.
 -Warriors could marry after being successful in battle.  -A strong military set up that emphasised loyalty to Mzilikazi.
 -Women were drafted into the army as prostitutes and cooks and
 -Defeated groups were incorporated into the Ndebele society.
for intelligence.
 -Mzilikazi was an absolute ruler who never tolerated any nonsense
 -Warriors were provided with wives from captives.
in his state.
 -Amabutho could also marry women from disbanded regiments.
 -Most of the people trusted Mzilikazi as their leader.
 -There were reserve troops.
 -Shona chiefdoms had been weakened by Nguni incursions.
 -The Ndebele embarked on surprise attacks.
 -The army was used for raiding.  -The long trek forged unity in the state.
 -The army had a war cry.  -Mzilikazi had migrated to beyond his main enemies in South
 -The Ndebele army war uniforms. Africa.
 -Mzilikazi made use of spies so as to catch the enemies by  -Mzilikazi’s strong leadership also ensured his long stay in power.
surprise.  -Mzilikazi prevented rebellions from Shona chiefs by
incorporating young men and women into regiments so as to
Duties or importance of the army in the Ndebele state prevent the Shona chiefs from forming their own armies.
-It collected tribute -It defended the state  -He loaned cattle to Shona vassal chiefs so as to win their support.
-It raided neighbours for wealth -It protected the people  -Payment of tribute ensured loyalty of vassal chiefs.
-The king was the military commander -It protected property  -Organising the state along military lines was meant to deal with
-It herded cattle during time of peace -The army worked in the external aggression.
king’s fields  -He was well informed of what happened in provinces by female
-They helped during harvests -The army hunted members of the royal family who included his wives.
elephants  -Mzilikazi had superior weapons

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 -Mzilikazi was trusted by people he had led for many years and
experienced problems together
 -Threats from external enemies kept them together

The reasons for the decline of the Ndebele state

 -Failure to install the king after the death of Lobengula in 1894

 -Failure by the Ndebele to defeat the settlers in 1893.
 -Use of superior weapons by the whites
 -Introduction of suppressive laws by the settlers which
undermined the authority of the chiefs.
 -Bribery of the Ndebele indunas who attended the Matopo Indaba.
 -Lobengula made a grave mistake in his life by accepting to deal
with whites.
 -Between 1870 and 1891 Lobengula signed several treaties and
concessions which eventually led to the decline of the state.

THE GAZA STATE

Origins

The Gaza state was a product of Mfecane. The founder of this state was
Soshangane. The Gaza-Nguni migrated from Nguniland in early 1820s.
The Gaza people were part of the Ndwandwe people. When Zwide was
defeated by Tshaka in 1819, some of his generals fled northwards and
these were Soshangane, Zwangendaba and Nxaba. Thus Soshangane had
fled from Tshaka. He fled from Tshaka with about 100 followers. He
established the Gaza state in Southern Mozambique and South-Eastern
Zimbabwe. During Soshangane’s migration northwards, the Ngoni
absorbed the Swazi. After settling in Southern Mozambique, Soshangane

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 DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES: HISTORY

came into contact with the Ndau and other Shona speaking peoples whom Gaza state up to 1858 when he died and his son Mawewe took over
they defeated and took as their subjects and paid tribute to Soshangane. He leadership.
established the Gaza state between 1825 and 1845. Soshangane first
established his capital at Chaimiti in the Highlands of the Middle of the Rulers of the Gaza state
Save region. The capital was sometimes called Moyamuhle, meaning cool  -Soshangane -Mzila
breezes. From his capital, Chaimiti, he dispatched soldiers to invade the  -Mawewe
Manyika, the Ndau, the Chopi and other peoples of what is now  -Ngungunyana
Mozambique. Soshangane named his state after his grandfather, Gaza.
Ndwandwe was the son of Gaza.

Groups of people which clashed with Soshangane during their

migration and settlement in Mozambique Political organisation of the Gaza
 -Pedi -Swazi
 -Zulu -Tsonga
 -The king was the head of state.
 -Ndau -Manyika
 -Kingship was hereditary.
 -Msene-Ngoni -Portuguese
 -The king was called Inkosi.
 -Chopi -Rozvi
 -The king ruled with the aid of councillors.
 -Jere-Ngoni
 -The state was divided into districts under resident indunas.
-British
 -The king was related to indunas through marriage.
Expansion of the Gaza state
 -Indunas collected tribute from the districts.
 -Indunas reported directly to Soshangane.
The expansion of the Gaza state was primarily based on military conquest.
 -All boys of military age were drafted into age regiments.
In 1442 Soshangane defeated the Sofala Portuguese Prazeros and forced
 -Defeated chiefs became vassal chiefs and paid tribute to the king.
them to pay tribute to him. In 1444 Soshangane overran the Gorongossa
 -The king used the army to rule the state.
area and brought the whole area stretching from Sena to the Zambezi delta
 -The king held in trust for the state, captives captured [booty].
area under his control. By 1449, 28 out of 46 Portuguese Prazeros paid
 -The king was the judicial leader.
tribute to Soshangane. He also fought against the Manyika and Manungwe
 -The king had final say in all matters concerning the state.
people and defeated them. This brought the whole area between Maputo
 -Prisoners of war were brought to the king.
and the Zambezi River under his control. By the 1840s Soshangane was
 -The king was the religious leader.
king between 500000 to1000000 people. Soshangane was the leader of the
 -The king was the chief distributer of land.

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 -The king was the commander in chief of the army.

 -The king controlled long distance trade. -The society of the Gaza state was divided into 3 classes which are
the Gaza-Nguni, BaTshangane and BaThonga.
QN: To what extent did Soshangane’s political system unite the -The Gaza-Nguni [BaNgoni] were the original Nguni speaking
various groups in his state? people.
-Marriage alliances unified people -They were the ruling class.
-System of centralisation unified people -BaTshangane were the absorbed / assimilated people who
-Payment of tribute adopted Nguni culture and language. BaTshangane recruits were
-Role of the army divided into regiments with BaNgoni officers.
-They were the middle class.
Other factors -They were treated as less important people.
-Trade within the state unified people -They were discriminated against.
-Nguni customs adopted by subject people -They were put in the front line in battle.
-Common religion -They identified themselves by wearing wax head rings and by
having pierced ears.
Economic Organisation of the Gaza state -They were rewarded with wives for service.
 -They hunted animals for meat, skins and ivory. -BaThonga were the lowest class and were also known as
 -They raided the local Chopi and Tsonga for cattle and grain. Amabuyandlela [Pathfinders].
 -They traded did both internal and external trade. -They consisted of local Ndau, Chopi and Manyika.
 -All subjects paid tribute to the king. -They were those people who did not adopt Nguni culture and
 -They grew crops like sorghum, millet and maize. language.
 -They did blacksmithing. -They were not allowed to join the regular army.
 -They did pottery. -They filed their teeth.
 -They did basketry. -The people of Gaza state practised loaning of cattle.
 -Those who lived near rivers, dams and lakes practised fishing to -Soldiers were not allowed to marry until the age of 40.
supplement their diet. -There was division of labour.
 -They reared animals for meat, milk and skins. -The society was patrilineal.
 -They mined minerals like gold, iron and copper. -They practised polygamy.
 -They gathered wild fruits and vegetables. -They practised loaning of cattle.
Social Organisation of the Gaza -They paid lobola in form of cattle.

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-All people were encouraged to speak Shangane.

-Women wore beads. Reasons for the decline of the Gaza state
-They performed initiation ceremonies as well as ceremonial Internal reasons
dances like Muchongoyo.  -Soshangane’s successors were weak and uncharismatic.
-They brewed beer  -Succession disputes, for example, between Soshangane’s sons
-They held rain making ceremonies. Mawewe and Mzila.
-Cattle were a symbol of wealth.  -Civil wars also contributed. For instance, there was a four year
-They believed in God. civil war after the death of Soshangane between Mzila and
-They believed in spirit mediums. Mawewe.
-They also believed in ancestral spirits  -Internal rebellions during Ngungunyana’s reign.
They believed in life after death.  -Breaking away of the Thonga weakened the state.
 -Natural disasters like drought and floods.
Social classes of the Gaza state  -Mawewe’s rule was unpopular.

 -Gaza-Nguni [BaNgoni] External reasons for the decline

 -BaTshangane  -Loss of control of trade
 -BaThonga [Amabuyandlela]  -Pressure from the British and Portuguese during the colonial
period.
Contribution of social organisation to the achievement of unity in the  -Influence of the Swazi backing Mawewe
Gaza state  -Interference from the Portuguese in politics
- Age regiments unified people of the same age.
-Speaking one language [Shangane] unified people.
-The common belief in God brought people together.
-Rainmaking ceremonies unified people.
-Loaning of cattle unified people.
-Intermarriage unified people.

Other factors which led to achievement of unity in the state

-A strong economy unified people.
-A strong army
-Able leadership

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 DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES: HISTORY

-The need for land for settlement

-The need to end civil wars

Early missionary societies / organisations which worked in Zimbabwe

between 1850 and 1900

Missionary Society Mission Stations Missionaries

-London Missionary Society [LMS] Inyati / Hope Fountain
R Moffat / J Moffat
-Dutch Reformed Church Morgenster
MISSIONARY ACTIVITIES IN ZIMBABWE FROM Michael Buys
-Anglican Church St Augustine
1850 TO 1900
Knight Bruce
-Roman Catholic Church Empandeni/Mashayamombe
Aims of Missionaries in Zimbabwe Batholomew Kroot
-To civilise Africans -Berlin Missionary Society Matibi/Thorn Hill
-To spread Christianity Madzima/Samuel
-To educate Africans.
-To introduce medical technology
Mission Stations established in Zimbabwe 1850 and
-To replace barbaric African customs, for instance, the killing of
twins, raiding, polygamy, witchcraft and even names of people 1900
-To end slave trade
-To promote legitimate trade  -Hope Fountain -Mashayamombe
-To develop an indigenous middle class to maintain church staff.  -Matibi -Inyati
-To convert heathens
-To introduce new agricultural methods  -Torn Hill -Mt Selinda
-To introduce new crops  -Empandeni -Chivi
-To treat the sick people and to inoculate cattle  -Mudavanhu -Chingoma
-To end African vices like human sacrifices  -Nyamhondo -Chilimanzi
-To open up mission stations and schools as well as health centres  -Dzike -Matobo
-To introduce new skills such as carpentry and needle work  -Chishawasha -Howard

