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676 CHAPTER 9 Infinite Series

Section 9.10 Taylor and Maclaurin Series

• Find a Taylor or Maclaurin series for a function.
• Find a binomial series.
• Use a basic list of Taylor series to find other Taylor series.

Taylor Series and Maclaurin Series

In Section 9.9, you derived power series for several functions using geometric series
with term-by-term differentiation or integration. In this section you will study a
general procedure for deriving the power series for a function that has derivatives of
Bettmann/Corbis

all orders. The following theorem gives the form that every convergent power series
must take.

THEOREM 9.22 The Form of a Convergent Power Series

COLIN MACLAURIN (1698–1746)
If f is represented by a power series f
x
 an
x  cn for all x in an open
The development of power series to represent
interval I containing c, then an
f
n
cn! and
functions is credited to the combined work of
many seventeenth and eighteenth century f 
c f
n
c
mathematicians. Gregory, Newton, John and f
x
f
c  f
c
x  c 
x  c2  . . . 
x  cn  . . . .
2! n!
James Bernoulli, Leibniz, Euler, Lagrange,
Wallis, and Fourier all contributed to this
work. However, the two names that are most
Proof Suppose the power series  an
x  cn has a radius of convergence R. Then,
 
commonly associated with power series are
by Theorem 9.21, you know that the nth derivative of f exists for x  c < R, and
Brook Taylor (1685–1731) and Colin
Maclaurin.
by successive differentiation you obtain the following.
f
0
x
a0  a1
x  c  a2
x  c2  a3
x  c3  a4
x  c4  . . .
f
1
x
a1  2a2
x  c  3a3
x  c2  4a4
x  c3  . . .
f
2
x
2a2  3!a3
x  c  4  3a4
x  c2  . . .
f
3
x
3!a3  4!a4
x  c  . . .


f
n
x
n!an 
n  1!an1
x  c  . . .
Evaluating each of these derivatives at x
c yields
f
0
c
0!a0
f
1
c
1!a1
f
2
c
2!a2
f
3
c
3!a3
and, in general, f
n
c
n!an. By solving for an, you find that the coefficients of the
power series representation of f
x are
NOTE Be sure you understand Theorem f
n
c
9.22. The theorem says that if a power
an
.
n!
series converges to f
x, the series must
be a Taylor series. The theorem does not
say that every series formed with the Notice that the coefficients of the power series in Theorem 9.22 are precisely the
Taylor coefficients an
f
n
cn! will coefficients of the Taylor polynomials for f
x at c as defined in Section 9.7. For this
converge to f
x. reason, the series is called the Taylor series for f
x at c.
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SECTION 9.10 Taylor and Maclaurin Series 677

Definitions of Taylor and Maclaurin Series

If a function f has derivatives of all orders at x
c, then the series
 f
n
c f
n
c

n
0 n!

x  cn
f
c  f
c
x  c  . . . 
n!

x  cn  . . .

is called the Taylor series for f x at c. Moreover, if c
0, then the series is
the Maclaurin series for f.

If you know the pattern for the coefficients of the Taylor polynomials for a
function, you can extend the pattern easily to form the corresponding Taylor series.
For instance, in Example 4 in Section 9.7, you found the fourth Taylor polynomial for
ln x, centered at 1, to be
1 1 1
P4
x

x  1 
x  12 
x  13 
x  14.
2 3 4
From this pattern, you can obtain the Taylor series for ln x centered at c
1,
1
1n1

x  1 
x  12  . . . 
x  1n  . . . .
2 n

EXAMPLE 1 Forming a Power Series

Use the function f
x
sin x to form the Maclaurin series

 f
n
0 n f 
0 2 f
3
0 3 f
4
0 4 . . .

n
0 n!
x
f
0  f
0x 
2!
x 
3!
x 
4!
x 

and determine the interval of convergence.

