Chapter 5 | Integration 507

5 | INTEGRATION

Figure 5.1 Iceboating is a popular winter sport in parts of the northern United States and Europe. (credit: modification of work
by Carter Brown, Flickr)

Chapter Outline
5.1 Approximating Areas
5.2 The Definite Integral
5.3 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
5.4 Integration Formulas and the Net Change Theorem
5.5 Substitution
5.6 Integrals Involving Exponential and Logarithmic Functions
5.7 Integrals Resulting in Inverse Trigonometric Functions

Introduction
Iceboats are a common sight on the lakes of Wisconsin and Minnesota on winter weekends. Iceboats are similar to sailboats,
but they are fitted with runners, or “skates,” and are designed to run over the ice, rather than on water. Iceboats can move
very quickly, and many ice boating enthusiasts are drawn to the sport because of the speed. Top iceboat racers can attain
508 Chapter 5 | Integration

speeds up to five times the wind speed. If we know how fast an iceboat is moving, we can use integration to determine how
far it travels. We revisit this question later in the chapter (see Example 5.27).
Determining distance from velocity is just one of many applications of integration. In fact, integrals are used in a wide
variety of mechanical and physical applications. In this chapter, we first introduce the theory behind integration and use
integrals to calculate areas. From there, we develop the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, which relates differentiation and
integration. We then study some basic integration techniques and briefly examine some applications.

5.1 | Approximating Areas

Learning Objectives
5.1.1 Use sigma (summation) notation to calculate sums and powers of integers.
5.1.2 Use the sum of rectangular areas to approximate the area under a curve.
5.1.3 Use Riemann sums to approximate area.

Archimedes was fascinated with calculating the areas of various shapes—in other words, the amount of space enclosed by
the shape. He used a process that has come to be known as the method of exhaustion, which used smaller and smaller shapes,
the areas of which could be calculated exactly, to fill an irregular region and thereby obtain closer and closer approximations
to the total area. In this process, an area bounded by curves is filled with rectangles, triangles, and shapes with exact area
formulas. These areas are then summed to approximate the area of the curved region.
In this section, we develop techniques to approximate the area between a curve, defined by a function f (x), and the x-axis
on a closed interval ⎡⎣a, b⎤⎦. Like Archimedes, we first approximate the area under the curve using shapes of known area
(namely, rectangles). By using smaller and smaller rectangles, we get closer and closer approximations to the area. Taking
a limit allows us to calculate the exact area under the curve.
Let’s start by introducing some notation to make the calculations easier. We then consider the case when f (x) is continuous
and nonnegative. Later in the chapter, we relax some of these restrictions and develop techniques that apply in more general
cases.

Sigma (Summation) Notation

As mentioned, we will use shapes of known area to approximate the area of an irregular region bounded by curves. This
process often requires adding up long strings of numbers. To make it easier to write down these lengthy sums, we look at
some new notation here, called sigma notation (also known as summation notation). The Greek capital letter Σ, sigma,
is used to express long sums of values in a compact form. For example, if we want to add all the integers from 1 to 20
without sigma notation, we have to write
1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 + 7 + 8 + 9 + 10 + 11 + 12 + 13 + 14 + 15 + 16 + 17 + 18 + 19 + 20.
We could probably skip writing a couple of terms and write
1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + ⋯ + 19 + 20,
which is better, but still cumbersome. With sigma notation, we write this sum as
20
∑ i,
i=1

which is much more compact.

Typically, sigma notation is presented in the form
n
∑ ai
i=1

where a i describes the terms to be added, and the i is called the index. Each term is evaluated, then we sum all the values,
7
beginning with the value when i = 1 and ending with the value when i = n. For example, an expression like ∑ si is
i=2

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Chapter 5 | Integration 509

interpreted as s 2 + s 3 + s 4 + s 5 + s 6 + s 7. Note that the index is used only to keep track of the terms to be added; it does
not factor into the calculation of the sum itself. The index is therefore called a dummy variable. We can use any letter we
like for the index. Typically, mathematicians use i, j, k, m, and n for indices.
Let’s try a couple of examples of using sigma notation.

Example 5.1

Using Sigma Notation

a. Write in sigma notation and evaluate the sum of terms 3 i for i = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5.

b. Write the sum in sigma notation:

1+1 +1 + 1 + 1 .
4 9 16 25

Solution
a. Write
5
∑ 3i = 3 + 32 + 33 + 34 + 35
i=1
= 363.
b. The denominator of each term is a perfect square. Using sigma notation, this sum can be written as
5
∑ 1.
i=1 i2

5.1 Write in sigma notation and evaluate the sum of terms 2i for i = 3, 4, 5, 6.

The properties associated with the summation process are given in the following rule.

Rule: Properties of Sigma Notation

Let a 1, a 2 ,…, a n and b 1, b 2 ,…, b n represent two sequences of terms and let c be a constant. The following
properties hold for all positive integers n and for integers m, with 1 ≤ m ≤ n.

1.
n (5.1)
∑ c = nc
i=1
2.
n n (5.2)
∑ ca i = c ∑ a i
i=1 i=1
3.
n n n (5.3)
∑ ⎛
a i + b i⎞⎠ =
⎝ ∑ ai + ∑ bi
i=1 i=1 i=1
4.
n n n (5.4)
∑ ⎛
a i − b i⎞⎠ =
⎝ ∑ ai − ∑ bi
i=1 i=1 i=1
510 Chapter 5 | Integration

5.
n m n (5.5)
∑ ai = ∑ ai + ∑ ai
i=1 i=1 i=m+1

Proof
We prove properties 2. and 3. here, and leave proof of the other properties to the Exercises.
2. We have
n
∑ ca i = ca 1 + ca 2 + ca 3 + ⋯ + ca n
i=1
= c(a 1 + a 2 + a 3 + ⋯ + a n)

n
= c ∑ a i.
i=1

3. We have
n
∑ ⎛
⎝a i + b i⎞⎠ = ⎛⎝a 1 + b 1⎞⎠ + ⎛⎝a 2 + b 2⎞⎠ + ⎛⎝a 3 + b 3⎞⎠ + ⋯ + ⎛⎝a n + b n⎞⎠
i=1
= (a 1 + a 2 + a 3 + ⋯ + a n) + ⎛⎝b 1 + b 2 + b 3 + ⋯ + b n⎞⎠

n n
= ∑ a i + ∑ b i.
i=1 i=1

□
A few more formulas for frequently found functions simplify the summation process further. These are shown in the next
rule, for sums and powers of integers, and we use them in the next set of examples.

Rule: Sums and Powers of Integers

1. The sum of n integers is given by
n
∑ i = 1 + 2 + ⋯ + n = n(n 2+ 1) .
i=1
2. The sum of consecutive integers squared is given by
n
∑ i 2 = 1 2 + 2 2 + ⋯ + n 2 = n(n + 1)(2n
6
+ 1)
.
i=1
3. The sum of consecutive integers cubed is given by
n 2
(n + 1) 2
∑ i3 = 13 + 23 + ⋯ + n3 = n 4
.
i=1

Example 5.2

Evaluation Using Sigma Notation

Write using sigma notation and evaluate:

a. The sum of the terms (i − 3) 2 for i = 1, 2,…, 200.

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Chapter 5 | Integration 511

b. The sum of the terms ⎛⎝i 3 − i 2⎞⎠ for i = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6.

Solution
a. Multiplying out (i − 3) 2, we can break the expression into three terms.
200 200
∑ (i − 3) 2 = ∑ ⎛⎝i 2 − 6i + 9⎞⎠
i=1 i=1

200 200 200

= ∑ i 2 − ∑ 6i + ∑ 9
i=1 i=1 i=1
200 200 200
= ∑ i2 − 6 ∑ i + ∑ 9
i=1 i=1 i=1
200(200 + 1)(400 + 1) ⎡200(200 + 1) ⎤
= − 6⎣ ⎦ + 9(200)
6 2
= 2,686,700 − 120,600 + 1800
= 2,567,900
b. Use sigma notation property iv. and the rules for the sum of squared terms and the sum of cubed terms.
6 6 6
∑ ⎛⎝i 3 − i 2⎞⎠ = ∑ i3 − ∑ i2
i=1 i=1 i=1

6 2 (6 + 1) 2 6(6 + 1)⎛⎝2(6) + 1⎞⎠

= −
4 6
= 1764 − 546
4 6
= 350

5.2 Find the sum of the values of 4 + 3i for i = 1, 2,…, 100.

Example 5.3

Finding the Sum of the Function Values

Find the sum of the values of f (x) = x 3 over the integers 1, 2, 3,…, 10.

Solution
Using the formula, we have
10
(10) 2 (10 + 1) 2
∑ i3 =
4
i=0

100(121)
=
4
= 3025.
512 Chapter 5 | Integration

5.3 20
Evaluate the sum indicated by the notation ∑ (2k + 1).
k=1

Approximating Area
Now that we have the necessary notation, we return to the problem at hand: approximating the area under a curve. Let f (x)
be a continuous, nonnegative function defined on the closed interval ⎡⎣a, b⎤⎦. We want to approximate the area A bounded by
f (x) above, the x-axis below, the line x = a on the left, and the line x = b on the right (Figure 5.2).

Figure 5.2 An area (shaded region) bounded by the curve

f (x) at top, the x-axis at bottom, the line x = a to the left, and
the line x = b at right.

How do we approximate the area under this curve? The approach is a geometric one. By dividing a region into many small
shapes that have known area formulas, we can sum these areas and obtain a reasonable estimate of the true area. We begin
by dividing the interval ⎡⎣a, b⎤⎦ into n subintervals of equal width, b − a
n . We do this by selecting equally spaced points
x 0, x 1, x 2 ,…, x n with x 0 = a, x n = b, and

xi − xi − 1 = b −
n
a

for i = 1, 2, 3,…, n.

We denote the width of each subinterval with the notation Δx, so Δx = b − a

n and
x i = x 0 + iΔx

for i = 1, 2, 3,…, n. This notion of dividing an interval ⎡⎣a, b⎤⎦ into subintervals by selecting points from within the interval
is used quite often in approximating the area under a curve, so let’s define some relevant terminology.

Definition
A set of points P = {x i} for i = 0, 1, 2,…, n with a = x 0 < x 1 < x 2 < ⋯ < x n = b, which divides the interval
⎡ ⎤
⎣a, b⎦ into subintervals of the form [x 0, x 1], [x 1, x 2],…, [x n − 1, x n] is called a partition of ⎡⎣a, b⎤⎦. If the
subintervals all have the same width, the set of points forms a regular partition of the interval ⎡⎣a, b⎤⎦.

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Chapter 5 | Integration 513

We can use this regular partition as the basis of a method for estimating the area under the curve. We next examine two
methods: the left-endpoint approximation and the right-endpoint approximation.

Rule: Left-Endpoint Approximation

On each subinterval [x i − 1, x i] (for i = 1, 2, 3,…, n), construct a rectangle with width Δx and height equal to
f (x i − 1), which is the function value at the left endpoint of the subinterval. Then the area of this rectangle is
f (x i − 1)Δx. Adding the areas of all these rectangles, we get an approximate value for A (Figure 5.3). We use the
notation Ln to denote that this is a left-endpoint approximation of A using n subintervals.
A ≈ L n = f (x 0)Δx + f (x 1)Δx + ⋯ + f (x n − 1)Δx (5.6)

n
= ∑ f (x i − 1)Δx
i=1

Figure 5.3 In the left-endpoint approximation of area under a

curve, the height of each rectangle is determined by the function
value at the left of each subinterval.

The second method for approximating area under a curve is the right-endpoint approximation. It is almost the same as the
left-endpoint approximation, but now the heights of the rectangles are determined by the function values at the right of each
subinterval.

Rule: Right-Endpoint Approximation

Construct a rectangle on each subinterval [x i − 1, x i], only this time the height of the rectangle is determined by the
function value f (x i) at the right endpoint of the subinterval. Then, the area of each rectangle is f (x i)Δx and the
approximation for A is given by
A ≈ R n = f (x 1)Δx + f (x 2)Δx + ⋯ + f (x n)Δx (5.7)

n
= ∑ f (x i)Δx.
i=1

The notation R n indicates this is a right-endpoint approximation for A (Figure 5.4).

514 Chapter 5 | Integration

Figure 5.4 In the right-endpoint approximation of area under

a curve, the height of each rectangle is determined by the
function value at the right of each subinterval. Note that the
right-endpoint approximation differs from the left-endpoint
approximation in Figure 5.3.

2
The graphs in Figure 5.5 represent the curve f (x) = x . In graph (a) we divide the region represented by the interval
2
[0, 3] into six subintervals, each of width 0.5. Thus, Δx = 0.5. We then form six rectangles by drawing vertical lines
perpendicular to x i − 1, the left endpoint of each subinterval. We determine the height of each rectangle by calculating
f (x i − 1) for i = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6. The intervals are ⎡⎣0, 0.5⎤⎦, ⎡⎣0.5, 1⎤⎦, ⎡⎣1, 1.5⎤⎦, ⎡⎣1.5, 2⎤⎦, ⎡⎣2, 2.5⎤⎦, ⎡⎣2.5, 3⎤⎦. We find the area
of each rectangle by multiplying the height by the width. Then, the sum of the rectangular areas approximates the area
between f (x) and the x-axis. When the left endpoints are used to calculate height, we have a left-endpoint approximation.
Thus,

6
A ≈ L6 = ∑ f (x i − 1)Δx = f (x 0)Δx + f (x 1)Δx + f (x 2)Δx + f (x 3)Δx + f (x 4)Δx + f (x 5)Δx
i=1
= f (0)0.5 + f (0.5)0.5 + f (1)0.5 + f (1.5)0.5 + f (2)0.5 + f (2.5)0.5
= (0)0.5 + (0.125)0.5 + (0.5)0.5 + (1.125)0.5 + (2)0.5 + (3.125)0.5
= 0 + 0.0625 + 0.25 + 0.5625 + 1 + 1.5625
= 3.4375.

Figure 5.5 Methods of approximating the area under a curve by using (a) the left endpoints
and (b) the right endpoints.

In Figure 5.5(b), we draw vertical lines perpendicular to x i such that x i is the right endpoint of each subinterval, and
calculate f (x i) for i = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6. We multiply each f (x i) by Δx to find the rectangular areas, and then add them.
This is a right-endpoint approximation of the area under f (x). Thus,

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Chapter 5 | Integration 515

6
A ≈ R6 = ∑ f (x i)Δx = f (x 1)Δx + f (x 2)Δx + f (x 3)Δx + f (x 4)Δx + f (x 5)Δx + f (x 6)Δx
i=1
= f (0.5)0.5 + f (1)0.5 + f (1.5)0.5 + f (2)0.5 + f (2.5)0.5 + f (3)0.5
= (0.125)0.5 + (0.5)0.5 + (1.125)0.5 + (2)0.5 + (3.125)0.5 + (4.5)0.5
= 0.0625 + 0.25 + 0.5625 + 1 + 1.5625 + 2.25
= 5.6875.

Example 5.4

Approximating the Area Under a Curve

Use both left-endpoint and right-endpoint approximations to approximate the area under the curve of f (x) = x 2
on the interval [0, 2]; use n = 4.

Solution
(2 − 0)
First, divide the interval [0, 2] into n equal subintervals. Using n = 4, Δx = = 0.5. This is the width of
4
each rectangle. The intervals ⎡⎣0, 0.5⎤⎦, ⎡⎣0.5, 1⎤⎦, ⎡⎣1, 1.5⎤⎦, ⎡⎣1.5, 2⎤⎦ are shown in Figure 5.6. Using a left-endpoint
approximation, the heights are f (0) = 0, f (0.5) = 0.25, f (1) = 1, f (1.5) = 2.25. Then,

L 4 = f (x 0)Δx + f (x 1)Δx + f (x 2)Δx + f (x 3)Δx

= 0(0.5) + 0.25(0.5) + 1(0.5) + 2.25(0.5)
= 1.75.

Figure 5.6 The graph shows the left-endpoint approximation

of the area under f (x) = x 2 from 0 to 2.

The right-endpoint approximation is shown in Figure 5.7. The intervals are the same, Δx = 0.5, but now use
the right endpoint to calculate the height of the rectangles. We have
R 4 = f (x 1)Δx + f (x 2)Δx + f (x 3)Δx + f (x 4)Δx
= 0.25(0.5) + 1(0.5) + 2.25(0.5) + 4(0.5)
= 3.75.
516 Chapter 5 | Integration

Figure 5.7 The graph shows the right-endpoint approximation

of the area under f (x) = x 2 from 0 to 2.

The left-endpoint approximation is 1.75; the right-endpoint approximation is 3.75.

5.4 Sketch left-endpoint and right-endpoint approximations for f (x) = 1x on [1, 2]; use n = 4.
Approximate the area using both methods.

Looking at Figure 5.5 and the graphs in Example 5.4, we can see that when we use a small number of intervals, neither
the left-endpoint approximation nor the right-endpoint approximation is a particularly accurate estimate of the area under
the curve. However, it seems logical that if we increase the number of points in our partition, our estimate of A will improve.
We will have more rectangles, but each rectangle will be thinner, so we will be able to fit the rectangles to the curve more
precisely.
We can demonstrate the improved approximation obtained through smaller intervals with an example. Let’s explore the idea
of increasing n, first in a left-endpoint approximation with four rectangles, then eight rectangles, and finally 32 rectangles.
Then, let’s do the same thing in a right-endpoint approximation, using the same sets of intervals, of the same curved region.
Figure 5.8 shows the area of the region under the curve f (x) = (x − 1) 3 + 4 on the interval [0, 2] using a left-endpoint
approximation where n = 4. The width of each rectangle is

Δx = 2 − 0 = 1 .
4 2
The area is approximated by the summed areas of the rectangles, or
L 4 = f (0)(0.5) + f (0.5)(0.5) + f (1)(0.5) + f (1.5)0.5
= 7.5.

Figure 5.8 With a left-endpoint approximation and dividing

the region from a to b into four equal intervals, the area under
the curve is approximately equal to the sum of the areas of the
rectangles.

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Chapter 5 | Integration 517

Figure 5.9 shows the same curve divided into eight subintervals. Comparing the graph with four rectangles in Figure 5.8
with this graph with eight rectangles, we can see there appears to be less white space under the curve when n = 8. This
white space is area under the curve we are unable to include using our approximation. The area of the rectangles is
L 8 = f (0)(0.25) + f (0.25)(0.25) + f (0.5)(0.25) + f (0.75)(0.25)
+ f (1)(0.25) + f (1.25)(0.25) + f (1.5)(0.25) + f (1.75)(0.25)
= 7.75.

Figure 5.9 The region under the curve is divided into n = 8

rectangular areas of equal width for a left-endpoint
approximation.

The graph in Figure 5.10 shows the same function with 32 rectangles inscribed under the curve. There appears to be little
white space left. The area occupied by the rectangles is
L 32 = f (0)(0.0625) + f (0.0625)(0.0625) + f (0.125)(0.0625) + ⋯ + f (1.9375)(0.0625)
= 7.9375.

Figure 5.10 Here, 32 rectangles are inscribed under the curve

for a left-endpoint approximation.

We can carry out a similar process for the right-endpoint approximation method. A right-endpoint approximation of the
same curve, using four rectangles (Figure 5.11), yields an area
R 4 = f (0.5)(0.5) + f (1)(0.5) + f (1.5)(0.5) + f (2)(0.5)
= 8.5.
518 Chapter 5 | Integration

Figure 5.11 Now we divide the area under the curve into four
equal subintervals for a right-endpoint approximation.

Dividing the region over the interval [0, 2] into eight rectangles results in Δx = 2 − 0 = 0.25. The graph is shown in
8
Figure 5.12. The area is
R 8 = f (0.25)(0.25) + f (0.5)(0.25) + f (0.75)(0.25) + f (1)(0.25)
+ f (1.25)(0.25) + f (1.5)(0.25) + f (1.75)(0.25) + f (2)(0.25)
= 8.25.

Figure 5.12 Here we use right-endpoint approximation for a

region divided into eight equal subintervals.

Last, the right-endpoint approximation with n = 32 is close to the actual area (Figure 5.13). The area is approximately
R 32 = f (0.0625)(0.0625) + f (0.125)(0.0625) + f (0.1875)(0.0625) + ⋯ + f (2)(0.0625)
= 8.0625.

Figure 5.13 The region is divided into 32 equal subintervals

for a right-endpoint approximation.

Based on these figures and calculations, it appears we are on the right track; the rectangles appear to approximate the area
under the curve better as n gets larger. Furthermore, as n increases, both the left-endpoint and right-endpoint approximations
appear to approach an area of 8 square units. Table 5.1 shows a numerical comparison of the left- and right-endpoint

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Chapter 5 | Integration 519

methods. The idea that the approximations of the area under the curve get better and better as n gets larger and larger is very
important, and we now explore this idea in more detail.

Values of n Approximate Area Ln Approximate Area Rn

n=4 7.5 8.5

n=8 7.75 8.25

n = 32 7.94 8.06

Table 5.1 Converging Values of Left- and Right-Endpoint Approximations

as n Increases

Forming Riemann Sums

So far we have been using rectangles to approximate the area under a curve. The heights of these rectangles have been
determined by evaluating the function at either the right or left endpoints of the subinterval [x i − 1, x i]. In reality, there is
no reason to restrict evaluation of the function to one of these two points only. We could evaluate the function at any point
xi in the subinterval [x i − 1, x i], and use f ⎛⎝x*i ⎞⎠ as the height of our rectangle. This gives us an estimate for the area of
the form
n
A≈ ∑ f ⎛⎝x*i ⎞⎠Δx.
i=1

A sum of this form is called a Riemann sum, named for the 19th-century mathematician Bernhard Riemann, who developed
the idea.

Definition
Let f (x) be defined on a closed interval ⎡⎣a, b⎤⎦ and let P be a regular partition of ⎡⎣a, b⎤⎦. Let Δx be the width of each
subinterval [x i − 1, x i] and for each i, let x*i be any point in [x i − 1, x i]. A Riemann sum is defined for f (x) as

n
∑ f ⎛⎝x*i ⎞⎠Δx.
i=1

Recall that with the left- and right-endpoint approximations, the estimates seem to get better and better as n get larger and
larger. The same thing happens with Riemann sums. Riemann sums give better approximations for larger values of n. We
are now ready to define the area under a curve in terms of Riemann sums.