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 -Hartzel -St Dominics -Thomson

 -Old Mutare -Mugabe
 -Zimuto -Gokomere Missionaries who operated in Matabeleland from 1850 to 1900
 -Mposi -Mzila -Robert Law -Charles Helm
 -Pedamatenka -St Augustine -Thomas Sykes -William Sykes
Mission stations in Zimbabwe where African Evangelists operated in -Batholomew Kroot -Thomas Morgan Thomas
the 19th century -Father Prestage -David Carnegie
-Matibi -Mposi -Hartman -Robert Moffat
-Mudavanhu -Chingoma -Thomson
-Nyamhondo -Zimuto
-Mugabe -Chilimanzi / Chirumhanzu Missionary work or activities in Zimbabwe between
-Dzike
1850 and 1900
Names of missionaries who worked in Zimbabwe between 1850 and
1900 -They established mission stations such as Inyati and Hope Fountain.
-Robert Moffat -John Smith Moffat -They grew their own crops for food on land given by the king.
-Charles Helm -Bernard Muzeki -They encouraged trade between the Africans and whites.
-Francois Coillard -William Sykes -They built mission stations.
-Thomas Morgan Thomas -Father Batholomew Kroot -They established schools.
-Father Robert Laws -Knight Bruce -They established clinics and hospitals.
-David Carnegie -Sehahabane -They established churches.
-Madzima -Prestage -They converted Africans into Christianity.
-Samuel -Schellnus -They acted as agents of imperialism.
-Knoth -William Buys -They performed technical work such as carpentry.
-Thomson -Makgatho -They printed books in vernacular language.
-They discouraged and undermined African Traditional Religion.
Missionaries of the London missionary societies -They treated the sick and inoculated cattle.
-Robert Moffat -John Smith Moffat -They taught new skills such as building, metal work and carpentry.
-William Sykes -Charles Helm -They acted as mediators between Africans and Europeans.
-David Carnegie -Thomas Morgan -They acted as interpreters.
Thomas -They wrote diplomatic letters for the king.

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-They taught Africans to read and write.  -The Catholic missionaries reduced African language to written
-They repaired guns for the king. form [IsiNdebele and Shona]. They printed IsiNdebele books for
-They established friendly relations with Africans. children to read.
-They made roads.  -They built numerous churches and many converts were made
-They accommodated colonisers. after colonisation.
-They signed treaties.  -They translated educational and religious books.
 -Catholic missionaries taught skills like carpentry.
Skills taught by early missionaries in Zimbabwe  -They introduced new crops and vegetables.
-Carpentry / Woodwork -Building  -They built schools that taught reading and writing.
-Farming -Repairing guns  -They were allowed to preach to the people.
-Repairing wagons -Hunting  -They repaired Ndebele guns.
-Reading -Writing  -They treated the sick.
-Cattle inoculation -Metal work  -They wrote the king’s letters.
-Cooking -Legitimate trade
-Sewing QN: How successful was the Catholic missionaries in Zimbabwe in
this period
Work of Catholic Missionaries in Zimbabwe up to 1906 Successes
 -They established mission stations.  -They established mission stations.
 -In 1879, the pioneer Roman Catholic missionary, Father Robert  -They inoculated cattle.
Law tried to establish a station at chief Mzila’s place on the border  -They reduced African language to written form [IsiNdebele and
between Zimbabwe and Mozambique. Shona].
 -In 1882, Batholomew Kroot led a team of Jesuit missionaries into  -They translated religious and educational books.
Matabeleland.  -They introduced new crops and vegetables.
 -Jesuits led by Batholomew Kroot opened a station at Empandeni  -New crafts and skills were introduced.
and another near Bulawayo.  -They taught Africans to use ploughs.
 -In 1892 Chishawasha station was opened near Salisbury.
 -Depelchin led Jesuits to the Zambezi valley and set up a station Failures
Pandamatenka. He built the ‘Residence of the Holy Cross’. -Before colonisation [1890] they made little impact to convert the Shona
Missionaries at Pandamatenka faced problems of deaths because and Ndebele.
the area was unhealthy. -Slave raiding and class system among the Ndebele influenced Ndebele
 -The Catholic missionaries inoculated cattle. kings to discourage conversion.

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-They faced the problem of diseases. -At the stations the missionaries taught and preached.
-There was poor communication. -They grew their own crops for food.
-J.S Moffat signed the Moffat treaty with Lobengula in February
Work of African Evangelists in Zimbabwe between 1888.
-Rev C Helm persuaded Lobengula to sign the Rudd Concession
1850 and 1906
in October 1888.
-Missionaries in Matabeleland encouraged trade between Ndebele
-Missionary groups such as the Dutch Reformed Church [DRC] of
and whites.
South Africa, Paris Evangelical Mission [PEM] of Lesotho and
-They established schools’
Berlin Missionary Society [BMS] employed African catechists
-They built hospitals.
and evangelists to reach on the Shona.
-They built churches.
-PEM opened stations at Chivi, Mposi and Matibi. Expeditions
-They converted one Ndebele into Christianity.
were sent to Mudavanhu, Chivi, Chingoma, Zimuto, Chilimanzi,
-They repaired the king’s guns.
Mugabe, Nyamhondo and Dzike. They made some converts but
-They wrote king’s letters.
chased by Lobengula.
-They treated the sick.
-BMS missionaries like Madzima and Samuel opened stations at
-They discouraged and undermined African religion and tradition.
Mposi and Matibi. Knoth and Schellnus joined them. They
-They taught the Ndebele new skills such as carpentry, building,
preached. They taught skills such as agriculture, reading, carpentry
and metal work.
and writing.
-They acted as interpreters [translators].
-DRC Evangelist, Michael Buys opened a station at chief Zimuto
-They promoted literacy. The Ndebele were taught to read and
and Mugabe [Morgenster]. They opened another at Chivi. A
write.
resident missionary was appointed for chief Chivi.

Problems faced by missionaries in Zimbabwe between

Work of the London Missionary Society in Zimbabwe
1850 and 1900
between 1850 and 1900
 -Delay in granting permission to operate by the king.
-In 1859 J.S Moffat established Inyati Mission Station.
 -There were cultural differences.
-LMS opened Hope Fountain 1870.
 -They were distrusted as they preached against customs such as
-Other missionaries who operated in Matabeleland included
killing of twins, polygamy, caste system and raiding.
Thomas Sykes, Rev C Helm and David Carnegie.

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 -There were communication problems due to differences in -They crated roads.

language. -They grew their own crops for food.
 -There was lack of supplies of European goods, medicine, tools -They built mission stations.
and clothes. -They used catechists and evangelists.
 -They were affected by tropical diseases such as malaria. -Friendship with African chiefs was another solution.
 -There were climatic problems. -They cheated some local chiefs.
 -There was hostility of the local people. -They taught native children to read and write.
 -There was killing of missionaries. -They leant native languages which aided communication and preaching.
 -Converts were killed.
 -Some converts were exiled. Failures in solving problems
 -They were attacked by wild animals. -Few people were converted to Christians.
 -Warfare and raiding created fear among the missionaries. -Not many roads were created.
 -There was lack of roads. -There was shortage of drugs.
 -There were literacy problems. -Some missionaries were chased out of the country, for example, Coillard.
 -They were being embroiled in local politics such as succession -Some missions were abandoned, for example, Pandamatenka.
disputes. -Some missionaries were killed, for example, Bernard Muzeki.
 -There was competition with other religions. -Africans were still attached to their traditional religion and culture.
 There was shortage of food they were used to. -The Ndebele still cherished the caste and raiding system.
 -There was pressure from political leaders who wanted them to be -Roads and telephones were still rare.
involved in colonialism. -Africans were suspicious of Europeans.
 -They were caught up in the competition among the European
countries. QN: To what extent were African rulers to blame for the problems of
 -They had shortage of human resources. the early missionaries?
 -There was poor accommodation. -Blameworthiness of African rulers
-Mzilikazi did not allow the Ndebele to be converted.
Methods to solve problems / Solution to the problems -Lobengula arrested Coillard.
-They used sign language and interpreters from South Africa. -African rulers were the custodians of culture and found it difficult to
-Thy built clinics for curing tropical diseases. change, so they resisted the preaching of missionaries.
-They set up schools. -They killed missionaries.
-They assisted in colonialism so that their work to spread Christianity was -Some converts were punished by African rulers.
made easy. -Some converts were exiled by African rulers.

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-Raiding which was done by African rulers hampered missionary work. -Many people were not converted.
-Very few people attended schools.
Other factors -They killed some missionaries.
-Language barrier -Some converts were killed.
-Missionaries were attacked by diseases. -They refused to learn the new language.
-Lack of medicine was another problem. -Missionary activities were restricted.
-Lack of food they were used to.
-Poor transport and communication networks. Failures
-Some people were converted.
Ways used by Africans to resist missionary influence in Zimbabwe -Other people were educated.
between 1850 and 1900 -Mission stations were established.
-They moved far away from missionary settlements. -Schools were built.
-They continued to practise their traditional religions. -Hospitals were built.
-Raids continued to take place in Zimbabwe.
-They refused to attend schools. QN; Why African people resisted missionary influence in Zimbabwe
-Thy killed some missionaries. between 1850 and 1900?
-They refused to give missionaries food. -They did not want to abandon their traditional religion.
-They accused missionaries of being spies. -They feared that their trade would be disturbed.
-They punished or killed some converts. -They did not want to learn a new language.
-They accused missionaries of using forbidden routes. -Christianity denounced aspects such as raiding.
-They refused to work for missionaries. -Missionaries attacked African administrative systems.
-They refused to accept some gifts from missionaries. -They suspected missionaries of having colonial aims.
-African leaders like Lobengula restricted missionary activities. -There was influence from traditional leaders.
-Some Africans continued to practise Islam and trade with Moslems. -Missionaries were accused of natural disasters like cattle diseases and
-African leaders discouraged Africans from attending church services. drought.
-They expelled some missionaries -Christianity denounced polygamy.
-Missionary teaching was meaningless to African traditional life.
QN: Were Africans successful in resisting missionary influence at that -Learning was difficult.
time?
Successes of missionaries in Zimbabwe in their work
Successes

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-They succeeded in converting some Africans, for example, in -They supported the crushing of kingdoms, for instance, John Smith
Mashonaland. Moffat was happy with the crushing of the Ndebele kingdom.
-They managed to establish mission stations. -They supported land grabbing.
-Schools were built. -They spied for their mother countries.
-They introduced literacy. -Western medicine undermined indigenous herbs.
-They introduced new crops which were adopted by Africans. -Their preaching made African minds docile.
-They were welcomed by some Shona, for example, Govera, Mposi and
Mugabe. Contribution of missionaries to the colonisation of
-They taught skills such as carpentry.
Zimbabwe
-They promoted trade between Africans and whites.

