DND-610/1

In-depth Daily Editorial analysis

Date- 16th July, 2024

INDEX

✓ ‘Big brother’ to ‘Brother’, a Nepal-India reset

Page No: 03-05

✓ ISRO has a problem: many rockets, but too few

satellites to launch Page No: 05-08

✓ The Toll that Extreme Heat Takes on Women

Page No:08-10

✓ Watching the rain Page No:11-12

✓ The Union Budget as litmus test of a rethink or stasis

Page No: 12-14

✓ In the name of flood control Page No: 14-16

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 1. ‘Big brother’ to ‘Brother’, a Nepal-India reset
GS II: International Relations

Context:

• India-Nepal relations have faced significant challenges since 2015 due to constitutional
disagreements and a blockade by India.

• The new leadership in both countries presents an opportunity to reset and stabilise relations,
emphasising mutual respect, non-interference, and regional cooperation for greater stability and
prosperity.

Background of India-Nepal Relations

• Relations between India and Nepal have been strained since 2015 when both countries had
different prime ministers.

• The adoption of Nepal’s new Constitution in 2015, which India wanted amended, sparked
bilateral turbulence.

• Despite initial assurances to India, Nepal promulgated the Constitution without amendments,
leading to a significant downturn in relations.

Blockade and its Aftermath

• India imposed a six-month blockade on Nepal, ostensibly blaming Madhesi activists, causing
significant hardship and fostering long-lasting resentment in Nepal.

• Nepal’s leadership reacted by signing ten agreements with China covering trade, transit, power,
and transport.

• The blockade’s aftermath saw Nepal’s prime minister make provocative statements about
historical and national identity, further straining relations.

Political and Diplomatic Dynamics

• Despite meetings between the prime ministers post-blockade, tensions persisted with
provocative suggestions from Nepal about India’s national symbols.

• India’s 2019 political map update, which included disputed territories, led Nepal to amend its
Constitution to assert its claims over these areas.

• India’s increasing involvement in Nepali governance and politics, including fielding

advocates for its ideological positions, further complicated relations.

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Challenges and Opportunities

• With India’s prime minister starting his third term and Nepal’s new leadership, there is an
opportunity to reset and stabilise relations.

• The Indian government may need to revisit its approach to Nepal, emphasising policy
corrections and mutual respect.

• The principle of non-interference, as part of the Panchsheel doctrine, should guide India’s
engagement with Nepal.

Importance of Non-Interference

• India’s relentless engagement in Nepal’s politics contradicts the Panchsheel doctrine’s principle
of non-interference.

• A hands-off policy could lead to a politically stable and economically energised Nepal, benefiting
both nations.

• Nepal is a significant remittance-sending country to India, supporting livelihoods in some of

India’s poorest regions, highlighting the mutual benefits of a stable relationship.

Internal Dynamics in Nepal

• The political chaos in Nepal has weakened its ability to engage on equal terms with India.

• Previous Nepali leaders have had varied success in maintaining balanced relations with India.

• The recently concluded prime ministerial term saw significant concessions to India, including
agreements that potentially compromised Nepal’s sovereignty.

Hydropower and Economic Issues

• Nepal’s recent agreements with India, particularly in hydropower, have sparked

controversy due to restrictions favouring India.

• The Indian Embassy in Kathmandu has been given unique privileges not afforded to other
embassies, raising concerns about unequal treatment.

• Delinking Nepal’s hydropower from its water resources to bypass parliamentary ratification
highlights the complexities of bilateral agreements.

Regional Cooperation

• The new leadership in Nepal has the opportunity to advocate for reviving the South Asian
Association for Regional Cooperation, benefiting the entire region.

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• India’s policymakers need to recognize Nepal’s non-negotiable friendship with China,
which does not preclude strong ties with India.

• Balancing these relationships is crucial for regional stability and cooperation.

Historical and Cultural Context

• The historic and cultural ties between India and Nepal should be leveraged to improve relations.

• Misconceptions about Nepal in Indian academia and public opinion need to be addressed
through better communication and outreach.

• Nepal’s open border with India, often seen as a security concern, can be a model for future
peaceful South Asian integration.

Future Prospects

• Both nations need to move beyond historical grievances and power dynamics to forge a
mutually beneficial relationship.

• Nepal’s new leadership must assert its sovereignty and engage with India on equal terms.

• India’s policymakers should adopt a more respectful and cooperative approach, recognizing
Nepal as a distinct and important neighbour.

