The Mughal School of Miniature Painting 3

Premughal t Contemperory Indian Persian style

of Paintings Mughalpaintings
later School
European
M ughal painting is the style of miniature painting that
developed in the northern Indian subcontinent in the
sixteenth century and continued till the mid–nineteenth
century. It is known for its sophisticated techniques and
diverse range of subjects and themes. The Mughal miniature
painting inspired and resonated in subsequent schools and
styles of Indian painting, thereby, confirming a definite
position for the Mughal style within the Indian school of
paintings.
The Mughals were patrons of various art forms. Every
Mughal successor, based on his taste and preferences,
contributed towards enhancing the status of art, viz.,
calligraphy, painting, architecture, bookmaking, book
illustration projects, etc. They took keen interest in artists’
ateliers and nurtured unprecedented new styles that
heightened and accelerated the existing art scenario of
India. Therefore, for understanding the Mughal Painting, the
political history and genealogy of the Mughal dynasty is often
taken into account.

Influences on Mughal Painting

The Mughal style of miniature painting was responsible for
the amalgamation of indigenous themes and styles along
with Persian and later European themes and styles. The arts
of this period reflect a synthesis of foreign influences and
indigenous flavour. The peak of Mughal painting presented a
highly sophisticated blend of the Islamic, Hindu and European
visual culture and aesthetics. Given this diverse yet inclusive
nature, the affluence of the artworks produced in India during
this period surpasses the conventional and indigenous
Indian and Iranian painting of that time. The significance of
this style lies in the purpose and efforts of its patrons and
the unmatched skill of its artists. Together, they envisaged
and expressed a congregation of tastes, philosophies and
faiths by their extraordinary visual language.

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 36 AN INTRODUCTION TO INDIAN ART —PART II

Persian artists Humayun In the Mughal courts, arts became more formalised as
2
there were workshops and many artists were brought from
brought 2 India Iran, which resulted in a harmonious blend of Indo-Iranian
Abdal Samal or styles, especially during its early years. This celebrated
Kwaja AbdusSamad eminence in Mughal art was possible only due to its distinctive
character of assimilating and engaging artists of both Indian
and Iranian origins, who contributed towards making, and
2
Mir Sayyid Ali further elevating the artistic paradigm of the Mughal style.

The Mughal atelier consisted of calligraphers, painters, gilders

and binders. Paintings recorded and documented significant
Founders
of Mughal School events, personalities and interests of the emperors. These were
meant to be seen by the royals only. The paintings were made

of miniature painting to suit the sensitivity of the royals or often made as intellectual
stimulation. The paintings were a part of manuscripts
and albums.

The tradition of art and painting had rich historical roots

in India about which we have already learned in the previous
chapters. The celebrated Mughal idiom that developed on
the Indian soil should be understood as a consequence of
interaction of various schools, including the pre–Mughal
and contemporaneous art schools of India and Persia. Thus,
the Mughal style did not grow in vacuum. It was nurtured
by direct interaction with other art forms and schools that
already existed. The indigenous Indian and Mughal painting
styles coexisted, assimilated the influences and various
native talents in different ways.
Themes of M Painting
The pre–Mughal and parallel indigenous schools of paintings
A Court scenes in India had their strong distinct style, aesthetics and
Portraits purpose. The indigenous Indian style emphasised on flat
perspective, strong use of lines, vivid colour palette, and bold
Depiction of accurate modelling of figures and architecture. The Mughal style offered
subtlety and finesse, portrayed almost three-dimensional
flora fauna figures and created optical reality. The royal court scenes,
portraits, depiction of accurate flora and fauna were some of
the favourite themes of the Mughal artists. Thus, the Mughal
painting ushered in a new style and sophistication to the
Indian arts of that time.

The Mughal patrons contributed to the proliferation

of the Mughal style of painting with their distinct artistic
preferences, choice of subjects, philosophies and aesthetic
sensibilities. In the following segment of this chapter, we shall
learn about the development of Mughal miniature painting in
chronological order.