Definition
n
Let f (x) be a continuous, nonnegative function on an interval ⎡⎣a, b⎤⎦, and let ∑ f ⎛⎝x*i ⎞⎠Δx be a Riemann sum for
i=1
f (x). Then, the area under the curve y = f (x) on ⎡⎣a, b⎤⎦ is given by
n
A = n lim
→∞
∑ f ⎛⎝x*i ⎞⎠Δx.
i=1
520 Chapter 5 | Integration

See a graphical demonstration (http://www.openstax.org/l/20_riemannsums) of the construction of a

Riemann sum.

Some subtleties here are worth discussing. First, note that taking the limit of a sum is a little different from taking the limit
of a function f (x) as x goes to infinity. Limits of sums are discussed in detail in the chapter on Sequences and Series
(http://cnx.org/content/m53756/latest/) ; however, for now we can assume that the computational techniques we used
to compute limits of functions can also be used to calculate limits of sums.
⎧ ⎫
Second, we must consider what to do if the expression converges to different limits for different choices of ⎨
⎩
x*i ⎬⎭.
Fortunately, this does not happen. Although the proof is beyond the scope of this text, it can be shown that if f (x) is
n
continuous on the closed interval ⎡⎣a, b⎤⎦, then n lim
→∞
∑ f ⎛⎝x*i ⎞⎠Δx exists and is unique (in other words, it does not depend
i=1
⎧ ⎫
on the choice of x*i ).
⎨
⎩
⎬
⎭

⎧ ⎫
We look at some examples shortly. But, before we do, let’s take a moment and talk about some specific choices for ⎨⎩x*i ⎬⎭.
⎧ ⎫
Although any choice for ⎨⎩x*i ⎬
⎭
gives us an estimate of the area under the curve, we don’t necessarily know whether that
estimate is too high (overestimate) or too low (underestimate). If it is important to know whether our estimate is high or
⎧ ⎫
low, we can select our value for ⎨⎩x*i ⎬
⎭
to guarantee one result or the other.

⎧ ⎫
If we want an overestimate, for example, we can choose ⎨⎩x*i ⎬
⎭
such that for i = 1, 2, 3,…, n, f ⎛⎝x*i ⎞⎠ ≥ f (x) for all
⎧ ⎫
x ∈ [x i − 1, x i]. In other words, we choose ⎨⎩x*i ⎬
⎭
so that for i = 1, 2, 3,…, n, f ⎛⎝x*i ⎞
⎠ is the maximum function value on
n
⎧ ⎫
the interval [x i − 1, x i]. If we select ⎨⎩x*i ⎬
⎭
in this way, then the Riemann sum ∑ f ⎛⎝x*i ⎞⎠Δx is called an upper sum.
i=1
⎧ ⎫
Similarly, if we want an underestimate, we can choose x*i ⎨
⎩
⎬
⎭
so that for i = 1, 2, 3,…, n, f ⎛⎝x*i ⎞
⎠ is the minimum function

value on the interval [x i − 1, x i]. In this case, the associated Riemann sum is called a lower sum. Note that if f (x) is either
increasing or decreasing throughout the interval ⎡⎣a, b⎤⎦, then the maximum and minimum values of the function occur at the
endpoints of the subintervals, so the upper and lower sums are just the same as the left- and right-endpoint approximations.

Example 5.5

Finding Lower and Upper Sums

Find a lower sum for f (x) = 10 − x 2 on [1, 2]; let n = 4 subintervals.

Solution
With n=4 over the interval [1, 2], Δx = 1 . We can list the intervals as
4
⎡
1, 1.25⎤⎦, ⎡⎣1.25, 1.5⎤⎦, ⎡⎣1.5, 1.75⎤⎦, ⎡⎣1.75, 2⎤⎦. Because the function is decreasing over the interval [1, 2], Figure
⎣

5.14 shows that a lower sum is obtained by using the right endpoints.

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Chapter 5 | Integration 521

Figure 5.14 The graph of f (x) = 10 − x 2 is set up for a

right-endpoint approximation of the area bounded by the curve
and the x-axis on [1, 2], and it shows a lower sum.

The Riemann sum is

4
∑ ⎛
⎝10 − x 2⎞⎠(0.25) = 0.25⎡⎣10 − (1.25) 2 + 10 − (1.5) 2 + 10 − (1.75) 2 + 10 − (2) 2⎤⎦
k=1
= 0.25[8.4375 + 7.75 + 6.9375 + 6]
= 7.28.
The area of 7.28 is a lower sum and an underestimate.

5.5 a. Find an upper sum for f (x) = 10 − x 2 on [1, 2]; let n = 4.

b. Sketch the approximation.

Example 5.6

Finding Lower and Upper Sums for f(x) = sinx

⎡ ⎤
Find a lower sum for f (x) = sin x over the interval ⎡⎣a, b⎤⎦ = ⎣0, π ⎦; let n = 6.
2

Solution
Let’s first look at the graph in Figure 5.15 to get a better idea of the area of interest.
522 Chapter 5 | Integration

Figure 5.15 The graph of y = sin x is divided into six regions: Δx = π/2 = π .
6 12

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
The intervals are ⎣0, π ⎦, ⎣ π , π ⎦, ⎣ π , π ⎦, ⎣ π , π ⎦, ⎣ π , 5π ⎦, and ⎣ 5π , π ⎦. Note that f (x) = sin x is
12 12 6 6 4 4 3 3 12 12 2
⎡ ⎤
increasing on the interval ⎣0, π ⎦, so a left-endpoint approximation gives us the lower sum. A left-endpoint
2
5
approximation is the Riemann sum ∑ sin x i ⎛⎝12
π ⎞.
⎠ We have
i=0

⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞⎛ ⎞
A ≈ sin(0)⎝ π ⎠ + sin⎝ π ⎠⎝ π ⎠ + sin⎝π ⎠⎝ π ⎠ + sin⎝π ⎠⎝ π ⎠ + sin⎝π ⎠⎝ π ⎠ + sin⎝5π ⎠⎝ π ⎠
12 12 12 6 12 4 12 3 12 12 12
= 0.863.

⎡ ⎤
5.6 Using the function f (x) = sin x over the interval ⎣0, π ⎦, find an upper sum; let n = 6.
2

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Chapter 5 | Integration 523

5.1 EXERCISES
1. State whether the given sums are equal or unequal. 20
⎛ 2
10 10 10. ∑ ⎝j − 10 j⎞⎠
a. ∑i and ∑ k j = 11
i=1 k=1
10 15 25
⎡
b. ∑i and ∑ (i − 5) 11. ∑ ⎣(2k)
2
− 100k⎤⎦
i=1 i=6 k=1
10 9
c. ∑ i(i − 1) and ∑ ⎛
⎝ j + 1⎞⎠ j Let L n denote the left-endpoint sum using n subintervals
i=1 j=0 and let R n denote the corresponding right-endpoint sum.
10 10
⎛ 2
∑ i(i − 1) ∑ − k⎞⎠
In the following exercises, compute the indicated left and
d. and ⎝k right sums for the given functions on the indicated interval.
i=1 k=1

12. L4 for f (x) = 1 on [2, 3]

In the following exercises, use the rules for sums of powers x−1
of integers to compute the sums.
13. R4 for g(x) = cos(πx) on [0, 1]
10
2. ∑i
i=5 14. L6 for f (x) = 1 on ⎡⎣2, 5⎤⎦
x(x − 1)
10
3. ∑ i2 15. R6 for f (x) = 1 on ⎡⎣2, 5⎤⎦
i=5 x(x − 1)

100 100 16. R4 for 1 on [−2, 2]

Suppose that ∑ a i = 15 and ∑ b i = −12. In the x2 + 1
i=1 i=1
following exercises, compute the sums. 17. L4 for 1 on [−2, 2]
x2 + 1
100
4. ∑ ⎛
a i + b i⎞⎠
⎝
18. R4 for x 2 − 2x + 1 on [0, 2]
i=1

100 19. L8 for x 2 − 2x + 1 on [0, 2]

5. ∑ ⎛
ai − b
⎝
⎞
i⎠
i=1
20. Compute the left and right Riemann sums—L4 and R4,
respectively—for f (x) = (2 − |x|) on [−2, 2]. Compute
100
6. ∑ ⎛
3a i − 4b i⎞⎠
⎝
their average value and compare it with the area under the
i=1 graph of f.

100 21. Compute the left and right Riemann sums—L6 and
7. ∑ ⎛
5a i + 4b i⎞⎠
⎝ R6, respectively—for f (x) = (3 − |3 − x|) on ⎡⎣0, 6⎤⎦.
i=1 Compute their average value and compare it with the area
under the graph of f.
In the following exercises, use summation properties and
formulas to rewrite and evaluate the sums. 22. Compute the left and right Riemann sums—L4 and
20 R4, respectively—for f (x) = 4 − x 2 on [−2, 2] and
8. ∑ 100⎛⎝k 2 − 5k + 1⎞⎠ compare their values.
k=1
23. Compute the left and right Riemann sums—L6 and
50
⎛ 2 R6, respectively—for f (x) = 9 − (x − 3) 2 on ⎡⎣0, 6⎤⎦ and
9. ∑ ⎝j − 2 j⎞⎠
j=1 compare their values.

Express the following endpoint sums in sigma notation but

do not evaluate them.
524 Chapter 5 | Integration

24. L30 for f (x) = x 2 on [1, 2] 37. To help get in shape, Joe gets a new pair of running
shoes. If Joe runs 1 mi each day in week 1 and adds 1 mi
10
25. L10 for f (x) = 4 − x 2 on [−2, 2] to his daily routine each week, what is the total mileage on
Joe’s shoes after 25 weeks?
26. R20 for f (x) = sin x on [0, π]
38. The following table gives approximate values of the
27. R100 for ln x on [1, e] average annual atmospheric rate of increase in carbon
dioxide (CO2) each decade since 1960, in parts per million
(ppm). Estimate the total increase in atmospheric CO2
In the following exercises, graph the function then use a
between 1964 and 2013.
calculator or a computer program to evaluate the following
left and right endpoint sums. Is the area under the curve on Decade Ppm/y
the given interval better approximated by the left Riemann
sum or right Riemann sum? If the two agree, say "neither." 1964–1973 1.07

28. [T] L100 and R100 for y = x 2 − 3x + 1 on the interval

1974–1983 1.34
[−1, 1]

29. [T] L100 and R100 for y = x 2 on the interval [0, 1] 1984–1993 1.40

30. [T] L50 and R50 for y = x2+ 1 on the interval [2, 4] 1994–2003 1.87
x −1

2004–2013 2.07
31. [T] L100 and R100 for y = x 3 on the interval [−1, 1]
Table 5.2 Average Annual
Atmospheric CO2
⎡ ⎤
32. [T] L50 and R50 for y = tan(x) on the interval ⎣0, π ⎦ Increase,
4 1964–2013 Source:
http://www.esrl.noaa.gov/
gmd/ccgg/trends/.
33. [T] L100 and R100 for y = e 2x on the interval [−1, 1]

34. Let tj denote the time that it took Tejay van Garteren
to ride the jth stage of the Tour de France in 2014. If there
21
were a total of 21 stages, interpret ∑ t j.
j=1

35. Let r j denote the total rainfall in Portland on the jth

31
day of the year in 2009. Interpret ∑ r j.
j=1

36. Let d j denote the hours of daylight and δ j denote the

increase in the hours of daylight from day j − 1 to day j
in Fargo, North Dakota, on the jth day of the year. Interpret
365
d1 + ∑ δ j.
j=2

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Chapter 5 | Integration 525

39. The following table gives the approximate increase in 40. The following table gives the approximate increase in
sea level in inches over 20 years starting in the given year. dollars in the average price of a gallon of gas per decade
Estimate the net change in mean sea level from 1870 to since 1950. If the average price of a gallon of gas in 2010
2010. was $2.60, what was the average price of a gallon of gas in
Starting Year 20-Year Change 1950?
Starting Year 10-Year Change
1870 0.3
1950 0.03

1890 1.5
1960 0.05

1910 0.2
1970 0.86

1930 2.8
1980 −0.03

1950 0.7
1990 0.29

1970 1.1
2000 1.12

1990 1.5
Table 5.4 Approximate 10-Year Gas
Price Increases, 1950–2000 Source:
Table 5.3 Approximate 20-Year Sea http://epb.lbl.gov/homepages/
Level Increases, 1870–1990 Source: Rick_Diamond/docs/
http://link.springer.com/article/ lbnl55011-trends.pdf.
10.1007%2Fs10712-011-9119-1
526 Chapter 5 | Integration

41. The following table gives the percent growth of the 43.
U.S. population beginning in July of the year indicated. If
the U.S. population was 281,421,906 in July 2000, estimate
the U.S. population in July 2010.
Year % Change/Year

2000 1.12

2001 0.99

2002 0.93
44.
2003 0.86

2004 0.93

2005 0.93

2006 0.97

2007 0.96

2008 0.95 45.

2009 0.88

Table 5.5 Annual Percentage

Growth of U.S. Population,
2000–2009 Source:
http://www.census.gov/
popest/data.

(Hint: To obtain the population in July 2001, multiply the

population in July 2000 by 1.0112 to get 284,573,831.)

In the following exercises, estimate the areas under the

curves by computing the left Riemann sums, L8.

42.
46. [T] Use a computer algebra system to compute the
Riemann sum, L N, for N = 10, 30, 50 for

f (x) = 1 − x 2 on [−1, 1].

47. [T] Use a computer algebra system to compute the

Riemann sum, LN , for N = 10, 30, 50 for
f (x) = 1 on [−1, 1].
1 + x2

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Chapter 5 | Integration 527

48. [T] Use a computer algebra system to compute the 57. For each of the three graphs:
Riemann sum, LN, for N = 10, 30, 50 for f (x) = sin 2 x a. Obtain a lower bound L(A) for the area enclosed
on [0, 2π]. Compare these estimates with π. by the curve by adding the areas of the squares
enclosed completely by the curve.
In the following exercises, use a calculator or a computer b. Obtain an upper bound U(A) for the area by
program to evaluate the endpoint sums RN and LN for adding to L(A) the areas B(A) of the squares
N = 1,10,100. How do these estimates compare with the enclosed partially by the curve.
exact answers, which you can find via geometry?

49. [T] y = cos(πx) on the interval [0, 1]

50. [T] y = 3x + 2 on the interval ⎡⎣3, 5⎤⎦

In the following exercises, use a calculator or a computer

program to evaluate the endpoint sums RN and LN for
N = 1,10,100.

51. [T] y = x 4 − 5x 2 + 4 on the interval [−2, 2],

which has an exact area of 32

15

52. [T] y = ln x on the interval [1, 2], which has an

exact area of 2ln(2) − 1

53. Explain why, if f (a) ≥ 0 and f is increasing on

⎡ ⎤
⎣a, b , that the left endpoint estimate is a lower bound for
⎦

the area below the graph of f on ⎡⎣a, b⎤⎦.

54. Explain why, if f (b) ≥ 0 and f is decreasing on

⎡ ⎤
⎣a, b , that the left endpoint estimate is an upper bound for
⎦

the area below the graph of f on ⎡⎣a, b⎤⎦.

55. Show that, in general,

f (b) − f (a)
R N − L N = (b − a) × .
N

56. Explain why, if f is increasing on ⎡⎣a, b⎤⎦, the error

between either LN or RN and the area A below the graph of
f (b) − f (a)
f is at most (b − a) .
N

58. In the previous exercise, explain why L(A) gets no

smaller while U(A) gets no larger as the squares are
subdivided into four boxes of equal area.
528 Chapter 5 | Integration

59. A unit circle is made up of n wedges equivalent to the

inner wedge in the figure. The base of the inner triangle
is 1 unit and its height is sin⎛⎝ π ⎞
n ⎠. The base of the outer
triangle is B = cos⎛⎝ π ⎞ ⎛π ⎞ ⎛π ⎞
n ⎠ + sin⎝ n ⎠tan⎝ n ⎠ and the height is
⎛ ⎞
H = Bsin⎝2π
n ⎠. Use this information to argue that the area
of a unit circle is equal to π.

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Chapter 5 | Integration 529

5.2 | The Definite Integral

Learning Objectives
5.2.1 State the definition of the definite integral.
5.2.2 Explain the terms integrand, limits of integration, and variable of integration.
5.2.3 Explain when a function is integrable.
5.2.4 Describe the relationship between the definite integral and net area.
5.2.5 Use geometry and the properties of definite integrals to evaluate them.
5.2.6 Calculate the average value of a function.

In the preceding section we defined the area under a curve in terms of Riemann sums:
n
A = n lim
→∞
∑ f ⎛⎝x*i ⎞⎠Δx.
i=1

However, this definition came with restrictions. We required f (x) to be continuous and nonnegative. Unfortunately, real-
world problems don’t always meet these restrictions. In this section, we look at how to apply the concept of the area under
the curve to a broader set of functions through the use of the definite integral.

Definition and Notation

The definite integral generalizes the concept of the area under a curve. We lift the requirements that f (x) be continuous
and nonnegative, and define the definite integral as follows.

Definition
If f (x) is a function defined on an interval ⎡⎣a, b⎤⎦, the definite integral of f from a to b is given by

b n (5.8)
∫ a f (x)dx = n lim
→∞
∑ f ⎛⎝x*i ⎞⎠Δx,
i=1

provided the limit exists. If this limit exists, the function f (x) is said to be integrable on ⎡⎣a, b⎤⎦, or is an integrable
function.

The integral symbol in the previous definition should look familiar. We have seen similar notation in the chapter on
Applications of Derivatives, where we used the indefinite integral symbol (without the a and b above and below) to
represent an antiderivative. Although the notation for indefinite integrals may look similar to the notation for a definite
integral, they are not the same. A definite integral is a number. An indefinite integral is a family of functions. Later in this
chapter we examine how these concepts are related. However, close attention should always be paid to notation so we know
whether we’re working with a definite integral or an indefinite integral.
Integral notation goes back to the late seventeenth century and is one of the contributions of Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, who
is often considered to be the codiscoverer of calculus, along with Isaac Newton. The integration symbol ∫ is an elongated S,
suggesting sigma or summation. On a definite integral, above and below the summation symbol are the boundaries of the
interval, ⎡⎣a, b⎤⎦. The numbers a and b are x-values and are called the limits of integration; specifically, a is the lower limit
and b is the upper limit. To clarify, we are using the word limit in two different ways in the context of the definite integral.
First, we talk about the limit of a sum as n → ∞. Second, the boundaries of the region are called the limits of integration.
We call the function f (x) the integrand, and the dx indicates that f (x) is a function with respect to x, called the variable
of integration. Note that, like the index in a sum, the variable of integration is a dummy variable, and has no impact on the
computation of the integral. We could use any variable we like as the variable of integration:
b b b
∫ a f (x)dx = ∫ a f (t)dt = ∫ a f (u)du
530 Chapter 5 | Integration

n
Previously, we discussed the fact that if f (x) is continuous on ⎡⎣a, b⎤⎦, then the limit n lim
→∞
∑ f ⎛⎝x*i ⎞⎠Δx exists and is
i=1
unique. This leads to the following theorem, which we state without proof.

Theorem 5.1: Continuous Functions Are Integrable

If f (x) is continuous on ⎡⎣a, b⎤⎦, then f is integrable on ⎡⎣a, b⎤⎦.

Functions that are not continuous on ⎡⎣a, b⎤⎦ may still be integrable, depending on the nature of the discontinuities. For
example, functions with a finite number of jump discontinuities on a closed interval are integrable.
It is also worth noting here that we have retained the use of a regular partition in the Riemann sums. This restriction is not
strictly necessary. Any partition can be used to form a Riemann sum. However, if a nonregular partition is used to define
the definite integral, it is not sufficient to take the limit as the number of subintervals goes to infinity. Instead, we must take
the limit as the width of the largest subinterval goes to zero. This introduces a little more complex notation in our limits and
makes the calculations more difficult without really gaining much additional insight, so we stick with regular partitions for
the Riemann sums.

Example 5.7

Evaluating an Integral Using the Definition

2
Use the definition of the definite integral to evaluate ∫ x 2 dx. Use a right-endpoint approximation to generate
0
the Riemann sum.

Solution
We first want to set up a Riemann sum. Based on the limits of integration, we have a = 0 and b = 2. For
i = 0, 1, 2,…, n, let P = {x i} be a regular partition of [0, 2]. Then

Δx = b − a 2
n = n.
Since we are using a right-endpoint approximation to generate Riemann sums, for each i, we need to calculate
the function value at the right endpoint of the interval [x i − 1, x i]. The right endpoint of the interval is x i, and
since P is a regular partition,
⎡ ⎤
x i = x 0 + iΔx = 0 + i⎣ 2n ⎦ = 2i
n.
Thus, the function value at the right endpoint of the interval is
2
f (x i) = x i2 = ⎛⎝2i ⎞ 4i 2
n⎠ = 2.
n
Then the Riemann sum takes the form

∑ ⎛⎝4i2 ⎞⎠2n = ∑
n n n n
∑ f (x i)Δx =
2
8i 2 = 8 ∑ i 2.
i=1 i=1 n i=1 n3 n3i = 1
n
Using the summation formula for ∑ i 2, we have
i=1

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Chapter 5 | Integration 531

n n
∑ f (x i)Δx = 83 ∑ i 2
i=1 n i=1

⎡n(n + 1)(2n + 1) ⎤
= 83 ⎣ ⎦
n 6
⎡ 3 2 ⎤
= 83 ⎣2n + 3n + n ⎦
n 6
3 2
= 16n + 24n 3
+ 8n
6n
= 8 + 4n + 8 2 .
3 6n
Now, to calculate the definite integral, we need to take the limit as n → ∞. We get
2 n
∫ x 2 dx = n lim
→∞
∑ f (x i)Δx
0 i=1

⎛8 4 ⎞
→ ∞⎝3
+ n + 82
6n ⎠
= n lim

⎛8 ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
+ lim ⎛4 ⎞ + lim 8
→ ∞⎝3 ⎠ n → ∞⎝n ⎠ n → ∞⎝6n 2 ⎠
= n lim

= 8 + 0 + 0 = 8.
3 3

5.7 3
Use the definition of the definite integral to evaluate ∫ (2x − 1)dx. Use a right-endpoint approximation
0
to generate the Riemann sum.

