3.2 3.

Review

Blockchain System in the Higher

Education

Ricardo Raimundo and Albérico Rosário

Special Issue
AI and Blockchain as New Trigger in the Education Arena
Edited by
Dr. Maria José Sousa, Dr. Sónia P. Gonçalves, Dr. Francesca Dal Mas and Dr. Davide Calandra

https://doi.org/10.3390/ejihpe11010021
Review
Blockchain System in the Higher Education
Ricardo Raimundo 1 and Albérico Rosário 2, *

1 Higher Institute of Education and Sciences, 1750-142 Lisbon, Portugal; [email protected]

2 Research Unit on Governance, Competitiveness and Public Policies (GOVCOPP), University of Aveiro,
3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: Blockchain has emerged as an important concept at the interface of ICT and higher
education. It is a system in which a record of transactions is maintained across several computers that
are linked in a peer-to-peer network. Hence, it allows the creation of a decentralized environment,
where data are not under the control of any third-party organization. This study presents a Systematic
Bibliometric Literature Review (LRSB in further text) of research on blockchain applications in the
higher education field. The review integrated 37 articles presenting up-to-date knowledge on current
implications pertaining to the use of blockchain technology for improving higher education processes.
The LRSB findings indicate that blockchain is being used to build up new interventions to improve
the prevailing ways of sharing, delivering and securing knowledge data and personal student records.
The application of blockchain technology is carrying on a conceptual progress in the higher education
sector where it has added substantial value by ameliorated efficiency, effectiveness, privacy control,





 technological improvement and security of data management mechanisms. Challenges posed by
current literature and further research directions are suggested.
Citation: Raimundo, R.; Rosário, A.
Blockchain System in the Higher
Keywords: blockchain; education; higher education
Education. Eur. J. Investig. Health
Psychol. Educ. 2021, 11, 276–293.
https://doi.org/10.3390/
ejihpe11010021
1. Introduction
Academic Editors: Maria José Sousa, Blockchain was originally introduced as a system to control Bitcoin [1] but has now
Sónia P. Gonçalves, Francesca evolved to the point of being considered an introductory technology for various decentral-
Dal Mas, Davide Calandra and María ized applications [2]. It is being publicized as a helpful technology for organizing sensitive
del Carmen Pérez-Fuentes. data, especially within the sectors of higher education, healthcare, supply chain and the
Internet of Things (IoT) [3]. Higher education may be understood as a system that includes,
Received: 30 January 2021
among others, two major stakeholders, Higher Education Institutions (HEIs in further text)
Accepted: 14 March 2021
and students [4].
Published: 16 March 2021
In this study, we consider the contribution of blockchain in higher education regarding
the use of IT infrastructure and computing solutions to monitor the multiple systems within
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
a university, in an effort to promote, maintain or restore the educational system [5]. In the
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
field of higher education, privacy and security breaches are purportedly increasing every
published maps and institutional affil-
year, especially with regard to academic diplomas and degrees. Blockchain technology
iations.
has a role in ensuring their authenticity and keeping accurate records [6]. The increasing
digitization of higher education has further led to the acknowledgment of concerns related
to secure storage, while blockchain technology allows decentralized open data, absence of
frauds, safe storage of information, and reduction in transaction expenses related to aca-
Copyright: © 2021 by the authors.
demic data control [7]. Blockchain has been suggested as a way to solve critical challenges
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
faced by higher education, such as recordkeeping of diplomas and by a student-centric
This article is an open access article
approach [8].
distributed under the terms and
Nevertheless, prior research has made partial attempts to summarize existing knowl-
conditions of the Creative Commons
edge through systematic literature reviews (SLRs) [5,7,9–12]. For example, some discuss
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
the application of the latest key technologies for the development of smart campuses and
4.0/).
universities [5]; the advantages of this technology as decentralized open data for safe

Eur. J. Investig. Health Psychol. Educ. 2021, 11, 276–293. https://doi.org/10.3390/ejihpe11010021 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/ejihpe
Eur. J. Investig. Health Psychol. Educ. 2021, 11 277

storage of information in specific case studies (e.g., MIT) [7], the use of these technologies
for assisting students in their acquisition of technical knowledge and development in Engi-
neering [9] and the creation of distributed applications involving multiple actors without
the control of a central authority [11].
Despite the fact that these SLRs have built the existing knowledge on the topic, their
focus has mostly been on underscoring areas of Blockchain application [5,9]. Nonetheless,
because of the extent and variety of existing research on blockchain, researchers would
benefit from a focused discussion on the areas of improvement from its adoption [12].
Review-based studies can assist in achieving this goal by synthesizing extant knowledge
and explaining key issues that need substantial focus [10]. In this way, the study is driven
by two research questions: what is the research building for Blockchain technology in the
higher education sector to date? Additionally, what are the current challenges and future
research paths in the theme?
We address these research goals by carrying out a Systematic Bibliometric Literature
Review (LRSB) on the use of blockchain in higher education [5]. LRSBs can offer an
important synthesis of current knowledge in a research topic and unveil existing knowledge
gaps and, ensuing directions for future research [9,12]. This study is built on the current
literature on blockchain in higher education by adding to prior SLRs in two ways. First,
it provides a bibliographically organized categorization of prior studies with regard to
their application areas. Second, with an eye on the findings, we point out potential themes
that demand more attention and major challenges and research paths to move forward
the existing knowledge. This contribution is made by dividing this study into two key
discussion sections: (a) the research building for Blockchain technology in the higher
education sector to date; and (b) the current challenges and future research paths in the
theme.
The remainder of the article is structured as follows. Section 2 offers an overview
of blockchain technology. Section 3 explains the methodology adopted for the current
LRSB. The findings are provided in Section 4, followed by its discussion. Finally, Section 5
discusses concluding remarks, limitations and future research directions.