Conclusion

• The potential for a positive and stable relationship between India and Nepal exists, contingent
on mutual respect and non-interference.

• By addressing outstanding bilateral issues and fostering regional cooperation, both

countries can achieve greater stability and prosperity.

• Embracing a more balanced and respectful relationship will benefit not only India and Nepal but
also the broader South Asian region.

2. ISRO has a problem: many rockets, but too few satellites to

launch
GS III : Science and Technology - Space

Context: The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) is currently facing an unexpected
problem: it has a surplus of rockets but a shortage of satellites to launch. This issue has emerged as
ISRO shifted from a supply-driven to a demand-driven model in 2019-2020, leading to a mismatch
between the number of available launch vehicles and the demand for satellite launches.

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Transition to a Demand-Driven Model

• Supply-Driven to Demand-Driven Shift : Historically, ISRO followed a supply-driven

approach, where it would launch satellites first and then seek customers for the services these
satellites provided. However, with the Indian government's space sector reforms in 2019-
2020, ISRO adopted a demand-driven model. In this new approach, satellites are built and
launched only if there is existing demand for them. This shift has contributed to the current
situation where ISRO’s launch vehicle capacity far exceeds the demand for satellite launches.

• Expert Insights : In June, S. Somanath, Chairman of ISRO and Secretary of the Department
of Space, highlighted that ISRO’s launch vehicle capability is three times the current demand.
This statement has led many experts to interpret that the space launch market is facing a
downturn. Somanath emphasized the need for strong domestic demand for launch vehicles
to address this imbalance.

India’s Launch Vehicle Fleet

Current Launch Vehicles

India possesses four main launch vehicles:

1. Small Satellite Launch Vehicle (SSLV)

2. Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV)

3. Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV)

4. Launch Vehicle Mark-III (LVM-3)

These rockets can launch satellites weighing up to four tonnes to geosynchronous orbit. For satellites
exceeding this weight, India relies on foreign launch vehicles, such as Europe’s Ariane V and
SpaceX’s Falcon 9.

Demand related Problem

• Educating the Customer : The transition to a demand-driven model has introduced a

“chicken and egg” problem. Potential customers need to be educated about the benefits of
satellite services to create demand. This demand then justifies the need for launching new
satellites. The question arises: Who is responsible for educating the customers – ISRO or the
private industry?

• Creating Demand : Without sufficient customer education, the expected scale of demand
that ISRO anticipates will not materialize. Potential customers include companies,
government institutions, defense enterprises, and the general public, such as farmers and
bankers. The task of educating these diverse customer groups is immense.

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Future Demand Drivers

• Human Spaceflight : One significant future demand driver is human spaceflight. This
includes human-rated launch vehicles for transporting astronauts and supplies to destinations
like space stations or the moon. There is also potential for space tourism, which could
generate additional demand.

• Launch Capability Enhancements : India’s current launch vehicles face limitations. For
instance, the LVM-3, with less than one-third of the capability of China’s Long March 5,
would require two launches to accomplish missions similar to China’s Chang’e 4. ISRO plans
to upgrade the LVM-3 with a semi-cryogenic engine to increase its payload capacity to six
tonnes to geostationary transfer orbit (GTO). Additionally, the proposed Next Generation
Launch Vehicle (NGLV), or Project Soorya, aims to carry 10 tonnes to GTO, pending
funding approval.

Encouraging Smaller Satellites

• SSLV Development : ISRO needs one more successful flight of the SSLV to validate its
capability for launching smaller satellites, which are often experimental or university-built.
Success in this domain could encourage space companies to develop larger satellites,
eventually increasing demand for launch vehicles.

Launch Vehicle Economics

• All these launch vehicles will need satellites to launch. The heavier vehicles can fulfil some
national goals like lunar exploration and a space station while ISRO can use the smaller
satellites for technology and capability demonstration. However, the latter will constitute only
a small number of launches.
• Satellites have a defined mission life. As they get old, they will need to be replaced with newer
satellites.
• This will also create a demand for launch vehicles. However, mission operators like their
satellites to live longer and have been improving their lifetimes with software and hardware
upgrades. This complicates estimates of the number and frequency of launch vehicles that
will be needed.
• Launch vehicles are improving as well. In a single launch, the PSLV can deliver multiple
satellites in multiple orbits.
• Rocket stages are becoming reusable, which reduces the cost of building the rocket and
increases profitability.
• ISRO has been building its Reusable Launch Vehicle and vertical landing technologies to
make reusable landing stages. It is also making an effort to replace toxic fuels for rocket
engines with green alternatives.

