1.

2 NATURE OF DESIGN
This section is a general discussion of the design process. The subject of this book is chemical
engineering design, but the methodology described in this section applies equally to other branches of
engineering.
Chemical engineering has consistently been one of the highest paid engineering professions.
There is a demand for chemical engineers in many sectors of industry, including the traditional
process industries: chemicals, polymers, fuels, foods, pharmaceuticals, and paper, as well as other
sectors such as electronic materials and devices, consumer products, mining and metals extraction,
biomedical implants, and power generation.
The reason that companies in such a diverse range of industries value chemical engineers so
highly is the following:
Starting from a vaguely defined problem statement such as a customer need or a set of experimental
results, chemical engineers can develop an understanding of the important underlying physical
science relevant to the problem and use this understanding to create a plan of action and set of
detailed specifications, which, if implemented, will lead to a predicted financial outcome.
The creation of plans and specifications and the prediction of the financial outcome if the plans
were implemented is the activity of chemical engineering design.
Design is a creative activity, and as such can be one of the most rewarding and satisfying activities
undertaken by an engineer. The design does not exist at the start of the project. The designer
Chemical Engineering Design, Second Edition. DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-08-096659-5.00001-8
© 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
3
begins with a specific objective or customer need in mind, and by developing and evaluating
possible designs, arrives at the best way of achieving that objective; be it a better chair, a new
bridge, or for the chemical engineer, a new chemical product or production process.
When considering possible ways of achieving the objective the designer will be constrained by
many factors, which will narrow down the number of possible designs. There will rarely be just
one possible solution to the problem, just one design. Several alternative ways of meeting the objective
will normally be possible, even several best designs, depending on the nature of the constraints.
These constraints on the possible solutions to a problem in design arise in many ways. Some
constraints will be fixed and invariable, such as those that arise from physical laws, government
regulations, and engineering standards. Others will be less rigid, and can be relaxed by the designer
as part of the general strategy for seeking the best design. The constraints that are outside the
designer’s influence can be termed the external constraints. These set the outer boundary of possible
designs, as shown in Figure 1.1. Within this boundary there will be a number of plausible designs
bounded by the other constraints, the internal constraints, over which the designer has some control;
such as choice of process, choice of process conditions, materials, and equipment.
Economic considerations are obviously a major constraint on any engineering design: plants
must make a profit. Process costing and economics are discussed in Chapters 7, 8, and 9.
Time will also be a constraint. The time available for completion of a design will usually limit
the number of alternative designs that can be considered.
The stages in the development of a design, from the initial identification of the objective to the
final design, are shown diagrammatically in Figure 1.2. Each stage is discussed in the following
sections.
1.2.1 The Design Objective (The Need)
All design starts with a perceived need. In the design of a chemical product or process, the need is
the public need for the product, creating a commercial opportunity, as foreseen by the sales and
marketing organization. Within this overall objective the designer will recognize sub-objectives, the
requirements of the various units that make up the overall process.
Before starting work, the designer should obtain as complete, and as unambiguous, a statement
of the requirements as possible. If the requirement (need) arises from outside the design group,
from a customer or from another department, then the designer will have to elucidate the real
requirements through discussion. It is important to distinguish between the needs that are “must
haves” and those that are “should haves”. The “should haves” are those parts of the initial specification
that may be thought desirable, but that can be relaxed if necessary as the design develops. For
example, a particular product specification may be considered desirable by the sales department, but
may be difficult and costly to obtain, and some relaxation of the specification may be possible, producing
a saleable but cheaper product. Whenever possible, the designer should always question the
design requirements (the project and equipment specifications) and keep them under review as the
design progresses. It is important for the design engineer to work closely with the sales or marketing
department or with the customer directly, to have as clear as possible an understanding of the
customer’s needs.
When writing specifications for others, such as for the mechanical design or purchase of a piece
of equipment, the design engineer should be aware of the restrictions (constraints) that are being
placed on other designers. A well-thought-out, comprehensive specification of the requirements for
a piece of equipment defines the external constraints within which the other designers must work.

1.2.2 Setting the Design Basis

The most important step in starting a process design is translating the customer need into a design
basis. The design basis is a more precise statement of the problem that is to be solved. It will normally
include the production rate and purity specifications of the main product, together with information on
constraints that will influence the design such as:
1. The system of units to be used.
2. The national, local, or company design codes that must be followed.
3. Details of raw materials that are available.
4. Information on potential sites where the plant might be located, including climate data, seismic
conditions, and infrastructure availability. Site design is discussed in detail in Chapter 11.
5. Information on the conditions, availability, and price of utility services such as fuel gas, steam,
cooling water, process air, process water, and electricity that will be needed to run the process.
The design basis must be clearly defined before design can begin. If the design is carried out for a
client, then the design basis should be reviewed with the client at the start of the project. Most
companies use standard forms or questionnaires to capture design basis information. An example
template is given in Appendix G and can be downloaded in MS Excel format from the online
material at booksite.Elsevier.com/Towler.