Failures of missionaries in their work in Zimbabwe -Robert Moffat’s friendship to Mzilikazi paved way for
-They managed to establish few permanent mission stations. missionaries, like J.S Moffat, C Helm and other whites.
-Converts continued with their African traditional beliefs. -The Moffat treaty of 1888 renewed the friendship between the
-They made very few converts in Matabeleland. Ndebele and the British paving way for British colonisation.
-Some missionaries died and some were arrested. -This treaty led to the cancellation of the Grobler treaty.
-Raiding hampered their work. -The Moffat treaty led to the signing of the Rudd Concession
-Some were expelled by Lobengula. which was used to occupy Zimbabwe.
Positive effects of missionary work on Africans -Reverend Charles Helm persuaded the king to sign the Rudd
 -They produced educated African elite. Concession.
 -They cultivated a sense of equality in all people. -Missionaries published economic prospects to their countries
 -They introduced better farming methods like irrigation and crop thereby generating interest in colonial conquest.
rotation. -They invited their governments to end slavery.
 -They improved medical facilities. -They published pagan practices by Africans which needed the
 -They brought about social harmony. attention of European governments.
 -There was development of vernacular language. -Missionaries invited their governments to destroy African states
 -There was an improvement of infrastructure. after failing to get converts.
-Missionaries were interpreters and also wrote letters for the king
Negative effects of missionary work on Africans falsifying some details.
-They paved way for colonisation. -They were used as agents of imperialism in treaty making.
-They cheated and lied to African leaders into signing treaties.

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-They established mission stations which later helped to -Role of missionaries and traders
accommodate other whites like concession seekers.
-Missionaries gave false, exaggerated reports about the wealth in
the country to lure other whites.
-They bribed Africans to persuade them to sign treaties.

Contribution of failure by missionaries to win converts to the

colonisation of Zimbabwe

-Missionaries wished the destruction of states like Ndebele.

-Missionaries gave false information to their home governments.
-Missionaries wanted colonisation for protection.
Other factors which led to the colonisation of Zimbabwe
 -Hope for the Second Rand
 -Ndebele state was strategically positioned.
 -Rhodes’s Cape to Cairo dream
 -Need for raw materials
 -Fertile soils.

Role played by the London Missionary Society in the colonisation of THE SCRAMBLE AND PARTITION OF
Zimbabwe
SOUTHERN AFRICA
-In February 1888, J.S Moffat signed the Moffat Treaty on behalf of
Rhodes. Lobengula agreed to cancel the Grobler Treaty.
-In October 1888, Rev C Helm influenced Lobengula into signing the -Scramble was the rush for colonies.
Rudd Concession. -Partition refers to the division of Southern African colonies by
-C Helm recommended the destruction of the Ndebele state. European powers.
-Missionaries hosted European visitors from Europe. -In the Scramble and partition of Southern Africa the most
-The Missionary road became the gateway into the interior of Southern powerful countries were able to get more colonies and vice versa.
Africa.

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 DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES: HISTORY

-European countries involved in the Scramble for Africa included

Britain, Germany, Portugal, Belgium and Holland / Netherlands. Social reasons
 -The need to settle population pressure
European country Colonies  -Availability of quinine and tablets gave whites the confidence to
-Germany -Namibia [South West Africa] venture into the interior of Africa.
-Portugal -Mozambique [Portuguese East Africa]/Angola  -There were good climatic conditions in Southern Africa which
[Portuguese West Africa] were favourable to the health of some European nationals like
-Britain -Zimbabwe, South Africa, Botswana, Malawi, Rhodes.
Lesotho, Swaziland and Zambia  -The need to civilise Africans
-Holland -Transvaal  -The need to educate Africans
-Belgium -Congo  -The need to spread Christianity
 -The need to end slave trade
Reasons for the Scramble and partition of Southern  -Racial superiority of Europeans
Africa Political reasons

-The upset of balance of power led to the Scramble for Southern Africa.
Economic reasons -Southern Africa was colonised for prestige reasons.
-Southern Africa was colonised for strategic reasons.
-The need for raw materials by Europeans -Diplomatic reasons also led to the scramble.
-The need for markets in Southern Africa -The Berlin Conference also contributed.
-The need for cheap labour for greater profits -Influence of European agents
-The need for areas to invest surplus capital in Southern Africa -The whites had superior weapons than Africans.
-The need for fertile land for agriculture -Explorers encouraged colonisation.
-There was improved transport which facilitated travel overseas -Public opinion and pressure
-Good climatic conditions in Southern Africa -Rhodes’ Cape to Cairo dream
-The need acquire protectorate for trade -Encouraging reports from hunters and traders
-The discovery of minerals like gold and diamonds in South Africa -The need to spread political influence
-The need for wild life [game] -The Boers wanted to extend their territory beyond the Limpopo River to
-The need for ivory avoid being encircled by the British.
-The need to acquire colonies for resources
-The need for pastures

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Political factors in Africa -Pastures

-Disunity of local people
-Wars amongst Africans
-Africans had inferior weapons QN: To what extent had Britain achieved her aims in Southern Africa
by 1900?
Political aims of Britain in the Scramble for Southern Africa Achievements

-To fulfil the Cape to Cairo dream -She occupied Bechuanaland, frustrated Germany and the Boers
-To establish a crown colony in Botswana and secure the missionary road -She occupied Zimbabwe, frustrated the Boers and Portuguese
-To carry on the white men’s burden of civilising the African barbarian- -The missionary road was kept open
Social Darwinism -She managed to take the gold and diamond producing areas
-Pressure from the electorate
-To create a British empire of colonies stretching from South Africa to Failures
Egypt -She failed to completely dislodge the Boers in South Africa
-To stop Portuguese expansion -She failed to have access to the Indian Ocean via Mozambique
-To gain prestige -She failed to create a federation of whites in South Africa
-To encircle the Boers
The Berlin Conference [1884-85
Political aims of Germany in the Scramble for Southern Africa
-Germany wanted to make enemies with France by forcing Britain to move
This conference was convened by Otto von Bismarck, the chancellor of
next to her
Germany from 1871 to 1890 to chart ways of partitioning Africa
-To gain prestige
peacefully. It was held in Berlin, in Germany. It was also meant to curb the
-To civilise Africans
increasing conflicts over colonies. Africans were not invited. Countries
-Pressure from the electorate
which were represented were Britain, France, Italy, Germany, Spain,
Portugal and Belgium.
Economic aims of Britain and Germany in the Scramble for Southern
Africa
Terms of the Berlin Conference
-Markets -Raw materials
-Cheap labour -Investment opportunities
 -Africa was divided into 20 spheres of influence
-Fertile land -Hunting grounds
 -There was to be effective occupation of spheres of influence
-Minerals -Need for cattle

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 -Each country was to make sure that there was a marked

development in its sphere of influence Other factors
 -There was to be freedom of navigation on major rivers like Niger, -The industrial revolution
Zambezi, Nile and Congo -Weaknesses of Africans
 -Slave trade and slavery were to be abolished where they still -The discovery on minerals in South Africa
existed -Work of European agents like traders, missionaries, concession seekers,
 -All countries were to recognise king Leopold’s occupation of hunters and individuals like Rhodes
Congo and Britain’s occupation of Egypt. There was to be -Strategic reasons
recognition of existing spheres of influence by European powers -Humanitarian reasons
 -They agreed to notify each other of new spheres of influence
 -Any intending country was to sign treaties with local rulers as African leaders who sought protection from Europeans
legal right to occupy that area -Moshoeshoe -Lewanika
 -They were to respect the rights of the indigenous people -Mswati -Maherero
 -They were to develop infrastructure in areas colonised -Khama
 -They were to create new political structures
 -They were to draw boundaries African leaders who resisted colonisation
 -They were to settle disputes peacefully -Lobengula -Dinizulu
 -They were to hoist national flags in areas colonised -Ngungunyana -Witbooi
-Cetshwayo -Mapondera
Contribution of the Berlin Conference in stimulating the Scramble
and partition of Southern Africa African chiefdoms colonised by Europeans in Southern Africa
-It legalised the partition of Africa. It set rules of the game of -Ndebele -Zvimba
partition. It legitimised the occupation of Southern Africa -Gaza -Makoni
-Many treaties were signed with African chiefs leading to the -Mugabe -Pedi
eventual occupation of their territories -Mashayamombe -Zulu
-Chiefs were cheated or deceived -Lozi -Chinamhora
-European powers competed for unoccupied areas of Southern -Xhosa -Chihota
Africa -Ngwato -Mangwende
-There was also scramble to define and extend boundaries of -Swazi
existing spheres of influence by the British, Portuguese, Boers and
Germans.

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Ethnic groups that fought wars of resistance in Southern Africa  -Offering protection, for example, the Sotho, Tswana and Swazi
between 1870 and 1900 got protection from the British
-Zulu -Shona  -Use of ambitious wealth men like Rhodes and Luderitz
-Ndebele -Herero  -Using missionary influence
-Nama/Herero -Ngwato
-Gaza/Shangani -Pedi Why Europeans were successful in colonising the African chiefdoms
-Swazi -Xhosa during this period
-Sotho
Advantages of Europeans
Methods used by Europeans to colonise chiefdoms in Southern -They had superior weapons
Africa / Ways used by Europeans to destroy African independence -They had better communication
 Warfare, for example, the 1893 Anglo-Ndebele war, the 1896 -They used tricks
Ndebele-Shone uprisings and the Anglo-Zulu war -They used bribery
 -Treaty making, for example, The Moffat treaty of 1888 and the -They used dynamites
Rudd Concession of 1888
 -Use of agents like Rhodes Disadvantages of Africans
 -Divide and rule tactic -They had inferior weapons
 -Use of Chartered companies such as BSAC, NIASA -They had poor communication
 -Granting of charter -They had poor methods of fighting
 -Conquest -They were illiterate
 -Trickery, for example, Lobengula was given verbal promises that -There was disunity among Africans
were never fulfilled
 -Use of gifts to African leaders to persuade people to accept QN: To what extent were Africans to blame for the colonisation of
colonial rule Southern Africa
 -Buying concessions, for example, Edward Lippert sold the
Lippert concession to Rhodes in 1891 Why Africans were to blame
 -Bribery, for example, Lotshe was bribed by Thompson to -They were not united
influence Lobengula to sign the Rudd Concession -Some African chiefs collaborated with colonial agents
 -Through the influence of hunters like Henry Hartley and -Their military weaknesses invited Europeans
Frederick Courtney Selous -Some asked for colonial power protection from raids by neighbours, for
example, the Ngwato got protection from the Ndebele raids.