Evaluating Definite Integrals

Evaluating definite integrals this way can be quite tedious because of the complexity of the calculations. Later in this chapter
we develop techniques for evaluating definite integrals without taking limits of Riemann sums. However, for now, we can
rely on the fact that definite integrals represent the area under the curve, and we can evaluate definite integrals by using
geometric formulas to calculate that area. We do this to confirm that definite integrals do, indeed, represent areas, so we can
then discuss what to do in the case of a curve of a function dropping below the x-axis.

Example 5.8

Using Geometric Formulas to Calculate Definite Integrals

6
Use the formula for the area of a circle to evaluate ∫ 9 − (x − 3) 2dx.
3

Solution
The function describes a semicircle with radius 3. To find
532 Chapter 5 | Integration

6
∫ 9 − (x − 3) 2dx,
3

we want to find the area under the curve over the interval ⎡⎣3, 6⎤⎦. The formula for the area of a circle is A = πr 2.
⎛ ⎞
The area of a semicircle is just one-half the area of a circle, or A = ⎝1 ⎠πr 2. The shaded area in Figure 5.16
2
⎛ ⎞
covers one-half of the semicircle, or A = ⎝1 ⎠πr 2. Thus,
4

6
∫ 9 − (x − 3) 2 = 1 π(3) 2
3 4

= 9π
4
≈ 7.069.

Figure 5.16 The value of the integral of the function f (x)

over the interval ⎡⎣3, 6⎤⎦ is the area of the shaded region.

5.8 4
Use the formula for the area of a trapezoid to evaluate ∫ (2x + 3)dx.
2

Area and the Definite Integral

When we defined the definite integral, we lifted the requirement that f (x) be nonnegative. But how do we interpret “the
area under the curve” when f (x) is negative?

Net Signed Area

Let us return to the Riemann sum. Consider, for example, the function f (x) = 2 − 2x 2 (shown in Figure 5.17) on
⎧
the interval [0, 2]. Use n = 8 and choose ⎨⎩x*i } as the left endpoint of each interval. Construct a rectangle on each

subinterval of height f ⎛⎝x*i ⎞

⎠ and width Δx. When f ⎛⎝x*i ⎞
⎠ is positive, the product f ⎛⎝x*i ⎞⎠Δx represents the area of the
rectangle, as before. When f ⎛⎝x*i ⎞
⎠ is negative, however, the product f ⎛⎝x*i ⎞⎠Δx represents the negative of the area of the
rectangle. The Riemann sum then becomes
8
∑ f ⎛⎝x*i ⎞⎠Δx = ⎛⎝Area of rectangles above the x-axis⎞⎠ − ⎛⎝Area of rectangles below the x-axis⎞⎠
i=1

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Chapter 5 | Integration 533

Figure 5.17 For a function that is partly negative, the

Riemann sum is the area of the rectangles above the x-axis less
the area of the rectangles below the x-axis.

Taking the limit as n → ∞, the Riemann sum approaches the area between the curve above the x-axis and the x-axis, less
the area between the curve below the x-axis and the x-axis, as shown in Figure 5.18. Then,
2 n
∫ f (x)dx = n lim
→∞
∑ f (c i)Δx
0 i=1
= A 1 − A 2.

The quantity A 1 − A 2 is called the net signed area.

Figure 5.18 In the limit, the definite integral equals area A1

less area A2, or the net signed area.

Notice that net signed area can be positive, negative, or zero. If the area above the x-axis is larger, the net signed area is
positive. If the area below the x-axis is larger, the net signed area is negative. If the areas above and below the x-axis are
equal, the net signed area is zero.

Example 5.9

Finding the Net Signed Area

534 Chapter 5 | Integration

Find the net signed area between the curve of the function f (x) = 2x and the x-axis over the interval [−3, 3].

Solution
The function produces a straight line that forms two triangles: one from x = −3 to x = 0 and the other from
x = 0 to x = 3 (Figure 5.19). Using the geometric formula for the area of a triangle, A = 1 bh, the area of
2
triangle A1, above the axis, is

A 1 = 1 3(6) = 9,
2
where 3 is the base and 2(3) = 6 is the height. The area of triangle A2, below the axis, is

A 2 = 1 (3)(6) = 9,
2
where 3 is the base and 6 is the height. Thus, the net area is
3
∫ 2xdx = A 1 − A 2 = 9 − 9 = 0.
−3

Figure 5.19 The area above the curve and below the x-axis
equals the area below the curve and above the x-axis.

Analysis
If A1 is the area above the x-axis and A2 is the area below the x-axis, then the net area is A 1 − A 2. Since the areas
of the two triangles are equal, the net area is zero.

5.9 Find the net signed area of f (x) = x − 2 over the interval ⎡⎣0, 6⎤⎦, illustrated in the following image.

Total Area
One application of the definite integral is finding displacement when given a velocity function. If v(t) represents the

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Chapter 5 | Integration 535

velocity of an object as a function of time, then the area under the curve tells us how far the object is from its original
position. This is a very important application of the definite integral, and we examine it in more detail later in the chapter.
For now, we’re just going to look at some basics to get a feel for how this works by studying constant velocities.
When velocity is a constant, the area under the curve is just velocity times time. This idea is already very familiar. If a car
travels away from its starting position in a straight line at a speed of 75 mph for 2 hours, then it is 150 mi away from its
original position (Figure 5.20). Using integral notation, we have
2
∫ 75dt = 150.
0

Figure 5.20 The area under the curve v(t) = 75 tells us how far the car
is from its starting point at a given time.

In the context of displacement, net signed area allows us to take direction into account. If a car travels straight north at a
speed of 60 mph for 2 hours, it is 120 mi north of its starting position. If the car then turns around and travels south at a
speed of 40 mph for 3 hours, it will be back at it starting position (Figure 5.21). Again, using integral notation, we have
2 5
∫ 60dt + ∫ −40dt = 120 − 120
0 2
= 0.
In this case the displacement is zero.
536 Chapter 5 | Integration

Figure 5.21 The area above the axis and the area below the axis
are equal, so the net signed area is zero.

Suppose we want to know how far the car travels overall, regardless of direction. In this case, we want to know the area
between the curve and the x-axis, regardless of whether that area is above or below the axis. This is called the total area.
Graphically, it is easiest to think of calculating total area by adding the areas above the axis and the areas below the axis
(rather than subtracting the areas below the axis, as we did with net signed area). To accomplish this mathematically, we use
the absolute value function. Thus, the total distance traveled by the car is
2 5 2 5
∫ |60|dt + ∫ |−40|dt = ∫ 60dt + ∫ 40dt
0 2 0 2
= 120 + 120
= 240.
Bringing these ideas together formally, we state the following definitions.

Definition
Let f (x) be an integrable function defined on an interval ⎡⎣a, b⎤⎦. Let A1 represent the area between f (x) and the
x-axis that lies above the axis and let A2 represent the area between f (x) and the x-axis that lies below the axis. Then,
the net signed area between f (x) and the x-axis is given by
b
∫ a f (x)dx = A 1 − A 2.
The total area between f (x) and the x-axis is given by
b
∫ a| f (x)|dx = A 1 + A 2.

Example 5.10

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Chapter 5 | Integration 537

Finding the Total Area

Find the total area between f (x) = x − 2 and the x-axis over the interval ⎡⎣0, 6⎤⎦.

Solution
Calculate the x-intercept as (2, 0) (set y = 0, solve for x). To find the total area, take the area below the x-axis
over the subinterval [0, 2] and add it to the area above the x-axis on the subinterval ⎡⎣2, 6⎤⎦ (Figure 5.22).

Figure 5.22 The total area between the line and the x-axis
over ⎡⎣0, 6⎤⎦ is A2 plus A1.

We have
6
∫ |(x − 2)|dx = A 2 + A 1.
0

Then, using the formula for the area of a triangle, we obtain

A 2 = 1 bh = 1 · 2 · 2 = 2
2 2
1 1
A 1 = bh = · 4 · 4 = 8.
2 2
The total area, then, is
A 1 + A 2 = 8 + 2 = 10.

5.10 Find the total area between the function f (x) = 2x and the x-axis over the interval [−3, 3].

Properties of the Definite Integral

The properties of indefinite integrals apply to definite integrals as well. Definite integrals also have properties that relate to
the limits of integration. These properties, along with the rules of integration that we examine later in this chapter, help us
manipulate expressions to evaluate definite integrals.

Rule: Properties of the Definite Integral

1.
a (5.9)
∫ a f (x)dx = 0
538 Chapter 5 | Integration

If the limits of integration are the same, the integral is just a line and contains no area.
2.
a b (5.10)
∫ f (x)dx = −∫ f (x)dx
a
b

If the limits are reversed, then place a negative sign in front of the integral.
3.
b b b (5.11)
∫a ⎡
⎣ f (x) + g(x)⎤⎦dx = ∫ f (x)dx + ∫ g(x)dx
a a

The integral of a sum is the sum of the integrals.

4.

⌠ f (x) − g(x) dx = ⌠ f (x)dx − ∫ bg(x)dx

b b (5.12)
⎡ ⎤

⌡a ⌡a
⎣ ⎦
a

The integral of a difference is the difference of the integrals.

5.
b b (5.13)
∫ a c f (x)dx = c∫ a f (x)

for constant c. The integral of the product of a constant and a function is equal to the constant multiplied by
the integral of the function.
6.
b c b (5.14)
∫ a f (x)dx = ∫ a f (x)dx + ∫ c f (x)dx

Although this formula normally applies when c is between a and b, the formula holds for all values of a, b, and
c, provided f (x) is integrable on the largest interval.

Example 5.11

Using the Properties of the Definite Integral

Use the properties of the definite integral to express the definite integral of f (x) = −3x 3 + 2x + 2 over the
interval [−2, 1] as the sum of three definite integrals.

Solution
1
⎛
Using integral notation, we have ∫ ⎝−3x
3
+ 2x + 2⎞⎠dx. We apply properties 3. and 5. to get
−2

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Chapter 5 | Integration 539

1 1 1 1
⎛
∫ ⎝−3x
3
+ 2x + 2⎞⎠dx = ∫ −3x 3 dx + ∫ 2xdx + ∫ 2dx
−2 −2 −2 −2
1 1 1
= −3∫ x 3 dx + 2∫ xdx + ∫ 2dx.
−2 −2 −2

5.11 Use the properties of the definite integral to express the definite integral of f (x) = 6x 3 − 4x 2 + 2x − 3
over the interval [1, 3] as the sum of four definite integrals.

Example 5.12

Using the Properties of the Definite Integral

8 5 8
If it is known that ∫ f (x)dx = 10 and ∫ f (x)dx = 5, find the value of ∫ f (x)dx.
0 0 5

Solution
By property 6.,
b c b
∫ a f (x)dx = ∫ a f (x)dx + ∫ c f (x)dx.

Thus,
8 5 8
∫ f (x)dx = ∫ f (x)dx + ∫ f (x)dx
0 0 5
8
10 = 5 + ∫ f (x)dx
5
8
5 = ∫ f (x)dx.
5

5.12 5 5 2
If it is known that ∫ f (x)dx = −3 and ∫ f (x)dx = 4, find the value of ∫ f (x)dx.
1 2 1

Comparison Properties of Integrals

A picture can sometimes tell us more about a function than the results of computations. Comparing functions by their graphs
as well as by their algebraic expressions can often give new insight into the process of integration. Intuitively, we might say
that if a function f (x) is above another function g(x), then the area between f (x) and the x-axis is greater than the area
between g(x) and the x-axis. This is true depending on the interval over which the comparison is made. The properties of
definite integrals are valid whether a < b, a = b, or a > b. The following properties, however, concern only the case
a ≤ b, and are used when we want to compare the sizes of integrals.
540 Chapter 5 | Integration

Theorem 5.2: Comparison Theorem

i. If f (x) ≥ 0 for a ≤ x ≤ b, then
b
∫ a f (x)dx ≥ 0.
ii. If f (x) ≥ g(x) for a ≤ x ≤ b, then
b b
∫ a f (x)dx ≥ ∫ a g(x)dx.
iii. If m and M are constants such that m ≤ f (x) ≤ M for a ≤ x ≤ b, then
b
m(b − a) ≤ ∫ f (x)dx
a
≤ M(b − a).

Example 5.13

Comparing Two Functions over a Given Interval

Compare f (x) = 1 + x 2 and g(x) = 1 + x over the interval [0, 1].

Solution
Graphing these functions is necessary to understand how they compare over the interval [0, 1]. Initially, when
graphed on a graphing calculator, f (x) appears to be above g(x) everywhere. However, on the interval [0, 1],
the graphs appear to be on top of each other. We need to zoom in to see that, on the interval [0, 1], g(x) is above
f (x). The two functions intersect at x = 0 and x = 1 (Figure 5.23).

Figure 5.23 (a) The function f (x) appears above the function g(x)
except over the interval [0, 1] (b) Viewing the same graph with a greater
zoom shows this more clearly.

We can see from the graph that over the interval [0, 1], g(x) ≥ f (x). Comparing the integrals over the specified
1 1
interval [0, 1], we also see that ∫ g(x)dx ≥ ∫ f (x)dx (Figure 5.24). The thin, red-shaded area shows just
0 0
how much difference there is between these two integrals over the interval [0, 1].

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Chapter 5 | Integration 541

Figure 5.24 (a) The graph shows that over the interval
[0, 1], g(x) ≥ f (x), where equality holds only at the endpoints of the
interval. (b) Viewing the same graph with a greater zoom shows this more
clearly.

Average Value of a Function

We often need to find the average of a set of numbers, such as an average test grade. Suppose you received the following
test scores in your algebra class: 89, 90, 56, 78, 100, and 69. Your semester grade is your average of test scores and you
want to know what grade to expect. We can find the average by adding all the scores and dividing by the number of scores.
In this case, there are six test scores. Thus,
89 + 90 + 56 + 78 + 100 + 69 = 482 ≈ 80.33.
6 6
Therefore, your average test grade is approximately 80.33, which translates to a B− at most schools.
Suppose, however, that we have a function v(t) that gives us the speed of an object at any time t, and we want to find the
object’s average speed. The function v(t) takes on an infinite number of values, so we can’t use the process just described.
Fortunately, we can use a definite integral to find the average value of a function such as this.
Let f (x) be continuous over the interval ⎡⎣a, b⎤⎦ and let ⎡⎣a, b⎤⎦ be divided into n subintervals of width Δx = (b − a)/n.
Choose a representative x*i in each subinterval and calculate f ⎛⎝x*i ⎞
⎠ for i = 1, 2,…, n. In other words, consider each

f ⎛⎝x*i ⎞
⎠ as a sampling of the function over each subinterval. The average value of the function may then be approximated as

f ⎛⎝x*1 ⎞⎠ + f ⎛⎝x*2 ⎞⎠ + ⋯ + f ⎛⎝x*n ⎞⎠

n ,

which is basically the same expression used to calculate the average of discrete values.

But we know Δx = b − a b−a

n , so n = Δx , and we get

f ⎛⎝x*1 ⎞⎠ + f ⎛⎝x*2 ⎞⎠ + ⋯ + f ⎛⎝x*n ⎞⎠ f ⎛⎝x*1 ⎞⎠ + f ⎛⎝x*2 ⎞⎠ + ⋯ + f ⎛⎝x*n ⎞⎠

n = (b − a)
.
Δx
n
Following through with the algebra, the numerator is a sum that is represented as ∑ f ⎛⎝x*i ⎞⎠, and we are dividing by a
i=1
fraction. To divide by a fraction, invert the denominator and multiply. Thus, an approximate value for the average value of
the function is given by
542 Chapter 5 | Integration

n
∑ f ⎛⎝x*i ⎞
⎠ n
⎛ ⎞
i=1 = ⎝ Δx ⎠ ∑ f ⎛⎝x*i ⎞
⎠
(b − a) b−a i=1
Δx
n
⎛ ⎞
= ⎝ 1 ⎠ ∑ f ⎛⎝x*i ⎞⎠Δx.
b−a i=1

This is a Riemann sum. Then, to get the exact average value, take the limit as n goes to infinity. Thus, the average value of
a function is given by
n b
1 lim ∑ f (x )Δx = 1 ∫ f (x)dx.
b − a n → ∞i = 1 i b−a a

Definition
Let f (x) be continuous over the interval ⎡⎣a, b⎤⎦. Then, the average value of the function f (x) (or fave) on ⎡⎣a, b⎤⎦ is
given by
b
1
b − a∫a
f ave = f (x)dx.

Example 5.14

Finding the Average Value of a Linear Function

Find the average value of f (x) = x + 1 over the interval ⎡⎣0, 5⎤⎦.

Solution
First, graph the function on the stated interval, as shown in Figure 5.25.

Figure 5.25 The graph shows the area under the function
f (x) = x + 1 over ⎡⎣0, 5⎤⎦.

The region is a trapezoid lying on its side, so we can use the area formula for a trapezoid A = 1 h(a + b), where
2
h represents height, and a and b represent the two parallel sides. Then,

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Chapter 5 | Integration 543

5
∫ x + 1dx = 1 h(a + b)
0 2
= 1 · 5 · (1 + 6)
2
= 35 .
2
Thus the average value of the function is
5
1 x + 1dx = 1 · 35 = 7 .
5 − 0∫0 5 2 2

5.13 Find the average value of f (x) = 6 − 2x over the interval [0, 3].
544 Chapter 5 | Integration

5.2 EXERCISES
In the following exercises, express the limits as integrals. 71.
n
60. n lim
→∞
∑ ⎛⎝x*i ⎞⎠Δx over [1, 3]
i=1

n
61. n lim
→∞
∑ ⎛⎝5⎛⎝x*i ⎞⎠2 − 3⎛⎝x*i ⎞⎠3⎞⎠Δx over [0, 2]
i=1

n
62. n lim
→∞
∑ sin 2 ⎛⎝2πx*i ⎞⎠Δx over [0, 1]
i=1

n
63. n lim
→∞
∑ cos 2 ⎛⎝2πx*i ⎞⎠Δx over [0, 1] 72.
i=1

In the following exercises, given Ln or Rn as indicated,

express their limits as n → ∞ as definite integrals,
identifying the correct intervals.
n
n∑ n
64. L n = 1 i−1
i=1

n
n∑ n
65. R n = 1 i
i=1

n 73.
⎛ i − 1⎞
n ∑ ⎝1 + 2 n ⎠
66. L n = 2
i=1

n
⎛ i⎞
n ∑ ⎝3 + 3 n ⎠
67. R n = 3
i=1

n
i − 1 ⎛ i − 1⎞
n ∑ 2π n cos⎝2π n ⎠
68. L n = 2π
i=1

i ⎞ ⎛⎛ i⎞ ⎞
n 2
⎛
n ∑ ⎝1 + n ⎠log⎝⎝1 + n ⎠ ⎠
69. R n = 1
i=1

In the following exercises, evaluate the integrals of the

functions graphed using the formulas for areas of triangles
and circles, and subtracting the areas below the x-axis.

70.

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Chapter 5 | Integration 545

74. 3
83. ∫ (3 − |x|)dx
−2

In the following exercises, use averages of values at the left

(L) and right (R) endpoints to compute the integrals of the
piecewise linear functions with graphs that pass through the
given list of points over the indicated intervals.

84. {(0, 0), (2, 1), (4, 3), (5, 0), (6, 0), (8, 3)} over
[0, 8]

85. {(0, 2), (1, 0), (3, 5), (5, 5), (6, 2), (8, 0)} over
[0, 8]

75. 86. {(−4, −4), (−2, 0), (0, −2), (3, 3), (4, 3)} over
[−4, 4]

87. {(−4, 0), (−2, 2), (0, 0), (1, 2), (3, 2), (4, 0)}
over [−4, 4]

4 2
Suppose that ∫ f (x)dx = 5 and ∫ f (x)dx = −3, and
0 0
4 2
∫ g(x)dx = −1 and ∫ g(x)dx = 2. In the following
0 0
exercises, compute the integrals.

4
In the following exercises, evaluate the integral using area 88. ∫ ⎛
⎝ f (x) + g(x)⎞⎠dx
formulas. 0

3 4
76. ∫ (3 − x)dx 89. ∫ ⎛
⎝ f (x) + g(x)⎞⎠dx
0 2

3 2
77. ∫ (3 − x)dx 90. ∫ ⎛
⎝ f (x) − g(x)⎞⎠dx
2 0

3 4
78. ∫ (3 − |x|)dx 91. ∫ ⎛
⎝ f (x) − g(x)⎞⎠dx
−3 2

6 2
79. ∫ (3 − |x − 3|)dx 92. ∫ ⎛
3 f (x) − 4g(x)⎞⎠dx
⎝
0 0

2 4
80. ∫ 4 − x 2dx 93. ∫ ⎛
4 f (x) − 3g(x)⎞⎠dx
⎝
−2 2

5 In the following exercises, use the identity

81. ∫ 4 − (x − 3) 2dx A 0 A
1 ∫ f (x)dx = ∫ f (x)dx + ∫ f (x)dx to compute the
−A −A 0
12 integrals.
82. ∫ 36 − (x − 6) 2dx
0 π
94. ⌠ sint dt (Hint: sin(−t) = −sin(t))
⌡−π 1 + t 2
546 Chapter 5 | Integration

π π/2
95. ∫ t dt 108. Show that ∫ sintdt ≥ π . (Hint: sint ≥ 2t
− π 1 + cost 4 π over
0
⎡ π⎤
In the following exercises, find the net signed area between ⎣0, 2 ⎦)
f ⎛⎝x⎞⎠ and the x-axis.
π/4
3 109. Show that ∫ costdt ≥ π 2/4.
96. ∫ (2 − x)dx (Hint: Look at the graph of f.) −π/4
1
In the following exercises, find the average value fave of f
4 between a and b, and find a point c, where f (c) = f ave .
97. ∫ (x − 3) 3 dx (Hint: Look at the graph of f.)
2
110. f (x) = x 2, a = −1, b = 1
In the following exercises, given that
1 1 1
f (x) = x 5, a = −1, b = 1
∫ xdx = 1 , ∫ x 2 dx = 1 , ∫ x 3 dx = 1 ,
111.
and
0 2 0 3 0 4
compute the integrals. 112. f (x) = 4 − x 2, a = 0, b = 2
1
⎛
98. ∫ ⎝1 + x + x 2 + x 3⎞⎠dx 113. f (x) = (3 − |x|), a = −3, b = 3
0
114. f (x) = sin x, a = 0, b = 2π
1
⎛
99. ∫ ⎝1 − x + x2 − x 3⎞⎠dx
0 115. f (x) = cos x, a = 0, b = 2π

1 In the following exercises, approximate the average value

100. ∫ (1 − x) 2 dx using Riemann sums L100 and R100. How does your answer
0
compare with the exact given answer?
1
101. ∫ (1 − 2x) 3 dx 116. [T] y = ln(x) over the interval [1, 4]; the exact
0 ln(256)
solution is − 1.
3
⌠ ⎛6x − 4 x 2⎞dx
1
⌡0⎝ 3 ⎠
102.
117. [T] y = e x/2 over the interval [0, 1]; the exact
solution is 2( e − 1).
1
⎛ 3⎞
103. ∫ ⎝7 − 5x ⎠dx
⎡ ⎤
0
118. [T] y = tan x over the interval ⎣0, π ⎦; the exact
4
In the following exercises, use the comparison 2ln(2)
theorem.
solution is π .