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THE MUGHAL SCHOOL OF MINIATURE PAINTING 37

Early Mughal Painting

In 1526, Babur, the first Mughal emperor, came from present Brentof cultural
day Uzbekistan and was a descendent of Emperor Timur Babar background
Aesthe
and Chatghtai Turk. With this, he blended the cultural Sensibilities
of Persia Central
background and aesthetic sensibilities of Persia and Central
Asia. Babur had a dynamic taste for a variety of arts. He asia
is reputed to be a man of letters and a keen patron of art,
manuscripts, architecture, gardening, etc. Babur’s detailed
accounts in Baburnama, his autobiography, are narratives Artistic
of the emperor’s political carrier and artistic passion.
Bihzad
Baburnama reflects the love and fondness that Babur had as
Shah
an outsider for the Indian land and ecology. With his fervour 2 Muzaffar
for detailed writing, Babur established a tradition of keeping
memoirs, a practice which was followed by his successors
in India. The books and albums that were produced in the
royal ateliers were not only calligraphed but also painted.
These books of value were preserved and passed on to
members of the royal family or gifted to those perceived as
deserving. Babur had a keen eye for portraiture and this is
also recorded in his memoirs. Among the artists, who find
mention in Babur’s memoirs is Bihzad. Bihzad’s work was

Princes of the House of Timur,

Abd us Samad,
1545–50, British Museum,
London

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38 AN INTRODUCTION TO INDIAN ART —PART II

Beautiful dainty but he did not draw the faces well; he used to greatly
lengthen the double chin (ghab-ghab); and drew bearded
faces admirably. Bihzad was a master artist from the Persian
school of painting, Herat (now in present day Afghanistan),
and was known for his sophisticated compositions and
colour tints. Also, Shah Muzaffar finds a mention as a
painter, who Babur thought excelled in the representation
of hairstyle. Although Babur spent little time on the Indian
soil and passed away soon after his arrival, his successors
made the country their own and became a part of the
Indian lineage.
Babur was succeeded by his son Humayun in 1530, who
unfortunately fell prey to political unrest, and his life took
many unexpected turns. Dethroned by an Afghan, Sher Khan
(Sher Shah), Humayun took refuge in the court of the Safavid
Persian ruler, Shah Tahmasp. Although inglorious for his
political career, this was fortunate for the startling turn
that the art of manuscript and painting under him took as a
result of his stay in Safavid. It was during his exile in Shah
Tahmasp’s court that Humanyun witnessed the magnificent
Tutinama: The Girl and
artistic tradition of miniature paintings and manuscripts. He
the Parrot, was thrilled to see the skillful artists in practice, creating
1580–1585, Chester splendid works of art for Shah Tahmasp. With the assistance
Beatty Library, Dublin
of Shah Tahmasp, Humayun established his
court in Kabul in 1545. Humayun increasingly
identified himself with a political and cultural
agenda for his dynastic empire that was
eclectic and assimilative. Impressed by the
artists and with an ambition to recreate such
art workshops in India, Humayun brought
back with him the master artists when he
regained power in India. He invited two Persian
artists — Mir Sayyid Ali and Abd us Samad
to establish a studio in his court and carry
out royal paintings. It is important to note
here that both the artists were famous and
respected particularly for their skills in the art
of portraiture.
A bibliophile of discerning sensitivity,
Humayun’s rule began a period of intense
patronage for the art of painting and
calligraphy. From his period, we get clear visual
and textual documents that testify an active