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-Tribal wars, for example, Tswana and Korana -Britain and Boers-competed for the colonisation of the Ndebele state as
shown by the signing of the Grobler and Moffat treaty. The British ended
Other factors up as winners after the signing of the Rudd Concession.
 -Illiteracy made Africans vulnerable during treaty making
 -Forces of industrial capitalism were too strong, for example, -Britain and Boers-competed for control of the diamond wealth in
Britain and Germany Kimberly. This led to the British annexation of Orange Free State.
 -Europeans were very determined to colonise Africans -The British desire to access Nguni labour force and to encircle Boers led
 to the annexation of Natal and to declare a protectorate over Bechuanaland
Methods used by Africans to resist colonisation in Southern Africa so as to preserve the missionary road and thwart [stop] Boer expansion
westwards. Boers had declared two republics of Stella land and Goshen.
-Wars [armed resistance], for example, Anglo-Ndebele war of 1893, the -The Second Anglo-Boer war was part of the struggle to control the gold
Zulu wars wealth at the Witwatersrand.
-Diplomacy. They engaged in diplomatic engagements to postpone their
down fall -Britain and Portugal-competed for the control of Mashonaland which
-Friendship the Ndebele claimed to control. The Portuguese intended to join
-Protectorate status [Collaboration with Europeans], Lewanika Portuguese East Africa [Mozambique] with Portuguese West Africa whilst
collaborated with the British Rhodes had the Cape to Cairo dream. The Anglo-Portuguese treaty of
-Migration 1891 resolved boundaries between Rhodesia and Portuguese East Africa.
-Delegations-giving part of one’s power, rights, for a certain time
-Treaties and agreements -Germany and Britain-British influence was spreading from the South to
-Concessions, for example, Rudd Concession, Lippert concession and the the North whilst Germany was expanding eastwards from the area she had,
like that is, South West Africa [Namibia]. Britain declared a protectorate in
-Killed whites in farms and mines Bechuanaland in 1885 to thwart German expansion and preserve the
-Use of Christianity to resist colonisation, for example, Moshoeshoe missionary road.
against the Boers
QN: To what extent were the people of Southern Africa affected by
The competition for the colonisation of Southern Africa by this competition up to 1900?
Europeans
Positive effects
-Some states gained protection and remained intact, for example, the Lozi
of Lewanika and Khama’s Ngwato.

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 DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES: HISTORY

-Some chiefs retained their power, for example, Lewanika. -Other countries lacked foreign support
-Many missionaries visited the state to convert people to Christianity.
-Trade with foreigners increased European agents [colonialist representatives] who participated in the
-There was an end of ethnic wars, for example, the Ndebele versus the Scramble for Southern Africa
Shona or Ngwato; the Zulu-Pedi clashes and so on. -Cecil John Rhodes -Herr Luderitz
-The Ndebele state remained intact up to 1893. -John Smith Moffat -Piet Grobler
-Charles Dunnel Rudd -Francis
Disadvantages Thompson
-Loss of independence -Rochford Maguire -Sir Sydney Shippard
-Erosion of African culture -Edward Lippert -Thomas Baines
-Lots of wealth, for example, raw materials was exploited -Charles Helm
-It led to colonial wars and wars of dispossession
-There were high death rates due to the use of maxim guns Colonial agents [whites] and their European countries who were
-Africans were cheated in treaties involved in the scramble for Africa
-The Ndebele kings spent time dealing with concession seekers  -Cecil John Rhodes Britain
 -Karl Peters Germany
Why Britain was able to obtain more colonies in the region  -Paul Krugger Boers

Strengths of Britain THE COLONISATION OF ZIMBABWE

-The role of Lord Salisbury and others. Salisbury was the British Prime
Minister.
-Zimbabwe was colonised by the British in 1890.
-The British South Africa company [BSAC] got support from the rich.
-Britain was fully prepared for a war’
Reasons for the colonisation of Zimbabwe
-Rhodes’ wealth
-Influence of missionaries Economic reasons
-Influence of traders, hunters and concession seekers
Other factors -The need for markets
-Germany was a late comer into the scramble for Africa -The need for raw materials
-Boers were militarily weak -The need for pastures
-The Portuguese were weak -The need for cheap labour
-Weaknesses of Africans

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-The need to invest surplus capital -Favourable climatic conditions

-The need for fertile land -Population expansion. There was need to settle population pressure.
-The need to bail BSAC out of bankrupt
-The whites wanted Ndebele cattle in Zimbabwe
-Favourable climatic conditions in Zimbabwe Importance of economic factors in the colonisation of Zimbabwe
-Rhodes believed that there was a second rand in Zimbabwe
-The discovery of gold and diamond in the Transvaal made many whites to -Attraction of mineral wealth
think that the gold belt in South Africa stretched into Zimbabwe. -Opportunities to invest surplus capital by the DeBeers Company
-Attractive soils and cattle
Political reasons -Market opportunities
-Availability of raw materials in Zimbabwe

-Rhodes wanted to promote British imperialism.

Whites who helped in the colonisation of Southern Africa
-Rhodes wanted to prevent other countries from colonising Zimbabwe.
 -Cecil John Rhodes -Duke of Fife
-Rhodes wanted to stop Germany expansion from the west [Namibia].
 -Duke of Abercorn -Paul Krugger
-Rhodes was determined to encircle the Transvaal [Boers].
 -Lord Grey -Baroness Burdette Coutts
-Rhodes wanted to prevent Boers from expanding northwards.
 -Queen Victoria -Otto von Bismarck
-Zimbabwe was colonised for prestige reasons.
 -Lord Salisbury -Robinson
-Influence of hunters, traders, explorers and missionaries
 -Leander Starr Jameson -Prince of Wales
-Rhodes’ Cape to Cairo dream. He wanted to colonise Africa from Cape
 -E Maund -Edward Lippert
[South Africa] to Egypt [Cairo].
 -Sir Sydney Shippard -J.S Moffat
-Rhodes wanted to construct a railway line past Matabeleland
 -Penne father -Charles Helm
-Rhodes believed in British superiority. His purpose was therefore to
 -Frederick Courtney Selous -Piet Grobler
spread liberty, peace and justice to other parts of the world.
 -Charles Rudd
-Zimbabwe was colonised for strategic reasons
Treaties signed between Lobengula and the whites
Social reasons
1] London-Limpopo treaty [1870]
-The British wanted to civilise Africans 2] Baines treaty [1871]
-The British wanted to spread Christianity 3] Grobler treaty [1887]
-The British wanted to spread education 4] Moffat treaty [1888]

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5] Rudd Concession [1888] -A Boer permanent representative [a council] was to be stationed in

6] Lippert Concession [1891] Bulawayo to administer justice to Boers who might violate Lobengula’s
law.
1] London Limpopo Treaty [1870] -Boers carrying passports from the Transvaal were to be allowed entry into
-This was a mineral concession to the London and Limpopo Company in Zimbabwe.
the Tati area -Boers were to prospect for minerals.
-Lobengula was to catch and extradite all criminals from who escaped
from the South African Boer Republic [Transvaal].
Terms of this treaty
-Hunters and prospectors from South African Boer Republic would be
-There was to be erection of buildings and operation of machines by the
allowed to operate in Lobengula’s kingdom.
company.
-Lobengula was to protect Transvaal citizens who visited his country.
-The company was to make roads.
-The Ndebele were committed to providing military assistance to
-The company was given mining rights.
Transvaal if and when asked to do so.
-Lobengula was to get 120 pounds per month.
-Lobengula was to be recognised as a paramount chief.

2] The Baines Treaty [1871] Did the Grobler treaty protect the Ndebele state from colonisation?
-It was a verbal agreement made between Lobengula and Thomas Baines. Protection
-The Grobler treaty protected the Ndebele state from invasion by the Boers
Terms of this treaty or other Europeans
-Baines was given the right to exploit minerals in the area between Gweru -It delayed the occupation of the Ndebele state by other groups
and Hunyani rivers. -The treaty created friendship between the Ndebele and the Boers
*However, Baines died before registering his treaty. Limitations
-Lobengula faced threats from the Portuguese and the British
-The treaty could not prevent the British from entering into treaties with
3] Grobler Treaty [1887] Lobengula
-Lobengula had to sign the Moffat treaty and the Rudd Concession which
led to the colonisation of Zimbabwe
-It was signed between Lobengula and the Boers. It was negotiated -Military assistance was one sided
between Piet Grobler, Frederick Grobler and Lobengula. -It increased the scramble for Zimbabwe
Terms of this treaty
-There was to be everlasting peace between the Ndebele and the Boers. 4] The Moffat Treaty [February 1888]
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 DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES: HISTORY

-Lobengula-was the king of the Ndebele who claimed to be having control

-It was signed between Lobengula and John Smith Moffat representing over the area between Zambezi and Limpopo [Zimbabwe].
Cecil John Rhodes. -Charles Dunnel Rudd-was Rhodes’ business partner who came from
-It was meant to repudiate [cancel] the Grobler treaty. South Africa in 1866 on medical grounds. He was a diamond dealer who
-Moffat enjoyed an advantage when he negotiated for this treaty with could trick anyone into submission. He was Rhodes’ best friend and head
Lobengula because he had worked among the Ndebele for long, Lobengula of Rhodes’ delegation to Lobengula.
trusted him as an honest man, his father, Robert Moffat was a close friend -Francis ‘Matabele’ Thompson-was fluent in native languages. He was
of Lobengula’s father, Mzilikazi and their fathers had signed a treaty, so therefore responsible for interpreting.
Lobengula thought he was renewing the old treaty. -Rochfort Maguire-was a lawyer by profession and was with Rhodes at
Oxford University.
-John Dreyer-was the wagon driver who was also a signatory.
Other people who were present
Terms of this treaty
-Charles Helm-was a missionary who interpreted and was also a trusted
-There was to be everlasting peace and friendship between Lobengula and
friend of Lobengula. He was an agent of imperialism and he persuaded
the British.
Lobengula to sign the Rudd Concession.
-Lobengula was not to enter into any other agreement without the consent /
-John Smith Moffat-was a missionary and Lobengula friend.
permission of the British.
-Sir Sydney Shippard
-Lobengula was to get British protection.
-Lotshe-was a trusted induna of Lobengula and was bribed by Thompson
-The Grobler treaty was to be cancelled.
to urge Lobengula to sign.
-Lobengula was not to give any part of the country to any other country.
-Sikombo
-Lobengula agreed to be a friend of the British Queen.