119. [T] y = x + 1
3
⎛ 2
104. Show that ∫ ⎝x − 6x + 9⎞⎠dx ≥ 0. over the interval [−1, 1]; the
0 4 − x2
exact solution is π .
3
6
105. Show that ∫ (x − 3)(x + 2)dx ≤ 0.
−2 In the following exercises, compute the average value using
the left Riemann sums LN for N = 1, 10, 100. How does
1 1
106. Show that ∫ 1 + x 3dx ≤ ∫ 1 + x 2dx. the accuracy compare with the given exact value?
0 0
120. [T] y = x 2 − 4 over the interval [0, 2]; the exact
2 2
107. Show that ∫ 1 + xdx ≤ ∫ 1 + x 2dx. solution is − 8 .
1 1
3

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Chapter 5 | Integration 547

2 130. Suppose ⎡⎣a, b⎤⎦ can be subdivided into subintervals

121. [T] y = xe x over the interval [0, 2]; the exact
a = a0 < a1 < a2 < ⋯ < aN = b such that either
solution is 1 ⎛⎝e 4 − 1⎞⎠.
4 f ≥ 0 over [a i − 1, a i] or f ≤ 0 over [a i − 1, a i]. Set
ai
⎛ ⎞
x
122. [T] y = ⎝1 ⎠ over the interval [0, 4]; the exact Ai = ∫ f (t)dt.
2 ai − 1

solution is 15 . b
64ln(2) a. Explain why ∫ a f (t)dt = A 1 + A 2 + ⋯ + A N .

| |
b b
123. [T] y = x sin⎛⎝x 2⎞⎠ over the interval [−π, 0]; the b. Then, explain why ∫ a f (t)dt ≤∫ | f (t)|dt.
a
cos⎛⎝π 2⎞⎠ − 1
exact solution is .
2π 131. Suppose f and g are continuous functions such that
d d
2π ∫c f (t)dt ≤ ∫ g(t)dt for every subinterval ⎡⎣c, d⎤⎦ of
124. Suppose that A=∫ sin 2 tdt and c
⎡ ⎤
0 ⎣a, b . Explain why f (x) ≤ g(x) for all values of x.
⎦

2π
B=∫ cos 2 tdt. Show that A + B = 2π and A = B. 132. Suppose the average value of f over ⎡⎣a, b⎤⎦ is 1 and
0
the average value of f over ⎡⎣b, c⎤⎦ is 1 where a < c < b.
π/4
Show that the average value of f over [a, c] is also 1.
125. Suppose that A=∫ sec 2 tdt = π and
−π/4
⎡
π/4 133. Suppose that ⎣a, b⎤⎦ can be partitioned. taking
B=∫ tan tdt. Show that A − B = π .
2
a = a 0 < a 1 < ⋯ < a N = b such that the average value
−π/4 2
of f over each subinterval [a i − 1, a i] = 1 is equal to 1 for
126. Show that the average value of sin 2 t over [0, 2π] each i = 1,…, N. Explain why the average value of f over
⎡
is equal to 1/2 Without further calculation, determine ⎣a, b⎤⎦ is also equal to 1.
whether the average value of sin 2 t over [0, π] is also
equal to 1/2. 134. Suppose that for each i such that 1 ≤ i ≤ N one has
i N
N(N + 1)
127. Show that the average value of cos 2 t over [0, 2π] ∫ f (t)dt = i. Show that ∫ f (t)dt =
2
.
i−1 0
is equal to 1/2. Without further calculation, determine
whether the average value of cos 2 (t) over [0, π] is also 135. Suppose that for each i such that 1 ≤ i ≤ N one
i
equal to 1/2. has ∫ f (t)dt = i 2. Show that
i−1
128. Explain why the graphs of a quadratic function N
N(N + 1)(2N + 1)
(parabola) p(x) and a linear function ℓ(x) can intersect ∫ f (t)dt =
6
.
0
in at most two points. Suppose that p(a) = ℓ(a) and
b b 136. [T] Compute the left and right Riemann sums L10
p(b) = ℓ(b), and that ∫ a p(t)dt > ∫ a ℓ(t)dt. Explain L 10 + R 10
and R10 and their average for f (t) = t 2 over
d d
2
why ∫ c p(t) > ∫ c ℓ(t)dt whenever a ≤ c < d ≤ b. 1 –
[0, 1]. Given that ∫ t 2 dt = 0.33, to how many
0

129. Suppose that parabola p(x) = ax 2 + bx + c opens L 10 + R 10

decimal places is accurate?
2
downward (a < 0) and has a vertex of y = −b > 0. For
2a
B
⎛ 2
which interval [A, B] is ∫ ⎝ax + bx + c⎞⎠dx as large as
A
possible?
548 Chapter 5 | Integration

⎛
137. [T] Compute the left and right Riemann sums, L10 142. If f is 1-periodic ⎝ f (t + 1) = f (t)⎞⎠, odd, and
L + R 10
and R10, and their average 10 for f (t) = ⎛⎝4 − t 2⎞⎠ integrable over [0, 1], is it always true that
2
1
2 –
over [1, 2]. Given that ∫ ⎛⎝4 − t 2⎞⎠dt = 1.66, to how
∫ f (t)dt = 0 ?
0
1
L 10 + R 10 1
many decimal places is accurate?
2 143. If f is 1-periodic and ∫ f (t)dt = A, is it
0
5 1+a
138. If ∫ 1 + t 4dt = 41.7133..., what is necessarily true that ∫a f (t)dt = A for all A?
1
5
∫ 1 + u 4du ?
1

1
139. Estimate ∫ tdt using the left and right endpoint
0
sums, each with a single rectangle. How does the average
of these left and right endpoint sums compare with the
1
actual value ∫ tdt ?
0

1
140. Estimate ∫ tdt by comparison with the area of a
0
single rectangle with height equal to the value of t at the
midpoint t = 1 . How does this midpoint estimate compare
2
1
with the actual value ∫ tdt ?
0

141. From the graph of sin(2πx) shown:

1
a. Explain why ∫ sin(2πt)dt = 0.
0
a+1
b. Explain why, in general, ∫a sin(2πt)dt = 0 for

any value of a.

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Chapter 5 | Integration 549

5.3 | The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

Learning Objectives
5.3.1 Describe the meaning of the Mean Value Theorem for Integrals.
5.3.2 State the meaning of the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 1.
5.3.3 Use the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 1, to evaluate derivatives of integrals.
5.3.4 State the meaning of the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 2.
5.3.5 Use the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 2, to evaluate definite integrals.
5.3.6 Explain the relationship between differentiation and integration.

In the previous two sections, we looked at the definite integral and its relationship to the area under the curve of a function.
Unfortunately, so far, the only tools we have available to calculate the value of a definite integral are geometric area
formulas and limits of Riemann sums, and both approaches are extremely cumbersome. In this section we look at some
more powerful and useful techniques for evaluating definite integrals.
These new techniques rely on the relationship between differentiation and integration. This relationship was discovered and
explored by both Sir Isaac Newton and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (among others) during the late 1600s and early 1700s,
and it is codified in what we now call the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, which has two parts that we examine in this
section. Its very name indicates how central this theorem is to the entire development of calculus.
Isaac Newton’s contributions to mathematics and physics changed the way we look at the world. The relationships
he discovered, codified as Newton’s laws and the law of universal gravitation, are still taught as foundational
material in physics today, and his calculus has spawned entire fields of mathematics. To learn more, read a brief
biography (http://www.openstax.org/l/20_newtonbio) of Newton with multimedia clips.

Before we get to this crucial theorem, however, let’s examine another important theorem, the Mean Value Theorem for
Integrals, which is needed to prove the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus.

The Mean Value Theorem for Integrals

The Mean Value Theorem for Integrals states that a continuous function on a closed interval takes on its average value
at some point in that interval. The theorem guarantees that if f (x) is continuous, a point c exists in an interval ⎡⎣a, b⎤⎦ such
that the value of the function at c is equal to the average value of f (x) over ⎡⎣a, b⎤⎦. We state this theorem mathematically
with the help of the formula for the average value of a function that we presented at the end of the preceding section.

Theorem 5.3: The Mean Value Theorem for Integrals

If f (x) is continuous over an interval ⎡⎣a, b⎤⎦, then there is at least one point c ∈ ⎡⎣a, b⎤⎦ such that
b (5.15)
1
b − a∫a
f (c) = f (x)dx.

This formula can also be stated as

b
∫ a f (x)dx = f (c)(b − a).

Proof
Since f (x) is continuous on ⎡⎣a, b⎤⎦, by the extreme value theorem (see Maxima and Minima), it assumes minimum and
maximum values—m and M, respectively—on ⎡⎣a, b⎤⎦. Then, for all x in ⎡⎣a, b⎤⎦, we have m ≤ f (x) ≤ M. Therefore, by
the comparison theorem (see The Definite Integral), we have
b
m(b − a) ≤ ∫ f (x)dx ≤ M(b − a).
a
550 Chapter 5 | Integration

Dividing by b − a gives us
b
1
b − a∫a
m≤ f (x)dx ≤ M.

b
1
b − a∫a
Since f (x)dx is a number between m and M, and since f (x) is continuous and assumes the values m and M over
⎡
⎣a, b⎤⎦, by the Intermediate Value Theorem (see Continuity), there is a number c over ⎡⎣a, b⎤⎦ such that
b
1
b − a∫a
f (c) = f (x)dx,

and the proof is complete.

□

Example 5.15

Finding the Average Value of a Function

Find the average value of the function f (x) = 8 − 2x over the interval [0, 4] and find c such that f (c) equals
the average value of the function over [0, 4].

Solution
The formula states the mean value of f (x) is given by
4
1
4 − 0∫0
(8 − 2x)dx.

We can see in Figure 5.26 that the function represents a straight line and forms a right triangle bounded by the
x- and y-axes. The area of the triangle is A = 1 (base)⎛⎝height⎞⎠. We have
2

A = 1 (4)(8) = 16.
2
The average value is found by multiplying the area by 1/(4 − 0). Thus, the average value of the function is

1 (16) = 4.
4
Set the average value equal to f (c) and solve for c.

8 − 2c = 4
c = 2
At c = 2, f (2) = 4.

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Chapter 5 | Integration 551

Figure 5.26 By the Mean Value Theorem, the continuous

function f (x) takes on its average value at c at least once over
a closed interval.

5.14 Find the average value of the function f (x) = x over the interval ⎡⎣0, 6⎤⎦ and find c such that f (c)
2
equals the average value of the function over [0, 6].

Example 5.16

Finding the Point Where a Function Takes on Its Average Value

3
Given ∫ x 2 dx = 9, find c such that f (c) equals the average value of f (x) = x 2 over [0, 3].
0

Solution
We are looking for the value of c such that
3
1 x 2 dx = 1 (9) = 3.
3 − 0∫0
f (c) =
3

Replacing f (c) with c2, we have

c2 = 3
c = ± 3.

Since − 3 is outside the interval, take only the positive value. Thus, c = 3 (Figure 5.27).
552 Chapter 5 | Integration

Figure 5.27 Over the interval [0, 3], the function

f (x) = x 2 takes on its average value at c = 3.

5.15 3
⎛ 2
Given ∫ ⎝2x − 1⎞⎠dx = 15, find c such that f (c) equals the average value of f (x) = 2x 2 − 1 over
0
[0, 3].

Fundamental Theorem of Calculus Part 1: Integrals and

Antiderivatives
As mentioned earlier, the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus is an extremely powerful theorem that establishes the
relationship between differentiation and integration, and gives us a way to evaluate definite integrals without using Riemann
sums or calculating areas. The theorem is comprised of two parts, the first of which, the Fundamental Theorem of
Calculus, Part 1, is stated here. Part 1 establishes the relationship between differentiation and integration.

Theorem 5.4: Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 1

If f (x) is continuous over an interval ⎡⎣a, b⎤⎦, and the function F(x) is defined by
x (5.16)
F(x) = ∫ f (t)dt,
a

then F′ (x) = f (x) over ⎡⎣a, b⎤⎦.

Before we delve into the proof, a couple of subtleties are worth mentioning here. First, a comment on the notation. Note that
we have defined a function, F(x), as the definite integral of another function, f (t), from the point a to the point x. At
first glance, this is confusing, because we have said several times that a definite integral is a number, and here it looks like
it’s a function. The key here is to notice that for any particular value of x, the definite integral is a number. So the function
F(x) returns a number (the value of the definite integral) for each value of x.

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Chapter 5 | Integration 553

Second, it is worth commenting on some of the key implications of this theorem. There is a reason it is called the
Fundamental Theorem of Calculus. Not only does it establish a relationship between integration and differentiation, but
also it guarantees that any integrable function has an antiderivative. Specifically, it guarantees that any continuous function
has an antiderivative.
Proof
Applying the definition of the derivative, we have

F(x + h) − F(x)
F′ (x) = lim
h→0 h
⎡ x+h x ⎤
= lim 1 ⎢∫ f (t)dt − ∫ f (t)dt⎥
h → 0 h⎣ a a ⎦
⎡ x+h a ⎤
= lim 1 ⎢ ∫f (t)dt + ∫x f (t)dt⎥
h → 0 h⎣ a ⎦
x+h
= lim 1 ∫ f (t)dt.
h→0h x

x+h
Looking carefully at this last expression, we see 1 ∫ f (t)dt is just the average value of the function f (x) over the
h x
interval ⎡⎣x, x + h⎤⎦. Therefore, by The Mean Value Theorem for Integrals, there is some number c in ⎡⎣x, x + h⎤⎦ such
that
x+h
1∫ f (x)dx = f (c).
h x
In addition, since c is between x and x + h, c approaches x as h approaches zero. Also, since f (x) is continuous, we have
lim f (c) = clim
→x
f (c) = f (x). Putting all these pieces together, we have
h→0

x+h
F′ (x) = lim 1 ∫ f (x)dx
h→0h x
= lim f (c)
h→0
= f (x),

and the proof is complete.

□

Example 5.17

Finding a Derivative with the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

Use the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 1 to find the derivative of

x
g(x) = ⌠ 3 1 dt.
⌡1 t + 1

Solution
According to the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, the derivative is given by

g′ (x) = 1 .
x3 + 1
554 Chapter 5 | Integration

5.16 r
Use the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 1 to find the derivative of g(r) = ∫ x 2 + 4dx.
0

Example 5.18

Using the Fundamental Theorem and the Chain Rule to Calculate Derivatives

x
Let F(x) = ∫ sintdt. Find F′ (x).
1

Solution
u(x)
Letting u(x) = x, we have F(x) = ∫ sintdt. Thus, by the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus and the chain
1
rule,

F′ (x) = sin⎛⎝u(x)⎞⎠ du
dx
⎛ ⎞
= sin(u(x)) · ⎝1 x −1/2⎠
2
= sin x .
2 x

5.17 x3
Let F(x) = ∫ costdt. Find F′ (x).
1

Example 5.19

Using the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus with Two Variable Limits of

Integration

2x
Let F(x) = ∫ t 3 dt. Find F′ (x).
x

Solution
2x
We have F(x) = ∫ t 3 dt. Both limits of integration are variable, so we need to split this into two integrals. We
x
get

2x
F(x) = ∫ t 3 dt
x
0 2x
= ∫ t 3 dt + ∫ t 3 dt
x 0
x 2x
= −∫ t 3 dt + ∫ t 3 dt.
0 0

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Chapter 5 | Integration 555

Differentiating the first term, we obtain

d ⎡− t 3 dt⎤ = −x 3.
x
dx ⎣ ∫ 0 ⎦
Differentiating the second term, we first let u(x) = 2x. Then,

⎡ 2x ⎤ ⎡ u(x) ⎤
d⎢ t 3 dt⎥ = d ⎢∫ t 3 dt⎥
dx ⎣ ∫ 0 ⎦ dx ⎣ 0 ⎦

= (u(x)) 3 du
dx
3
= (2x) · 2
= 16x 3.
Thus,

⎡ ⎤ x ⎡ 2x ⎤
F′ (x) = d −∫ t 3 dt + d ⎢ ∫ t 3 dt⎥
dx ⎣ 0 ⎦ dx ⎣ 0 ⎦

= −x 3 + 16x 3
= 15x 3.

5.18 x2
Let F(x) = ∫ costdt. Find F′ (x).
x

Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 2: The Evaluation Theorem

The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 2, is perhaps the most important theorem in calculus. After tireless efforts
by mathematicians for approximately 500 years, new techniques emerged that provided scientists with the necessary tools
to explain many phenomena. Using calculus, astronomers could finally determine distances in space and map planetary
orbits. Everyday financial problems such as calculating marginal costs or predicting total profit could now be handled with
simplicity and accuracy. Engineers could calculate the bending strength of materials or the three-dimensional motion of
objects. Our view of the world was forever changed with calculus.
After finding approximate areas by adding the areas of n rectangles, the application of this theorem is straightforward by
comparison. It almost seems too simple that the area of an entire curved region can be calculated by just evaluating an
antiderivative at the first and last endpoints of an interval.

Theorem 5.5: The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 2

If f is continuous over the interval ⎡⎣a, b⎤⎦ and F(x) is any antiderivative of f (x), then
b (5.17)
∫ a f (x)dx = F(b) − F(a).

We often see the notation F(x)| ba to denote the expression F(b) − F(a). We use this vertical bar and associated limits a
and b to indicate that we should evaluate the function F(x) at the upper limit (in this case, b), and subtract the value of the
function F(x) evaluated at the lower limit (in this case, a).

The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 2 (also known as the evaluation theorem) states that if we can find an
556 Chapter 5 | Integration

antiderivative for the integrand, then we can evaluate the definite integral by evaluating the antiderivative at the endpoints
of the interval and subtracting.
Proof
Let P = {x i}, i = 0, 1,…, n be a regular partition of ⎡⎣a, b⎤⎦. Then, we can write

F(b) − F(a) = F(x n) − F(x 0)

= ⎡⎣F(x n) − F(x n − 1)⎤⎦ + ⎡⎣F(x n − 1) − F(x n − 2)⎤⎦ + … + ⎡⎣F(x 1) − F(x 0)⎤⎦
n
= ∑ ⎡
F(x i) − F(x i − 1)⎤⎦.
⎣
i=1

Now, we know F is an antiderivative of f over ⎡⎣a, b⎤⎦, so by the Mean Value Theorem (see The Mean Value Theorem)
for i = 0, 1,…, n we can find c i in [x i − 1, x i] such that

F(x i) − F(x i − 1) = F′ (c i⎞⎠(x i − x i − 1) = f (c i)Δx.

Then, substituting into the previous equation, we have

n
F(b) − F(a) = ∑ f (c i)Δx.
i=1

Taking the limit of both sides as n → ∞, we obtain

n
F(b) − F(a) = n lim
→∞
∑ f (c i)Δx
i=1
b
= ∫ f (x)dx.
a

Example 5.20

Evaluating an Integral with the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

Use The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 2 to evaluate

2
⎛ 2
∫ ⎝t − 4⎞⎠dt.
−2

Solution
Recall the power rule for Antiderivatives:
n+1
If y = x n, ∫ x n dx = xn + 1 + C.
Use this rule to find the antiderivative of the function and then apply the theorem. We have

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Chapter 5 | Integration 557

2 3
⎛ 2
∫ ⎝t − 4⎞⎠dt = t − 4t| 2−2
−2 3

⎡(2) 3 ⎤ ⎡(−2) 3 ⎤
=
⎣ 3 ⎦ ⎣ 3 − 4(−2)⎦
− 4(2) −

⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
= ⎝8 − 8⎠ − ⎝− 8 + 8⎠
3 3
= 8 −8+ 8 −8
3 3
= 16 − 16
3
= − 32 .
3
Analysis
Notice that we did not include the “+ C” term when we wrote the antiderivative. The reason is that, according
to the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 2, any antiderivative works. So, for convenience, we chose the
antiderivative with C = 0. If we had chosen another antiderivative, the constant term would have canceled out.
This always happens when evaluating a definite integral.
The region of the area we just calculated is depicted in Figure 5.28. Note that the region between the curve
and the x-axis is all below the x-axis. Area is always positive, but a definite integral can still produce a negative
number (a net signed area). For example, if this were a profit function, a negative number indicates the company
is operating at a loss over the given interval.

Figure 5.28 The evaluation of a definite integral can produce

a negative value, even though area is always positive.

Example 5.21

Evaluating a Definite Integral Using the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 2

Evaluate the following integral using the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 2:
9
∫ x − 1 dx.
1 x

Solution
558 Chapter 5 | Integration

First, eliminate the radical by rewriting the integral using rational exponents. Then, separate the numerator terms
by writing each one over the denominator:

⌠ x − 1 dx = ⌠ ⎛ x − 1 ⎞dx.
9 9

⌡1 x 1/2 ⌡1⎝x 1/2 x 1/2 ⎠

Use the properties of exponents to simplify:

⌠ ⎛ x − 1 ⎞dx = ∫ ⎛x 1/2 − x −1/2⎞dx.