2. Blockchain Technology
Blockchain is perceived as a revolutionary technology offering considerable impact
on a vast magnitude of sectors [3] which enables the creation of decentralized applications
programmed to run on network and records sets of data that can be shared securely without
third-party mediation [13]. In blockchain applications data are stored by encrypted group
signature to, along with shared algorithms, solve the problem of anonymous abuse [14].
These features for data storage and validation are the key issue for the effective use of
blockchain in higher education [15], in which a huge amount of data in terms of diplomas
and degree certificates is exchanged among institutions [16].
As already mentioned, the evolution of blockchain technology started with cryp-
tocurrency and has evolved towards the application of smart contracts in areas such as
healthcare, supply chain, the Internet of Things (IoT), finance, voting systems, property
and real-estate management, e-government, higher education, among others [3]. The
Blockchain emphasis on variety in terms of applications may be due to its capacity to build
a trusted [17] and decentralized contract environment [18].
The higher education sector is therefore a potential user for blockchain technology
in terms of smart contracts, [19] due to its capacity in allowing stakeholders to validate
learning records [20] and identity management, for instance [21]. This may allow institu-
tions to decide with which other HEIs to share data, therefore avoiding that trustworthy
qualifications (diplomas or certificates) may be counterfeited or falsified [22]. Additionally,
its distributed ledger and lack of need for a trusted third party can improve smart contract-
based protocols that automatically enforce a contract in students throughout multiple
levels of administration, which constitutes a major advantage of blockchain for the higher
Eur. J. Investig. Health Psychol. Educ. 2021, 11 278

education field [17]. Last but not least, this technology can ease processes while mitigating
the probability of error [23].
Nevertheless, there seems to exist to some extent a fairly strong resistance to adoption
of this technology, either because of some degree of doubt on its capacity to overcome
administrative barriers through a more transparent and technologically advanced form
of higher education systems [18], or due to some skepticism in terms of its capacity to
unbundle higher education processes through a more effective student experience and
enhanced faculty roles [24]. Finally, from the employers’ perspective, there is a lack of trust
due to inaccuracies when students describe skills and qualifications in their resumes [20].
Hence, there is a strong need for more knowledge of blockchain and its complexity in order
to bring light on the key advantages of blockchain both for students and HEIs, who often
have inappropriate education and coordinating systems for preparing professional staff
working, while using classic methods of learning and education techniques with no real
connection with technology for data management [25].
Current research is focused on assisting the technological evolution of blockchain by
dealing with these challenges.

3. Materials and Methods

We carried out a LRSB of the “Blockchain system in Higher Education” [26–28]. As
opposed to the alternatives of traditional literature revision and systematic revision, this
research concept is based on a more careful perspective of the recognition and synthesis
of information [26–29], improving: (i) the validity of the review, providing a set of steps
that can be followed if the study is replicated; (ii) accuracy, providing and demonstrating
arguments strictly related to research issues; and (iii) the generalizability of the results,
allowing the synthesis and analysis of accumulated knowledge. Thus, LRSB is a “guiding
instrument” that allows guiding the review according to the objectives.
The study is carried out as follows: (i) definition of the research question; (ii) location of
studies; (iii) selection and evaluation of studies; (iv) analysis and synthesis; (v) presentation
of results; lastly (vi) discussion and conclusion of results [26–28].
The methodology presented ensures that the review is comprehensive, auditable, and
replicable and responds to research questions [26–29].
The review was carried out in December 2020, with a bibliographic search in the
SCOPUS database of scientific articles published by 2020. The research was carried out
in three phases: (i) using the keyword “blockchain”, 16,139 documents were obtained;
(ii) adding the keyword “education”, a set of 473 documents were obtained; and finally
(iii) keywords: “blockchain”, “education” and “higher education”, a set of 37 studies was
obtained with a publication already confirmed for 2021, as listed below (Table 1).

Table 1. Screening Methodology.

Database Scopus Screening Publications

Meta-search keyword: Blockchain 17,975
Inclusion Criteria keyword: Blockchain and education 545
keyword: Blockchain and education
Screening Exact Keyword: Higher Education 37
Published until December 2020
Source: own elaboration.

4. Literature Analysis: Themes and Trends

Peer-reviewed articles on the subject were selected until 2020. In the period under
review, 2020 was the year with the highest number of peer-reviewed articles on the subject,
with 19 publications, with one publication already confirmed for 2021. Figure 1 reviews
peer-reviewed publications published until 2020.
Eur. J. Investig. Health Psychol. Educ. 2021, 11 279

Figure 1. Documents by year. Source: own elaboration.