Solution Successive differentiation of f
x yields

f
x
sin x f
0
sin 0
0
f
x
cos x f
0
cos 0
1
f 
x
sin x f 
0
sin 0
0
f 3
x
cos x

f 3
0
cos 0
1

f
4
x
sin x f
4
0
sin 0
0

f
5
x
cos x f
5
0
cos 0
1
and so on. The pattern repeats after the third derivative. So, the power series is as
follows.
f
n
0 n f 
0 2 f
3
0 3 f
4
0 4
n
0
 n!
x
f
0  f
0x 
2!
x 
3!
x 
4!
x . . .

1n x2n1 0
1 3 0 1 0

n
0
2n  1 !

0 
1x  x 2 
2! 3!
x  x 4  x5  x6
4! 5! 6!

1 7 . . .
 x 
7!
x3 x5 x7

x   . . .
3! 5! 7!
By the Ratio Test, you can conclude that this series converges for all x.
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678 CHAPTER 9 Infinite Series

−1, x<−π Notice that in Example 1 you cannot conclude that the power series converges to
2 sin x for all x. You can simply conclude that the power series converges to some
π
f (x) = sin x, x  ≤ 2 function, but you are not sure what function it is. This is a subtle, but important, point
1, x> π in dealing with Taylor or Maclaurin series. To persuade yourself that the series
2
y f 
c f
n
c
f
c  f
c
x  c 
x  c2  . . . 
x  cn  . . .
2! n!
1
might converge to a function other than f, remember that the derivatives are being
x evaluated at a single point. It can easily happen that another function will agree with
−π
2
π
2
π the values of f
n
x when x
c and disagree at other x-values. For instance, if you
−1
formed the power series (centered at 0) for the function shown in Figure 9.23, you
would obtain the same series as in Example 1. You know that the series converges for
all x, and yet it obviously cannot converge to both f
x and sin x for all x.
Figure 9.23
Let f have derivatives of all orders in an open interval I centered at c. The Taylor
series for f may fail to converge for some x in I. Or, even if it is convergent, it may
fail to have f
x as its sum. Nevertheless, Theorem 9.19 tells us that for each n,
f 
c f
n
c
f
x
f
c  f
c
x  c 
x  c2  . . . 
x  cn  Rn
x,
2! n!
where
f
n1
z
Rn
x

x  cn1.

n  1!
Note that in this remainder formula the particular value of z that makes the
remainder formula true depends on the values of x and n. If Rn → 0, then the following
theorem tells us that the Taylor series for f actually converges to f
x for all x in I.

THEOREM 9.23 Convergence of Taylor Series

If lim Rn
0 for all x in the interval I, then the Taylor series for f converges
n→ 
and equals f
x,
 f
n
c
f
x

n
0 n!

x  cn.

Proof For a Taylor series, the nth partial sum coincides with the nth Taylor polyno-
mial. That is, Sn
x
Pn
x. Moreover, because
Pn
x
f
x  Rn
x
it follows that
lim Sn
x
lim Pn
x
n→  n→ 

lim  f
x  Rn
x
n→ 

f
x  lim Rn
x.
n→ 

So, for a given x, the Taylor series (the sequence of partial sums) converges to f
x
if and only if Rn
x → 0 as n → .

NOTE Stated another way, Theorem 9.23 says that a power series formed with Taylor
coefficients an
f
n
cn! converges to the function from which it was derived at precisely
those values for which the remainder approaches 0 as n → .
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SECTION 9.10 Taylor and Maclaurin Series 679

In Example 1, you derived the power series from the sine function and you also
concluded that the series converges to some function on the entire real line. In
Example 2, you will see that the series actually converges to sin x. The key observa-
tion is that although the value of z is not known, it is possible to obtain an upper

bound for f
n1
z . 
EXAMPLE 2 A Convergent Maclaurin Series

Show that the Maclaurin series for f
x
sin x converges to sin x for all x.

Solution Using the result in Example 1, you need to show that

x3 x5 x7
1n x 2n1 . . .
sin x
x    . . . 
3! 5! 7!
2n  1!
is true for all x. Because
f
n1
x
± sin x
or
f
n1
x
± cos x

 
you know that f
n1
z ≤ 1 for every real number z. Therefore, for any fixed x, you
can apply Taylor’s Theorem (Theorem 9.19) to conclude that


0 ≤ Rn
x
  f
n1
z n1

n  1!
x ≤

x n1

n  1!