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The Role of the Private Sector

• Ecosystem Development : Somanath suggested that a thriving ecosystem is necessary to

create demand for satellite services, which in turn drives the need for launch vehicles. The
Indian government envisions the private sector playing a crucial role in generating this
demand, building, and launching satellites, and offering services to both domestic and
international customers.

• Government as an Anchor Customer : Private companies prefer the government to be

their customer, providing a reliable revenue stream over time. This approach mirrors the U.S.
model, where government contracts support private space companies like SpaceX and Blue
Origin. By acting as an anchor customer, the Indian government can help private companies
during their early stages.

• Transitioning from Government to Private Sector : Ultimately, the government aims to

exit the launch vehicle business, leaving it to private companies once there is sufficient
demand. This transition involves the government absorbing the costs of moving from a
supply-driven to a demand-driven model and educating its own ministries to create anchor
demand for satellites and launch vehicles.

Conclusion

ISRO’s current challenge of having more rockets than satellites to launch stems from the transition
to a demand-driven model and the need for customer education to generate sufficient demand.
Future demand drivers, such as human spaceflight and technological advancements, offer potential
solutions. However, developing a robust ecosystem with active private sector participation and
government support as an anchor customer is crucial for a sustainable and thriving space industry
in India.

3. The Toll that Extreme Heat Takes on Women

GS III: Climate Change
Context:
Extreme heat has become the planet’s norm and is likely to persist for years. The year 2023 was
the hottest on record, and temperatures in several parts of India during May-June 2024 were
reported to be record-breaking. Women are disproportionately affected by extreme heat due
to unequal power dynamics, gender norms, and unequal access to resources. This is reflected
in the Global Gender Gap Index, where India ranks 18th from the bottom. The numbers are
alarming, as India is home to more than one-sixth of the world’s women, and extreme heat is now
a harsh reality for them.
Hidden Toll: A recent report by the Asian Development Bank (ADB), “Rising Above the
Heat,” highlights the unequal impact of extreme heat on women in Asia and the Pacific.

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 • Women living in informal settlements in cities face multiple challenges due to rising
temperatures.

• Their homes, often made of materials like tin, asbestos, and plastic, trap heat, turning them
into heat chambers.

• Women also endure poorly ventilated kitchens, experiencing scorching temperatures while
cooking. Rising temperatures exacerbate their extreme time poverty and care burdens.

• Due to lower productivity from heat stress, women work significantly longer hours to
complete their share of unpaid work at home.

• According to the Arsht-Rock “Scorching Divide” report, productivity loss due to

heatwaves translates to 90 more minutes of care work per day in India.

• This adds to the existing gender differences in time use; women spend two and a half times
more minutes per day than men on unpaid work like cooking, cleaning, and fetching water
and fuel (National Statistical Office 2019 data).

• Intriguingly, more than two-thirds of women’s productivity loss from heat strain occurs in
the domain of unpaid labor in India.

• This loss also represents opportunity costs associated with heat stress, meaning that women
could have earned extra income, acquired skills, or rested adequately.

Worryingly Pervasive:

• Urban female informal laborers face extreme weather conditions while working in
marketplaces, streets, construction sites, landfills, or their employers’ homes.

• These casual-wage workers—street vendors, paid domestic helpers, construction

workers, and sanitation workers—are particularly vulnerable to climatic extremes,
according to the International Labour Organization’s report “Work in a Changing
Climate.”

• The situation is exacerbated by energy poverty, as these workers often live without cooling
facilities such as ventilated spaces, fans, air conditioners, or coolers.

• Additionally, greenery and other natural cooling methods are increasingly scarce in dense
urban areas.

• Water scarcity and power fluctuations further complicate efforts to stay hydrated and
comfortable.

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 • In rural India, the situation is equally severe. Consider the daily routine of a woman in a
heatwave-affected rural area: she starts her morning cooking with biomass over a hot stove,
enduring significant health risks.
• With 56.8% of rural Indian families cooking with biomass (NFHS-5), this public
health hazard is widespread.

• Women in these areas also face longer working hours under heat stress. If she performs
home-based work in a living space with asbestos or tin roofing, temperatures can become
unbearable, making labor unsafe.

• Additionally, restrictive gender norms on mobility and clothing can force her to stay indoors
and follow non-heat-friendly dress codes.

• Conversely, if she works outdoors, such as in MGNREGA projects, she is exposed to the
scorching sun.