The publications were sorted out as follows: ACM International Conference Pro-
ceeding Series 4 publications, with two publications (Communications in Computer and
Information Science; Iberian Conference on Information Systems and Technologies Cisti;
International Journal on Interactive Design and Manufacturing) with one publication
(2018 World Engineering Education Forum Global Engineering Deans Council Weef Gedc
2018; 2019 42nd International Convention on Information and Communication Technol-
ogy Electronics and Microelectronics Mipro 2019 Proceedings; 2019 4th Mec International
Conference on Big Data and Smart City Icbdsc 2019; 2020 2nd Conference on Blockchain
Research and Applications for Innovative Networks and Services Brains 2020; 2020 43rd In-
ternational Convention on Information Communication and Electronic Technology Mipro
2020 Proceedings; Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing; Applied Sciences
Switzerland; Csedu 2020 Proceedings of the 12th International Conference on Computer
Supported Education; European Journal of Contemporary Education; IEEE Access; Ic3k
2019 Proceedings of the 11th International Joint Conference on Knowledge Discovery
Knowledge Engineering and Knowledge Management; Icete 2019 Proceedings of the 16th
International Joint Conference on E Business and Telecommunications; Interactive Learning
Environments; International Conference on Information Networking; International Journal
of Advanced Science and Technology; International Journal of Information and Education
Technology; International Journal of Network Management; Journal Of Advanced Re-
search in Dynamical and Control Systems; Knowledge Engineering Review; Open Review
Of Educational Research; Procedia Computer Science; Proceedings of the 2019 Interna-
tional Conference on Cyber Enabled Distributed Computing and Knowledge Discovery
Cyberc 2019; Proceedings of the 9th International Conference on Information Technology
in Medicine and Education Itme 2018; Proceedings of the 12th International Conference
on Global Security Safety and Sustainability Icgs3 2019; Proceedings of the International
Conference on Intelligent Engineering and Management Iciem 2020; Proceedings of the
15th International Conference on Cognition And Exploratory Learning in the Digital Age
Celda 2018; Research and Practice in Technology Enhanced Learning.
We can say that there was a sharp interest in research on the blockchain system in
Higher Education.
In Table 2 we analyze for the Scimago Journal & Country Rank (SJR), the best quartile
and the H index by publication. Interactive Learning Environments with 1,230 (SJR), Q1
and H index 38. There is a total of five journals on Q1, four journals on Q2 and. Journals
from best quartile Q1 represent 16% of the 31 journals titles.
Eur. J. Investig. Health Psychol. Educ. 2021, 11 280

Table 2. Scimago journal & country rank impact factor.

Title SJR Best Quartile H Index

Interactive Learning Environments 1.230 Q1 38
IEEE Access 0.780 Q1 86
Research And Practice In Technology Enhanced Learning 0.690 Q1 11
Applied Sciences Switzerland 0.420 Q1 35
Open Review Of Educational Research 0.310 Q1 8
International Journal On Interactive Design And Manufacturing 0.460 Q2 20
Knowledge Engineering Review 0.450 Q2 60
International Journal Of Network Management 0.380 Q2 27
European Journal Of Contemporary Education 0.380 Q2 9
Communications In Computer And Information Science 0.190 Q3 45
Advances In Intelligent Systems And Computing 0.180 Q3 34
Journal Of Advanced Research In Dynamical And Control Systems 0.130 Q3 17
International Journal Of Advanced Science And Technology 0.110 Q4 3
Procedia Computer Science 0.340 -* 59
International Conference On Information Networking 0.280 -* 24
ACM International Conference Proceeding Series 0.200 -* 109
Iberian Conference On Information Systems And Technologies Cisti 0.180 -* 13
International Journal Of Information And Education Technology -* -* 1
2018 World Engineering Education Forum Global Engineering Deans
-* -* -*
Council Weef Gedc 2018
2019 42nd International Convention On Information And
Communication Technology Electronics And Microelectronics Mipro -* -* -*
2019 Proceedings
2019 4th Mec International Conference On Big Data And Smart City
-* -* -*
Icbdsc 2019
2020 2nd Conference On Blockchain Research And Applications For
-* -* -*
Innovative Networks And Services Brains 2020
2020 43rd International Convention On Information Communication
-* -* -*
And Electronic Technology Mipro 2020 Proceedings
Csedu 2020 Proceedings Of The 12th International Conference On
-* -* -*
Computer Supported Education
Ic3k 2019 Proceedings Of The 11th International Joint Conference On
Knowledge Discovery Knowledge Engineering And Knowledge -* -* -*
Management
Icete 2019 Proceedings Of The 16th International Joint Conference On
-* -* -*
E Business And Telecommunications
Proceedings 2019 International Conference On Cyber Enabled
-* -* -*
Distributed Computing And Knowledge Discovery Cyberc 2019
Proceedings 9th International Conference On Information
-* -* -*
Technology In Medicine And Education Itme 2018
Proceedings Of 12th International Conference On Global Security
-* -* -*
Safety And Sustainability Icgs3 2019
Proceedings Of International Conference On Intelligent Engineering
-* -* -*
And Management Iciem 2020
Proceedings Of The 15th International Conference On Cognition And
-* -* -*
Exploratory Learning In The Digital Age Celda 2018
Note: * data not available. Source: own elaboration.

As shown in Table 1, the significant majority of articles on the blockchain system in

Higher Education still lack data.
The subject areas covered by the 31 scientific articles were: Computer Science (31);
Engineering (16); Social Sciences (10); Mathematics (6); Business, Management and Account-
ing (3); Decision Sciences (3); Materials Science (3); Energy (2); (Arts and Humanities (1);
Chemical Engineering (1); Medicine (1); Physics and Astronomy (1); and Psychology (1).
The most quoted article was “EduCTX: A blockchain-based higher education credit
platform” from EduCTX: A blockchain-based higher education credit platform with 116
quotes published in the IEEE Access with 0,780 (SJR), the best quartile (Q1) and with H
Eur. J. Investig. Health Psychol. Educ. 2021, 11 281

index (86). The published article presents a prototype for implementing the environment,
based on the open-source platform Ark Blockchain.
In Figure 2 we can analyze the evolution of citations of articles published between
2010 and 2020. The number of citations shows a net positive growth with an R2 of 43.5%
for the 2010–2020 period, with 2020 peaking at 153 citations.