.

From the discussion in Section 9.1 regarding the relative rates of convergence of
exponential and factorial sequences, it follows that for a fixed x

lim xn1
0.
n→ 
n  1!
Finally, by the Squeeze Theorem, it follows that for all x, Rn
x → 0 as n → . So, by
Theorem 9.23, the Maclaurin series for sin x converges to sin x for all x.

Figure 9.24 visually illustrates the convergence of the Maclaurin series for sin x
by comparing the graphs of the Maclaurin polynomials P1
x, P3
x, P5
x, and P7
x
with the graph of the sine function. Notice that as the degree of the polynomial
increases, its graph more closely resembles that of the sine function.

y y y y

4 4 4 4
y = sin x
3 3 y = sin x 3 3
2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1
x x x x
−π π 2π −π 2π π 2π −π π 2π
−2 −2 −2 −2
−3 y = sin x −3 −3 y = sin x −3
−4 −4 −4 −4
3 3 5 3 5 7
P1(x) = x P3(x) = x − x P5 (x) = x − x + x P7(x) = x − x + x − x7!
3! 3! 5! 3! 5!

As n increases, the graph of Pn more closely resembles the sine function.

Figure 9.24
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680 CHAPTER 9 Infinite Series

The guidelines for finding a Taylor series for f
x at c are summarized below.

Guidelines for Finding a Taylor Series

1. Differentiate f
x several times and evaluate each derivative at c.
f
c, f
c, f 
c, f
c, . . . , f
n
c, . . .
Try to recognize a pattern in these numbers.
2. Use the sequence developed in the first step to form the Taylor coefficients
an
f
n
cn!, and determine the interval of convergence for the resulting
power series
f 
c f
n
c
f
c  f
c
x  c 
x  c2  . . . 
x  cn  . . . .
2! n!
3. Within this interval of convergence, determine whether or not the series
converges to f
x.

The direct determination of Taylor or Maclaurin coefficients using successive

differentiation can be difficult, and the next example illustrates a shortcut for finding
the coefficients indirectly—using the coefficients of a known Taylor or Maclaurin
series.

EXAMPLE 3 Maclaurin Series for a Composite Function

Find the Maclaurin series for f
x
sin x2.

Solution To find the coefficients for this Maclaurin series directly, you must
calculate successive derivatives of f
x
sin x 2. By calculating just the first two,
f
x
2x cos x 2 and f 
x
4x 2 sin x 2  2 cos x 2
you can see that this task would be quite cumbersome. Fortunately, there is an
alternative. First consider the Maclaurin series for sin x found in Example 1.
g
x
sin x
x3 x5 x7

x   . . .
3! 5! 7!
Now, because sin x 2
g
x 2, you can substitute x 2 for x in the series for sin x to
obtain
sin x 2
g
x 2
x 6 x10 x14 . . .

x2     .
3! 5! 7!

Be sure to understand the point illustrated in Example 3. Because direct

computation of Taylor or Maclaurin coefficients can be tedious, the most practical
way to find a Taylor or Maclaurin series is to develop power series for a basic list of
elementary functions. From this list, you can determine power series for other
functions by the operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, differen-
tiation, integration, or composition with known power series.
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SECTION 9.10 Taylor and Maclaurin Series 681

Binomial Series
Before presenting the basic list for elementary functions, you wll develop one more
series—for a function of the form f
x

1  xk. This produces the binomial series.

EXAMPLE 4 Binomial Series

Find the Maclaurin series for f
x

1  xk and determine its radius of convergence.
Assume that k is not a positive integer.