• Prolonged exposure to heatwaves also negatively impacts crop yields, determining whether
poor rural women live in hunger and poverty.

Unequal Health Strain:

• The incidence of heat-related diseases is rising with increasing temperatures. Heat stress puts
significant strain on the body, making it harder to regulate temperature, leading to illnesses
such as heat cramps, severe heat stroke, and hyperthermia.

• Women are at greater risk due to their physiological makeup—body fat percentage,
water content levels, and hormonal changes associated with menstrual cycles and
pregnancy affect heat tolerance and hydration.

• Women bear a dual burden from heat-related health issues since they are more susceptible to
its effects and shoulder the majority of caregiving responsibilities that follow.

• Additionally, heat stress significantly impacts maternal and child health. The increase
in preterm delivery, miscarriage, and stillbirths due to heat strain is particularly
concerning in India, given its higher maternal mortality rates.

• The burden on women becomes evident as India grapples with soaring temperatures. Millions
continue to suffer from worsening heat-related losses with no relief in sight.
Conclusion:
Strengthening their resilience to heat strain is crucial—climate-friendly urban planning, development
and access to sustainable cooling technologies, a fair division of care work, and public provisioning
of essential services should be immediate priorities. Addressing the social power gradient that
determines women’s capacity to face this crisis is also essential for any discussion on adaptation and
resilience.
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 4. Watching the rain
GS III: Indian Economy

Context:

The latest inflation data points towards a continuing dilemma for the monetary policy committee.
It also shows the structural problem with Indian economy.

The latest inflation data reveils :

• Retail inflation, as measured by the consumer price index, rose to 5.08 per cent in June, up
from 4.8 per cent in May.
• But this increase was largely on the back of rising food prices.
• Core inflation, which excludes the volatile fuel and food components, remained subdued,
indicating that the underlying price pressures in the economy are muted.
• With this reading, inflation has now averaged 4.9 per cent in the first quarter (April-June) of
the ongoing financial year.
• This is in line with the RBI’s forecast that was released in the last monetary policy
committee meeting.
• But an immediate policy pivot is unlikely.

How food inflation data hindering any possibility of policy rate cut?

• The disaggregated data shows that food inflation edged higher to 9.36 per cent in June, up
from 8.69 per cent the month before.
• Inflation is elevated in cereals, fruits, vegetables, and pulses.
• Vegetable inflation has now, in fact, been in double digits for several months, in part
reflecting the impact of the heatwave.
• As food accounts for a higher share of the consumption basket of the poor, they are
impacted to a greater extent by these high prices.
• Much now depends on the rains.
• While the monsoon has picked up in July, La Nina is expected to emerge only in August.
• The spatial and temporal distribution of rainfall will have an impact on food output and
prices.
• As on July 15, the area sown under kharif crops is about 10 per cent higher than last year.

The non-food inflation is manageable

• The non-food inflation remains low.

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 • In most of the segments such as clothing and footwear, housing, household goods and
services, recreation and amusement and education, inflation is below 4 per cent, the
personal care segment being the exception.
• However, there are some upside risks.
• The recent tariff hikes by the telecom operators will exert upward pressure.
• There is also uncertainty over commodity prices.
• Higher crude oil prices — the price of the Indian crude oil basket has risen to $86.09 per
barrel in July, up from $82.55 in June — could also have an impact.

The dissenting voice from monetary policy committee

• In the last meeting of the monetary policy committee, two members — Jayanth Varma and
Ashima Goyal — had voted to change the policy stance to neutral and to reduce the policy
rate by 25 basis points.
• However, the committee chose to maintain the status quo.

MPC will remain focussed on inflation management

• Recently, RBI Governor Shaktikanta Das reiterated his position, saying that “it is too
premature to talk about interest rate cuts”.
• Healthy economic growth — the central bank has projected it at 7.2 per cent this year —
provides the MPC the “policy space to remain focused on inflation”.

Conclusion: As core inflation remains low, greater clarity over the monsoon and the trajectory of
food prices will influence policy. RBI will face the dilemma between maintaining high policy rate
or to optimise it further to boost economic activities.