Figure 2. Evolution of citations between 2010 and 2020. (Source: own elaboration)

The h-index was used to ascertain the productivity and impact of the published
work, based on the largest number of articles included that had at least the same number
of citations. Of the documents considered for the h-index, six have been cited at least
six times.
In Appendix A, Table A1, citations of all scientific articles until 2020 are analyzed;
12 documents were not cited until 2020.
Appendix B, Table A2, examines the self-quotation of documents until 2020, in which
was identified self-quotation for a total of eight self-quotations.
In Figure 3, a bibliometric analysis was carried out to analyse and identify indicators
on the dynamics and evolution of scientific information using the main keywords. The
analysis of the bibliometric research results using the scientific software VOSviewe aims to
identify the main keywords of research in sustainability as a marketing strategy.

Figure 3. Network of all keywords. Source: own elaboration.

Eur. J. Investig. Health Psychol. Educ. 2021, 11 282

The linked keywords can be analysed in Figure 4, making it possible to clarify the
network of keywords that appear together/linked in each scientific article, allowing to
know the topics analysed by the research and to identify future research trends. In Figure 5,
a profusion of networks bibliographic coupling of publications’ researchers is presented.

Figure 4. Network of Linked Keywords. Source: own elaboration.

Figure 5. Networks bibliographic coupling. Source: own elaboration.

Eur. J. Investig. Health Psychol. Educ. 2021, 11 283

5. Discussion
5.1. Research Themes
An analysis was carried out to analyze the reviewed studies and define thematic
areas of research that embody key issues dealt by the above-mentioned reviewed studies
(Figures 3 and 4). These main thematic areas comprehend higher education and students,
which encircled noteworthy subthemes. The review suggests that research efforts have
been aimed at building new knowledge to improve sustainable innovation and smart
contracts both for students and HEIs, based upon the effectiveness and efficiency in terms
of processes and data management of Blockchain Technology. In this way, the main themes
that come out in this LRSB and where some authors are key [18] (Figure 5) are the following.

5.1.1. Higher Education Institutions

The results of the review point out that research in the area of blockchain in higher
education has been largely aimed at the developing of concepts related with the application
of Blockchain in organizing HEIs. This technology has evolved in these institutions around
its informative systems, bibliographic reviews, and knowledge organization in general
through smart contracts. Indeed, the topic is posed on the digitization of degree certificates
and academic credits for higher education in developing countries such as Brazil, in
order to ease the organization of their education system, which, in conjunction with
smart contracts, enables the reliable and decentralized issuance of degree certificates [21].
Attention has been paid to the issue of avoiding counterfeit or falsified certificates, by
underscoring blockchain technology and smart contracts, to implement a decentralized
verification solution for trustworthy qualifications (diplomas or certificates). It allows HEIs
to register the certificates they issue in the blockchain, while recruiting organizations to
check the authenticity and integrity of these certificates [22]. Therefore, extant studies have
incorporated blockchain in higher education, highlighting the split of data into secured
blocks, ensuring privacy in secure data transactions [30] and improving, therefore, HEIs
e-governance [3].
Hence, extant research has focused on Blockchain as a new platform for keeping track
of learning achievements beyond transcripts and certificates, specifically in how learning or
teachings were conducted and attained by maintaining digital hashes of learning activities
through smart contracts. This technology, based on a platform of learning logs, enables
learners to move their learning records from one institution to another in a secure way.
Furthermore, it enables existing learning data analytic platforms to access the learning
logs from other institutions with the permission of the learners and/or institution, who
originally owned the logs [31]. For example, one can build either a blockchain-based plat-
form to create and store contracts in between students and their higher education sponsors,
creating and storing transaction in distributed secure ledgers [32], or an editorial platform
to eliminate the problems of copyright management, piracy, and lack of transparency
between publisher and author [33]. In the end, existing literature has made significant
developments in proposing guidelines including blockchain integration levels in higher
education that, combined with data extraction, can expand the area of education while
ameliorating credibility and independence of HEIs [34].
Moreover, the suggested decentralization technology allows for a secure exchange
of academic marks between HEIs, for instance in the case of student mobility programs
(i.e., the EU Erasmus Program) [34]. As a result, a verifiable record of achievements also
enables students to further present academic accomplishments to employers, within a
trusted framework, thus facilitating communication between industry and students for
employment purposes and simplify the search for appropriate potential employees for
the job [33].

5.1.2. Smart Contracts

The issue of smart contracts has been central for the research on Blockchain, both to
HEIs and to students. Blockchain has been enhanced as a tool of smart contracts in its
Eur. J. Investig. Health Psychol. Educ. 2021, 11 284

immutability, provenance, and peer execution that can provide new levels of security, trust,
and transparency to e-learning. Blockchain technology is introduced as a based e-learning
platform developed to increase transparency in assessments and facilitate curriculum
personalization in higher education context. It enables the automation of assessments
and issues credentials, benefiting thus both students and teaching staff [4]. In fact, in its
distributed ledger, Blockchain can remove the need for a trusted third party to facilitate
transaction and can improve smart contracts by Blockchain-based protocols, which can
automatically enforce a contract in students throughout multiple levels of administration.
It therefore opens higher education to a wider range of learners [17], while setting routines
for the way professors deliver contents, manage courses and assess student work, in
knowledge management [19].
Such Blockchain-based protocols can be achieved by sharing and issuing digital
certificates through a chain of records using a public key infrastructure for identity man-
agement [21]. For example, it can be achieved by implementing a decentralized verification
solution for higher education certificates involving: the consortium smart contract, the
HEIsmart contract, the HEIclient, the recruiter app, and the consortium app [22]. It can
be accomplished as a new platform for keeping track of learning achievements through
digital hashes, enabling learners to securely move their learning records from one institu-
tion to another [31]. Blockchain can therefore be used in addressing issues for students
and remaining stakeholders with regard to accumulating shareable resources through a
transparent process for everyone [35].