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THE MUGHAL SCHOOL OF MINIATURE PAINTING 39

interest in building an artistic repertoire and an imperial

atelier. This is an indication of Humayun’s artistic taste and
helps us form a picture of Humayun as a connoisseur and an
aesthete. He founded the Nigaar Khana (painting workshop),
which was also a part of his library. Not much is known
about the size and composition of Humayun’s workshop in
India. However, it is known that he started the project of
illustration of Hamza Nama that was continued by his son
and successor Akbar. Story oftheadventures of
When we look at an extraordinary Mughal painting from
AmirHamza
the early period, Princes of the House of Timur (1545–50),
uncleof ProphetMd
probably by Safavid artist, Abd us Samad, in opaque
watercolour on cotton, we are surprised by its size and
complex structure and display of historical portraits. A
prized possession of the imperial family, it has portraits
that were painted over the original to register the portraits
of successive members of the Mughal dynasty. So, visible in
Babur inspecting the fort of
their physical likeness are portraits of Akbar, Jahangir and Gwalior, Bhure, Baburnama,
Shah Jahan painted subsequently over those painted during 1598, National Museum,
New Delhi
the reign of Humayun.
Open air painting with trees and blossoms,
and royal merrymaking, which depicts the
ancestral members of the Mughal dynasty were
followed after Humayun, who was the patron of
this kind of artwork. The format, theme, figures
and colour palette are remarkably Persian. There
is indeed at this point we may state that there
is no particular dominant element having Indian
inspiration. But soon, this vocabulary changes to
accommodate the growing and peculiar Mughal
sensibility and distinct imperial taste.
The tradition and fascination for painting
started by Humayun was carried forward by
his illustrious son Akbar (1556–1605). Abul
Fazal, the court historian of Akbar, writes about
Akbar’s passion for arts. He records that more
than a hundred artists were employed in the
royal atelier. This included the most skilled
Persian and indigenous Indian artists of that
time. This integrated composition of Indo-Persian
artists led to the development of a unique style
in this period. These artists together undertook
ambitious projects that established new artistic

2022-23
40 AN INTRODUCTION TO INDIAN ART —PART II

standards with regard to visual language, as well as,

subject matter. Akbar, believed to be suffering from dyslexia
(a condition where a person finds difficulty in reading), laid
great emphasis on illustration of manuscripts. It was under
his patronage that several seminal projects of translation
and illustration of manuscripts were carried out.
The earliest of his projects is the continuation of his father’s
artistic legacy of Hamza Nama, an illustrated account of the
heroic deeds of Hamza, the uncle of Prophet Muhammad.
Akbar took delight in hearing the stories of Hamza, a character
much loved in the Middle East popular and intellectual
circles, which were read out aloud by a professional narrator.
Simultaneously, the corresponding folios and painted Hamza
Nama narrative was held for a clear view. The emperor took
great interest in both pictorial narrative, as well as, recitation
of Hamza Nama. Because of the peculiar function of these
paintings, their format is large. The base surface is cloth
with paper at the back, on which the narrative text is written
to help the narrator and the technique applied is gouache,
which is water-based and in opaque colours.
Spies of Hamza attack the One realises that Mughal paintings were a teamwork
City of Kaymar, 1567–1582, by a group of artists, who could be inspired by a number
Museum of Applied Arts,
Vienna of artistic traditions. The immediate natural surroundings
became the resource from which the images of
flora and fauna were derived and painted. The
painted folios of Hamza Nama are scattered
all over the world and housed in various
collections. It is recorded to have consisted
of 14 volumes with 1400 illustrations and
took nearly 15 years to be completed. The
suggested date of this magnificent project
is 1567–1582 and was completed under the
supervision of two Persian masters — Mir
Sayyid Ali and Abd us Samad.
In Hamza Nama painting, Spies Attack the
City of Kaymar (1567–82), the space is sharply
cut and divided so as to facilitate visual
reading of the narrative. Too much of action
is happening and the vibrant colours are of
great use here to energise the unfolding of this
story, wherein, the spies of Hamza attack the
city of Kaymar. A strong outer line defines the
foliage and other forms. The faces are largely

2022-23
THE MUGHAL SCHOOL OF MINIATURE PAINTING 41

seen in profile. However, three–fourth faces are also shown.