1.2.3 Generation of Possible Design Concepts

The creative part of the design process is the generation of possible solutions to the problem for
analysis, evaluation, and selection. In this activity most designers largely rely on previous experience,
their own and that of others. It is doubtful if any design is entirely novel. The antecedence of
most designs can usually be easily traced. The first motor cars were clearly horse-drawn carriages
without the horse; and the development of the design of the modern car can be traced step by step
from these early prototypes. In the chemical industry, modern distillation processes have developed
from the ancient stills used for rectification of spirits; and the packed columns used for gas absorption
have developed from primitive, brushwood-packed towers. So, it is not often that a process
designer is faced with the task of producing a design for a completely novel process or piece of
equipment.
Experienced engineers usually prefer the tried and tested methods, rather than possibly more
exciting but untried novel designs. The work that is required to develop new processes, and the
cost, are usually underestimated. Commercialization of new technology is difficult and expensive
and few companies are willing to make multimillion dollar investments in technology that is not
well proven (a phenomenon known in industry as “me third” syndrome). Progress is made more
surely in small steps; however, when innovation is wanted, previous experience, through prejudice,
can inhibit the generation and acceptance of new ideas (known as “not invented here” syndrome).

1.2.5 Economic Evaluation, Optimization, and Selection

Once the designer has identified a few candidate designs that meet the customer objective, the
process of design selection can begin. The primary criterion for design selection is usually economic
performance, although factors such as safety and environmental impact may also play a strong role.
The economic evaluation usually entails analyzing the capital and operating costs of the process to
determine the return on investment, as described in Chapters 7, 8, and 9.
The economic analysis of the product or process can also be used to optimize the design. Every
design will have several possible variants that make economic sense under certain conditions. For
example, the extent of process heat recovery is a trade-off between the cost of energy and the cost
of heat exchangers (usually expressed as a cost of heat exchange area). In regions where energy
costs are high, designs that use a lot of heat exchange surface to maximize recovery of waste heat
for reuse in the process will be attractive. In regions where energy costs are low, it may be more
economical to burn more fuel and reduce the capital cost of the plant. Techniques for energy recovery are
described in Chapter 3. The mathematical techniques that have been developed to assist in
the optimization of plant design and operation are discussed briefly in Chapter 12.
When all of the candidate designs have been optimized, the best design can be selected. Very
often, the design engineer will find that several designs have very close economic performance, in
which case the safest design or that which has the best commercial track record will be chosen. At the
selection stage an experienced engineer will also look carefully at the candidate designs to make sure
that they are safe, operable, and reliable, and to ensure that no significant costs have been overlooked.

1.2.6 Detailed Design and Equipment Selection

After the process or product concept has been selected, the project moves on to detailed design.
Here the detailed specifications of equipment such as vessels, exchangers, pumps, and instruments
are determined. The design engineer may work with other engineering disciplines, such as civil
engineers for site preparation, mechanical engineers for design of vessels and structures, and electrical
engineers for instrumentation and control.
8 CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Design
Many companies engage specialist Engineering, Procurement, and Construction (EPC)
companies, commonly known as contractors, at the detailed design stage. The EPC companies maintain
large design staffs that can quickly and competently execute projects at relatively low cost.
During the detailed design stage there may still be some changes to the design and there will
certainly be ongoing optimization as a better idea of the project cost structure is developed. The
detailed design decisions tend to focus mainly on equipment selection though, rather than on
changes to the flowsheet. For example, the design engineer may need to decide whether to use a
U-tube or a floating-head exchanger, as discussed in Chapter 19, or whether to use trays or packing
for a distillation column, as described in Chapter 17.

1.2.7 Procurement, Construction, and Operation

When the details of the design have been finalized, the equipment can be purchased and the plant can
be built. Procurement and construction are usually carried out by an EPC firm unless the project is very
small. Because they work on many different projects each year, the EPC firms are able to place bulk
orders for items such as piping, wire, valves, etc., and can use their purchasing power to get discounts
on most equipment. The EPC companies also have a great deal of experience in field construction,
inspection, testing, and equipment installation. They can therefore normally contract to build a plant for
a client cheaper (and usually also quicker) than the client could build it on their own.
Finally, once the plant is built and readied for start-up, it can begin operation. The design engineer will
often then be called upon to help resolve any start-up issues and teething problems with
the new plant.