5.1.3. Privacy and Accreditation Process

Privacy and accreditation process constitute recurrent themes for research on Blockchain
in HEIs and with respect to the authentication of academic degrees for students, as it
discusses the problem of corrective operations done without altering the existing data
and guaranteeing privacy by building new solutions through distributed ledgers [36,37].
It intends to use Blockchain and its characteristics of immutability to ensure the issue of
academic certificates, proposing a mechanism to revoke digital diplomas that may have
been issued incorrectly [16]. Existent research highlights the studies which cover the possi-
bility of adopting Blockchain in education institutions for dividing the data into secured
blocks, thus ensuring privacy in data transactions of student certifications [30], in which
the focus is on ensuring the authenticity of degrees, while keeping accurate records [6], the
control of student credits for completed courses towards a more transparent system [18] the
building of a trusted achievement record for employers [20], dividing the data into secured
blocks, while guaranteeing privacy in data transactions and student certifications [30].
A decentralized model of confidence for transaction of content, teaching and competences,
consensually shared is advocated [37].

5.1.4. Knowledge Management, Certification and Engineering Education

Some scholars have focused on the incorporation of a Blockchain platform into en-
gineering education. These works review Blockchain technologies that are transforming
engineering education. It presents descriptions, examples of currently available tools, case
studies, benefits, challenges, time to adoption, results, future development, and suggestions
for the implementation of Blockchain in Engineering education. The focus is aimed at
using this technology for assisting students in their acquisition of technical knowledge
and development of competencies in Engineering and Science education, in which the
advantages are immense in an education more based on experimentation [9]. Such research
is directed either towards dividing the data into secured blocks for data transactions [30],
or in the way knowledge is managed, produced, and shared in terms of delivering contents
and managing courses [19].
Eur. J. Investig. Health Psychol. Educ. 2021, 11 285

5.1.5. Innovation in Education

Most of the research in this issue has focused on the innovation of developed technol-
ogy through technical improvements. A Blockchain platform, for example, is proposed to
ease access to high-quality education materials, a decentralized marketplace for offering,
acquiring, discussing, and improving education resources across different universities. It
innovatively allows control via on-chain license terms in tracing the evolution of encrypted
containers, while accumulating bundles of shareable resources and user records to improve
the quality of content [35]. This trend of research emphasizes diverse systems amongst aca-
demic projects, therefore improving higher education in areas such as collaborative virtual
reality, 360◦ courses, Blockchain for digital credentials, and digital tutors, in the process
of experiencing and creating new solutions [36]. It is noteworthy to mention the projects
involving Blockchain technologies that are transforming engineering and science education,
towards more experimentation [9] and information and Internet technology [2,12,36].

5.1.6. Emerging Technologies and Educational Projects

Scholarly attention has pointed out emerging technologies such as potential opportu-
nities related with utilization in human resources management and adoption challenges
that may hamper it [3]; a Blockchain-based platform to create and store contracts in be-
tween students and their higher education sponsors, in which the fund will be managed by
fundraisers, who will hold the distributed ledgers and act as the miners in the Blockchain
network, creating and storing transaction in distributed ledgers [37]; editorial platforms to
remove the constraints that publishers, writers, translators and readers currently deal with,
such as the lack of transparency of the actual number of sales, augmenting therefore the
opportunity to publish educational content and be fairly rewarded [38]; and, last but not
least, the creation of tutorials for Bitcoin that allows for learners from technical and legal
backgrounds to be taught through Blockchain in a digital forensics programme and by a
higher education provider [39]. In sum, Blockchain provides a user-friendly environment
for all stakeholders [40], while guaranteeing privacy [41] through a decentralized model of
confidence [42].

5.1.7. E-Learning
Some studies in the extant literature have focused on understanding how Blockchain
can augment the efficiency of e-learning processes. As e-learning environments are ex-
panding from only virtual learning environments to both virtual and physical ones, the
expertise and virtual learning education, namely in e-learning education increases as well,
introducing therefore the structures of Blockchain knowledge apps for virtual learning
education [1]. Blockchain technology in its smart contract features of immutability and
peer execution allows the provision of new levels of trust, security, and transparency
to e-learning, therefore increasing transparency in assessments and easing curriculum
building in higher education. Moreover, it enables the automation assessments and issue
credentials and, while pedagogically neutral and content-neutral, it benefits both students
and teaching staff, thus increasing trust in online higher education procedures [4].

5.1.8. Document Organization

Prior research has, to some extent, focused on the need to ensure legally compliant
processing, sharing, and handling of higher education documentation. Blockchain tech-
nology allows the creation distributed applications involving multiple organizations in
which transactions and data are not under the control of a central authority, but stored in a
distributed public ledger, in an immutable format in such a way that they can be verified by
participants [11]. Such features ensure that, for example, the public verification of students’
answers in higher education and answer records cannot be corrupted, while it can either
be traced and protected by group signature [14] or stored, drawing on intellectual effort
and ensuing reputational reward [43]. In addition, these characteristics are particularly
useful in developing countries, in which the adoption of new technologies in this field is
Eur. J. Investig. Health Psychol. Educ. 2021, 11 286

scarce and the use of Blockchain is important in terms of connection between student and
faculties to, innovatively, decentralize and validate records [15].