Solution By successive differentiation, you have

f
x

1  xk f
0
1
f
x
k
1  xk1 f
0
k
f 
x
k
k  1
1  xk2 f 
0
k
k  1
f
x
k
k  1
k  2
1  xk3 f
0
k
k  1
k  2



f
n
x
k . . .
k  n  1
1  xkn f
n
0
k
k  1 . . .
k  n  1
which produces the series
k
k  1x 2 . . . k
k  1 . . .
k  n  1xn . . .
1  kx     .
2 n!
Because an1an → 1, you can apply the Ratio Test to conclude that the radius of
convergence is R
1. So, the series converges to some function in the interval

1, 1.

Note that Example 4 shows that the Taylor series for
1  xk converges to some
function in the interval
1, 1. However, the example does not show that the series
actually converges to
1  xk. To do this, you could show that the remainder Rn
x
converges to 0, as illustrated in Example 2.

EXAMPLE 5 Finding a Binomial Series

Find the power series for f
x
3 1  x.

Solution Using the binomial series

k
k  1x 2 k
k  1
k  2x3 . . .

1  xk
1  kx   
2! 3!
let k
13 and write
x 2x 2 2  5x3 2  5  8x 4 . . .
2
1  x13
1   2   
3 3 2! 333! 344!
which converges for 1 ≤ x ≤ 1.
P4

−2 2 TECHNOLOGY Use a graphing utility to confirm the result in Example 5.

When you graph the functions
x x 2 5x3 10x 4
3 −1 f
x

1  x13 and P4
x
1    
f(x) = 1+x 3 9 81 243
Figure 9.25 in the same viewing window, you should obtain the result shown in Figure 9.25.
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682 CHAPTER 9 Infinite Series

Deriving Taylor Series from a Basic List

The following list provides the power series for several elementary functions with the
corresponding intervals of convergence.

Power Series for Elementary Functions

Interval of
Function Convergence
1

1 
x  1 
x  12 
x  13 
x  14  . . . 
1n
x  1n  . . . 0 < x < 2
x

1

1  x  x 2  x3  x 4  x5  . . . 
1n xn  . . . 1 < x < 1
1x

x  12
x  13
x  14 . . .
1n1
x  1n . . .

ln x

x  1       0 < x ≤ 2
2 3 4 n

x2 x3 x4 x5 xn
ex
1  x     . . . . . .  < x < 
2! 3! 4! 5! n!

x3 x5 x7 x9
1n x 2n1 . . .
sin x
x     . . .   < x < 
3! 5! 7! 9!
2n  1!
x 2 x 4 x 6 x 8 . . .
1n x 2n . . .
cos x
1         < x < 
2! 4! 6! 8!
2n!
x3 x5 x7 x9 . . .
1n x 2n1 . . .
arctan x
x        1 ≤ x ≤ 1
3 5 7 9 2n  1

x3 1  3x5 1  3  5x7
2n!x 2n1

arcsin x
x    . . . n 2 . . . 1 ≤ x ≤ 1
2 3 245 2467
2 n!
2n  1
k
k  1x 2 k
k  1
k  2x3 k
k  1
k  2
k  3x 4 . . .

1  xk
1  kx     1 < x < 1*
2! 3! 4!
* The convergence at x
± 1 depends on the value of k.

NOTE The binomial series is valid for noninteger values of k. Moreover, if k happens to be a
positive integer, the binomial series reduces to a simple binomial expansion.

EXAMPLE 6 Deriving a Power Series from a Basic List

Find the power series for f
x
cos x.

Solution Using the power series

x2 x 4 x6 x8 . . .
cos x
1     
2! 4! 6! 8!
you can replace x by x to obtain the series
x x2 x3 x 4 . . .
cos x
1      .
2! 4! 6! 8!
This series converges for all x in the domain of cos x—that is, for x ≥ 0.
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SECTION 9.10 Taylor and Maclaurin Series 683

Power series can be multiplied and divided like polynomials. After finding the
first few terms of the product (or quotient), you may be able to recognize a pattern.