9 9

⌡1⎝x 1/2 x 1/2 ⎠

⎝ ⎠
1

Now, integrate using the power rule:

|
⎛ 3/2 ⎞
9
9
⎠dx = ⎜ 3 − 1 ⎟ 1
∫ ⎛ 1/2 −1/2⎞ x x 1/2
⎝x −x
1 ⎝ 2 2 ⎠

⎡ 3/2 ⎤ ⎡ 3/2 ⎤
(9) 1/2 (1) 1/2
= ⎢ 3 − 1 ⎥− ⎢ 3 − 1 ⎥
(9) (1)
⎣ 2 2 ⎦ ⎣ 2 2 ⎦
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
= ⎣2 (27) − 2(3)⎦ − ⎣2 (1) − 2(1)⎦
3 3
= 18 − 6 − 2 + 2
3
40
= .
3
See Figure 5.29.

Figure 5.29 The area under the curve from x = 1 to x = 9

can be calculated by evaluating a definite integral.

5.19 2
Use The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 2 to evaluate ∫ x −4 dx.
1

Example 5.22

A Roller-Skating Race

James and Kathy are racing on roller skates. They race along a long, straight track, and whoever has gone the

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Chapter 5 | Integration 559

farthest after 5 sec wins a prize. If James can skate at a velocity of f (t) = 5 + 2t ft/sec and Kathy can skate at a
⎛ ⎞
velocity of g(t) = 10 + cos⎝π t⎠ ft/sec, who is going to win the race?
2

Solution
We need to integrate both functions over the interval ⎡⎣0, 5⎤⎦ and see which value is bigger. For James, we want to
calculate
5
∫ (5 + 2t)dt.
0

Using the power rule, we have

5
|
5
∫ (5 + 2t)dt = ⎛⎝5t + t 2⎞⎠ 0
0
= (25 + 25) = 50.
Thus, James has skated 50 ft after 5 sec. Turning now to Kathy, we want to calculate

⎛ ⎞
5
∫ 10 + cos⎝π t⎠dt.
0 2

⎛ ⎞
We know sint is an antiderivative of cost, so it is reasonable to expect that an antiderivative of cos⎝π t⎠ would
2
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
involve sin⎝π t⎠. However, when we differentiate sin⎝π t⎠, we get π cos⎝π t⎠ as a result of the chain rule, so we
2 2 2 2
have to account for this additional coefficient when we integrate. We obtain

⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎛ ⎞⎞
|
5 5
∫ 10 + cos⎝π t⎠dt = ⎝10t + π2 sin⎝π t⎠⎠ 0
0 2 2
= ⎝50 + π ⎠ − ⎝0 − π2 sin0⎞⎠
⎛ 2 ⎞ ⎛

≈ 50.6.
Kathy has skated approximately 50.6 ft after 5 sec. Kathy wins, but not by much!

5.20 Suppose James and Kathy have a rematch, but this time the official stops the contest after only 3 sec.
Does this change the outcome?
560 Chapter 5 | Integration

A Parachutist in Free Fall

Figure 5.30 Skydivers can adjust the velocity of their dive by changing the position of their body during the
free fall. (credit: Jeremy T. Lock)

Julie is an avid skydiver. She has more than 300 jumps under her belt and has mastered the art of making adjustments
to her body position in the air to control how fast she falls. If she arches her back and points her belly toward the
ground, she reaches a terminal velocity of approximately 120 mph (176 ft/sec). If, instead, she orients her body with
her head straight down, she falls faster, reaching a terminal velocity of 150 mph (220 ft/sec).
Since Julie will be moving (falling) in a downward direction, we assume the downward direction is positive to simplify
our calculations. Julie executes her jumps from an altitude of 12,500 ft. After she exits the aircraft, she immediately
starts falling at a velocity given by v(t) = 32t. She continues to accelerate according to this velocity function until she
reaches terminal velocity. After she reaches terminal velocity, her speed remains constant until she pulls her ripcord
and slows down to land.
On her first jump of the day, Julie orients herself in the slower “belly down” position (terminal velocity is 176 ft/sec).
Using this information, answer the following questions.
1. How long after she exits the aircraft does Julie reach terminal velocity?
2. Based on your answer to question 1, set up an expression involving one or more integrals that represents the
distance Julie falls after 30 sec.
3. If Julie pulls her ripcord at an altitude of 3000 ft, how long does she spend in a free fall?
4. Julie pulls her ripcord at 3000 ft. It takes 5 sec for her parachute to open completely and for her to slow down,
during which time she falls another 400 ft. After her canopy is fully open, her speed is reduced to 16 ft/sec.
Find the total time Julie spends in the air, from the time she leaves the airplane until the time her feet touch the
ground.

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Chapter 5 | Integration 561

On Julie’s second jump of the day, she decides she wants to fall a little faster and orients herself in the “head
down” position. Her terminal velocity in this position is 220 ft/sec. Answer these questions based on this
velocity:
5. How long does it take Julie to reach terminal velocity in this case?
6. Before pulling her ripcord, Julie reorients her body in the “belly down” position so she is not moving quite as
fast when her parachute opens. If she begins this maneuver at an altitude of 4000 ft, how long does she spend
in a free fall before beginning the reorientation?
Some jumpers wear “ wingsuits” (see Figure 5.31). These suits have fabric panels between the arms and legs
and allow the wearer to glide around in a free fall, much like a flying squirrel. (Indeed, the suits are sometimes
called “flying squirrel suits.”) When wearing these suits, terminal velocity can be reduced to about 30 mph (44
ft/sec), allowing the wearers a much longer time in the air. Wingsuit flyers still use parachutes to land; although
the vertical velocities are within the margin of safety, horizontal velocities can exceed 70 mph, much too fast
to land safely.

Figure 5.31 The fabric panels on the arms and legs of a wingsuit work to reduce the vertical velocity of a
skydiver’s fall. (credit: Richard Schneider)

Answer the following question based on the velocity in a wingsuit.

7. If Julie dons a wingsuit before her third jump of the day, and she pulls her ripcord at an altitude of 3000 ft, how
long does she get to spend gliding around in the air?
562 Chapter 5 | Integration

5.3 EXERCISES
144. Consider two athletes running at variable speeds x2
v 1 (t) and v 2 (t). The runners start and finish a race at 157. d⌠ t dt
dx ⌡1 1 + t
exactly the same time. Explain why the two runners must
be going the same speed at some point. ln x
d
dx ∫ 0
158. e t dt
145. Two mountain climbers start their climb at base
camp, taking two different routes, one steeper than the
other, and arrive at the peak at exactly the same time. Is it ex
necessarily true that, at some point, both climbers increased 159. d ∫ lnu 2 du
dx 1
in altitude at the same rate?
x
146. To get on a certain toll road a driver has to take a
160. The graph of y = ∫ f (t)dt, where f is a piecewise
card that lists the mile entrance point. The card also has a 0
timestamp. When going to pay the toll at the exit, the driver
constant function, is shown here.
is surprised to receive a speeding ticket along with the toll.
Explain how this can happen.
x
147. Set F(x) = ∫ (1 − t)dt. Find F′ (2) and the
1
′
average value of F over [1, 2].

In the following exercises, use the Fundamental Theorem

of Calculus, Part 1, to find each derivative.
a. Over which intervals is f positive? Over which
x intervals is it negative? Over which intervals, if
d −t 2
dx ∫ 1
148. e dt any, is it equal to zero?
b. What are the maximum and minimum values of f?
x c. What is the average value of f?
d
dx ∫ 1
149. e cost dt x
161. The graph of y = ∫ f (t)dt, where f is a piecewise
0
x
150. d ∫ 9 − y 2dy constant function, is shown here.
dx 3

x
d⌠ ds
dx ⌡ 16 − s 2
151.
4

2x
d
dx ∫ x
152. tdt

a. Over which intervals is f positive? Over which

x
153. d ∫ tdt intervals is it negative? Over which intervals, if
dx 0 any, is it equal to zero?
b. What are the maximum and minimum values of f?
sin x c. What is the average value of f?
d
dx ∫ 0
154. 1 − t 2dt

1
d
dx ∫ cos x
155. 1 − t 2dt

x
156. d⌠ t 2 dt
dx ⌡ 1 + t 4
1

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Chapter 5 | Integration 563

169. [T] ⌠ 42 dx over [1, 4]

x
162. The graph of y = ∫ ℓ(t)dt, where ℓ is a piecewise
0 ⌡x
linear function, is shown here.
In the following exercises, evaluate each definite integral
using the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 2.

2
⎛ 2
170. ∫ ⎝x − 3x⎞⎠dx
−1

3
⎛ 2
171. ∫ ⎝x + 3x − 5⎞⎠dx
−2

3
a. Over which intervals is ℓ positive? Over which 172. ∫ (t + 2)(t − 3)dt
intervals is it negative? Over which, if any, is it −2
zero?
3
⎛ 2
− 9⎞⎠⎛⎝4 − t 2⎞⎠dt
b. Over which intervals is ℓ increasing? Over which is
it decreasing? Over which, if any, is it constant?
173. ∫ ⎝t
2
c. What is the average value of ℓ?
2
x
163. The graph of y = ∫ ℓ(t)dt, where ℓ is a piecewise 174. ∫ x 9 dx
1
0
linear function, is shown here. 1
175. ∫ x 99 dx
0

8
⎛ 5/2
176. ∫ ⎝4t − 3t 3/2⎞⎠dt
4

⎛ 2 1⎞
4
177. ⌠
⌡1/4⎝ x ⎠
x − 2 dx
a. Over which intervals is ℓ positive? Over which
intervals is it negative? Over which, if any, is it
2
178. ⌠ 23 dx
zero?
b. Over which intervals is ℓ increasing? Over which ⌡1 x
is it decreasing? Over which intervals, if any, is it
constant?
4
c. What is the average value of ℓ?
179. ⌠ 1 dx
⌡1 2 x
In the following exercises, use a calculator to estimate the
area under the curve by computing T10, the average of 4
the left- and right-endpoint Riemann sums using N = 10 180. ⌠ 2 −2 t dt
rectangles. Then, using the Fundamental Theorem of ⌡ t1
Calculus, Part 2, determine the exact area.
16
164. [T] y = x 2 over [0, 4] 181. ⌠ dt
⌡1 t 1/4
165. [T] y = x 3 + 6x 2 + x − 5 over [−4, 2]
2π
182. ∫ cosθdθ
166. [T] y = x 3 over ⎡⎣0, 6⎤⎦ 0

π/2
167. [T] y = x + x 2 over [1, 9] 183. ∫ sinθdθ
0

168. [T] ∫ (cos x − sin x)dx over [0, π]

564 Chapter 5 | Integration

π/4 198. Suppose that the number of hours of daylight on

184. ∫ sec 2 θdθ a given day in Seattle is modeled by the function
⎛ ⎞
0
−3.75cos⎝πt ⎠ + 12.25, with t given in months and
6
π/4
185. ∫ secθ tandθ t = 0 corresponding to the winter solstice.
0 a. What is the average number of daylight hours in a
year?
π/4
186. ∫ cscθ cot θdθ
b. At which times t1 and t2, where
0 ≤ t 1 < t 2 < 12, do the number of daylight
π/3
hours equal the average number?
π/2 c. Write an integral that expresses the total number of
187. ∫ csc θdθ 2
daylight hours in Seattle between t 1 and t 2.
π/4
d. Compute the mean hours of daylight in Seattle
⎛1 1 ⎞
2 between t 1 and t 2, where 0 ≤ t 1 < t 2 < 12,
188. ⌠
⌡ ⎝t 2 t 3 ⎠
− dt
and then between t 2 and t 1, and show that the
1
average of the two is equal to the average day
⎛1 1 ⎞
−1 length.
189. ⌠
⌡−2⎝t 2 t 3 ⎠
− dt
199. Suppose the rate of gasoline consumption over the
course of a year in the United States can be modeled by a
⎛ ⎛ ⎞⎞
In the following exercises, use the evaluation theorem to sinusoidal function of the form ⎝11.21 − cos⎝πt ⎠⎠ × 10 9
express the integral as a function F(x).
6
gal/mo.
x a. What is the average monthly consumption, and for
190. ∫ a t 2 dt which values of t is the rate at time t equal to the
average rate?
x b. What is the number of gallons of gasoline
191. ∫ e t dt consumed in the United States in a year?
1 c. Write an integral that expresses the average
monthly U.S. gas consumption during the part of
x the year between the beginning of April (t = 3)
192. ∫ costdt
0 and the end of September ⎛⎝t = 9).
x
193. ∫ −xsintdt 200. Explain why, if f is continuous over ⎡⎣a, b⎤⎦, there
is at least one point c ∈ ⎡⎣a, b⎤⎦ such that
b
1
b − a∫a
In the following exercises, identify the roots of the f (c) = f (t)dt.
integrand to remove absolute values, then evaluate using
the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 2.
201. Explain why, if f is continuous over ⎡⎣a, b⎤⎦ and is not
3
194. ∫ |x|dx equal to a constant, there is at least one point M ∈ ⎡⎣a, b⎤⎦
−2 b
1
b − a∫a
such that f (M) = f (t)dt and at least one point
4
195. ∫ |t 2
|
− 2t − 3 dt
1
b
b − a∫a
−2 m ∈ ⎡⎣a, b⎤⎦ such that f (m) < f (t)dt.
π
196. ∫ |cost|dt
0

π/2
197. ∫ |sint|dt
−π/2

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Chapter 5 | Integration 565

202. Kepler’s first law states that the planets move in 206. The displacement from rest of a mass attached to
elliptical orbits with the Sun at one focus. The closest point a spring satisfies the simple harmonic motion equation
of a planetary orbit to the Sun is called the perihelion (for x(t) = Acos⎛⎝ωt − ϕ⎞⎠, where ϕ is a phase constant, ω is
Earth, it currently occurs around January 3) and the farthest the angular frequency, and A is the amplitude. Find the
point is called the aphelion (for Earth, it currently occurs average velocity, the average speed (magnitude of
around July 4). Kepler’s second law states that planets velocity), the average displacement, and the average
sweep out equal areas of their elliptical orbits in equal distance from rest (magnitude of displacement) of the
times. Thus, the two arcs indicated in the following figure mass.
are swept out in equal times. At what time of year is Earth
moving fastest in its orbit? When is it moving slowest?

203. A point on an ellipse with major axis length 2a

and minor axis length 2b has the coordinates
(acosθ, bsinθ), 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π.
a. Show that the distance from this point to the focus
at (−c, 0) is d(θ) = a + ccosθ, where

c = a 2 − b 2.
b. Use these coordinates to show that the average
–
distance d from a point on the ellipse to the focus
at (−c, 0), with respect to angle θ, is a.

204. As implied earlier, according to Kepler’s laws,

Earth’s orbit is an ellipse with the Sun at one focus. The
perihelion for Earth’s orbit around the Sun is 147,098,290
km and the aphelion is 152,098,232 km.
a. By placing the major axis along the x-axis, find the
average distance from Earth to the Sun.
b. The classic definition of an astronomical unit (AU)
is the distance from Earth to the Sun, and its value
was computed as the average of the perihelion and
aphelion distances. Is this definition justified?

205. The force of gravitational attraction between the Sun

and a planet is F(θ) = GmM
2
, where m is the mass of the
r (θ)
planet, M is the mass of the Sun, G is a universal constant,
and r(θ) is the distance between the Sun and the planet
when the planet is at an angle θ with the major axis of its
orbit. Assuming that M, m, and the ellipse parameters a
and b (half-lengths of the major and minor axes) are given,
set up—but do not evaluate—an integral that expresses in
terms of G, m, M, a, b the average gravitational force
between the Sun and the planet.
566 Chapter 5 | Integration

5.4 | Integration Formulas and the Net Change Theorem

Learning Objectives
5.4.1 Apply the basic integration formulas.
5.4.2 Explain the significance of the net change theorem.
5.4.3 Use the net change theorem to solve applied problems.
5.4.4 Apply the integrals of odd and even functions.

In this section, we use some basic integration formulas studied previously to solve some key applied problems. It is
important to note that these formulas are presented in terms of indefinite integrals. Although definite and indefinite integrals
are closely related, there are some key differences to keep in mind. A definite integral is either a number (when the limits
of integration are constants) or a single function (when one or both of the limits of integration are variables). An indefinite
integral represents a family of functions, all of which differ by a constant. As you become more familiar with integration,
you will get a feel for when to use definite integrals and when to use indefinite integrals. You will naturally select the correct
approach for a given problem without thinking too much about it. However, until these concepts are cemented in your mind,
think carefully about whether you need a definite integral or an indefinite integral and make sure you are using the proper
notation based on your choice.

Basic Integration Formulas

Recall the integration formulas given in the table in Antiderivatives and the rule on properties of definite integrals. Let’s
look at a few examples of how to apply these rules.

Example 5.23

Integrating a Function Using the Power Rule

4
Use the power rule to integrate the function ∫ t(1 + t)dt.
1

Solution
The first step is to rewrite the function and simplify it so we can apply the power rule:
4 4
∫ t(1 + t)dt = ∫ t 1/2(1 + t)dt
1 1
4
⎛ 1/2
=∫ ⎝t + t 3/2⎞⎠dt.
1

Now apply the power rule:

⎛ ⎞
|
4 4
⎛ 1/2
∫ ⎝t + t 3/2⎞⎠dt = ⎝2 t 3/2 + 2 t 5/2⎠ 1
1 3 5
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
= ⎣2 (4) 3/2 + 2 (4) 5/2⎦ − ⎣2 (1) 3/2 + 2 (1) 5/2⎦
3 5 3 5
= 256 .
15

5.21 Find the definite integral of f (x) = x 2 − 3x over the interval [1, 3].

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Chapter 5 | Integration 567

The Net Change Theorem

The net change theorem considers the integral of a rate of change. It says that when a quantity changes, the new value
equals the initial value plus the integral of the rate of change of that quantity. The formula can be expressed in two ways.
The second is more familiar; it is simply the definite integral.

Theorem 5.6: Net Change Theorem

The new value of a changing quantity equals the initial value plus the integral of the rate of change:
b (5.18)
F(b) = F(a) + ∫ F '(x)dx
a

or
b
∫ a F '(x)dx = F(b) − F(a).

Subtracting F(a) from both sides of the first equation yields the second equation. Since they are equivalent formulas, which
one we use depends on the application.
The significance of the net change theorem lies in the results. Net change can be applied to area, distance, and volume, to
name only a few applications. Net change accounts for negative quantities automatically without having to write more than
one integral. To illustrate, let’s apply the net change theorem to a velocity function in which the result is displacement.
We looked at a simple example of this in The Definite Integral. Suppose a car is moving due north (the positive direction)
at 40 mph between 2 p.m. and 4 p.m., then the car moves south at 30 mph between 4 p.m. and 5 p.m. We can graph this
motion as shown in Figure 5.32.

Figure 5.32 The graph shows speed versus time for the given
motion of a car.

Just as we did before, we can use definite integrals to calculate the net displacement as well as the total distance traveled.
The net displacement is given by
5
v(t)dt = ∫ 40dt + ⌠ −30dt
5 4
∫
2 2 ⌡4
= 80 − 30
= 50.
Thus, at 5 p.m. the car is 50 mi north of its starting position. The total distance traveled is given by
568 Chapter 5 | Integration

5
∫ |v(t)|dt = ∫ 40dt + ⌠ 30dt
5 4

2 2 ⌡4
= 80 + 30
= 110.
Therefore, between 2 p.m. and 5 p.m., the car traveled a total of 110 mi.
To summarize, net displacement may include both positive and negative values. In other words, the velocity function
accounts for both forward distance and backward distance. To find net displacement, integrate the velocity function over
the interval. Total distance traveled, on the other hand, is always positive. To find the total distance traveled by an object,
regardless of direction, we need to integrate the absolute value of the velocity function.

Example 5.24

Finding Net Displacement

Given a velocity function v(t) = 3t − 5 (in meters per second) for a particle in motion from time t = 0 to time
t = 3, find the net displacement of the particle.

Solution
Applying the net change theorem, we have

|
3 3
2
∫ (3t − 5)dt = 3t − 5t
0 2
0

⎡3(3) 2 ⎤
=
⎣ 2 − 5(3)⎦ − 0
= 27 − 15
2
= 27 − 30
2 2
= − .3
2

The net displacement is − 3 m (Figure 5.33).

2

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Chapter 5 | Integration 569

Figure 5.33 The graph shows velocity versus time for a

particle moving with a linear velocity function.

Example 5.25

Finding the Total Distance Traveled

Use Example 5.24 to find the total distance traveled by a particle according to the velocity function
v(t) = 3t − 5 m/sec over a time interval [0, 3].

Solution
The total distance traveled includes both the positive and the negative values. Therefore, we must integrate the
absolute value of the velocity function to find the total distance traveled.
To continue with the example, use two integrals to find the total distance. First, find the t-intercept of the function,
since that is where the division of the interval occurs. Set the equation equal to zero and solve for t. Thus,
3t − 5 = 0
3t = 5
t = 5.
3
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
The two subintervals are ⎣0, 5 ⎦ and ⎣ 5 , 3⎦. To find the total distance traveled, integrate the absolute value of
3 3
⎡ ⎤
the function. Since the function is negative over the interval ⎣0, 5 ⎦, we have |v(t)| = −v(t) over that interval.
3
⎡ ⎤
Over ⎣ 5 , 3⎦, the function is positive, so |v(t)| = v(t). Thus, we have
3
570 Chapter 5 | Integration

5/3
∫ |v(t)|dt = ⌠ −v(t)dt + ∫ v(t)dt
3 3

0 ⌡0 5/3

5/3 3
=∫ 5 − 3tdt + ∫ 3t − 5dt
0 5/3

⎛
| |
2⎞ ⎛ 2 ⎞
5/3 3
= ⎝5t − 3t ⎠ 0 + ⎝3t − 5t⎠ 5/3
2 2
⎡ ⎛ ⎞ 3(5/3) 2 ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡3(5/3) 2 25 ⎤
= 5⎝5 ⎠ − − 0 + ⎣27 − 15⎦ −
⎣ 3 2 ⎦ 2 ⎣ 2 − 3⎦
= 25 − 25 + 27 − 15 − 25 + 25
3 6 2 6 3
41
= .
6

So, the total distance traveled is 14 m.

6

5.22 Find the net displacement and total distance traveled in meters given the velocity function
f (t) = 1 e t − 2 over the interval [0, 2].
2

Applying the Net Change Theorem

The net change theorem can be applied to the flow and consumption of fluids, as shown in Example 5.26.