5.2. Findings: The Research Building for Blockchain Technology in the Higher Education
Sector to Date
The present study carried out a LRSB on Blockchain in higher education in order
to understand its current position nowadays. To attain this goal, the up to date research
on Blockchain applications in higher education was addressed by outlining the major
contribution trends in the issue. In this way, we discuss the findings based on the research
questions and the results obtained. What is the research building for Blockchain technology
in the higher education sector to date?
We can notice that Blockchain application in higher education is over enhanced in
literature in terms of two major themes: its applications for HEIs and for students. It
is significant to mention that Blockchain in higher education has been addressed from
different but intertwined viewpoints and an agreement on its classification has not yet
been achieved.
Firstly, literature posits that Blockchain provides a digital and decentralised learning
infrastructure to all stakeholders through learning platforms [25], of relevant data security
for administrative use [33] and with flexible design in terms of shared compliance for
decision making [9]. It allows us, therefore, to build links between diverse universities
in academic programmes [34], to improve governance by supporting the management
in higher education with innovative resource allocation [3] and to augment its human
resources effectiveness and digital competency [3]. Blockchain literature therefore favours
technical knowledge and innovation in higher education. A better coordination between
universities in sharing educational resources [35], experimentation [9] and new creative
solutions [2,12,32], for example, is suggested. It is a new technology able to bring up
improvements in what comes to managing information, while ensuring its privacy and
authenticity for all stakeholders, in particular HEIs and students, which are considered
central actors in the at once organizational and technological process.
Secondly, with regard to HEIs, Blockchain allows improving technology in terms
of securing and sharing authentic digital certificates [16], whereas for students, it guar-
antees the safe sharing of critical academic data between them and key agents such as
sponsors, editors, loan providers and employers [20]. Additionally, Blockchain application
is particularly useful for students, with regard to the accreditation process and knowledge
management in engineering education, related with the acquisition of technical knowledge
through experimental methodologies [9,19]. Besides HEIs and students, most actors inter-
ested in this technology also include teachers, researchers, government, and the industries
of digital platforms and education itself [19].
Thirdly, literature suggests Blockchain technology as a huge contribution for all
stakeholders as it enables the facilitation of knowledge organization, for example in the
case of issuing certificates [20,21,30], to prevent counterfeit or falsified documents [22] and
ensuring its privacy [3]. Hence, it allows, safely and by a decentralized platform, moving
of students’ learning records from one institution to another [18,31], between sponsors
and students [37,40], employers and students [20,33]. Furthermore, it facilitates student
mobility programs [34] and share pieces of writing between authors and editors [34]. The
applications are numerous and allow partnerships and collaborative customer relationships
that, in the end, enhance the whole educational ecosystem.
Fourthly, literature suggests that the teaching interest on Blockchain relies on the e-
learning and digital platforms and contents for teaching, therefore improving the didactics
reliant on data from shared sources [4] and innovation through educational projects [12],
thus promoting academic curriculum [4], organizational innovation [35] and experimental
learning [9]. In the end, innovative teaching allows contributing to the added value of
stakeholders overall. Blockchain technologies are quite innovative as they create and store
transactions within distributed ledgers and between different educational agents [3,37–39],
Eur. J. Investig. Health Psychol. Educ. 2021, 11 287

thus ameliorating knowledge applications for e-learning [1] and trust in online higher
education procedures [4].
Fifthly, this technology is presented as central to intermediate contexts, of scarce
resources, wherein the process of organizing documentation and support students is in its
early stages and needs to keep up with these innovative technologies [15,40]. In this way,
according to the literature, Blockchain applications in higher education rely on varying
environments of distinct actors, processes/structures and cannot be analysed detached
from it. Instead, it rather needs to be integrated into distinct organizational protocols
and learning practices [4]. Moreover, these protocols, attained by a chain of decentralized
verified records [21,22], are based upon secured platforms of digital hashes [31,40] and
allow corrective operations without altering the existing data [6,16,30]. Likewise, it allows
to process and manage documentation innovatively, involving varying organizations in
which contents are distributed in such a way that they are kept unchanged and can be
verified [11], traced [14] and validated [15].
Sixthly, Blockchain technology comes up mostly through the form of diverse smart
contracts that favour learning, data sharing and organization of documentation [11], whilst
ensuring privacy to the accreditation process. These varying contracts of distinct interests
and from different contexts, by means of automatically discarding the need for an interme-
diary, ensure trust and transparency to e-learning protocols for all those involved [4,18,19],
while augmenting the number of potential learners [17].
Finally, one can conclude that the literature presents Blockchain technology through
varying perspectives, although it posits a consensus regarding its advantages when applied
to higher education. In sum, it is a technology achievable and timely in higher education
because on the one hand it matches the researchers/students’ interests, who expect to
seize the opportunity to study, irrespective the hurdles of time and space, while acquiring
digital skills for the labour market [12,20]; and, on the other hand, it addresses HEIs’
concerns in developing content delivering, enhancing educational quality and replacing
the traditional educational services [15]. The introduction of Blockchain infrastructures
is therefore opportune, in terms of learning content, innovative lecturing and research,
although it means a significant change, involving multiple limitations and challenges that
are discussed bellow.