Terms of the Rudd Concession

5] Rudd Concession [October 1888]
-It was signed between Lobengula and the British. Rhodes used the Moffat
treaty to keep the Germans, Boers and the Portuguese out of Matabeleland Written terms / written agreements
and Mashonaland. Rhodes sent Charles Rudd, Francis Thompson and -The BSAC was granted the right to exploit minerals.
Rochfort Maguire to persuade Lobengula to grant them a concession. -The BSAC was granted the authority ‘to do all things they might deem
necessary’ in order to promote their mining activities.
Signatories of the Rudd Concession -Lobengula was to be given 100 pounds per month.
-Lobengula was to be given 1000 rifles and 100000 rounds of ammunition.

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 DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES: HISTORY

-A gun boat was to be stationed on the Zambezi valley or he was to be -It led to the execution of Lotshe
given 500 pounds. -Lobengula stopped trusting his indunas
-Lobengula lost his life
Verbal agreements / Verbal terms -He never received the gun boats
-Not more than 10 men were to enter into the kingdom and dig only one
hole. QN: To what extent did the Rudd Concession contribute to the
-The few whites would not mine near towns. colonisation of Zimbabwe?
-The men were to surrender their weapons on arrival into Zimbabwe. -It was used to obtain the charter which was used to colonise Zimbabwe.
-All whites who came to Matabeleland were to be under Lobengula’s -It excluded other competing powers
jurisdiction -It met the requirements of the Berlin West African Conference
-The whites to come to Matabeleland were to fight in defence of the -It gave unlimited powers to the BSAC
Ndebele state -It led to the creation of the pioneer column
-Rhodes would advertise the concession in South African newspapers.
-Whites were not to sty permanently Other factors
-The charter which was written permission to colonise
QN: Did the Ndebele king benefit from the Rudd Concession? -Rhodes and British financiers financed the occupation
-Other treaties like Grobler treaty also paved the way
Benefits of the king -Assistance of collaborators
- Other European agents were kept out of Lobengula’s country
-The treaty controlled the influx of whites into the Ndebele state Evidence to show that Lobengula was cheated in the signing of the
-Lobengula received the first monthly salary of 100 pounds and some old Rudd Concession
guns. -Instead of 10 men agreed, a column came and Lobengula was surprised.
-Lobengula was illiterate so he could not understand the legal language
Non-benefits used.
-Loss of land -The Rudd team was made up of intellectual giants who had ventured into
-Loss of independence various works of life, battle hardened men and economic heavy weights
-Loss of cattle who could trick anyone.
-Exploitation of minerals increased -Bribes were common during the signing of the treaty.
-The treaty led to the invasion of the country -Items promised were never delivered.
-The treaty legalised the occupation of Zimbabwe. -The Rudd team used Queen of England’s name.
-It caused disunity in the state

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 DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES: HISTORY

-Sending of Babejane and Umshete to London to have the Rudd -The Shona did not resist the coming of the colonisers in 1890.
Concession clarified. -Rivalry between the Shona and the Ndebele undermined the
-The document given to the Queen was different from the one which possibility of a united resistance.
Lobengula possessed -Some Shona people collaborated with the whites in the Anglo-
-Execution of all people who persuaded Lobengula to sign the treaty, for Ndebele war.
example, Lotshe. -Khama provided some auxiliary forces to assist the BSAC.
-The Rudd team quickly rode off after signing the treaty leaving -He advised Lobengula o seek British protection from him.
Thompson behind who sneaked during the night. -Some Africans accompanied the pioneer column from South
Evidence to show that Lobengula was not cheated Africa [Transvaal] into Mashonaland.
-Lobengula wanted to please his subjects by signing the treaty after getting -The Fingo people, also from South Africa accompanied Rhodes
goods like money and guns. -Hosting of colonial agent
-The desire to be protected by the British drove him into signing the treaty. -The greediness of some African leaders
-He changed his mind afterwards, as a result of influence from other -Some Shona chiefs also signed treaties with whites
parties like the Germans, Boers and Portuguese. -Lobengula restrained the Amajaha
-Lobengula had a natural weakness for luxury goods.
-Lobengula claimed to be cheated after his diplomacy failed. Importance of the part played by Africans in the colonisation of
Zimbabwe
Role played by Africans in the colonisation of -Court officials helped in influencing the signing of treaties
-They cleared the road to facilitate the penetration of the pioneer column
Zimbabwe
-They hosted the European agents of colonisation
-Collaborators boosted the number of invaders in the 1893-4 war
-Some Ndebele court officials collaborated with the whites, for Other factors
example, Lotshe and Sikombo persuaded Lobengula to sign the -Rhodes financed the whole process; secured the treaties and royal charter
Rudd Concession. -Selous guided the pioneer column
-Lobengula, chief of the Ndebele signed treaties and concessions, -Colonial agents obtained treaties, for example, J.S Moffat and C.D Rudd
whose contents he did not understand, for instance, Moffat treaty, -Activities of Grobler sparked the scramble for Zimbabwe
Rudd concession, Lippert concession
-Lobengula claimed to be chief of Mashonaland, thus facilitating Problems faced by Lobengula in dealing with concession seekers
the colonisation. -Whites came in large numbers.
-Weaknesses of the Ndebele were exploited by the Europeans who -Language barrier
had the maxim guns.

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 DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES: HISTORY

-Poor advise from white acquaintances like missionaries such as Helm and
J.S Moffat and hunters like Selous. Whites who were involved in the signing of treaties and concessions in
-Opposition from Amajaha [warriors]. They wanted direct confrontation Zimbabwe between 1850 and 1891
with the whites. -Thomas Baines -Sydney Shippard
-Difficulty in judging the best group to deal with -Piet Grobler -Frederick Grobler
-Sometimes concession seekers pretended to be working against each other -Charles Helm -Rochfort Maguire
to influence Lobengula’s decision, for example, Lippert who sold his -W Graham -Dreyer
concession to Rhodes. -J.S Moffat -Charles Rudd
-Poor education levels which prevented him from fully understanding the -F Thompson -E Lippert
implications of what he was required to sign. -Van Wyk -E Maund
-He had a natural weakness for luxury goods like receiving gifts of no -C.J Rhodes -Paul Krugger
lasting value. -J Swinburne
-He was afraid of what might happen if he did not sign.
Measures taken by Rhodes after obtaining the Rudd Concession to
Concession seekers who visited Matabeleland between 1870 and 1900 prepare for the occupation of Zimbabwe up to 1893
-Swinburne -Thomas Baines -He published the Rudd Concession in South African, Canada and New
-Piet Grobler -Frederick Grobler Zealand.
-J.S Moffat -Charles Rudd -He held a meeting with the Parliamentarians
-Francis Thompson -Rochfort Maguire -He obtained the royal Charter from the Queen [1889]
-Edward Lippert -E Maund -He formed the BSAC
-He obtained money from the rich of Britain to finance the occupation
Hunters who operated in Zimbabwe [1850-1893] -He planned the delay of Lobengula’s emissaries namely, Umshete and
-Jan Viljoen -Henry Hartley Babejane in South Africa
-Martinus Swartz -John Lee -He advertised the occupation of Zimbabwe
-F.C Selous -He recruited the Pioneer column
-He bought the Lippert Concession
Traders who operated in Zimbabwe [1850-1893] -Rhodes sought aid from Khama
-Sam Edwards -Joseph McCabe -Rhodes sent Jameson to cure Lobengula so as to entice him for his
-George Phillips -George West beech support
-Fairburn -Dawson -Invasion of Mashonaland [1890]
-Thomas Meikles -Planned to fight the Anglo-Ndebele war [1893]

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 DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES: HISTORY

-Ndebele indunas like Lotshe and Sikombo who were bribed to persuade
Importance of these measures to the occupation of Zimbabwe Lobengula to sign the Rudd concession
-The Charter gave Rhodes the authority to occupy Zimbabwe. -Role of hunters and traders
-The Charter assured him of protection.
-He obtained support from Rothschild and DeBeers companies. Provisions of the Royal Charter
-Advertising protected him. -To promote good governance
-Fighting the Ndebele led to the completion of the process of occupation -To preserve peace and order
-To issue mining concessions
Other factors which facilitated the occupation of Zimbabwe -To grant plots of land
-Role of hunters -To establish banks
-Role of missionaries like Helm -To make roads, railways, telegraphs and harbours
-Role of traders -To promote trade and commerce
-Weaknesses of the Boers -To promote civilisation
-Weaknesses of the Shona -To respect local customs, laws and religion
-Weaknesses of the Ndebele -To ban the sale of liquor to locals
-Role of concession seekers -To abolish slave trade
-To establish police force
Role played by Rhodes in the colonisation of Zimbabwe -To monetise the economy
-He sent representatives to trick Lobengula into signing the Rudd
Concession People who assisted Rhodes to get the British South Africa Royal
-He bought the Lippert concession Charter in 1889
-He offered his personal fortune finance the occupation -Duke of Fife -Duke of Abercorn
-He obtained the royal charter -Lord Grey -Lord Salisbury
-He formed the BSAC and recruited pioneers -Baroness Burdette Coutts -Prince of Wales
- He financed the Anglo-Ndebele war -Queen Victoria

Other factors Companies which sponsored the colonisation of Zimbabwe

-The British supported the move by Rhodes -BSAC -DeBeers Company
-British financiers like Duke of Fife and Duke of Abercorn -Rothschild
-Missionaries helped, for example, Helm and J Moffat
-Initial lack of resistance by the Shona