5. The Union Budget as litmus test of a rethink or stasis

GS III – Indian Economy

Context:

Union Finance Minister Nirmala Sitharaman is set to present the Union Budget on July 23. This
time, the government is a Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP)-led coalition. The Budget is not just a revenue
and expenditure statement but also a reflection of the policy and politics of the incumbent
government.
Coalition Dynamics and Electoral Backdrop
Unlike in 2019, when the BJP held 303 seats in the Lok Sabha, it now has 240 seats. The dynamics
of coalition politics and the aspirations of regional partners cannot be ignored. The reduced seat
tally may indicate public dissatisfaction with the government's economic policies during its second

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term (2019-2024). The recent general election, termed as 'normal,' focused on 'bread and butter'
issues, unlike the aspirational and emotive issues of 2014 and 2019.
Public Discontent and Budget Expectations
The electorate has conveyed its disappointment with the government's handling of economic
concerns. As a result, this Budget is being keenly watched.
Employment as a Central Concern
One of the major campaign issues in the 2024 election was unemployment, inflation, and questions
around social and economic justice. Employment is central to addressing these economic issues.
Economists from the Chicago School and Columbia University have opposed the idea of
government-generated employment opportunities, indirectly targeting potential allocations for
programs like the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA) and
demands for a similar urban employment program.
Challenges Highlighted by Employment Reports
Reports from the Centre for Monitoring Indian Economy Pvt. Ltd. (CMIE), the International
Labour Organization, and the Institute for Human Development highlight concerns about
employment in India. These reports point to high levels of underemployment, youth unemployment
(ages 15-29), especially among the educated, and real income contraction for regular employees due
to high informalisation and poor-quality employment. While casual labor incomes have increased,
likely due to MGNREGA and other social programs, women's labor market participation has risen
primarily as unpaid family labor or odd service activities.
Structural Employment Issues
India faces structural retrogression in employment, with an increase in primary sector employment
and a contraction in secondary sector employment due to the significant contraction of the
unorganised sector, particularly micro, small, and medium enterprises (MSMEs).
The MSME Sector's Struggles
The MSME sector has faced significant contraction due to demonetisation, the Goods and Services
Tax (GST), and the COVID-19 lockdown. This sector needs special attention in the upcoming
Budget. Past Budgets have focused on infrastructure (CAPEX), skill-based programs, start-up credit,
and fiscal prudence, which have had a supply-side policy bias and served high-value activities. The
government's emphasis has been on export-oriented MSMEs, which have high value-added but low
employment elasticity. The focus must shift towards generating employment and inclusive growth.
Prioritizing Social and Economic Justice
Social and economic justice should not be reduced to hollow clichés. The Budget must focus on
MSMEs catering to domestic consumption by low-income, socially marginalized groups. Given
India's poor performance on the Human Development Index and Multi-Dimensional Poverty Index
(MDPI), higher allocations for education, health, and housing for deprived sections, combined with
employment-generation objectives, are essential.

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Conclusion
The rhetoric of India becoming the fifth largest economy and on the path to becoming the third
largest coexists with persistent joblessness and poor-quality employment growth since the mid-
1990s. While political strategies show no inclination towards a rethink, it is hoped that such
misplaced confidence does not influence the Budget. The upcoming Union Budget will reveal
whether the government addresses the bread-and-butter issues prominent in the 2024 general
election.