The rich intricate patterns on the floor, columns and canopy
are from Persian sources as also the four-limbed animals
and rocks. Trees and creepers indicate Indian source as also
the rich palette of pure yellows, reds and browns.
Akbar envisioned cultural integration and commissioned
translation of several revered Hindu texts. He commissioned
translation and illustration of revered Sanskrit texts into
Persian. The Persian translation and illustrated version of
the Hindu epic Mahabharata done this period came to be
known as Razm Nama. This was completed in 1589 under the
supervision of master artist Daswant. This manuscript was
scribed in ornate calligraphy and contained 169 paintings.
The translation and illustration of the Ramayana were also
carried out around this time. Artists like Govardhan and
Miskin were celebrated for their visuals of court scenes.
Akbar Nama, an extraordinary manuscript, containing a
detailed account of Akbar’s political and personal life, was
one of the most expensive projects undertaken by Akbar.
Akbar personally engaged with the artists, and supervised and
evaluated the artworks. The Mughal painting under Akbar’s
patronage depicted a variety of subjects, including, detailed
political conquests, seminal court scenes, secular texts,
portraits of important men along with Hindu mythologies,
and Persian and Islamic themes. Akbar’s fascination for
Indian scriptures and regard for India made him one of the
most popular emperors of the country.
In most of the paintings, produced from the time that
the Europeans were in contact with the court of Akbar, we
can see an increasing preference for a category of naturalism
adapted to compliment the growing diversity in medieval India.
Madonna and Child (1580) done in opaque watercolour on
paper is an important early work of the Mughal School of
Painting in this context. Madonna, here, is an extraordinary
theme, which brings the Byzantine art, the European
classical and its Renaissance to the Mughal atelier, where it
is translated and transformed into an entirely different visual
experience. Virgin Mary is draped in a classical manner. The
attachment displayed between the mother and the child was
inspired by the humanist interpretation in the European
Renaissance art. The physiology of the child, certain details
like the fan and jewellery completely integrated the work to
an Indian milieu.

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42 AN INTRODUCTION TO INDIAN ART —PART II

Inspired by Akbar’s interest in arts,

many sub-imperial courts absorbed this
passion and several great works of art
were produced for aristocratic families,
who tried to copy the Mughal court atelier
taste and produced works that present
distinctive subjects and visual preferences
in regional flavour.
Akbar had formalised the Mughal
miniature style and set standards, which
were further taken to new heights by his
son Jahangir (1605–1627). Prince Salim,
(Jahangir) showed interest in art from an
early age. Unlike his father Akbar, who
commissioned paintings and manuscripts
of politically and religiously significant
aspects, Prince Salim had a curious taste
and encouraged delicate observations and
fine details.
Jahangir employed Aqa Riza, a
well-known Iranian painter and his
son Abul Hasan to achieve unparalleled
sophistication in painting. Despite the
formalised and established imperial atelier
of Akbar, the keen patron in Jahangir
rebelled to set his own atelier alongside his
father’s. Prince Salim came to be known
as Jahangir — the World Seizer once he
acquired the Mughal throne after his return
from Allahabad. Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri, the
memoirs of Jahangir, tells about his great
interest in arts and his efforts of achieving
Madonna and Child, scientific correctness in the rendering flora and fauna that
Basawan,1590, San Diego
Museum of Art, California interested the Emperor the most. Under his patronage, the
Mughal painting achieved naturalism and scientific accuracy
of the highest degree. The curiosity and wonderment that the
Emperor had for nature and people around him is reflected
in the works that he commissioned.
In contrast to the Akbar’s atelier, where the works were
mass produced, Jahangir’s atelier gave preference to a lesser
number and better quality of artworks produced by a single
master artist. The Muraqqas individual paintings to be mounted