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Lobengula’s reaction after discovering that he had been cheated in the -The Boers were unable to help Lobengula militarily
Rudd concession -The Shona and the British collaborated against the Ndebele
-E.A Maund informed Lobengula that he had been cheated.
-Lobengula wrote a letter to Rhodes complaining about the Rudd The Pioneer Column [1890]
concession.
-He also wrote a letter to the High Commissioner in Botswana.
-After obtaining the charter, Rhodes recruited the pioneer column
-He sent two emissaries to the Queen accompanied by E.A Maund.
to occupy Zimbabwe.
-He executed Lotshe and Sikombo and their families.
-The pioneer column consisted of 200 pioneer men [settlers], most
-He invited a few explorers to explain the Rudd concession to him.
of which were below 30 years and 500 British South Africa Police
-Lobengula continued to emphasise on the verbal agreements of the Rudd
[BSAP].
concession to those at his court.
-The pioneer column set out from Macloutsie River in Botswana
-He signed the Lippert concession.
on 27 June 1890.
-He publicly renounced the Rudd Concession
-Penne father was in command of the BSAP assisted by Borrow
-He sent a search part after Maguire.
and Henry.
-Frederick Courtney Selous, the hunter was the guide.
Why did Lobengula’s efforts fail to stop the colonisation of
-The first stop was at Shashe River where they built Fort Tuli.
Zimbabwe?
-The pioneers thus established Forts as they travelled.
-The pioneers avoided the Ndebele state for fear of attacks.
Lobengula’s weaknesses
-Lobengula protested at the pioneer invasion.
-He cancelled the Grobler treaty.
-Lobengula did not allow regiments to attack the pioneers.
-He depended on white interpreters.
-200 Ngwato people accompanied the pioneers.
-Illiteracy
-The Ngwato helped to make roads.
-He did not have direct access to the queen or Rhodes.
-They used ox-drawn wagons [117 wagons] to transport women,
-He put too much trust in missionaries.
children and supplies.
-He trusted Lotshe and Sikombo too much.
-Scouts patrolled the areas ahead
-He was greedy for natural benefits like weapons
-They travelled 12 miles per day and built a laager at the place of
-He had a desire to keep out many whites
rest during the night.
-Pioneers often met small groups of Ndebele warriors.
Other factors
-In August 1890 the pioneer column was in Masvingo where they
-Rhodes was financially powerful
built fort Victoria.
-Cheating by Lippert

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 DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES: HISTORY

-Part of the pioneers branched to Melsetter while the other -Land

continued northwards and built Fort Charter.
-They reached Fort Salisbury on 21 September 1890 where they Rivers crossed by the pioneer column on the way to Mashonaland
hoisted the Union Jack. -Macloutsie River -Tuli River
-Bubi River -Runde River
Security arrangements made by the pioneer column during its -Manyame River -Shashe River
movement into Mashonaland in 1890 -Mzingwane River -Nuanetsi River
-Pioneers were given military training. -Tokwe River
-Each pioneer member was armed.
-500 policemen accompanied the column Did the pioneers find it easy to reach their destination?
-They established forts on their way Yes they found it easy to reach their destination because
-They had heavy guns-maxim guns and two seven pounders -They were led by F.C Selous who knew the country
-They used laagers when they camped for the night. -They were well equipped with provisions
-They kept a big lamp burning when they camped night. -They were accompanied by the police
-They maintained patrols on horse backs. -They had reliable means of transport
-They had doctors to treat the sick. -They met no resistance from the Ndebele and the Shona
-They used Selous as the guide. -The Shona were disunited
-They avoided the Ndebele state. -The Shona were weakened by years of Ndebele raids
-They were accompanied by the Ngwato auxiliaries *However, they took too long a route to avoid the Ndebele
-They built forts -They faced diseases
-Scouting parties were sent in advance. -They crossed larger rivers
-Powerful search light beams were used to scare away wild animals -Clearing land was laborious
-They failed to settle at their intended destination

How far can the occupation of Mashonaland be attributed to the

People who were tasked to recruit the pioneers pioneers?
-F Johnson -Heaney -They physically travelled to Mashonaland and pegged out farms
-Borrow -The pioneers were trained for the war; they fought in the 1893-4 war of
dispossession.
Three promises made to the pioneers -The pioneers included all trades such as farmers and bankers
-Cash -Gold -Their different skills made the new colony self-sustaining

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 DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES: HISTORY

-They built settlements and developed infrastructure on their farms  -They introduced money
-Selous, Lendy and Penne father led the pioneer column  -They set up health centres
-Khama contributed manpower to make roads
How were Africans affected by these activities?
Other factors Positive effects
-Rhodes financed the occupation
-Rhodes’s company recruited the settlers -Opening roads eased transport
-Lobengula prevented his soldiers from attacking pioneers -The Shona got protection from the Ndebele
-The Shona did not resist colonisation -They were able to buy new manufactured goods
-Missionaries like Charles Helm and J.S Moffat also facilitated -They got markets for their grain
colonisation -The learnt new farming skills
-Employment was created

Activities of the pioneer settlers in Mashonaland between 1890 and Negative effects
1893 -Loss of land
 -After hoisting the Union Jack, pioneers set out to peg farms -Los of livestock
 -There was widespread search for gold -Ill-treatment of Africans
 -They pegged gold claims -Abuse of African women
 -They signed a treaty with chief Mutasa in the east to thwart -Loss of power by African chiefs
Portuguese penetration. -Dilution of culture
 -They divided Mashonaland into districts each under a magistrate. -Lucrative trade with the Portuguese was disrupted
 -Selling land
 -Setting towns, post offices, newspapers, bakeries and so on. Steps taken by Rhodes to colonise Zimbabwe between
 -They employed Africans in farms and mines.
1887 and 1890
 -They laid roads and streets.
 -They formed the police force.
 -They established churches  -Rhodes acted as a British agent of imperialism.
 -Hunting  -He signed the Moffat treaty.
 -Farming  -This treaty was to reverse the Grobler treaty.
 -Abuse of Africans  -In October 1888, he sent Maguire, Thompson and Rudd to sign
 -They set up boundaries the Rudd Concession.

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 DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES: HISTORY

 -In October 1889, Rhodes was granted the Royal Charter and -New languages were introduced, for example, Portuguese, English,
permission to colonise and administer Zimbabwe on behalf of Swahili and Chiraparapa which improved communication between people.
Britain. -A few urbanised class of Africans emerged
 -He used his personal fortune to finance the occupation. -New crops were introduced, for example, wheat.
 -He formed the BSAC.
 -He recruited the pioneer column.
 -Rhodes sought and got support from British financiers like Duke
of Fife and Duke of Abercorn.
 -The pioneers moved into Zimbabwe and established forts namely Negative effects of colonialism in Zimbabwe
Fort Tuli, Fort Victoria, Fort Charter and Fort Salisbury.
 -In September 1890 the Union Jack was raised / hoisted. Negative political effects
 -Rhodes signed treaties with Portuguese and Shona chiefs. -Loss of political power by chiefs
 -He delayed Lobengula’s indunas to see the queen. -Boundaries were fixed without regard to tribal affiliations.
-There was loss of lives during wars of resistance
Effects of colonialism on Zimbabwe
Negative social effects
Positive effects -African traditional religion was undermined
- There was creation of law and order by ending tribal wars. -There was emergence of social ills such as prostitution
-Infrastructure was improved by construction of roads, bridges and -Women were raped
railways. -Africans were detribalised
-Better means of transport were introduced, for example, vehicles, trains -New epidemics were brought to Africa, for example, AIDS.
and aeroplanes. -Africans were oppressed and used as a source of cheap labour [chibharo].
-Improvement of communication, for example, radios and televisions.
-Provision of better water resources like taps Negative economic effects
-There was creation of employment [industries] -Africa was under developed
-There was provision of the cash economy. Money was introduced. -Raw materials from Zimbabwe were used to promote and develop Britain
-New and better methods of agriculture were introduced, for example, at her expense.
irrigation, crop rotation and intercropping. -Africans were underpaid and heavily taxed
-Advanced methods of mining were introduced. -Loss of productive land and cattle by Africans
-Better weapons for defence were introduced, for example, guns and -African industries were undermined as Africans favoured European
bombs. manufactured goods at the expense of African goods.

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 DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES: HISTORY

 -Failure to find the second rand in Mashonaland resulted in the

whites anticipating that the second rand was in Matabeleland.
 -The desire to acquire a hero status in Britain after the fall of the
Ndebele state.
 -The quarrel over the ownership of the Shona between the Ndebele
and the whites.
 -Rhodes’ Cape to Cairo dream
 -The shifting of the boundary between Matabeleland and
Mashonaland
 -The fall of the BSAC share prices
 -The desire to seize Ndebele cattle by the whites
 -Rhodes wanted to facilitate the construction of a railway line
cutting across Matabeleland
 -The defeat of the Ndebele would herald the total colonisation of
Zimbabwe
 -Influence of missionaries
 -Jameson’s warlike mood
 -The killing of Lobengula’s peace envoys [emissaries]
 -The need for cheap labour in Matabeleland
 -Fear of a strong Ndebele state by the whites
 -Ndebele raids disrupted farming and mining
 -The Victoria incidents which are---
THE 1893-4 ANGLO-NDEBELE WAR / THE a] The cutting of telegraph wire which belonged to the whites by
chief Gomora / Gomala
1893-4 WAR OF DISPOSSESSION b] The death of chief Chivi [1891] who is said to have been
skinned alive by Lobengula for refusing to pay tribute
-This war was fought between the Ndebele and the British c] The death of chief Nemakonde / Lomagundi [1891] who also
had refused to pay tribute to Lobengula
Causes of the Anglo-Ndebele war d] Raiding of Lobengula’s cattle by chief Bere

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 DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES: HISTORY

-Umgandani-Lendy clashes led to the 1893 war -Captain H.T Borrow -Heaney

Why Lobengula was to blame for the outbreak of the Anglo-Ndebele

war? Course of the Anglo-Ndebele war
-He failed to control the regiments
-Raiding Mashonaland disrupted white farms and mines
-He refused to accept the shifting boundary -This war broke out in 1893.
-He mobilised for war after the Victoria incident -The white volunteers formed 3 columns to fight a war of dispossession.
-He killed chief Chivi and chief Nemakonde These 3 columns included
a] The Salisbury column under Major Forbes
Other factors b] Fort Victoria column under Captain Allan Wilson
-The BSAC was determined to annex Matabeleland as in the 1889 charter c] The Tuli column under Captain Raaf and Goold Adams
-The BSAC wanted to boost the value of its shares -There were 18000 Ndebele warriors versus 3500 opponents [1100 whites
-The by the BSAC to deal with the Ndebele once and for all and 2000 auxiliaries and about 400 Shona and Cape auxiliaries.
-The whites kept shifting the boundary -The 3 columns met at Iron Hill Mine.
-The killing of Lobengula’s peace envoys -The first major battle took place at Shangani River on 24 October. The
-The desire for the second rand Ndebele were defeated because of the superiority of the Maxim gun.
-The whites wanted political control of the Shona About 500 Ndebele warriors were killed. The BSAC suffered few
casualties.
British nationals who participated in the 1893-4 war -The Ndebele were also defeated at Lalapanzi battle
-Leander Starr Jameson -Captain Allan Wilson -The second major battle took place at Mbembesi River. Again the
-Major Forbes -Major Johnson Ndebele were defeated with heavy losses.
-Captain Heaney -Captain Lendy -The Ndebele regiment of Inqabo, Imbizo and Ugukamini clashed with
-Captain Borrow -Goold Adams company soldiers.
-Captain Raaf -Sir Henry Lock -7 pounder guns cost many Ndebele lives.
-Colquhoun -On 3 November, the Southern column [Tuli column] laagered at Singuesi
River near Empandeni. The Ndebele under Gumbo attacked but were
Military leaders of the BSAC forces during the 1893-4 war defeated due to heavy gun fire.
-Major Forbes -Captain Lendy -Khama’s men returned to Botswana due to outbreak of small pox
-Lt Colonel Goold Adams -Captain Raaf -Jameson and the company troops entered Bulawayo but found the town
-Allan Wilson -Captain Lendy burnt down and deserted.