Example 5.26

How Many Gallons of Gasoline Are Consumed?

If the motor on a motorboat is started at t = 0 and the boat consumes gasoline at 5 − t 3 gal/hr for the first hour,
how much gasoline is used in the first hour?

Solution
Express the problem as a definite integral, integrate, and evaluate using the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus.
The limits of integration are the endpoints of the interval [0, 1]. We have

⎛ 4⎞
|
1 1
⎛
∫ ⎝5 − t 3⎞⎠dt = ⎝5t − t ⎠
0 4
0

⎡ (1) 4 ⎤
⎣
= 5(1) −
4 ⎦
−0

=5−1
4
= 4.75.

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Chapter 5 | Integration 571

Thus, the motorboat uses 4.75 gal of gas in 1 hour.

Example 5.27

Chapter Opener: Iceboats

Figure 5.34 (credit: modification of work by Carter Brown,

Flickr)

As we saw at the beginning of the chapter, top iceboat racers (Figure 5.1) can attain speeds of up to five times the
wind speed. Andrew is an intermediate iceboater, though, so he attains speeds equal to only twice the wind speed.
Suppose Andrew takes his iceboat out one morning when a light 5-mph breeze has been blowing all morning. As
Andrew gets his iceboat set up, though, the wind begins to pick up. During his first half hour of iceboating, the
wind speed increases according to the function v(t) = 20t + 5. For the second half hour of Andrew’s outing, the
wind remains steady at 15 mph. In other words, the wind speed is given by
⎧20t + 5 for 0 ≤ t ≤ 1
v(t) = ⎨
2
⎩15 1
for ≤ t ≤ 1.
2
Recalling that Andrew’s iceboat travels at twice the wind speed, and assuming he moves in a straight line away
from his starting point, how far is Andrew from his starting point after 1 hour?

Solution
To figure out how far Andrew has traveled, we need to integrate his velocity, which is twice the wind speed. Then
1
Distance = ∫ 2v(t)dt.
0

Substituting the expressions we were given for v(t), we get

572 Chapter 5 | Integration

1/2
2v(t)dt = ⌠ 2v(t)dt + ∫
1 1
∫ 2v(t)dt
0 ⌡0 1/2
1/2
= ⌠ 2(20t + 5)dt + ∫
1
2(15)dt
⌡0 1/3
1/2
= ⌠ (40t + 10)dt + ∫ 30dt
1

⌡0 1/2

= ⎡⎣20t 2 + 10t⎤⎦| 1/2

0
+ [30t]| 11/2
⎛ ⎞
= ⎝20 + 5⎠ − 0 + (30 − 15)
4
= 25.
Andrew is 25 mi from his starting point after 1 hour.

5.23 Suppose that, instead of remaining steady during the second half hour of Andrew’s outing, the wind
starts to die down according to the function v(t) = −10t + 15. In other words, the wind speed is given by

⎧20t + 5 for 0 ≤ t ≤ 1
v(t) = ⎨
2
⎩−10t + 15 for 2 ≤ t ≤ 1.
1

Under these conditions, how far from his starting point is Andrew after 1 hour?

Integrating Even and Odd Functions

We saw in Functions and Graphs that an even function is a function in which f (−x) = f (x) for all x in the
domain—that is, the graph of the curve is unchanged when x is replaced with −x. The graphs of even functions are
symmetric about the y-axis. An odd function is one in which f (−x) = − f (x) for all x in the domain, and the graph of the
function is symmetric about the origin.
Integrals of even functions, when the limits of integration are from −a to a, involve two equal areas, because they are
symmetric about the y-axis. Integrals of odd functions, when the limits of integration are similarly [−a, a], evaluate to
zero because the areas above and below the x-axis are equal.

Rule: Integrals of Even and Odd Functions

For continuous even functions such that f (−x) = f (x),
a
⌠ f (x)dx = 2∫ f (x)dx.
a

⌡−a 0

For continuous odd functions such that f (−x) = − f (x),

a
∫ −a f (x)dx = 0.

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Chapter 5 | Integration 573

Example 5.28

Integrating an Even Function

2
⎛ 8
Integrate the even function ∫ ⎝3x − 2⎞⎠dx and verify that the integration formula for even functions holds.
−2

Solution
The symmetry appears in the graphs in Figure 5.35. Graph (a) shows the region below the curve and above the
x-axis. We have to zoom in to this graph by a huge amount to see the region. Graph (b) shows the region above
the curve and below the x-axis. The signed area of this region is negative. Both views illustrate the symmetry
about the y-axis of an even function. We have

⎛ ⎞
|
2 2
⎛ 8 9
∫ ⎝3x − 2⎞⎠dx = ⎝x − 2x⎠
−2 3
−2

⎡ (2) 9 ⎤ ⎡ (−2) 9 ⎤
=⎢ − 2(2)⎥ − ⎢ − 2(−2)⎥
⎣ 3 ⎦ ⎣ 3 ⎦
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
= ⎝512 − 4⎠ − ⎝− 512 + 4⎠
3 3
= 1000 .
3
To verify the integration formula for even functions, we can calculate the integral from 0 to 2 and double it, then
check to make sure we get the same answer.

⎛
|
⎞
2 2
⎛ 8 9
∫ ⎝3x − 2⎞⎠dx = ⎝x − 2x⎠
0 3
0

= 512 − 4
3
= 500
3

Since 2 · 500 = 1000 , we have verified the formula for even functions in this particular example.
3 3

Figure 5.35 Graph (a) shows the positive area between the curve and the x-axis, whereas graph (b) shows the negative area
between the curve and the x-axis. Both views show the symmetry about the y-axis.
574 Chapter 5 | Integration

Example 5.29

Integrating an Odd Function

Evaluate the definite integral of the odd function −5sin x over the interval [−π, π].

Solution
The graph is shown in Figure 5.36. We can see the symmetry about the origin by the positive area above the
x-axis over [−π, 0], and the negative area below the x-axis over [0, π]. We have
π
∫ −π−5sin xdx = −5(−cos x)| π−π

= 5cos x| π−π
= [5cosπ] − ⎡⎣5cos(−π)⎤⎦
= −5 − (−5)
= 0.

Figure 5.36 The graph shows areas between a curve and the
x-axis for an odd function.

5.24 2
Integrate the function ∫ x 4 dx.
−2

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Chapter 5 | Integration 575

5.4 EXERCISES
Use basic integration formulas to compute the following 220. Write an integral that quantifies the increase in the
antiderivatives or definite integrals. volume of a cube when the side length doubles from s unit
to 2s units and evaluate the integral.
207. ∫ ⎛⎝ x − 1 ⎞⎠dx
x 221. Write an integral that quantifies the increase in the
surface area of a sphere as its radius doubles from R unit to
⌠⎛e 2x ⎞
− 1 e x/2⎠dx 2R units and evaluate the integral.
⌡⎝
208.
2
222. Write an integral that quantifies the increase in the
209. ⌠dx volume of a sphere as its radius doubles from R unit to 2R
⌡2x units and evaluate the integral.

210. ⌠x −2 1 dx
223. Suppose that a particle moves along a straight line
⌡ x with velocity v(t) = 4 − 2t, where 0 ≤ t ≤ 2 (in meters
per second). Find the displacement at time t and the total
π distance traveled up to t = 2.
211. ∫ (sin x − cos x)dx
0
224. Suppose that a particle moves along a straight line
π/2 with velocity defined by v(t) = t 2 − 3t − 18, where
212. ∫ (x − sin x)dx
0 ≤ t ≤ 6 (in meters per second). Find the displacement at
0
time t and the total distance traveled up to t = 6.
213. Write an integral that expresses the increase in the
perimeter P(s) of a square when its side length s increases 225. Suppose that a particle moves along a straight line
from 2 units to 4 units and evaluate the integral. with velocity defined by v(t) = |2t − 6|, where
0 ≤ t ≤ 6 (in meters per second). Find the displacement at
214. Write an integral that quantifies the change in the
time t and the total distance traveled up to t = 6.
area A(s) = s 2 of a square when the side length doubles
from S units to 2S units and evaluate the integral. 226. Suppose that a particle moves along a straight line
with acceleration defined by a(t) = t − 3, where
215. A regular N-gon (an N-sided polygon with sides that
0 ≤ t ≤ 6 (in meters per second). Find the velocity and
have equal length s, such as a pentagon or hexagon) has
perimeter Ns. Write an integral that expresses the increase displacement at time t and the total distance traveled up to
in perimeter of a regular N-gon when the length of each side t = 6 if v(0) = 3 and d(0) = 0.
increases from 1 unit to 2 units and evaluate the integral.
227. A ball is thrown upward from a height of 1.5 m at
216. The area of a regular pentagon with side length an initial speed of 40 m/sec. Acceleration resulting from
a > 0 is pa2 with p = 1 5 + 5 + 2 5. The Pentagon in gravity is −9.8 m/sec2. Neglecting air resistance, solve for
4 the velocity v(t) and the height h(t) of the ball t seconds
Washington, DC, has inner sides of length 360 ft and outer after it is thrown and before it returns to the ground.
sides of length 920 ft. Write an integral to express the area
of the roof of the Pentagon according to these dimensions 228. A ball is thrown upward from a height of 3 m at
and evaluate this area. an initial speed of 60 m/sec. Acceleration resulting from
gravity is −9.8 m/sec2. Neglecting air resistance, solve for
217. A dodecahedron is a Platonic solid with a surface that the velocity v(t) and the height h(t) of the ball t seconds
consists of 12 pentagons, each of equal area. By how much
does the surface area of a dodecahedron increase as the side after it is thrown and before it returns to the ground.
length of each pentagon doubles from 1 unit to 2 units?
229. The area A(t) of a circular shape is growing at a
218. An icosahedron is a Platonic solid with a surface that constant rate. If the area increases from 4π units to 9π units
consists of 20 equilateral triangles. By how much does the between times t = 2 and t = 3, find the net change in the
surface area of an icosahedron increase as the side length of radius during that time.
each triangle doubles from a unit to 2a units?

219. Write an integral that quantifies the change in the

area of the surface of a cube when its side length doubles
from s unit to 2s units and evaluate the integral.
576 Chapter 5 | Integration

230. A spherical balloon is being inflated at a constant 233. The following table lists the electrical power in
rate. If the volume of the balloon changes from 36π in.3 to gigawatts—the rate at which energy is consumed—used in
288π in.3 between time t = 30 and t = 60 seconds, find a certain city for different hours of the day, in a typical
the net change in the radius of the balloon during that time. 24-hour period, with hour 1 corresponding to midnight to 1
a.m.
231. Water flows into a conical tank with cross-sectional Hour Power Hour Power
3
area πx at height x and volume πx up to height x. If
2
3
1 28 13 48
water flows into the tank at a rate of 1 m3/min, find the
height of water in the tank after 5 min. Find the change in
height between 5 min and 10 min. 2 25 14 49

232. A horizontal cylindrical tank has cross-sectional area

A(x) = 4⎛⎝6x − x 2⎞⎠m 2 at height x meters above the bottom 3 24 15 49

when x ≤ 3.
a. The volume V between heights a and b is 4 23 16 50
b
∫ a A(x)dx. Find the volume at heights between 2
5 24 17 50
m and 3 m.
b. Suppose that oil is being pumped into the tank
at a rate of 50 L/min. Using the chain rule, 6 27 18 50
dx = dx dV , at how many meters per minute is
dt dV dt
7 29 19 46
the height of oil in the tank changing, expressed in
terms of x, when the height is at x meters?
c. How long does it take to fill the tank to 3 m starting 8 32 20 43
from a fill level of 2 m?

9 34 21 42

10 39 22 40

11 42 23 37

12 46 24 34

Find the total amount of energy in gigawatt-hours (gW-h)

consumed by the city in a typical 24-hour period.

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Chapter 5 | Integration 577

234. The average residential electrical power use (in 235. The data in the following table are used to estimate
hundreds of watts) per hour is given in the following table. the average power output produced by Peter Sagan for each
Hour Power Hour Power of the last 18 sec of Stage 1 of the 2012 Tour de France.
Second Watts Second Watts
1 8 13 12
1 600 10 1200

2 6 14 13
2 500 11 1170

3 5 15 14
3 575 12 1125

4 4 16 15
4 1050 13 1100

5 5 17 17
5 925 14 1075

6 6 18 19
6 950 15 1000

7 7 19 18
7 1050 16 950

8 8 20 17
8 950 17 900

9 9 21 16
9 1100 18 780

10 10 22 16
Table 5.6 Average Power Output Source:
sportsexercisengineering.com
11 10 23 13
Estimate the net energy used in kilojoules (kJ), noting that
1W = 1 J/s, and the average power output by Sagan during
12 11 24 11 this time interval.

a. Compute the average total energy used in a day in

kilowatt-hours (kWh).
b. If a ton of coal generates 1842 kWh, how long does
it take for an average residence to burn a ton of
coal?
c. Explain why the data might fit a plot of the form
⎛ ⎞
p(t) = 11.5 − 7.5sin⎝ πt ⎠.
12
578 Chapter 5 | Integration

236. The data in the following table are used to estimate 237. The distribution of incomes as of 2012 in the United
the average power output produced by Peter Sagan for each States in $5000 increments is given in the following table.
15-min interval of Stage 1 of the 2012 Tour de France. The kth row denotes the percentage of households with
Minutes Watts Minutes Watts incomes between $5000xk and 5000xk + 4999. The row
k = 40 contains all households with income between
15 200 165 170 $200,000 and $250,000 and k = 41 accounts for all
households with income exceeding $250,000.

30 180 180 220

45 190 195 140

60 230 210 225

75 240 225 170

90 210 240 210

105 210 255 200

120 220 270 220

135 210 285 250

150 150 300 400

Table 5.7 Average Power Output Source:

sportsexercisengineering.com

Estimate the net energy used in kilojoules, noting that 1W

= 1 J/s.

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Chapter 5 | Integration 579

0 3.5 21 1.5 19 1.8 40 2.3

1 4.1 22 1.4 20 2.1 41

Table 5.8 Income

2 5.9 23 1.3
Distributions Source:
http://www.census.gov/
3 5.7 24 1.3 prod/2013pubs/p60-245.pdf

a. Estimate the percentage of U.S. households in 2012

4 5.9 25 1.1 with incomes less than $55,000.
b. What percentage of households had incomes
exceeding $85,000?
5 5.4 26 1.0 c. Plot the data and try to fit its shape to that of a
−b(x + e)
graph of the form a(x + c)e for suitable
6 5.5 27 0.75 a, b, c.

238. Newton’s law of gravity states that the gravitational

7 5.1 28 0.8 force exerted by an object of mass M and one of mass
m with centers that are separated by a distance r is
8 4.8 29 1.0 F = G mM , with G an empirical constant
r2
G = 6.67x10 −11 m 3 /⎛⎝kg · s 2⎞⎠. The work done by a
9 4.1 30 0.6
⎡
variable force over an interval a, b⎤⎦ is defined as
⎣

b
10 4.3 31 0.6 W = ∫ F(x)dx. If Earth has mass 5.97219 × 10 24 and
a
radius 6371 km, compute the amount of work to elevate
11 3.5 32 0.5 a polar weather satellite of mass 1400 kg to its orbiting
altitude of 850 km above Earth.
12 3.7 33 0.5 239. For a given motor vehicle, the maximum achievable
deceleration from braking is approximately 7 m/sec2 on dry
concrete. On wet asphalt, it is approximately 2.5 m/sec2.
13 3.2 34 0.4 Given that 1 mph corresponds to 0.447 m/sec, find the total
distance that a car travels in meters on dry concrete after the
14 3.0 35 0.3 brakes are applied until it comes to a complete stop if the
initial velocity is 67 mph (30 m/sec) or if the initial braking
velocity is 56 mph (25 m/sec). Find the corresponding
15 2.8 36 0.3 distances if the surface is slippery wet asphalt.

240. John is a 25-year old man who weighs 160 lb. He

16 2.5 37 0.3 burns 500 − 50t calories/hr while riding his bike for t
hours. If an oatmeal cookie has 55 cal and John eats 4t
cookies during the tth hour, how many net calories has he
17 2.2 38 0.2 lost after 3 hours riding his bike?

241. Sandra is a 25-year old woman who weighs 120

18 2.2 39 1.8 lb. She burns 300 − 50t cal/hr while walking on her
treadmill. Her caloric intake from drinking Gatorade is 100t
Table 5.8 Income calories during the tth hour. What is her net decrease in
Distributions Source: calories after walking for 3 hours?
http://www.census.gov/
prod/2013pubs/p60-245.pdf
580 Chapter 5 | Integration

242. A motor vehicle has a maximum efficiency of 33 245. [T] The following table provides hypothetical data
mpg at a cruising speed of 40 mph. The efficiency drops at regarding the level of service for a certain highway.
a rate of 0.1 mpg/mph between 40 mph and 50 mph, and at Density
a rate of 0.4 mpg/mph between 50 mph and 80 mph. What Highway Vehicles per
Range
is the efficiency in miles per gallon if the car is cruising at Speed Range Hour per
(vehicles/
50 mph? What is the efficiency in miles per gallon if the car (mph) Lane
mi)
is cruising at 80 mph? If gasoline costs $3.50/gal, what is
the cost of fuel to drive 50 mi at 40 mph, at 50 mph, and at
80 mph? > 60 < 600 < 10

243. Although some engines are more efficient at given

a horsepower than others, on average, fuel efficiency 60–57 600–1000 10–20
decreases with horsepower at a rate of 1/25 mpg/
horsepower. If a typical 50-horsepower engine has an 57–54 1000–1500 20–30
average fuel efficiency of 32 mpg, what is the average fuel
efficiency of an engine with the following horsepower: 150,
300, 450? 54–46 1500–1900 30–45

244. [T] The following table lists the 2013 schedule of

federal income tax versus taxable income. 46–30 1900–2100 45–70
… Of the
Taxable Income The Tax Is
Amount <30 Unstable 70–200
Range …
Over
Table 5.10
$0–$8925 10% $0
a. Plot vehicles per hour per lane on the x-axis and
highway speed on the y-axis.
$892.50 +
$8925–$36,250 $8925 b. Compute the average decrease in speed (in miles
15%
per hour) per unit increase in congestion (vehicles
per hour per lane) as the latter increases from 600 to
$4,991.25 + 1000, from 1000 to 1500, and from 1500 to 2100.
$36,250–$87,850 $36,250 Does the decrease in miles per hour depend linearly
25%
on the increase in vehicles per hour per lane?
c. Plot minutes per mile (60 times the reciprocal of
$17,891.25 miles per hour) as a function of vehicles per hour
$87,850–$183,250 $87,850 per lane. Is this function linear?
+ 28%

For the next two exercises use the data in the following
$44,603.25 table, which displays bald eagle populations from 1963 to
$183,250–$398,350 $183,250
+ 33% 2000 in the continental United States.

$115,586.25
$398,350–$400,000 $398,350
+ 35%

$116,163.75
> $400,000 $400,000
+ 39.6%

Table 5.9 Federal Income Tax Versus Taxable

Income Source: http://www.irs.gov/pub/irs-prior/
i1040tt--2013.pdf.

Suppose that Steve just received a $10,000 raise. How

much of this raise is left after federal taxes if Steve’s salary
before receiving the raise was $40,000? If it was $90,000?
If it was $385,000?

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Chapter 5 | Integration 581

Population of Breeding Pairs of 247. [T] The graph below plots the cubic
Year 3 2
p(t) = 0.07t + 2.42t − 25.63t + 521.23 against the
Bald Eagles
data in the preceding table, normalized so that t = 0
1963 487 corresponds to 1963. Estimate the average number of bald
eagles per year present for the 37 years by computing the
average value of p over [0, 37].
1974 791

1981 1188

1986 1875

1992 3749

1996 5094

2000 6471
248. [T] Suppose you go on a road trip and record your
speed at every half hour, as compiled in the following
Table 5.11 Population of Breeding Bald Eagle
table. The best quadratic fit to the data is
Pairs Source: http://www.fws.gov/Midwest/eagle/
population/chtofprs.html. q(t) = 5x 2 − 11x + 49, shown in the accompanying
graph. Integrate q to estimate the total distance driven over
the 3 hours.
246. [T] The graph below plots the quadratic
p(t) = 6.48t 2 − 80.3 1t + 585.69 against the data in Time (hr) Speed (mph)
preceding table, normalized so that t = 0 corresponds to
0 (start) 50
1963. Estimate the average number of bald eagles per year
present for the 37 years by computing the average value of
p over [0, 37]. 1 40

2 50

3 60

As a car accelerates, it does not accelerate at a constant

rate; rather, the acceleration is variable. For the following
exercises, use the following table, which contains the
acceleration measured at every second as a driver merges
onto a freeway.
582 Chapter 5 | Integration

Time (sec) Acceleration (mph/sec) 252. [T] The number of hamburgers sold at a restaurant
throughout the day is given in the following table, with the
accompanying graph plotting the best cubic fit to the data,
1 11.2
b(t) = 0.12t 3 − 2.13t 3 + 12.13t + 3.91, with t = 0
corresponding to 9 a.m. and t = 12 corresponding to 9
2 10.6 p.m. Compute the average value of b(t) to estimate the
average number of hamburgers sold per hour.
3 8.1 Hours Past Midnight No. of Burgers Sold

4 5.4 9 3

5 0 12 28

15 20
249. [T] The accompanying graph plots the best quadratic
fit, a(t) = −0.70t 2 + 1.44t + 10.44, to the data from the 18 30
preceding table. Compute the average value of a(t) to
estimate the average acceleration between t = 0 and 21 45
t = 5.

250. [T] Using your acceleration equation from the

previous exercise, find the corresponding velocity
equation. Assuming the final velocity is 0 mph, find the
velocity at time t = 0.

251. [T] Using your velocity equation from the previous

exercise, find the corresponding distance equation,
assuming your initial distance is 0 mi. How far did you
travel while you accelerated your car? (Hint: You will need
to convert time units.)