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THE MUGHAL SCHOOL OF MINIATURE PAINTING 43

in albums became popular under

Jahangir’s patronage. The margins of
the paintings were highly illuminated
in gold and embellished with flora,
fauna, and often poised human
figures. The war scenes, portraits,
narrative and storytelling prevalent
in Akbar’s style were overtaken by
minute details and refined rendering
of lavish court scenes, aristocracy,
royal personalities, as well as,
character traits, and distinctiveness
of flora and fauna.
Jahangir was presented with
paintings and decorative objects,
depicting high arts from Europe,
as gifts from the Europeans, who
visited his court. With such a
contact with the English Crown,
Jahangir’s fascination for European
art and theme prompted him to have
more such works in his collection.
Many celebrated religious Christian
themes were also produced in the
royal atelier of Jahangir. Given
this cultural and artistic exposure,
European art sensibilities started
making their way into the prevalent
Indo-Iranian style, thereby, making the Jahangir school of A Prince and a Hermit,
folio from Diwan of Amir Shahi,
art more impressive and vibrant. The spatial depth of the 1595, Aga Khan Museum,
composition and naturalistic representation of life reflect Canada
the high benchmarks that the sensitive patron created for
art during his lifetime. The artists of the Mughal atelier
creatively assimilated the three styles — indigenous, Persian
and European, making the Mughal Art School a melting pot
of vibrant styles of its time yet very distinct in its own way.
Jahangir in Darbar from Jahangirnama (now, dispersed),
attributed to Abul Hasan and Manohar (1620) is an excellent
painting. Jahangir is at the highest level in the centre,
where the eyes move immediately from his figured frame to
stunning white pillars surrounded by sparkling clear colours
and brilliantly framed overhead canopy. On the right side,

2022-23
44 AN INTRODUCTION TO INDIAN ART —PART II

Khurram stands in attendance

with his hands folded, flanked
by his son Shuja, son of Mumtaz
Mahal, who was raised in the court
by Nur Jahan. The courtiers,
who are placed according to
their ranks, are easily identifiable
as their portraiture is perfect and
realistic. Father Corsi, a Jesuit
priest, has his name inscribed
to aid easy identification as he
stands with other known nobles
in the audience. Elephant and
horse add to the ceremonious
importance to this event as
hands are raised and heads bow
to salute Jahangir.
Jahangir’s Dream (1618–22)
by Abul Hasan, given the title
Nadir al Zaman, meaning the
‘Wonder of the Age’, refers to the
Emperor’s dream, in which he
was visited by Persian Safavid
emperor Shah Abbas, his
rival, who possessed the much
desired province of Qandahar.
Interpreting it as good omen, he
had the court artist Abul Hasan
paint the dream. In this painting,
political fantasy takes over
and the presence of Jahangir
dominates the composition. The
Persian Shah appears frail and
vulnerable as he is embraced by
Jahangir in Darbar,
Jahangir. The kings stand on a globe, and between them,
Jahangirnama,
Abul Hasan and Manohar, they hover over much of India and Middle East. Two animals
1620, sleep quietly. However, the symbolism of their depiction does
Museum of Fine Arts, Boston
not escape the viewer. The powerful lion, on which Jahangir
towers, and the docile sheep, on which the Persian Shah
stands, sharing a magnificent resplendent golden halo of the
Sun and Moon held by two winged angels indicate of being
inspired by the incoming European art motifs and imageries
in the Mughal court.