5.3. Findings: The Current Challenges and Future Research Paths in the Theme
The results of this study highlight the challenges identified by previous research on
Blockchain, which point out mainly its technical limits [10]. The reviewed articles have
principally focused on the need to develop new algorithms [14] and frameworks [33] for
implementing Blockchain in higher education. Building upon the review, we have listed the
existing limitations in seven key issues, which comprehend usability, scalability, platform
and algorithm suitability, societal constraints, cost, privacy, and immutability.
Firstly, Blockchain technology usability is a main limitation in higher education.
The technology jargon is relatively new and lacks development. It is noteworthy that
Blockchain includes very different specifications that can make it difficult for end users [40].
Furthermore, users should deal with diverse issues that complicate security, such as
primary keys and public keys [21]. Hence, Blockchain usability should be improved
through new design interfaces that are more responsive to users, while training in its use
should be delivered to professors, students, and staff [36], as the majority of the academic
community is unaware of this technology [40]. Therefore, further studies on Blockchain
usability are required.
Secondly, scalability regards the way the rising number of users and transactions
can affect access to Blockchain network. Studies have posited that high usage ratios may
influence the intrinsic stability of a framework and ensuing performance [32]. As a campus
can cover a large number of users requesting smart services, it is essential for the application
to be easily scalable, to proportionally adapt its performance [5]. Prior system architecture
should consider this issue with regard to education, as it is difficult to predict the path of
Eur. J. Investig. Health Psychol. Educ. 2021, 11 288

Blockchain technology in terms of potential future scale [32]. It needs to add functionality
to the systems while scaling them up with a larger quantity of data [41], to explore, by
smart contracts, its capacity with respect to higher education learning outcomes [4] and
to ensure that the platform can be implemented as a wide-reaching system [31,35]. It is
therefore an issue that requires further research to understand how many participants,
assets and increasing in transactions would impact the access latency [2].
Thirdly, the application of different shared algorithms may also be considered con-
straints for Blockchain deployment [32], while there is a lack of smart campus standards
with respect to a common framework, capable of enabling an effective Blockchain-based
higher education ecosystem [5]. The small integration of smart campus applications makes
it necessary to design devices that allow for switching between new architectures such
as big data, machine learning, deep learning, and new communications platforms [5,16].
Interchangeable platforms and algorithms allow for comparing curricula from different
courses/degrees so that students can move from one higher education institution to an-
other and resume their studies in an equivalent degree [21]. Future research therefore needs
to develop an integrated model and ensuing value chain, from the moment students enter
higher education to the moment they get their diplomas [6]. It should focus on making the
application more efficient in connecting platforms [13], ensuring decentralization [22] and a
potential ecosystem among distinct software [35] of universal standard file formats [16]. It
may potentially evolve into a united, simplified and globally ubiquitous higher education
credit and grading system through novel Blockchain platforms able to augment its ensuing
scalability and usability [18]. One will have to keep compatibility issues in mind to ensure
service flexibility by multiple services [5], while safeguarding transaction data of sensitive
academic information [14].
Fourthly, our review suggests that societal constraints such as the lack of enthusiasm
around Blockchain with regard to the ethical and secure use of data may constitute a
substantial challenge that may hinder the adoption of Blockchain by HEIs. On the one
hand, it is difficult to persuade education actors to implement Blockchain systems because
of its novelty, which could be mitigated through appropriate training and the develop-
ment of usable Blockchain-applications [15]. Moreover, Blockchain reduces university
administrative staff-related expenses and therefore, university administrations may resist
its implementation [7]. On the other hand, the extensive adoption of Blockchain systems
requires political support amidst a context of indistinct legal status [16] when it comes
to deciding, for example, the Blockchain versions for governance decentralization [22].
In so doing, both the will to adopt the platform and the legal mechanisms to support it
play important roles in terms of its successful deployment. For example, some scholars
posit that the wide use of Blockchain for IP commercialization purposes and the increasing
number of conflicts related to the inclusion of IP objects in various registries require prompt
progress on mitigating its legal risks [38]. In this way, further studies in terms of legal
frameworks on Blockchain transactions are needed.
Fifthly, another limitation concerns the costs involved in Blockchain transactions,
because dealing with large amounts of academic data on the platform may increase costs.
It principally relates to the time, resources, and monetary costs associated with carrying
out a Blockchain framework, in which it is necessary to carefully monitor costs of usage
in traditional education systems [12,20]. This can inhibit the adhesion of universities,
because, for example, one cannot predict the rate of transactions in Bitcoin in the long
term [6]. Current solutions, such as legacy credential verification systems, are awkward
and are neither time- nor cost-efficient, whereas educational institutions can reduce costs by
sharing infrastructure, academic programmes and services, for instance, in online education
using Blockchain technology [15]. Research is thus needed in the delivering of a more
user-friendly and efficient platform that effectively integrates into the existent credential
verification ecosystem [33].
Sixthly, it is important to consider how data can be securely accessed and used
while maintaining privacy [32]. Blockchain systems use both private and public keys to
Eur. J. Investig. Health Psychol. Educ. 2021, 11 289

protect user identities, but since public keys are visible they cannot ensure transactional
privacy [21]. Additionally, students may lose all academic diplomas whenever they lose
the secret key information required to prove ownership [16]. Thus, Blockchain privacy
mechanisms present weaknesses that may lead to abuse [14], being therefore central to
protect the identities of users by mapping a linkage between the pseudonyms and real
identities [11]. Further research should add greater emphasis on accurate mechanism of
learning logs and ensuing privacy measures are needed to build standardized formats for
permissions on the Blockchain [31], such as a distributed storage medium to avoid forged
diplomas [14].
Finally, Blockchain’s immutability consists of its impossibility for the data stored
in the blocks to be changed, which is a critical feature of Blockchain technology [4,16].
Nonetheless, immutability is a key limitation to using Blockchain technology for education,
for instance in the case of diploma revocation, in which the diplomas that are stored on the
Blockchain cannot be changed [16]. For this reason, immutability can reduce Blockchain
use with respect to students’ sensitive data as in the case of admissions, certificate/degree
verification and exams/assessments that require the right to delete. The scalability and
performance efficiency of a framework is, in this way, affected by requirements for continual
upgrades by the utilized system [2]. Further research is therefore needed with regard to
the trade-off between resource protection and flexibility [35].