EXAMPLE 7 Multiplication and Division of Power Series

Find the first three nonzero terms in each of the Maclaurin series.
a. e x arctan x b. tan x

Solution
a. Using the Maclaurin series for e x and arctan x in the table, you have
x x2 x3 x 4 . . . x3 x5
e x arctan x
1      x   . . . .
1! 2! 3! 4! 3 5
Multiply these expressions and collect like terms as you would for multiplying
polynomials.
1  x  12 x 2  16 x3  24
1 4
x . . .

 13 x3 1 5
x  5x . . .

x  x 2  12 x3  1 4 1 5
6x  24 x . . .

 13 x3  1 4 1 5
3x  6x . . .
1 5
 5x . . .

x  x 2  16 x3  1 4 3 5
6x  40 x . . .

So, e x arctan x
x  x 2  16 x 3  . . . .
b. Using the Maclaurin series for sin x and cos x in the table, you have
x3 x5 . . .
x  
sin x 3! 5!
tan x

.
cos x x2 x 4 . . .
1  
2! 4!
Divide using long division.
1 2 5
x  x3  x . . .
3 15
1 1 1 1 5
1  x2  x 4  . . . x  x3  x . . .
2 24 6 120
1 1 5
x  x3  x . . .
2 24
1 3 1 5
x  x . . .
3 30
1 3 1 5
x  x . . .
3 6
2 5
x . . .
15
So, tan x
x  13 x 3  15
2 5
x . . ..
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684 CHAPTER 9 Infinite Series

EXAMPLE 8 A Power Series for sin2 x

Find the power series for f
x
sin2 x.

Solution Consider rewriting sin2 x as follows.

1  cos 2x 1 cos 2x
sin2 x


2 2 2
Now, use the series for cos x.
x2 x 4 x6 x8 . . .
cos x
1 
   
2! 4! 6! 8!
2 4
2 2 26 28
cos 2x
1  x 2  x 4  x 6  x 8  . . .
2! 4! 6! 8!
3 5
1 1 2 2 2 27
 cos 2x
  x 2  x 4  x 6  x 8  . . .
2 2 2! 4! 6! 8!
3 5
1 1 1 1 2 2 2 27
sin2 x
 cos 2x
  x 2  x 4  x 6  x 8  . . .
2 2 2 2 2! 4! 6! 8!
2 2 23 4 25 6 27 8 . . .

x  x  x  x 
2! 4! 6! 8!
This series converges for   < x < .

As mentioned in the preceding section, power series can be used to obtain tables
of values of transcendental functions. They are also useful for estimating the values of
definite integrals for which antiderivatives cannot be found. The next example demon-
strates this use.

EXAMPLE 9 Power Series Approximation of a Definite Integral

Use a power series to approximate

0
1
ex dx
2

with an error of less than 0.01.

Solution Replacing x with x 2 in the series for ex produces the following.

x 4 x6 x8 . . .
ex
1  x 2    
2

2! 3! 4!

0
1
x
ex dx
x  
2

3
3 x5

x7

x9
5  2! 7  3! 9  4!
. . . 
1

1 1 1 1

1    . . .
3 10 42 216
Summing the first four terms, you have

0
1
ex dx
2
0.74
1
which, by the Alternating Series Test, has an error of less than 216 0.005.
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SECTION 9.10 Taylor and Maclaurin Series 685

Exercises for Section 9.10 See www.CalcChat.com for worked-out solutions to odd-numbered exercises.

In Exercises 1–10, use the definition to find the Taylor series In Exercises 31–34, find the Maclaurin series for the function.
(centered at c) for the function. (See Example 7.)
1. f
x
e2x, c
0 31. f
x
x sin x 32. h
x
x cos x