2022-23
H
THE MUGHAL SCHOOL OF MINIATURE PAINTING 45

In the painting, Jahangir enthroned on an

Hourglass (1625), symbolism is creatively applied
by the court painter, Bichitra, who can be seen on
the emperor’s right hand corner holding a painting
in his hand, which would be his offering to the
mighty emperor.
Persian calligraphy adorns the top and bottom,
which in verse says that the Shahs of this world may
stand before him as Jahangir prefers to have the
dervishes. Portrait that resemble the Ottoman Sultan,
King James I of England also stands on the right hand
with gifts for the mighty emperor. Jahangir offers a
book to Shaikh Husain of the Chisti Shrine, descendent
of Shaikh Salim, in whose honour Akbar had named
his son Salim.
The son of Jahangir, Prince Khurram, succeeded the
throne of Delhi by the name Shah Jahan (1628–1658).
With this, he not only acquired a politically stable
empire but also the finest of artist and atelier. Shah Jahangir’s Dream, Abul Hasan,
1618–1622, Smithsonian Institution,
Jahan encouraged the artists in the atelier to create Washington D. C.
magnificent works that were a blend of imagination
and documentation. Idealisation and great stylisation
were preferred over naturalistic rendering and
accurate depiction. The artworks produced under his
supervision concentrated on subliminal qualities and
exalted beautification, which was created by the use
of jewel-like colours, perfect rendering and intricate
fine lines. The higher concepts in the painting were
given much prominence and the visuals were created
meticulously to cull out multitude of interpretations
that a single painting could offer. His love for
sparkling jewels and gems, passion for monumental
architecture and subject choice of paintings inform us
of the majestic image that he wanted to leave behind.
Imperial portraits with glorious titles were painted to
present the personality of the emperor himself.
Padshahnama (The Chronicles of the King) is one
of the most exuberant painting projects undertaken
by his court atelier and reflects the extraordinary
manuscript that presents the height that Indian
miniature painting achieved. The Mughal painting
during this time depicted the impressive play of Jahangir enthroned on an Hourglass,
Bichitra, 1625, Smithsonian Institution,
multiple perspectives, enchanting palate of colours
Washington D. C.

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46 AN INTRODUCTION TO INDIAN ART —PART II

and sophisticated compositions to portray royal, historical

and mystic subjects.
The Mughal School of Painting, which had embraced and
presented the exuberating blend of the leading art traditions
of its contemporary world, began to inspire the European
artists of that time. Rembrandt, a celebrated European
painter, was deeply inspired by the Mughal court painting
and made studies of several Indian drawings to master
the delicate lines. His studies show the celebrated position
that the Mughal miniature painting occupied in the world
art scene.
The legitimate successor of Shah Jahan, his son Dara
Shikoh, was denied his empire and life. As a liberal unorthodox
Mughal, Dara’s commitment to Sufi mysticism and deep
Dara Shikoh with Sages in interest in Vedantic school of thought was outstanding. His
a Garden, Bichitra, early
persona has been immortalised in this exceptional painting,
seventeenth century. Chester
Beatty Library, Dublin Dara Shikoh with Sages in a Garden (1635). Loved by his people,
Dara, the scholar, who knew many
languages, including Sanskrit, is
the central theme here. A poet and
connoisseur, he commissioned a
special album of painting to gift
his wife. Unfortunately, Dara, due
to his passion for literature and
philosophy, was misinterpreted
as submissive and that his
personality lacked dexterity for
political administration. Dara,
in apparent contrast to his
brother Aurangzeb, was eclectic,
philosophical and inclusive in his
approach to ideological issues
and conflicts.
In the war of succession
that occurred in the lifetime of
Shah Jahan, he was defeated by
his brother Aurangzeb. Alamgir
Aurangzeb came to power to
stimulate the political scenario
and give it the verve of Akbar’s
period. This succession and series
of battles and conquest in Deccan
India got the Mughal empire back

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THE MUGHAL SCHOOL OF MINIATURE PAINTING 47

on track. His focus was on the expansion of the Mughal empire

and its unification under his leadership. Aurangzeb did not
put as much effort to elevate the production of the Mughal
atelier. However, unlike the popular belief the royal atelier
was not shut down immediately and continued producing
beautiful pointings.

Later Mughal Painting

Due to gradual decline of ardent patronage, highly skilled
artists left the Mughal atelier and were welcomed by provincial
Mughal rulers. These rulers imitated the Mughal royalties
and wanted to recreate in paintings the glory of their dynasty Bahadur Shah Zafar,
1838, Fogg Museum of Art,
and events of their court. Cambridge, UK

2022-23
48 AN INTRODUCTION TO INDIAN ART —PART II

Although some masterworks were produced during the

periods of Muhammad Shah Rangila, Shah Alam II and
Bhadur Shah Zafar, these were mere last flickers in the candle
that was the Mughal miniature style. Bahadur Shah Zafar,
painting, dated 1838, was made about two decades before
he was exiled to Burma by the British, who were quick to
see that no claimant to Mughal authority remains anywhere
near Delhi to claim their imperial authority, after the failure
of the Indian Revolt of 1857. He was the last Mughal ruler,
who was also a poet, scholar and connoisseur.
The new political environment, unsettled regional
kingdoms and threat of English ascendancy changed the
art scenario of India yet again. The painters thrived to suit
the changing patrons, their aesthetic concerns, choice of
subject matters and visual language. Eventually, the Mughal
miniature style converged into other styles of the Provincial
and Company School.