6. Conclusions
This study aimed to understand the extent of Blockchain application in the higher
education field. To address this goal, an LRSB was carried out on a respected digital
database following distinct protocols to point out suitable pieces of writing to be reviewed.
The findings were used to sum up existing knowledge on Blockchain application in the
distinct domain of higher education and summarize current thematic trends of academic
work in this issue. The principal and emergent insights and challenges comprehend
compatible digital platforms to safely share and organize data, flexible smart contracts,
affordable innovative projects, and privacy/learning issues to all the stakeholders involved
in the administrative and learning processes in higher education.
These insights should be considered in light of their limitations. First, the review
focused exclusively on articles appearing in peer-reviewed publications available in the
SCOPUS database of scientific articles published by 2020. Second, the review considered
Blockchain as an umbrella keyword and did not consider compatible keywords, such as
smart contracts. These limitations may be addressed in future research by considering
supplementary interchangeable keywords, to expand the scope of information.
This study concludes that it is required to find solutions for performance and security-
related issues, such as interoperability between distinct platforms/algorithms and secure
access-control in the light of the potential adoption of smart contracts in higher education.
Furthermore, researchers should adopt a holistic perspective of Blockchain deployment in
order to build legally and culturally compliant ecosystems, because culture is central when
it comes to develop customized and collaborative higher education solutions.
To sum up, our contribution is a detailed review of the recent literature on the applica-
tion of Blockchain in higher education, together with its main challenges. These insights
will assist researchers in understanding the main areas of research and identify further
research paths.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, A.R. and R.R.; methodology, A.R. and R.R.; software,
A.R. and R.R.; validation, A.R. and R.R.; formal analysis, A.R. and R.R.; investigation, A.R. and R.R.;
resources, A.R. and R.R.; data curation, A.R. and R.R.; writing—original draft preparation, A.R. and
R.R.; writing—review and editing, A.R. and R.R.; visualization, A.R. and R.R.; supervision, A.R. and
R.R.; project administration, A.R. and R.R.; funding acquisition, A.R. and R.R. All authors have read
and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Eur. J. Investig. Health Psychol. Educ. 2021, 11 290

Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Acknowledgments: We would like to express our gratitude to the Editor and the Referees. They
offered extremely valuable suggestions or improvements. The authors were supported by the
GOYCOPP Research Unit of Universidade de Aveiro and ISEC Lisboa, Higher Institute of Education
and Sciences.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest. The funders had no role in the design
of the study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript, or
in the decision to publish the results.

Appendix A

Table A1. Overview of document citations period 2010 to 2020.

Documents <2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 <2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 Total
Mostla for engineering education:
2020 - - - - - - - - - - 2 2
Part 1 . . .
Blockchain-based applications in
2020 - - - - - - - - - - 1 1
higher education: A systema . . .
Revocation Mechanisms for
Academic Certi_cates Stored on a 2020 - - - - - - - - - - 1 1
...
Technologies for the future of
2020 - - - - - - - - - - 4 4
learning: state of the art
Blockchain-based transcripts for
2020 - - - - - - - - - - - 1
mobile higher-education . . .
Trends ofglobal _ntech education
2020 - - - - - - - - - - 1 1
practices and the gcc pers . . .
A Secure and Practical
Decentralized Ecosystem for 2020 - - - - - - - - - - 1 1
Shareable . . .
A blockchain-enabled e-learning
2020 - - - - - - - - - - 3 3
platform
Managing lifelong learning
2019 - - - - - - - - - 4 13 17
records through blockchain
Towards next generation
teaching, learning, and 2019 - - - - - - - - - - 15 15
context-awar . . .
Analysis of blockchain
2019 - - - - - - - - - - 3 3
technology for higher education
Creating student’s pro_le using
2019 - - - - - - - - - 1 2 3
blockchain technology
DAppER: Decentralised
Application for Examination 2019 - - - - - - - - - 1 1 2
Review
The upcoming Blockchain
adoption in Higher-education: 2019 - - - - - - - - - 1 15 16
Requir . . .
Blockchain and peace engineering
2019 - - - - - - - - - 2 2 4
and its relationship to eng . . .
An overview of blockchain for
2019 - - - - - - - - - - 1 1
higher education
Editorial platform in blockchain
2019 - - - - - - - - - - 1 1
for application in higher e . . .
A Preliminary Review of
Blockchain-Based Solutions in 2019 - - - - - - - - 1 9 10
Higher . . .
Blockchain and smart contracts
2019 - - - - - - - - - - - 6
for higher education registry . . .
Research on Online Quiz Scheme
2018 - - - - - - - - - 3 4 7
Based on . . .
EduCTX: A blockchain-based
2018 - - - - - - - - 11 4 60 116
higher education credit platform
The velvet cage of educational
2018 - - - - - - - - - - 5 5
con(pro)sumption
Block chain technology and its
2018 - - - - - - - - - - 1 1
applications for virtual educ . . .
Empowering university students
2018 - - - - - - - - 1 2 3
with blockchain-based transcr . . .
Bitcoin forensics: A tutorial 2016 - - - - - - - - - 1 1
Total - - - - - - - - 11 61 153 225
Eur. J. Investig. Health Psychol. Educ. 2021, 11 291

Appendix B

Table A2. Overview of document self-citation period 2010 to 2020.

Documents <2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 <2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 Total
Managing lifelong learning
2019 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 1 1
records through blockchain
Analysis of blockchain
2019 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 1 1
technology for higher education
Research on Online Quiz Scheme
Based on Double-Layer Consort 2018 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 1 2 3
...
EduCTX: A blockchain-based
2018 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 2 2
higher education credit platform
Block chain technology and its
2018 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 1 1
applications for virtual educ . . .
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 1 7 8

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