 
2. f
x
e 3x, c
0 sin x , arcsin x ,
x x0 x x0
33. g
x
34. f
x

3. f
x
cos x, c
1, x
0 1, x
0
4

4. f
x
sin x, c
In Exercises 35 and 36, use a power series and the fact that
4
i 2
1 to verify the formula.
5. f
x
ln x, c
1
6. f
x
e x, c
1 1 ix
35. g
x

e  eix
sin x
2i
7. f
x
sin 2x, c
0
36. g
x
2
eix  eix
cos x
1
8. f
x
ln
x 2  1, c
0
9. f
x
sec x, c
0 (first three nonzero terms)
In Exercises 37–42, find the first four nonzero terms of the
10. f
x
tan x, c
0 (first three nonzero terms) Maclaurin series for the function by multiplying or dividing the
appropriate power series. Use the table of power series for
In Exercises 11–14, prove that the Maclaurin series for the elementary functions on page 682. Use a graphing utility to
function converges to the function for all x. graph the function and its corresponding polynomial approxi-
mation.
11. f
x
cos x 12. f
x
e2x
13. f
x
sinh x 14. f
x
cosh x 37. f
x
e x sin x 38. g
x
e x cos x
39. h
x
cos x ln
1  x 40. f
x
e x ln
1  x
In Exercises 15–20, use the binomial series to find the sin x ex
41. g
x
42. f
x

Maclaurin series for the function. 1x 1x
1
15. f
x
In Exercises 43–46, match the polynomial with its graph. [The

1  x2
graphs are labeled (a), (b), (c), and (d).] Factor a common
1
16. f
x
factor from each polynomial and identify the function approxi-
1x mated by the remaining Taylor polynomial.
1
17. f
x
(a) y (b) y
4  x2
18. f
x
4
1x 4
19. f
x
1  x2 2

20. f
x
1  x3 x x
−4 2 4 −4 −2 2 4

In Exercises 21–30, find the Maclaurin series for the function. −4 −4

(Use the table of power series for elementary functions.)
(c) y (d) y
21. f
x
e x
22

22. g
x
e3x 4 4

23. g
x
sin 3x 2 2

24. f
x
cos 4x x x

−4 2 4 −4 4
−2 −2
25. f
x
cos x32
−4 −4
26. g
x
2 sin x 3

27. f
x
2
e x  ex
sinh x

1

x4 x3 x5
28. f
x
e x  ex
2 cosh x 43. y
x 2  44. y
x  
3! 2! 4!
29. f
x
cos2 x
x3
30. f
x
sinh1 x
ln
x  x2  1  45. y
x  x2  46. y
x 2  x3  x 4
2!
1
Hint: Integrate the series for .
x2 1
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686 CHAPTER 9 Infinite Series

In Exercises 47 and 48, find a Maclaurin series for f x. Probability In Exercises 61 and 62, approximate the normal

 x
probability with an error of less than 0.0001, where the proba-
47. f
x

et  1 dt
2
bility is given by

 
0 b
x 1
P
a < x < b
ex 2
2
dx.
48. f
x
1 t3 dt 2 a
0
y
In Exercises 49 – 52, verify the sum. Then use a graphing utility
f(x) = 1 e− x 2/2
to approximate the sum with an error of less than 0.0001.
2π
 1
49. 
1
n
1
n1
n

ln 2



1 
2n  1!
sin 1
n
1
50.
n
0 x
a b
 2n
51. 
n
0 n!

e2
61. P
0 < x < 1
 1 e1
52. 
n
1

1n1
n!


e
62. P
1 < x < 2

In Exercises 63–66, use a computer algebra system to find the

In Exercises 53 and 54, use the series representation of the func-
fifth-degree Taylor polynomial (centered at c) for the function.
tion f to find lim f x (if it exists).
x→0 Graph the function and the polynomial. Use the graph to
1  cos x determine the largest interval on which the polynomial is a
53. f
x
reasonable approximation of the function.
x
sin x 63. f
x
x cos 2x, c
0
54. f
x

x x
64. f
x
sin ln
1  x, c
0
2
In Exercises 55–58, use a power series to approximate the value
65. g
x
x ln x, c
1
of the integral with an error of less than 0.0001. (In Exercises 55
and 56, assume that the integrand is defined as 1 when x
0.) 66. h
x
3 x arctan x, c
1

55.  1
sin x
x
dx Writing About Concepts


0
12
arctan x 67. State the guidelines for finding a Taylor series.
56. dx
x 68. If f is an even function, what must be true about the


0
0.3
coefficients an in the Maclaurin series
57. 1  x3 dx

a x ?