Process of Mughal Painting

Most of the paintings that we see as Mughal miniatures
were parts of manuscripts and royal albums, i.e., the visual
and text shared space in a given format. For making book
painting, the following process was adopted. Sheets of
handmade paper were prepared and cut to suit the size of
the manuscript. Designated space was left for the artist to
fill it with a suitable visual composition. Then, the pages
were ruled and filled with text. Once the text was written, it
was given to the artist, who would compose a synoptic visual
representation of the text. The artist would begin from the
stage of making the composition, i.e., tarh, to portraits, i.e.,
chiharanama to the final stage of colouring, i.e., rangamizi.

Colours and Technique of Mughal Painting

The painters in the atelier were also masters of art making
colours. Mughal paintings were made on handmade paper,
which was prepared especially for this purpose. The colours
were opaque and were obtained from natural sources by
grinding and mixing pigments to obtain perfect shades of
colours. The paint was applied using a variety of brushes
made with the hair of squirrels or kittens. In workshops,
painting was a combined effort of a group of artists, among
whom basic draft drawing, grinding and filling in of colours,

2022-23
THE MUGHAL SCHOOL OF MINIATURE PAINTING 49

and adding details were, usually, distributed. However, they

may also have been produced single handedly.
Thus, the artworks produced during the early Mughal
phase were collaborative efforts of the team of artists. And
based on one’s specialisation, each artist would undertake
an aspect of the painting that he was comfortable with
or delegated. Records tell us that the artists were given
incentives and increments in their salary according to the
work done. The recorded names of the master artists also
informs of the position that they enjoyed in the royal atelier.
Once the painting was complete, agate, a gemstone, was
used to burnish the work to set the colours and give desired
radiance to the painting.
Some of the pigments and colours achieved from those
were — vermilion from cinnabar, ultramarine from Lapiz Lazuli,
bright yellow from orpiment, shells grounded for making
white and lampblack from charcoal. Gold and silver powders
were mixed with colours or sprinkled to add extravagance
to a painting.

PROJECT FOR STUDENTS

Select around five quotations from a writer, poet or
philosopher. Translate them into the language of your choice.
Create a manuscript with your translation in a calligraphic
style and ornate borders, drawing inspiration from the
Mughal manuscripts.

EXERCISE
1. Name two master artists, who were invited to India by
Humayun, and discuss their masterpieces in detail.
2. Out of the several art projects that Akbar undertook, discuss
your favourite work, explaining what you like about it.
3. Make a comprehensive list of artists in the Mughal court,
briefly explaining one painting of each in 100 words.
4. With examples of three paintings of your choice, discuss the
indigenous Indian, Persian and European visual elements
prevalent during the medieval period.

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50 AN INTRODUCTION TO INDIAN ART —PART II

NOAH’S ARK
Noah’s Ark, from a
dispersed Divan-i Hafiz
painted manuscript of
1590, is an excellent
painting in subdued
colour palette and
has been ascribed
to Miskin, one of the
masters at Akbar’s
imperial atelier.
Prophet Noah is in the
ark, which is carrying
animals in pairs so
that they may continue
to flourish after the
threatening flood sent
by God to punish
human beings for
their sins.
In the painting,
the sons of Noah are
in the act of throwing
Iblis, the devil, who
had come to destroy
the ark. The use of
pure white and subtle
shades of red, blue and
yellow is charming.
The rendering of water
is convincing and the
vertical perspective
infuses the painting
with an element of
heightened dramatic
energy. This painting
lies in the collection
of Freer Gallery of
Art, Smithsonian
Institution,
Washington D. C., USA