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-Lobengula fled northwards. Did the pursuit of Lobengula by the BSAC forces after the fall of
-Jameson assigned Forbes and Raaf to pursue and capture Lobengula. Bulawayo benefit the BSAC?
-When Forbes and his forces reached Shangani River they found the trace
of Lobengula. Benefits to the BSAC
-When Lobengula realised that he could not continue to fight he sent a bag -They completed the occupation of Zimbabwe
of gold and message offering surrender. -The whites gained total control of Matabeleland
-The message was given to an ordinary trooper who did not convey the -They gained Lobengula’s cattle
message to their leaders, Forbes and Raaf. -It united the settlers than ever before
-The whites continued searching for Lobengula’s part. -It drove Lobengula to death
-Allan Wilson was asked to continue with the search but the Shangani
River was in flood. Disadvantages to the BSAC
-Wilson’s forces caught up with Lobengula’s fleeing part on the western -The expedition was costly
side of the river. -BSAC lost men
-Wilson requested for reinforcements but Forbes did not comply. -Company horses and cattle were killed
-Instead he dispatched Captain H.J Borrow with 20 men without -Company lost ammunition
instructing them whether they were a support unit or another attacking -Settlers failed to capture Lobengula
force. -The company received criticism from Britain
-Borrow’s force joined Wilson’s group on 4 December.
-Together, Wilson’s group and that of Burrow attacked Lobengula’s Reasons for the defeat of the Ndebele
group.
-Lobengula’s group defended itself well and they defeated the combined
Strengths of the whites
forces of Burrow and Wilson.
-The whites had better transport. They fought on horse backs and they also
-Burrow and Wilson and a majority of other men were killed by
used wagons.
Lobengula, except 3 scouts who escaped.
-The whites had superior weapons like maxim guns.
-Forbes could not assist them because Shangani River was flooded.
-The whites got support from the Shona and Tswana fighters.
-They never captured Lobengula.
-Total determination on the part of the whites.
-Forbes’ group retreated.
-The whites were better prepared for the war.
-Lobengula is said to have died of small pox on escape to the north.
-The whites had better organisation and strategy
-Lobengula’s forces surrendered and the war came to an end.
-The whites were supplied from South Africa through the Mafeking rail
-The BSAC took over the burning city and raised a Union Jack.
way line.

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-The British used laagers which were difficult to penetrate.  -Most of the Ndebele remained on their traditional lands as
Weaknesses of the Ndebele squatters on white owned farms.
-The Ndebele used conventional warfare rather than guerrilla warfare.  -The local people were required to pay tax on their land.
-News of Lobengula’s flight demoralised Ndebele warriors.  -There was creation of Matabeleland order in council of 1894 with
-Most Ndebele warriors were raiding across the Zambezi. Dr Leander Starr Jameson as the administrator.
-The Ndebele lacked unity of purpose.
-Not all Ndebele took part in the war.
-The Ndebele had poor communication
-Outbreak of small pox which killed the Ndebele king
-Lack of cooperation by the Ndebele and the Shona to attack the common
enemy.
-The Ndebele had inferior weapons.

Results of the Anglo-Ndebele war

 -The Ndebele surrendered, agreed to peace negotiations
 -The land commission was set up to divide land between the
BSAC and the Ndebele.
 -There was construction of a railway line from South Africa to
Matabeleland. THE FIRST CHIMURENGA / THE
 -Ndebele fertile land was taken by the whites.
 -There was creation of Gwai and Shangani reserves.
NBEBELE-SHONA UPRISING / UMVUKELA
 -The Ndebele lost their independence. [1896-7]
 -Numerous deaths were incurred.
 -Lobengula’s cattle were taken.
 -Lobengula’s capital was taken. -This war was fought by the Ndebele and the Shona versus the
 -There was introduction of forced labour. British
 -The Ndebele were denied from choosing a new king.
 -Mashonaland and Matabeleland were merged into Southern Causes of Chimurenga in Matabeleland / Ndebele
Rhodesia. grievances

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 -Loss of land to the whites by the Ndebele after the Anglo- -Chiefs lost their powers
Ndebele war. -Ill-treatment of Shona workers by the whites. They were given heavy
 -Loss of independence by the Ndebele after the 1893 war. punishments for simple offences.
 -Loss of cattle by the Ndebele after the 1893 war. -Loss of independence by the Shona since 1890
 -The Ndebele were forced to work in settler mines and farms -End of Shona-Portuguese trade links angered the Shona.
[forced labour]. -Influence of spirit mediums who assured them that they would win the
 -The Ndebele were forced to pay taxes like hut tax, dog tax and war.
dip tax by the whites. -Natural disasters like drought, rinderpest and outbreak of locusts
 -Hatred of Shona police who ill-treated the Africans.
 -The justice system favoured the whites. Role or religious leaders in causing the war
 -Oppressive administration -They blamed natural disasters on the coming of whites.
 -Abuse of African women by the whites -They promised that the disasters could disappear if they drove out whites.
 -The Ndebele were not allowed to choose a new king after the -They promised immunity from bullets to fighters.
death of Lobengula. -They prophesied that the blacks would win the war.
 -Influence of spirit mediums who assured them that they would
win the war.
 -Natural disasters like rinderpest, drought and outbreak of locusts.
 -The Jameson raid failure also contributed. Course of Chimurenga in Matabeleland
-The Ndebele uprising began in March 1896.
Causes of Chimurenga in Mashonaland / Shona -The Ndebele took advantage of the Jameson raid fiasco / failure.
-Many of the BSAP had gone to South Africa to fight the Boers but
grievances
unfortunately the British were defeated and Jameson and his platoon were
-Loss of land to the whites by the Shona
captured.
-The Shona were forced to pay taxes like hut tax, dog tax and dip tax to the
-Thus there was not enough police to protect whites in Zimbabwe.
whites.
-The Ndebele warriors targeted those whites on farms, mines, missions,
-The Shona were forced to work in settler farms and mines.
stores, police posts and traders.
-Loss of cattle to the whites by the Shona.
-During the first week of the war about 130 whites had been killed.
-The system of justice favoured the whites.
-Those who escaped were surrounded in Bulawayo by the Amabutho.
-Oppressive administration
-The Ndebele were joined by the Shona in June 1896.
-Abuse of Shona women by the whites
-The British settlers asked the British government to stop the uprising.
-Police brutality especially during tax collection

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-The British instead reinforced 1000 soldiers to Southern Rhodesia. -They brought reinforcements from outside, that is, from South Africa and
-The whites attacked Ndebele Amabutho one by one. Bechuanaland.
-The Ndebele Amabutho withdrew to Matopo Hill where they were able to -They burnt villages.
defend themselves. -They used the route left open-to South Africa to bring in reinforcements.
-The British constructed laagers in Bulawayo, Gweru and Mberengwa. -They fought the Ndebele under the command of Frederick Carrington.
-They organised mounted patrols to rescue survivors. -They captured Ntabazikamambo in July 1896.
-They destroyed Ndebele grain stores and any food items. -They used horses and foot soldiers.
-They blew up caves using dynamites. -They sought and solicited assistance from Khama.
-They brought reinforcements from outside, that is, from South Africa, -They bribed some Shona to fight on their side.
Bechuanaland, Johannesburg and Natal. White officials who attended the Matopo Indaba
-They burnt villages. -Cecil John Rhodes -Dr Sauer
-They used the route which the Ndebele left open to bring reinforcements -V Stent -Johan Colenbrander
from South Africa.
-The fought the Ndebele under the command of Frederick Carrington. Ndebele leaders who attended the Matopo Indaba
-They captured Ntabazikamambo in July 1896. -Umlugulu -Sikombo Mguni
-The settlers also burnt Ndebele crops.
-Rhodes held a meeting with Ndebele so as to stop the war. Terms of the agreement made at Matopo Indaba
-During the negotiations with the Ndebele senior indunas, Rhodes used -The Ndebele agreed to suspend fighting the settlers and even raiding
bribery to get the indunas to negotiate for peace. them.
-He promised indunas jobs in the BSAC, pensions and the indunas were to -Mwari cult officials were to be punished for their role in the uprising.
retain their regional powers. -The Ndebele officials and people who murdered or committed other
-The Ndebele senior indunas made peace with Rhodes in October 1896 at crimes during the uprising should be tried.
Matopos. -Ndebele assegais and guns should be submitted to the settler government.
-The war came to an end. -Rhodes would withdraw white forces from Matabeleland.
-A permanent BSAP would be deployed in Matabeleland to replace white
Military reaction of the white settlers in colonial Zimbabwe to the forces and maintain peace after the uprising.
Ndebele uprising -No African police, especially the Shona would work in Matabeleland
-They constructed laagers in Bulawayo, Gweru and Mberengwa. without Ndebele approval.
-They organised mounted patrols to rescue survivors and bury the dead. -The settler government would recognise Ndebele chiefs and headmen.
-They destroyed Ndebele grain stores and any food items. -Rhodes’ government would give the Ndebele grain and food.
-They blew up the caves.