0.1
14 f
x
n
n

58. x ln
x  1 dx n
0

0 Explain your reasoning.

69. Explain how to use the series
Area In Exercises 59 and 60, use a power series to approximate
 xn
the area of the region. Use a graphing utility to verify the result. g
x
ex
 n!
 
2 1 n
0

59. x cos x dx 60. cos x dx to find the series for each function. Do not find the series.
0 0.5
y y (a) f
x
e x
3 1.5 (b) f
x
e3x
4
(c) f
x
xe x
1
2 1.0
(d) f
x
e 2x  e2x
1
4 0.5
70. Define the binomial series. What is its radius of
x
convergence?
π π 3π 5π x
8 4 8 8 0.5 1 1.5
332460_0910.qxd 11/4/04 3:12 PM Page 687

SECTION 9.10 Taylor and Maclaurin Series 687

71. Projectile Motion A projectile fired from the ground 76. Find the Maclaurin series for
follows the trajectory given by
1x
f
x
ln
y
tan 
g g
x  2 ln 1 
kx 1x
kv0 cos k v0 cos
and determine its radius of convergence. Use the first four
where v0 is the initial speed, is the angle of projection, g is the terms of the series to approximate ln 3.
acceleration due to gravity, and k is the drag factor caused by
air resistance. Using the power series representation In Exercises 77–80, evaluate the binomial coefficient using the
x2 x3 x 4 . . . formula
ln
1  x
x     , 1 < x < 1
2 3 4
nk
kk  1k  2k n!3
. . . k  n  1
verify that the trajectory can be rewritten as
gx 2 kgx3 k 2 gx4 where k is a real number, n is a positive integer, and
y

tan x    . . ..
2v02cos2 3v03cos3 4v04 cos4
72. Projectile Motion Use the result of Exercise 71 to determine
k0
1.
the series for the path of a projectile launched from ground
5 2
level at an angle of
60 , with an initial speed of v0
64 77. 78.
1 3 2
feet per second and a drag factor of k
16 .
0.5 13
73. Investigation Consider the function f defined by 79. 80.
4 5

0,e x0
1x 2,
f
x
81. Write the power series for
1  xk in terms of binomial
x
0.
coefficients.
(a) Sketch a graph of the function.
(b) Use the alternative form of the definition of the derivative

82. Prove that e is irrational. Hint: Assume that e
pq is
rational ( p and q are integers) and consider
(Section 2.1) and L’Hôpital’s Rule to show that f
0
0.
[By continuing this process, it can be shown that f
n
0


1 1
e
11 . . . . . ..
0 for n > 1.] 2! n!
(c) Using the result in part (b), find the Maclaurin series for f. 83. Show that the Maclaurin series of the function
Does the series converge to f ?
x
74. Investigation g
x

1  x  x2
(a) Find the power series centered at 0 for the function
is
ln
x 2  1
f
x
. 
x2
Fx
n
1
n
n

(b) Use a graphing utility to graph f and the eighth-degree

Taylor polynomial P8
x for f. where Fn is the nth Fibonacci number with F1
F2
1 and
Fn
Fn2  Fn1, for n ≥ 3.
(c) Complete the table, where

Hint: Write
F
x
0
x
ln
t 2  1
t2
dt and G
x

0
x
P8
t dt. x

a0  a1x  a2 x 2  . . .
1  x  x2
x 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.50 2.00 and multiply each side of this equation by 1  x  x 2.
Fx
Gx Putnam Exam Challenge
(d) Describe the relationship between the graphs of f and P8    
84. Assume that f
x ≤ 1 and f 
x ≤ 1 for all x on an interval
and the results given in the table in part (c).  
of length at least 2. Show that f
x ≤ 2 on the interval.
xn This problem was composed by the Committee on the Putnam Prize Competition.
75. Prove that lim
0 for any real x. © The Mathematical Association of America. All rights reserved.
n→  n!