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THE MUGHAL SCHOOL OF MINIATURE PAINTING 51

KRISHNA LIFTS MOUNT GOVARDHAN

Krishna Lifts Mount Govardhan
from a dispersed Harivamsa
Purana is attributed to Miskin
(1585–90). It is in the collection
of the Metropolitan Museum of
Art, New York, USA. Harivamsa
Purana is one of the many
Sanskrit manuscripts, which
were translated into Persian
by the Mughals. This painting
is on a theme from Harivamsa.
Badauni, a scholar noble in the
court of Akbar, was assigned
the job of translating this
volume on Lord Krishna into
Persian. It is interesting to note
that Badauni was famous for
his orthodox religious views,
much unlike Abul Fazl, another
famous scholar chronicler in
Akbar’s court.
Hari or Lord Krishna lifted
the mountain, Govardhan,
with all creatures dwelling
therein with the intention to
protect them — the villagers
and their livestock, who were
his followers, from torrential
rain sent by another powerful
God Indra. Hari uses the
mountain like a huge umbrella,
under which the entire village
takes refuge.

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52 AN INTRODUCTION TO INDIAN ART —PART II

FALCON ON A BIRD REST

This painting by Ustad Mansur, Nadir ul Asr, a title received
from Jahangir, is in the collection of Cleveland Museum of
Art, Ohio, SA. Jahangir had fine falcons brought to his
collection, and as a keen connoisseur, he had them painted.
These images were included in his official biography
Jahangirnama. There is an interesting episode described by
him of a falcon brought as a present from Persian emperor
Shah Abbas. This is to do with the falcon, which was mauled
by a cat, resulting in its death, and the Emperor desired
his painters to paint the dead falcon, preserving its memory
for posterity.
The painting shown here, Falcon Perched on a Bird Rest
(1615), is one of the many paintings that were painted by the
Mughal artist, Ustad Mansur.

2022-23
THE MUGHAL SCHOOL OF MINIATURE PAINTING 53

ZEBRA
The zebra in this painting was from Ethiopia, brought by
Turks, and presented to Mughal emperor Jahangir by his
nobleman Mir Ja’far, who had acquired it. Jahangir wrote
on the painting in Persian, the court language, that it was:
“A mule which the Turks (rumiyan) in the company of
Mir Ja’far had brought from Ethiopia [Habesha]”. Its likeness
was drawn by Nadir ul asr (Wonder of the Age) Ustad Mansur.
In Jahangirnama, it is clearly stated that the animal was
presented to him during Nowruz or New Year festivities in
March 1621. It is also mentioned that Jahangir had carefully
examined it as some thought that it was a horse on which
someone had painted stripes. Jahangir decided to send it to
Shah Abbas of Iran, with whom he often exchanged rare and
unique gifts, including animals and birds. And the Shah would
also send him rare gifts like the Falcon discussed earlier.
The painting later came in Emperor Shah Jahan’s
possession. It was added to the royal album of paintings
and calligraphies. The ornate borders of the painting are
additions made in Shah Jahan’s reign.

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54 AN INTRODUCTION TO INDIAN ART —PART II

THE MARRIAGE PROCESSION OF

DARA SHIKOH
This painting, a work by artist Haji Madni, belongs to the
period of Shah Jahan, who built the Taj Mahal in Agra. It
is a portrayal of the marriage procession of Dara Shikoh,
the eldest son of Mughal emperor Shah Jahan. The Mughal
prince is shown mounted on a brown stallion with the
traditional sehra and is accompanied by his father, Shah
Jahan, who has a resplendent nimbus around hid head, riding
a white horse. The marriage procession is accompanied and
received by music, dance, gifts and fireworks. The artist
has created the glamour of the marriage procession with all
its pomp and show. This painting is in the collection of the
National Museum, New Delhi, India.

2022-23