6. In the name of flood control

GS III : Disaster Management
Context: Assam, a state in northeastern India, is uniquely shaped by its geography and natural
phenomena. From the towering peaks of the Eastern Himalayas to the turbulent Bay of Bengal,
various geographical elements profoundly influence the region. This article explores how these
natural factors affect Assam's landscape and climate and examines the ongoing challenges and
historical responses to the state's perennial flooding issues.
Geographical Influences on Assam
Eastern Himalaya and Fragile Geology
Assam’s geography is deeply influenced by the mighty Eastern Himalaya, whose towering peaks and
dynamic geological activities shape the region’s topography. The area’s fragile geology, characterized
by frequent landslides and seismic activities, adds to the complexity of the landscape. These factors,
combined with Assam’s forested terrain, create a unique environment that is constantly evolving.
Southwest Monsoon and Bay of Bengal
The southwest monsoon plays a crucial role in Assam’s climate, bringing heavy rainfall during the
monsoon season. The turbulence of the Bay of Bengal further influences weather patterns,
contributing to the state’s high precipitation levels. This combination of monsoonal rain and coastal
turbulence significantly contributes to the annual flooding experienced in the region.
Rivers and Sediment from the Himalaya
Assam is home to hundreds of braided and meandering rivers, including the powerful Brahmaputra.
These rivers carry billions of tons of sediment originating from the Himalaya, which they deposit
across the floodplains. This sedimentation process is vital for the region’s fertility but also
contributes to the frequent flooding and changing river courses.
The Impact of Annual Floods
Historical Context and Earthquake of 1950
Floods have always been a part of life in Assam, but their intensity and impact have increased since
the Assam earthquake of 1950, which had a magnitude of 8.6. This earthquake caused significant
changes to the environment, including alterations in river courses and sedimentation patterns. The
imprints of these changes are still visible today and have exacerbated the annual flooding issues.
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Post-Earthquake Environmental Changes
The environmental crisis triggered by the 1950 earthquake marked a turning point for Assam’s flood
patterns. The changes introduced by this seismic event affected the state’s rivers, water bodies, and
agricultural fields, leading to more severe and frequent floods. These effects have been felt
consistently since 1952, creating ongoing challenges for the region.
Coping with Floods: Embankments and Infrastructure
Initial Response and Garg Committee Recommendations
In response to recurrent floods, Assam requested the construction of embankments as early as 1950.
However, the Garg committee, appointed by the Government of India in 1951, warned against such
measures. The committee emphasized that embankments could disrupt the natural land-building
and drainage processes of rivers, especially those carrying large amounts of silt, like the Brahmaputra.
Construction of Embankments (1950s-1970s)
Despite the committee’s warnings, Assam pursued the construction of embankments between the
1950s and 1970s. Thousands of kilometers of embankments were built along the Brahmaputra, the
Barak, and their tributaries. Inspired by American and Chinese examples of flood control, these
structures were erected at a rapid pace, funded by government finances. The establishment of the
Brahmaputra Board in 1982 aimed to oversee this extensive infrastructure project.
Mixed Reactions and Short-Lived Relief
The initial response to the embankments was mixed. While some appreciated the protection they
provided to crops, properties, and livestock, others noticed a decline in the environmental vitality of
their localities. Paddy fields, for instance, required more artificial manure as natural nutrient
replenishment from floodwaters ceased. Over time, embankments failed to provide long-term relief,
as breaches caused by various factors, including rat holes, led to continued flooding.
Long-Term Effects and Future Considerations
Declining Vitality and Increased Risks
The embankments fundamentally altered the relationship between Assam’s rivers and its residents.
The disruption of the natural connection between rivers and floodplains led to a decline in the
region’s ecological vitality. As floodplains became drier, human habitation moved closer to the rivers,
increasing the risk to lives and properties, a situation predicted by the Garg committee in 1951.
Reassessment of Embankment Effectiveness
After two decades of living with embankments, the National Flood Commission (1976-1980)
expressed concerns about their effectiveness. The commission highlighted that the deposition of
coarse silt and sand had raised river beds above the surrounding countryside, creating a dangerous
scenario where breached embankments could cause widespread devastation. This realization has led
to a significant reduction in new embankment construction.

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Ongoing Challenges and Legacy
Despite the diminished focus on new embankment projects, the institutional mindset and strategies
developed in the previous decades continue to influence flood control efforts in Assam. The region
grapples with the consequences of ignoring its complex riverine history in flood-control projects, as
echoed in Garg’s warnings. The legacy of these interventions remains a critical aspect of Assam’s
ongoing struggle with annual floods.
Understanding the interplay between Assam's geographical features and its flood management
strategies is crucial for developing sustainable solutions. The historical responses and current
challenges highlight the need for a nuanced approach that respects the natural dynamics of the
region's rivers and floodplains.
Conclusion
The interplay between Assam's unique geography and its flood management strategies underscores
the complexities of addressing the state's annual flooding challenges. The region's dynamic
environment, shaped by the Eastern Himalayas, the southwest monsoon, and sediment-laden rivers,
requires a sensitive and informed approach to flood control.
The historical context of embankment construction, initiated in response to the devastating 1950
earthquake, highlights both the immediate benefits and the long-term ecological repercussions of
such interventions. While embankments initially provided some relief, their long-term effectiveness
has been questioned due to the altered relationship between rivers and floodplains, as well as the
increased risk of catastrophic flooding.
Looking forward, it is essential to reassess and adapt flood management strategies to align with
Assam's complex riverine systems. Sustainable solutions must balance infrastructural development
with ecological preservation, taking into account the recommendations of past assessments like the
Garg committee and the National Flood Commission. By doing so, Assam can better manage its
flood risks while maintaining the vitality of its natural environment and supporting the livelihoods
of its residents.
Understanding and respecting Assam's geographical influences and historical lessons will be crucial
in developing resilient and adaptive flood management policies that can effectively address the
region's unique challenges.

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