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Chapter 5 | Integration 583

253. [T] An athlete runs by a motion detector, which

records her speed, as displayed in the following table. The
best linear fit to this data, ℓ(t) = −0.068t + 5.14, is
shown in the accompanying graph. Use the average value
of ℓ(t) between t = 0 and t = 40 to estimate the
runner’s average speed.
Minutes Speed (m/sec)

0 5

10 4.8

20 3.6

30 3.0

40 2.5
584 Chapter 5 | Integration

5.5 | Substitution
Learning Objectives
5.5.1 Use substitution to evaluate indefinite integrals.
5.5.2 Use substitution to evaluate definite integrals.

The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus gave us a method to evaluate integrals without using Riemann sums. The drawback
of this method, though, is that we must be able to find an antiderivative, and this is not always easy. In this section we
examine a technique, called integration by substitution, to help us find antiderivatives. Specifically, this method helps us
find antiderivatives when the integrand is the result of a chain-rule derivative.
At first, the approach to the substitution procedure may not appear very obvious. However, it is primarily a visual task—that
is, the integrand shows you what to do; it is a matter of recognizing the form of the function. So, what are we supposed to
see? We are looking for an integrand of the form f ⎡⎣g(x)⎤⎦g′ (x)dx. For example, in the integral ⌠⎛⎝x 2 − 3⎞⎠ 2xdx, we have
3

⌡
3 2
f (x) = x , g(x) = x − 3, and g '(x) = 2x. Then,
3
f ⎡⎣g(x)⎤⎦g′ (x) = ⎛⎝x 2 − 3⎞⎠ (2x),

and we see that our integrand is in the correct form.

The method is called substitution because we substitute part of the integrand with the variable u and part of the integrand
with du. It is also referred to as change of variables because we are changing variables to obtain an expression that is easier
to work with for applying the integration rules.

Theorem 5.7: Substitution with Indefinite Integrals

Let u = g(x), , where g′ (x) is continuous over an interval, let f (x) be continuous over the corresponding range of
g, and let F(x) be an antiderivative of f (x). Then,

∫ f g(x) g′ (x)dx
⎡
⎣
⎤
⎦ = ∫ f (u)du (5.19)

= F(u) + C
= F ⎛⎝g(x)⎞⎠ + C.

Proof
Let f, g, u, and F be as specified in the theorem. Then
d F(g(x)) = F′ (g(x)⎞⎠g′ (x)
dx
= f ⎡⎣g(x)⎤⎦g′ (x).

Integrating both sides with respect to x, we see that

∫ f g(x) g′ (x)dx = F g(x) + C.

⎡
⎣
⎤
⎦
⎛
⎝
⎞
⎠

If we now substitute u = g(x), and du = g '(x)dx, we get

∫ f g(x) g′ (x)dx
⎡
⎣
⎤
⎦ = ∫ f (u)du
= F(u) + C
= F ⎛⎝g(x)⎞⎠ + C.

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Chapter 5 | Integration 585

Returning to the problem we looked at originally, we let u = x 2 − 3 and then du = 2xdx. Rewrite the integral in terms of
u:

⌠⎛⎝x 2 − 3⎞⎠
3

(2xdx) = ∫ u 3 du.
⌡ u ⏟

⎭
⎬
⎫
du

Using the power rule for integrals, we have

⌠u 3 du = u 4 + C.
⌡ 4

Substitute the original expression for x back into the solution:

⎛ 2 ⎞
4
u 4 + C = ⎝x − 3⎠ + C.
4 4
We can generalize the procedure in the following Problem-Solving Strategy.

Problem-Solving Strategy: Integration by Substitution

1. Look carefully at the integrand and select an expression g(x) within the integrand to set equal to u. Let’s select
g(x). such that g′ (x) is also part of the integrand.

2. Substitute u = g(x) and du = g′ (x)dx. into the integral.

3. We should now be able to evaluate the integral with respect to u. If the integral can’t be evaluated we need to
go back and select a different expression to use as u.
4. Evaluate the integral in terms of u.
5. Write the result in terms of x and the expression g(x).

Example 5.30

Using Substitution to Find an Antiderivative

Use substitution to find the antiderivative ⌠6x⎛⎝3x 2 + 4⎞⎠ dx.

4

Solution
The first step is to choose an expression for u. We choose u = 3x 2 + 4 because then du = 6xdx, and we
already have du in the integrand. Write the integral in terms of u:

⌠6x⎛3x 2 + 4⎞ dx = ∫ u 4 du.
4
⎝ ⎠
⌡
Remember that du is the derivative of the expression chosen for u, regardless of what is inside the integrand. Now
we can evaluate the integral with respect to u:
586 Chapter 5 | Integration

5
∫ u 4 du = u +C
5

⎛ 2
5
⎝3x + 4⎞⎠
= + C.
5
Analysis
We can check our answer by taking the derivative of the result of integration. We should obtain the integrand.
5
Picking a value for C of 1, we let y = 1 ⎛⎝3x 2 + 4⎞⎠ + 1. We have
5
5
y = 1 ⎛⎝3x 2 + 4⎞⎠ + 1,
5
so

⎛ ⎞ 4
y′ = ⎝1 ⎠5⎛⎝3x 2 + 4⎞⎠ 6x
5
4
= 6x⎛⎝3x 2 + 4⎞⎠ .

This is exactly the expression we started with inside the integrand.

Use substitution to find the antiderivative ⌠3x 2 ⎛⎝x 3 − 3⎞⎠ dx.

5.25 2

Sometimes we need to adjust the constants in our integral if they don’t match up exactly with the expressions we are
substituting.

Example 5.31

Using Substitution with Alteration

Use substitution to find ∫z z 2 − 5dz.

Solution

Rewrite the integral as ⌠z⎛⎝z 2 − 5⎞⎠

1/2
dz. Let u = z 2 − 5 and du = 2z dz. Now we have a problem because
⌡
du = 2z dz and the original expression has only z dz. We have to alter our expression for du or the integral in
u will be twice as large as it should be. If we multiply both sides of the du equation by 1 . we can solve this
2
problem. Thus,

u = z2 − 5
du = 2z dz
1 du = 1 (2z)dz = z dz.
2 2

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Chapter 5 | Integration 587

Write the integral in terms of u, but pull the 1 outside the integration symbol:
2

⌠z⎛z 2 − 5⎞
1/2
⎝ ⎠ dz = 1 ∫ u 1/2 du.
⌡ 2

Integrate the expression in u:

1 ∫ u 1/2 du = ⎛1 ⎞u 3/2 + C
2 ⎝2 ⎠ 3
2
⎛ ⎞⎛ ⎞
= ⎝1 ⎠⎝2 ⎠u 3/2 + C
2 3
1
= u 3/2 + C
3
3/2
= 1 ⎛⎝z 2 − 5⎞⎠ + C.
3

Use substitution to find ⌠x 2 ⎛⎝x 3 + 5⎞⎠ dx.

5.26 9

Example 5.32

Using Substitution with Integrals of Trigonometric Functions

Use substitution to evaluate the integral ⌠ sint dt.

⌡cos t
3

Solution
We know the derivative of cost is −sint, so we set u = cost. Then du = −sintdt. Substituting into the
integral, we have

⌠ sint dt = −⌠du .
⌡cos 3 t ⌡u 3
Evaluating the integral, we get

−⌠du3 = −∫ u −3 du
⌡u

⎛ ⎞
= −⎝− 1 ⎠u −2 + C.
2
Putting the answer back in terms of t, we get

⌠ sint dt = 1 + C
⌡cos 3 t 2u 2

= 1 + C.
2cos 2 t
588 Chapter 5 | Integration

Use substitution to evaluate the integral ⌠ cost

5.27
dt.
⌡sin 2 t

Sometimes we need to manipulate an integral in ways that are more complicated than just multiplying or dividing by a
constant. We need to eliminate all the expressions within the integrand that are in terms of the original variable. When we
are done, u should be the only variable in the integrand. In some cases, this means solving for the original variable in terms
of u. This technique should become clear in the next example.

Example 5.33

Finding an Antiderivative Using u-Substitution

Use substitution to find the antiderivative ∫ x dx.

x−1

Solution
If we let u = x − 1, then du = dx. But this does not account for the x in the numerator of the integrand. We
need to express x in terms of u. If u = x − 1, then x = u + 1. Now we can rewrite the integral in terms of u:

∫ x dx = ∫ u + 1 du
x−1 u

= ∫ u + 1 du
u
= ∫ ⎛⎝u 1/2 + u −1/2⎞⎠du.

Then we integrate in the usual way, replace u with the original expression, and factor and simplify the result.
Thus,

∫ ⎛⎝u 1/2 + u −1/2⎞⎠du = 2 u 3/2 + 2u 1/2 + C

3

= 2 (x − 1) 3/2 + 2(x − 1) 1/2 + C

3
⎡ ⎤
= (x − 1) 1/2 ⎣2 (x − 1) + 2⎦ + C
3
⎛ ⎞
= (x − 1) 1/2 ⎝2 x − 2 + 6 ⎠
3 3 3
⎛ ⎞
= (x − 1) 1/2 ⎝2 x + 4 ⎠
3 3
= 2 (x − 1) 1/2 (x + 2) + C.
3

5.28 Use substitution to evaluate the indefinite integral ∫ cos 3 t sint dt.

Substitution for Definite Integrals

Substitution can be used with definite integrals, too. However, using substitution to evaluate a definite integral requires a
change to the limits of integration. If we change variables in the integrand, the limits of integration change as well.

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Chapter 5 | Integration 589

Theorem 5.8: Substitution with Definite Integrals

Let u = g(x) and let g ′ be continuous over an interval ⎡⎣a, b⎤⎦, and let f be continuous over the range of u = g(x).
Then,

⌠ f g(x) g′ (x)dx = ∫
b g(b)
⎛ ⎞
f (u)du.
⌡a
⎝ ⎠
g(a)

Although we will not formally prove this theorem, we justify it with some calculations here. From the substitution rule for
indefinite integrals, if F(x) is an antiderivative of f (x), we have

∫ f g(x) g′ (x)dx = F g(x) + C.

⎛
⎝
⎞
⎠
⎛
⎝
⎞
⎠

Then
b (5.20)
∫ a f g(x) g′ (x)dx
⎡
⎣
⎤
⎦ = F ⎛⎝g(x)⎞⎠| xx =
=a
b

= F ⎛⎝g(b)⎞⎠ − F ⎛⎝g(a)⎞⎠
u = g(b)
= F(u)| u = g(a)

g(b)
=∫ f (u)du,
g(a)

and we have the desired result.

Example 5.34

Using Substitution to Evaluate a Definite Integral

1
Use substitution to evaluate ⌠ x 2 ⎛⎝1 + 2x 3⎞⎠ dx.
5

⌡0

Solution
Let u = 1 + 2x 3, so du = 6x 2 dx. Since the original function includes one factor of x2 and du = 6x 2 dx,
multiply both sides of the du equation by 1/6. Then,

du = 6x 2 dx
1 du = x 2 dx.
6
To adjust the limits of integration, note that when x = 0, u = 1 + 2(0) = 1, and when
x = 1, u = 1 + 2(1) = 3. Then
1
⌠ x 2 ⎛1 + 2x 3⎞5 dx = 1 ∫ u 5 du.
3
⎝ ⎠
⌡0 6 1

Evaluating this expression, we get

590 Chapter 5 | Integration

1 ∫ u 5 du = ⎛1 ⎞⎛u 6 ⎞
|
3 3

6 1 ⎝6 ⎠⎝ 6 ⎠
1
⎡
= 1 ⎣(3)
6
− (1) 6⎤⎦
36
= 182 .
9

5.29 0
Use substitution to evaluate the definite integral ⌠ y⎛⎝2y 2 − 3⎞⎠ dy.
5

⌡−1

Example 5.35

Using Substitution with an Exponential Function

1 2+3
Use substitution to evaluate ∫ xe 4x dx.
0

Solution
Let u = 4x 3 + 3. Then, du = 8xdx. To adjust the limits of integration, we note that when x = 0, u = 3, and
when x = 1, u = 7. So our substitution gives
1 2+3 7
∫ xe 4x dx = 1 ∫ e u du
0 8 3

|
7
= 1eu
8 3
73
= e −e
8
≈ 134.568.

⌠ x 2 cos⎛π x 3⎞dx.
5.30 1
Use substitution to evaluate
⌡0 ⎝2 ⎠

Substitution may be only one of the techniques needed to evaluate a definite integral. All of the properties and rules of
integration apply independently, and trigonometric functions may need to be rewritten using a trigonometric identity before
we can apply substitution. Also, we have the option of replacing the original expression for u after we find the antiderivative,
which means that we do not have to change the limits of integration. These two approaches are shown in Example 5.36.

Example 5.36

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Chapter 5 | Integration 591

Using Substitution to Evaluate a Trigonometric Integral

π/2
Use substitution to evaluate ∫ cos 2 θ dθ.
0

Solution
Let us first use a trigonometric identity to rewrite the integral. The trig identity cos 2 θ = 1 + cos2θ allows us
2
to rewrite the integral as
π/2 π/2
∫ cos 2 θdθ = ⌠ 1 + cos2θ dθ.
0 ⌡0 2

Then,

⌠ ⎛1 + cos2θ ⎞dθ ⎛1 ⎞
π/2 π/2
=⌠ + 1 cos2θ⎠dθ
⌡0 ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⌡0 ⎝2 2

π/2 π/2
= 1 ∫ dθ + 1 ∫ cos2θdθ.
2 0 2 0

We can evaluate the first integral as it is, but we need to make a substitution to evaluate the second integral. Let
u = 2θ. Then, du = 2dθ, or 1 du = dθ. Also, when θ = 0, u = 0, and when θ = π/2, u = π. Expressing
2
the second integral in terms of u, we have

π/2
1 ⌠ dθ + 1 ∫ cos2θdθ = 1 ⌠ dθ + 1 ⎛1 ⎞∫ cosudu
π/2 π/2 π
2⌡ 2 0 2⌡ 2 ⎝2 ⎠ 0
0 0

| |
θ = π/2 u=θ
=θ + 1 sinu
2 θ=0 4 u=0
⎛ ⎞
= ⎝π − 0⎠ + (0 − 0) = π .
4 4
592 Chapter 5 | Integration

5.5 EXERCISES
267. ⌠(x − 1)⎛⎝x 2 − 2x⎞⎠ dx; u = x 2 − 2x
254. Why is u-substitution referred to as change of 3
variable? ⌡
255. 2. If f = g ∘ h, when reversing the chain rule,
268. ⌠⎛⎝x 2 − 2x⎞⎠⎛⎝x 3 − 3x 2⎞⎠ dx; u = x 3 – 3x 2
2
d (g ∘ h)(x) = g′ (h(x)⎞⎠h′ (x), should you take u = g(x)
dx ⌡
or u = h(x) ?
269. ∫ cos 3 θdθ; u = sinθ (Hint: cos 2 θ = 1 − sin 2 θ)
In the following exercises, verify each identity using
differentiation. Then, using the indicated u-substitution,
identify f such that the integral takes the form ∫ f (u)du. 270. ∫ sin 3 θdθ; u = cosθ (Hint: sin 2 θ = 1 − cos 2 θ)

256.
∫x x + 1dx = 2 (x + 1) 3/2 (3x − 2) + C; u = x + 1 In the following exercises, use a suitable change of
15
variables to determine the indefinite integral.
257. For
271. ∫ x(1 − x) 99 dx
x > 1 : ⌠ x dx = 2 x − 1⎛⎝3x 2 + 4x + 8⎞⎠ + C; u = x − 1
2
⌡ x−1 15

272. ⌠t⎛⎝1 − t 2⎞⎠

10
dt
258. ⌡
⌠x 4x 2 + 9dx = 1 ⎛4x 2 + 9⎞ + C; u = 4x 2 + 9
3/2
⎝ ⎠
⌡ 12
273. ∫ (11x − 7) −3 dx
⌠ x dx = 1 4x 2 + 9 + C; u = 4x 2 + 9
259.
⌡ 4x 2 + 9 4 274. ∫ (7x − 11) 4 dx

⌠ x dx = − 1 ; u = 4x 2 + 9
275. ∫ cos 3 θ sinθdθ
⌡(4x 2 + 9) 2
260.
8(4x 2 + 9)

In the following exercises, find the antiderivative using the

276. ∫ sin 7 θ cosθdθ
indicated substitution.
277. ∫ cos 2 (πt)sin(πt)dt
261. ∫ (x + 1) 4
dx; u = x + 1

278. ∫ sin 2 xcos 3 xdx (Hint: sin 2 x + cos 2 x = 1)

262. ∫ (x − 1) 5
dx; u = x − 1

279. ∫ t sin⎛⎝t 2⎞⎠cos⎛⎝t 2⎞⎠dt

263. ∫ (2x − 3) −7
dx; u = 2x − 3

280. ∫ t 2cos 2 ⎛⎝t 3⎞⎠sin⎛⎝t 3⎞⎠dt

264. ∫ (3x − 2) −11
dx; u = 3x − 2

⌠ x2
⌠ x dx; u = x 2 + 1 281. ⎮⎛ dx
⌡ x2 + 1 ⌡⎝x − 3⎠
265. ⎞
2
3

⌠ x dx; u = 1 − x 2 ⌠ x 3 dx
⌡ 1 − x2
266.
⌡ 1 − x2
282.

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Chapter 5 | Integration 593

⌠ y5
π/4
297. ⌠
⎮⎛
sinθ dθ
283. dy ⌡0 cos 4 θ
⌡⎝
3/2
3⎞
1 − y ⎠

In the following exercises, evaluate the indefinite integral

99
284. ∫ cosθ(1 − cosθ) sinθdθ ∫ f (x)dx with constant C = 0 using u-substitution.
Then, graph the function and the antiderivative over the
10 indicated interval. If possible, estimate a value of C that
285. ∫ ⎛⎝1 − cos 3 θ⎞⎠ cos 2 θ sinθdθ would need to be added to the antiderivative to make it
x
equal to the definite integral F(x) = ∫ f (t)dt, with a the
286. ⌠(cosθ − 1)⎛⎝cos 2 θ − 2cosθ⎞⎠ sinθdθ
3 a

⌡ left endpoint of the given interval.

2+x−6
287. ⌠⎛⎝sin 2 θ − 2sinθ⎞⎠⎛⎝sin 3 θ − 3sin 2 θ⎞⎠ cosθdθ
3 298. [T] ∫ (2x + 1)e x dx over [−3, 2]
⌡
⎛ ⎞

In the following exercises, use a calculator to estimate the

299. [T] ∫ cos ln(2x)
x
⎝
dx ⎠
on [0, 2]
area under the curve using left Riemann sums with 50
terms, then use substitution to solve for the exact answer.
⌠ 3x 2 + 2x + 1 dx over [−1, 2]
⌡ x3 + x2 + x + 4
300. [T]
288. [T] y = 3(1 − x) 2 over [0, 2]

301. [T] ⌠ sin3x dx over ⎣− π , π ⎦

3 ⎡ ⎤
289. [T] y = x⎛⎝1 − x 2⎞⎠ over [−1, 2] ⌡cos x 3 3

2 − 4x + 3
290. [T] y = sin x(1 − cos x) 2 over [0, π] 302. [T] ∫ (x + 2)e −x dx over ⎡⎣−5, 1⎤⎦

291. [T] y = x over [−1, 1]

⎛ 2
⎝x + 1⎞⎠
2
303. [T] ∫ 3x 2 2x 3 + 1dx over [0, 1]

b
In the following exercises, use a change of variables to
evaluate the definite integral.
304. If h(a) = h(b) in ∫ a g ' h(x) h(x)dx,
⎛
⎝
⎞
⎠ what can you

say about the value of the integral?

1
292. ∫ x 1 − x dx2
0 305. Is the substitution u = 1 − x 2 in the definite integral
2
1 ⌠ x dx okay? If not, why not?
⌠ x dx ⌡0 1 − x 2
⌡0 1 + x 2
293.

In the following exercises, use a change of variables to

2 show that each definite integral is equal to zero.
⌠ t 2 dt
⌡0 5 + t 2
294. π
306. ∫ cos 2 (2θ)sin(2θ)dθ
0
1
⌠ t 2 dt π
∫ t cos⎛⎝t 2⎞⎠sin⎛⎝t 2⎞⎠dt
⌡0 1 + t 3
295. 307.
0

π/4 1
296. ∫ sec 2 θ tanθdθ 308. ∫ (1 − 2t)dt
0 0
594 Chapter 5 | Integration

⌠
1 318. [T] The following graph is of a function of the form

⎮ 1 − 2t dt
f (t) = asin(nt) + bsin(mt). Estimate the coefficients a
309.
⎮ ⎛ ⎛ 1 ⎞2⎞ and b, and the frequency parameters n and m. Use these
⌡0 ⎝ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎠
1+ t− π
estimates to approximate ∫ f (t)dt.
0

⎛ 3⎞
π
310. ⌠ sin⎜⎝t −
⎛ π ⎞ ⎟cos⎛t − π ⎞dt
⎝⌡0 2⎠ ⎠ ⎝ 2⎠

2
311. ∫ (1 − t)cos(πt)dt
0

3π/4
312. ∫ sin 2 t costdt
π/4

313. Show that the average value of f (x) over an interval 319. [T] The following graph is of a function of the form
⎡ ⎤
f (x) = acos(nt) + bcos(mt). Estimate the coefficients a
⎣a, b is the same as the average value of f (cx) over the
⎦
and b and the frequency parameters n and m. Use these
⎡ ⎤
interval ⎣ ac , bc ⎦ for c > 0. π
estimates to approximate ∫ f (t)dt.
0
314. Find the area under the graph of f (t) = t
⎛
a
⎝1 + t 2⎞⎠
between t = 0 and t = x where a > 0 and a ≠ 1 is
fixed, and evaluate the limit as x → ∞.

315. Find the area under the graph of g(t) = t

⎛
a
⎝1 − t 2⎞⎠
between t = 0 and t = x, where 0 < x < 1 and a > 0
is fixed. Evaluate the limit as x → 1.

316. The area of a semicircle of radius 1 can be expressed

1
as ∫ 1 − x 2dx. Use the substitution x = cost to
−1
express the area of a semicircle as the integral of a
trigonometric function. You do not need to compute the
integral.

317. The area of the top half of an ellipse with a major

axis that is the x-axis from x = a to a and with a minor
axis that is the y-axis from y = −b to b can be written
a
as ⌠ b 1 − x 2 dx. Use the substitution x = acost to
2

⌡−a a
express this area in terms of an integral of a trigonometric
function. You do not need to compute the integral.