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-The Indaba also promised that the government would give seeds to the -The guerrilla tactics used by the Ndebele were difficult to deal with.
Ndebele in the planting season. -The whites were losing both in terms of manpower and material
QN: Did Matopo Indaba or the uprising benefit the Ndebele? resources.

Ndebele benefits Ndebele chiefs / Indunas who took part in the 1896 war
-There was re-establishment of peace in Matabeleland. -Sikombo Mguni -Ndiweni
-They received grain, food and planting seeds. -Somabulana Dhlodhlo -Mahlahleni
-The settler government recognised Ndebele chiefs and headmen. -Gumbo -Nyamanda
-They were assured that no Shona police would work in Matabeleland -Mathafeni
without Ndebele approval.
Ndebele religious leaders who took part in the 1896 war
Ndebele losses at Matopo Indaba -Umlugulu -Mwabeni
-Loss of freedom and independence. -Siginyamatshe -Mkwati
-They lost a lot of their spears [13000] and guns [2500]. -Tengera / Tenkela -Tshiwa
-Some of their leaders were tried, sentenced to death and executed.
-Lost land to settlers Why the Ndebele were defeated
-Were to pay taxes
-Nyamanda was not recognised as king of the Ndebele
Weaknesses of the Ndebele
-There was destruction of traditional institutions like age regiments.
-They had inferior weapons.
-They had poor strategies.
Why Rhodes negotiated with the Ndebele
-They had poor communication networks.
-The Ndebele were brave and were known to be good fighters and warlike,
-There was disunity among the Ndebele.
so to continue fighting the Ndebele would take a long time.
-The Ndebele had poor transport.
-The fighting was costly to the BSAC in terms of money.
-Not all the Ndebele took part in the war.
-The mines and farms were not working during the uprising and the BSAC
was losing its profits.
Strengths of whites
-The British government was unwilling to bear the cost of sending troops
-The whites had better transport
to crush the uprising.
-The whites got external support from South Africa.
-There were growing demands in the British parliament to withdraw the
-The whites had superior weapons like maxim guns.
BSAC charter to rule the territory and this drove Rhodes to make talks
-The whites used a lot of brutality that frightened the Ndebele.
with the Ndebele.

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-The whites used dynamites. -The spread of Chimurenga to other areas was done through spirit
mediums and fire signals [on top of mountains].
Reasons for blaming religious leaders for defeat of the Ndebele -Nehanda and Kaguvi were important spirit mediums who encouraged the
-Their prophecy was misleading Shona to fight, especially in Mazoe and Chishawasha areas.
-They suggested poor strategies -The uprising rapidly spread to Harare, Mazoe, Charter, Marondera,
-They could not give ready solutions to problems Makonde and other eastern districts of Zimbabwe.
-They aligned themselves to one group -The settlers mounted patrols to rescue survivors and ferrying them to
-Their propaganda was misleading laagers in Harare, Mutare and Charter.
-The whites were assisted by reinforcements from South Africa. British
Course of Chimurenga in Mashonaland imperial forces were brought in from South Africa under Lieutenant
Colonel Alderson.
-The BSA forces under Alderson attacked and defeated Makoni’s
-In Mashonaland the war started in June 1896 after harvesting crops.
Gwindingwi fortress.
-It began with the killing of whites in Mashayamombe area.
-They also defeated Mangwende’s Maope fortress.
-Two Indian traders were killed by Mashayamombe people who also killed
-Defeated Shona chiefs were executed, for example, Makoni.
the native commissioner for Chegutu.
-The whites adopted the scorched earth policy, destroying Shona grain
-By the end of June, over 10 whites had been killed.
stores, homes and water sources to starve the Shona into submission.
-The whites were taken by surprise because they considered the Shona as a
-The white settlers attacked and defeated Shona chiefdoms separately.
peaceful group.
-Nehanda was captured and executed in April 1897.
-The whites responded by setting up laagers in places like Gweru,
-She had ordered the killing of Pullard, the Native commissioner for
Bulawayo, Mberengwa, Mutare, Harare and Charter.
Mazoe.
-The Shona fighters blocked roads using trees.
-Shona resistance collapsed following the capture of their leaders like
-The Shona used guerrilla warfare tactics.
Mashayamombe in July 1897 and Kaguvi who was an inspirational
-Some Shona did not join the war.
medium of the Harare area in October 1897.
-Chiefdoms in Masvingo, Chikomba, Buhera, extreme Eastern Zimbabwe
-This capture of inspirational leaders brought the war to an end.
and Northern Zimbabwe stayed out of the war.
-Mapondera however, continued to fight until 1903.
-The Shona chiefs fought the whites as separate entities.
-Some Shona fought on the side of whites.
Areas where the first Chimurenga was fought in Mashonaland
-The Shona hid in caves
-Chinamhora -Makoni
-The whites used dynamites to attack the Shona in caves.
-Mashayamombe -Chihota
-Nemakonde / Zvimba -Mangwende

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-Mazoe -Svosve -They relayed information from God and ancestors to chiefs and people.
-Chiweshe -Mutekedza -They provided medical herbs
-Nyandoro -Mapondera -They led at war discussions and presided over war crimes.
-They coordinated the war.
Shona chiefs who took part in the 1896-7 war -They mobilised the people and taught people political education.
-Mashayamombe -Makoni -They provided spiritual guidance.
-Zhanda -Mangwende -They gave moral support to the fighters.
-Nyamweda -Mapondera -Some trained soldiers
-Chihota -Zvimba -They were the chief propagandists.
-Chinamhora -Sango
-Seke -Hwata Why the Shona took so long to be defeated in the 1896-7 uprising
-Chiweshe -Nyachuru -They had stored a lot of food in caves.
-Chikwaka -Rusike -The Shona chiefs fought separately in small groups and this made it
-Maromo -Mutekedza difficult for the whites to defeat them easily.
-Mashonganyika -Kunzvi Nyandoro -The Shona used guerrilla warfare tactics such as night attacks, hit and run
and surprise attacks.
Religious leaders who were active in Mashonaland during the first -Spirit mediums coordinated the war and encouraged the individual chiefs
Chimurenga to keep on fighting.
-Kaguvi -Nehanda [Chagwe] -Shona chiefs such as Makoni and Mangwende used fortified mountains.
-Zhanda -Gumboreshumba -They had guns obtained from the Portuguese through trade and a few
-Chaminuka -Bonda modern rifles they captured.
-Mponga -The Shona were familiar with the terrain than the whites.
-The war in Mashonaland was not limited to professional fighters but it
Role played by religious leaders in the uprising included everyone including women.
-They planned and organised the uprising. -There were many hills in Mashonaland and these provided cover for the
-They prophesied on the war and assured Africans that they would win the Shona fighters.
war. *However, the whites initially had fewer soldiers because some had been
-They encouraged people to fight. taken to South Africa in the Jameson raid.
-They advised on strategies to be used. -The BSAC had financial problems.
-They communicated with ancestral spirits. -The whites were not prepared for war with the Shona and they took too
-They commanded the soldiers. long to mobilise.

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-The resources of the whites had been overstretched due to the war in -Use of torture and cruel interrogation methods by the whites forced the
Matabeleland. captives to reveal the whereabouts of their leaders and strongholds.
-The whites were not familiar with the terrain. -The whites used explosives and dynamites.
-The settlers bribed some Shona to fight on their side.
Why the Shona were defeated by the British
Contribution of the execution of Nehanda and Kaguvi to the defeat of
the Shona
Weaknesses of the Shona
-They were a source of motivation and courage of the Shona.
-The Shona lacked coordination.
-They were leaders hence their death resulted in lack of leadership.
-They had no common military strategy.
-They were coordinators during the war.
-The Shona were not united.
-Some Shona fought on the side of the whites.
To what extent did lack of unity contribute to the defeat of the Shona?
-Some Shona did not join the war, for example, Mutasa.
-There was lack of coordination among the Shona.
-They had inferior weapons like spears.
-Some Shona chiefs did not join the war, for example, Mutasa.
-They had inferior training as they were not regular soldiers.
-Some Shona chiefs assisted the whites.
-They had poor communication.
-They had no common military strategy
-They had poor transport.
-The spirit mediums misled the people by telling them that bullets won’t
Other factors
work against them.
-The Shona had inferior weapons
-Whites were better organised
Strengths of the whites
-Whites had faster transport
-The whites had better transport.
-The surrender of the Ndebele
-The whites were better organised.
-The whites had superior weapons.
-The surrender of the Ndebele made the whites to concentrate on the
Shona only.
Weapons used by the whites against the Ndebele and Shona
-The scorched earth policy adopted by the whites starved the Shona into
-Dynamites -Maxim guns
submission.
-2, 5 inch screw guns -Henry Martin rifles
-The whites captured inspirational leaders like Makoni, Mashayamombe,
-Seven pounder guns -Wagons
Kaguvi and Nehanda.
-Scorched earth policy -Horses

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-Weapons used by the Africans -The Shona were forbidden to build houses in mountains.
-Old muskets obtained from Portuguese -Few captured rifles
-Spears -bows and arrows How were the settlers affected by the results of the First
-Clubs and knobkerries -Fortified Mountains Chimurenga?
and caves -Cheap labour was obtained from both Matabeleland and Mashonaland.
-Guerrilla warfare -They appropriated more land and cattle
-They now had more revenue base
Results of the First Chimurenga -Security was enhanced
-The settlers were united

-Africans were defeated. Negative effects of the results to the whites

-Africans lost their independence. -There was international condemnation especially by Britain.
-African traditional politics was destroyed. -They were blamed for various acts of oppression.
-Nehanda, Makoni and Kaguvi were executed. -Hatred between blacks and whites intensified.
-Mashonaland was divided into districts, each under a native -BSAC shares dropped.
Commissioner. -Rhodes’ image was tarnished.
-The BSAC introduced formal government through the Rhodesia-Order-
Council of 1898.
-The British introduced a resident Commissioner to monitor the
administration of the BSAC. ………………………………THE END…………………………………..
-Those who defied settler authority were substituted by collaborators.
-The Ndebele could not choose a new king and this led to the collapse of
the Ndebele state.
-Most African leaders were either imprisoned or killed.
-More reserves were created, especially in Mashonaland and Africans
became desperate for land and some became squatters.
-Most African men worked for low wages in mines and farms.
-Africans became economically dependent on whites as labourers.
-Payment of taxes by Africans continued.
-Kunzvi and Mapondera continued with resistance but were later defeated.
-Many Africans were turned into Christianity.

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