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Chapter 5 | Integration 595

5.6 | Integrals Involving Exponential and Logarithmic

Functions
Learning Objectives
5.6.1 Integrate functions involving exponential functions.
5.6.2 Integrate functions involving logarithmic functions.

Exponential and logarithmic functions are used to model population growth, cell growth, and financial growth, as well as
depreciation, radioactive decay, and resource consumption, to name only a few applications. In this section, we explore
integration involving exponential and logarithmic functions.

Integrals of Exponential Functions

The exponential function is perhaps the most efficient function in terms of the operations of calculus. The exponential
function, y = e x, is its own derivative and its own integral.

Rule: Integrals of Exponential Functions

Exponential functions can be integrated using the following formulas.

∫ e x dx = ex + C (5.21)

∫ a x dx = ax + C
lna

Example 5.37

Finding an Antiderivative of an Exponential Function

Find the antiderivative of the exponential function e−x.

Solution
Use substitution, setting u = −x, and then du = −1dx. Multiply the du equation by −1, so you now have
−du = dx. Then,

∫ e −xdx = −∫ e u du

= −e u + C
= −e −x + C.

5.31 3
Find the antiderivative of the function using substitution: x 2 e −2x .

A common mistake when dealing with exponential expressions is treating the exponent on e the same way we treat
exponents in polynomial expressions. We cannot use the power rule for the exponent on e. This can be especially confusing
when we have both exponentials and polynomials in the same expression, as in the previous checkpoint. In these cases, we
should always double-check to make sure we’re using the right rules for the functions we’re integrating.
596 Chapter 5 | Integration

Example 5.38

Square Root of an Exponential Function

Find the antiderivative of the exponential function e x 1 + e x.

Solution
First rewrite the problem using a rational exponent:

∫ ex 1 + e xdx = ∫ e x (1 + e x) 1/2 dx.

Using substitution, choose u = 1 + e x.u = 1 + e x. Then, du = e x dx. We have (Figure 5.37)

∫ e x (1 + e x) 1/2 dx = ∫ u 1/2 du.

Then

⌠u 1/2 du = u 3/2 + C = 2 u 3/2 + C = 2 (1 + e x) 3/2 + C.

⌡ 3/2 3 3

Figure 5.37 The graph shows an exponential function times

the square root of an exponential function.

5.32 Find the antiderivative of e x (3e x − 2) 2.

Example 5.39

Using Substitution with an Exponential Function

3
Use substitution to evaluate the indefinite integral ∫ 3x 2 e 2x dx.

Solution
Here we choose to let u equal the expression in the exponent on e. Let u = 2x 3 and du = 6x 2 dx.. Again, du
is off by a constant multiplier; the original function contains a factor of 3x2, not 6x2. Multiply both sides of the
equation by 1 so that the integrand in u equals the integrand in x. Thus,
2
3
∫ 3x 2 e 2x dx = 1 ∫ e u du.
2

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Chapter 5 | Integration 597

Integrate the expression in u and then substitute the original expression in x back into the u integral:
1 ∫ e udu = 1 e u + C = 1 e 2x 3 + C.
2 2 2

5.33 4
Evaluate the indefinite integral ∫ 2x 3 e x dx.

As mentioned at the beginning of this section, exponential functions are used in many real-life applications. The number e is
often associated with compounded or accelerating growth, as we have seen in earlier sections about the derivative. Although
the derivative represents a rate of change or a growth rate, the integral represents the total change or the total growth. Let’s
look at an example in which integration of an exponential function solves a common business application.
A price–demand function tells us the relationship between the quantity of a product demanded and the price of the product.
In general, price decreases as quantity demanded increases. The marginal price–demand function is the derivative of the
price–demand function and it tells us how fast the price changes at a given level of production. These functions are used in
business to determine the price–elasticity of demand, and to help companies determine whether changing production levels
would be profitable.

Example 5.40

Finding a Price–Demand Equation

Find the price–demand equation for a particular brand of toothpaste at a supermarket chain when the demand is
50 tubes per week at $2.35 per tube, given that the marginal price—demand function, p′ (x), for x number of
tubes per week, is given as
p '(x) = −0.015e −0.01x.

If the supermarket chain sells 100 tubes per week, what price should it set?

Solution
To find the price–demand equation, integrate the marginal price–demand function. First find the antiderivative,
then look at the particulars. Thus,

p(x) = ∫ −0.015e −0.01x dx

= −0.015∫ e −0.01xdx.

Using substitution, let u = −0.01x and du = −0.01dx. Then, divide both sides of the du equation by −0.01.
This gives
−0.015 ∫ e u du = 1.5∫ e u du
−0.01
= 1.5e u + C
= 1.5e −0.01x + C.
The next step is to solve for C. We know that when the price is $2.35 per tube, the demand is 50 tubes per week.
This means
598 Chapter 5 | Integration

−0.01(50)
p(50) = 1.5e +C
= 2.35.
Now, just solve for C:

C = 2.35 − 1.5e −0.5

= 2.35 − 0.91
= 1.44.
Thus,
p(x) = 1.5e −0.01x + 1.44.

If the supermarket sells 100 tubes of toothpaste per week, the price would be
−0.01(100)
p(100) = 1.5e + 1.44 = 1.5e −1 + 1.44 ≈ 1.99.

The supermarket should charge $1.99 per tube if it is selling 100 tubes per week.

Example 5.41

Evaluating a Definite Integral Involving an Exponential Function

2
Evaluate the definite integral ∫ e 1 − x dx.
1

Solution
Again, substitution is the method to use. Let u = 1 − x, so du = −1dx or −du = dx. Then
∫ e 1 − x dx = −∫ e u du. Next, change the limits of integration. Using the equation u = 1 − x, we have

u = 1 − (1) = 0
u = 1 − (2) = −1.

The integral then becomes

2 −1
∫ e 1 − x dx = −∫ e u du
1 0

0
=∫ e u du
−1
= |
u0
e −1
0 ⎛ −1⎞
= e − ⎝e ⎠
−1
= −e + 1.
See Figure 5.38.

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Chapter 5 | Integration 599

Figure 5.38 The indicated area can be calculated by

evaluating a definite integral using substitution.

5.34 2
Evaluate ∫ e 2x dx.
0

Example 5.42

Growth of Bacteria in a Culture

Suppose the rate of growth of bacteria in a Petri dish is given by q(t) = 3 t, where t is given in hours and q(t)
is given in thousands of bacteria per hour. If a culture starts with 10,000 bacteria, find a function Q(t) that gives
the number of bacteria in the Petri dish at any time t. How many bacteria are in the dish after 2 hours?

Solution
We have

Q(t) = ⌠3 t dt = 3 + C.
t
⌡ ln3

Then, at t = 0 we have Q(0) = 10 = 1 + C, so C ≈ 9.090 and we get

ln3
t
Q(t) = 3 + 9.090.
ln3
At time t = 2, we have
2
Q(2) = 3 + 9.090
ln3
= 17.282.
After 2 hours, there are 17,282 bacteria in the dish.

5.35 From Example 5.42, suppose the bacteria grow at a rate of q(t) = 2 t. Assume the culture still starts
with 10,000 bacteria. Find Q(t). How many bacteria are in the dish after 3 hours?
600 Chapter 5 | Integration

Example 5.43

Fruit Fly Population Growth

Suppose a population of fruit flies increases at a rate of g(t) = 2e 0.02t, in flies per day. If the initial population
of fruit flies is 100 flies, how many flies are in the population after 10 days?

Solution
Let G(t) represent the number of flies in the population at time t. Applying the net change theorem, we have

10
G(10) = G(0) + ∫ 2e 0.02t dt
0
⎡ ⎤
|
10
= 100 + ⎣ 2 e 0.02t⎦ 0
0.02

|
⎡
10
0.02t⎤
= 100 + ⎣100e ⎦0

= 100 + 100e 0.2 − 100

≈ 122.
There are 122 flies in the population after 10 days.

5.36 Suppose the rate of growth of the fly population is given by g(t) = e 0.01t, and the initial fly population
is 100 flies. How many flies are in the population after 15 days?

Example 5.44

Evaluating a Definite Integral Using Substitution

2
Evaluate the definite integral using substitution: ⌠ e 2 dx.
1/x
⌡1 x

Solution
This problem requires some rewriting to simplify applying the properties. First, rewrite the exponent on e as a
power of x, then bring the x2 in the denominator up to the numerator using a negative exponent. We have
2
⌠ e 1/x dx = ∫ e x −1 x −2 dx.
2

⌡1 x 2 1

Let u = x −1, the exponent on e. Then

du = −x −2 dx
−du = x −2 dx.

Bringing the negative sign outside the integral sign, the problem now reads

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Chapter 5 | Integration 601

−∫ e u du.

Next, change the limits of integration:

u = (1) −1 = 1
u = (2) −1 = 1 .
2

Notice that now the limits begin with the larger number, meaning we must multiply by −1 and interchange the
limits. Thus,

1/2 1
−∫ e u du = ∫ e u du
1 1/2

= eu |1
1/2
1/2
=e−e
= e − e.

5.37 2
Evaluate the definite integral using substitution: ⌠ 13 e 4x dx.
−2
⌡1 x

Integrals Involving Logarithmic Functions

Integrating functions of the form f (x) = x −1 result in the absolute value of the natural log function, as shown in the
following rule. Integral formulas for other logarithmic functions, such as f (x) = ln x and f (x) = log a x, are also included
in the rule.

Rule: Integration Formulas Involving Logarithmic Functions

The following formulas can be used to evaluate integrals involving logarithmic functions.

∫ x −1 dx = ln|x| + C (5.22)

∫ ln x dx = x ln x − x + C = x(ln x − 1) + C

∫ log ax dx = x (ln x − 1) + C
lna

Example 5.45

Finding an Antiderivative Involving ln x

Find the antiderivative of the function 3 .

x − 10
602 Chapter 5 | Integration

Solution
First factor the 3 outside the integral symbol. Then use the u−1 rule. Thus,
⌠ 3 dx = 3⌠ 1 dx
⌡x − 10 ⌡x − 10

= 3∫ du
u
= 3ln|u| + C
= 3ln|x − 10| + C, x ≠ 10.
See Figure 5.39.

Figure 5.39 The domain of this function is x ≠ 10.

5.38 Find the antiderivative of 1 .

x+2

Example 5.46

Finding an Antiderivative of a Rational Function

3
Find the antiderivative of 2x4 + 3x2 .
x + 3x

Solution
⌠⎛2x 3 + 3x⎞⎛x 4 + 3x 2⎞
−1
This can be rewritten as ⎝ ⎠⎝ ⎠ dx. Use substitution. Let u = x 4 + 3x 2, then
⌡
du = 4x 3 + 6x. Alter du by factoring out the 2. Thus,

⎛ 3
du = ⎝4x + 6x⎞⎠dx
= 2⎛⎝2x 3 + 3x⎞⎠dx
⎛ 3
1 du =
⎝2x + 3x⎞⎠dx.
2
Rewrite the integrand in u:

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Chapter 5 | Integration 603

⌠⎛2x 3 + 3x⎞⎛x 4 + 3x 2⎞
−1
⎝ ⎠⎝ ⎠ dx = 1 ∫ u −1du.
⌡ 2

Then we have
1 ∫ u −1 du = 1 ln|u| + C
2 2

| |
= 1 ln x 4 + 3x 2 + C.
2

Example 5.47

Finding an Antiderivative of a Logarithmic Function

Find the antiderivative of the log function log 2 x.

Solution
Follow the format in the formula listed in the rule on integration formulas involving logarithmic functions. Based
on this format, we have
x (ln x − 1) + C.
∫ log 2 xdx = ln2

5.39 Find the antiderivative of log 3 x.

Example 5.48 is a definite integral of a trigonometric function. With trigonometric functions, we often have to apply a
trigonometric property or an identity before we can move forward. Finding the right form of the integrand is usually the key
to a smooth integration.

Example 5.48

Evaluating a Definite Integral

π/2
Find the definite integral of ⌠ sin x dx.
⌡0 1 + cos x

Solution
We need substitution to evaluate this problem. Let u = 1 + cos x, , so du = −sin x dx. Rewrite the integral in
terms of u, changing the limits of integration as well. Thus,
u = 1 + cos(0) = 2
⎛ ⎞
u = 1 + cos⎝π ⎠ = 1.
2
604 Chapter 5 | Integration

Then
π/2 1
⌠ sin x = −∫ u −1 du
⌡0 1 + cos x 2

2
= ∫ u −1 du
1
= ln|u|| 21
= [ln2 − ln1]
= ln2.

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Chapter 5 | Integration 605

5.6 EXERCISES
In the following exercises, compute each indefinite 3
integral.
337. ∫ x 2e −x dx

320. ∫ e 2xdx 338. ∫ e sin x cos xdx

321. ∫ e −3xdx 339. ∫ e tan xsec 2 xdx

322. ∫ 2 xdx 340. ∫ e ln x dx

x

341. ⌠e
323. ∫ 3 −xdx ln(1 − t)
dt
⌡ 1−t
324. ⌠ 1 dx
⌡2x In the following exercises, verify by differentiation that
∫ ln x dx = x(ln x − 1) + C, then use appropriate
325. ∫ 2x dx changes of variables to compute the integral.

326. ⌠ 12 dx 342. ∫ ln xdx (Hint: ⌠ln xdx = 1 ∫ xln⎛⎝x 2⎞⎠dx)

⌡
⌡x
2

327. ∫ 1 dx 343. ∫ x 2ln 2 x dx

x

In the following exercises, find each indefinite integral by 344. ⌠ln2x dx (Hint: Set u = 1x .)
using appropriate substitutions. ⌡x

328. ∫ lnxx dx 345. ∫ lnxx dx (Hint: Set u = x.)

⌠ dx 346. Write an integral to express the area under the graph

⌡x(ln x) 2
329.
of y = 1t from t = 1 to ex and evaluate the integral.

330. ⌠ dx (x > 1) 347. Write an integral to express the area under the graph
⌡x ln x
of y = e t between t = 0 and t = ln x, and evaluate the
integral.
331. ⌠ dx
⌡x ln x ln(ln x) In the following exercises, use appropriate substitutions
to express the trigonometric integrals in terms of
332. ∫ tanθ dθ compositions with logarithms.

348. ∫ tan(2x)dx
333. ∫ cos xx cos
− x sin x dx
x

349. ⌠
sin(3x) − cos(3x)
dx
334. ⌠
ln(sin x)
dx ⌡sin(3x) + cos(3x)
⌡ tan x

⌠x sin⎝x ⎠dx
⎛ 2⎞
∫ ln(cos x)tan xdx
⌡ cos⎝x ⎠
335. 350. ⎛ 2⎞

2
336. ∫ xe −x dx
351. ∫ x csc⎛⎝x 2⎞⎠dx
606 Chapter 5 | Integration

352. ∫ ln(cos x)tan x dx 368. [T] y = ln(x) over [1, 2]

369. [T] y = 2 x + 1 over [0, 1]

353. ∫ ln(csc x)cot xdx x + 2x + 6

370. [T] y = 2 x over [−1, 0]

⌠e − e dx
x −x
354.
⌡e x + e −x
371. [T] y = −2 −x over [0, 1]
In the following exercises, evaluate the definite integral.
In the following exercises, f (x) ≥ 0 for a ≤ x ≤ b. Find
2
355. ⌠ 1 + 2x 2+ x 3 dx
2 the area under the graph of f (x) between the given values
⌡ 3x + 3x + x
1 a and b by integrating.

π/4 log 10 (x)

f (x) = ; a = 10, b = 100
356. ∫ tan x dx
372. x
0
log 2 (x)
π/3 373. f (x) = x ; a = 32, b = 64
357. ⌠ sin x − cos x dx
⌡0 sin x + cos x
374. f (x) = 2 −x; a = 1, b = 2
π/2
358. ∫ csc xdx 375. f (x) = 2 −x; a = 3, b = 4
π/6
376. Find the area under the graph of the function
π/3 2
359. ∫ cot xdx f (x) = xe −x between x = 0 and x = 5.
π/4

2
In the following exercises, integrate using the indicated 377. Compute the integral of f (x) = xe −x and find the
substitution.
smallest value of N such that the area under the graph
2
360. ∫ x −x100 dx; u = x − 100 f (x) = xe −x between x = N and x = N + 1 is, at
most, 0.01.

361. ⌠
y−1
dy; u = y + 1 378. Find the limit, as N tends to infinity, of the area under
⌡y + 1 2
the graph of f (x) = xe −x between x = 0 and x = 5.

362. ⌠ 1 − x 3 dx; u = 3x − x 3
2
⌡3x − x
b 1/a
379. Show that ∫ a dtt = ∫ dt when 0 < a ≤ b.
t
1/b
363. ⌠sin x + cos x dx; u = sin x − cos x
⌡sin x − cos x 380. Suppose that f (x) > 0 for all x and that f and g are
g ln f
differentiable. Use the identity f g = e and the chain
364. ∫ e 2x 1 − e 2xdx; u = e 2x
g
rule to find the derivative of f .

⌠ln(x) 1 − (ln x) 2 dx; u = ln x 381. Use the previous exercise to find the antiderivative of
⌡
365. x 3
h(x) = x x (1 + ln x) and evaluate ∫ x x (1 + ln x)dx.
2
In the following exercises, does the right-endpoint
approximation overestimate or underestimate the exact 382. Show that if c > 0, then the integral of 1/x from
area? Calculate the right endpoint estimate R50 and solve
ac to bc (0 < a < b) is the same as the integral of 1/x
for the exact area.
from a to b.
366. [T] y = e x over [0, 1]
The following exercises are intended to derive the
−x fundamental properties of the natural log starting from the
367. [T] y = e over [0, 1]

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Chapter 5 | Integration 607

x 390. [T] Compute the right endpoint estimates

definition ln(x) = ∫ dt
t , using properties of the definite 5
R 50 and R 100 of ⌠
1 2 /8
1 e −(x − 1) .
integral and making no further assumptions. ⌡−3 2 2π
x
383. Use the identity ln(x) = ∫ dt
t to derive the identity
1

ln⎛⎝1x ⎞⎠ = −ln x.

xy
384. Use a change of variable in the integral ∫ 1 dt to
1
t
show that ln xy = ln x + ln y for x, y > 0.

x
385. Use the identity ln x = ∫ dt
x to show that ln(x)
1
is an increasing function of x on [0, ∞), and use the
previous exercises to show that the range of ln(x) is
(−∞, ∞). Without any further assumptions, conclude that
ln(x) has an inverse function defined on (−∞, ∞).

386. Pretend, for the moment, that we do not know that

e x is the inverse function of ln(x), but keep in mind
that ln(x) has an inverse function defined on (−∞, ∞).
Call it E. Use the identity ln xy = ln x + ln y to deduce that
E(a + b) = E(a)E(b) for any real numbers a, b.

387. Pretend, for the moment, that we do not know that

e x is the inverse function of ln x, but keep in mind that
ln x has an inverse function defined on (−∞, ∞). Call it
E. Show that E '(t) = E(t).

x
388. The sine integral, defined as S(x) = ∫ sint
t dt is 0
an important quantity in engineering. Although it does not
have a simple closed formula, it is possible to estimate
its behavior for large x. Show that for
k ≥ 1, |S(2πk) − S⎛⎝2π(k + 1)⎞⎠| ≤ 1 .
k(2k + 1)π
(Hint: sin(t + π) = −sint)

389. [T] The normal distribution in probability is given

2 /2σ 2
by p(x) = 1 e −(x − μ) , where σ is the standard
σ 2π
deviation and μ is the average. The standard normal
distribution in probability, p s, corresponds to
μ = 0 and σ = 1. Compute the right endpoint estimates
1
R 10 and R 100 of ⌠ 1 e −x 2/2 dx.
⌡−1 2π
608 Chapter 5 | Integration

5.7 | Integrals Resulting in Inverse Trigonometric

Functions
Learning Objectives
5.7.1 Integrate functions resulting in inverse trigonometric functions

In this section we focus on integrals that result in inverse trigonometric functions. We have worked with these functions
before. Recall from Functions and Graphs that trigonometric functions are not one-to-one unless the domains are
restricted. When working with inverses of trigonometric functions, we always need to be careful to take these restrictions
into account. Also in Derivatives, we developed formulas for derivatives of inverse trigonometric functions. The formulas
developed there give rise directly to integration formulas involving inverse trigonometric functions.

Integrals that Result in Inverse Sine Functions

Let us begin this last section of the chapter with the three formulas. Along with these formulas, we use substitution to
evaluate the integrals. We prove the formula for the inverse sine integral.

Rule: Integration Formulas Resulting in Inverse Trigonometric Functions

The following integration formulas yield inverse trigonometric functions:
1.

⌠ du = sin −1 u + C (5.23)
⌡ a2 − u2 |a|
2.

⌠ du = 1 tan −1 u + C (5.24)
⌡a 2 + u 2 a a
3.

⌠ du = 1 sec −1 u + C
(5.25)
⌡u u − a
2 2 |a| |a|

Proof
Let y = sin −1 ax . Then asin y = x. Now let’s use implicit differentiation. We obtain

d ⎛⎝asin y⎞⎠ = d (x)

dx dx
dy
acos y = 1
dx

dy 1 .
= acos y
dx

For − π ≤ y ≤ π , cos y ≥ 0. Thus, applying the Pythagorean identity sin 2 y + cos 2 y = 1, we have
2 2
cos y = 1 – sin 2 y. This gives

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Chapter 5 | Integration 609

1 1
acos y =
a 1 − sin 2 y

= 1
a − a 2 sin 2 y
2

= 1 .
a − x2
2

Then for −a ≤ x ≤ a, and generalizing to u, we have

⌠ 1 du = sin −1⎛⎝u ⎞⎠ + C.
⌡ a2 − u2
a

Example 5.49

Evaluating a Definite Integral Using Inverse Trigonometric Functions

1
2
⌠ dx .
⌡0 1 − x 2
Evaluate the definite integral

Solution
We can go directly to the formula for the antiderivative in the rule on integration formulas resulting in inverse
trigonometric functions, and then evaluate the definite integral. We have

1
2 1
⌠ dx
|
2
= sin −1 x
⌡0 1 − x 2 0

= sin −1 1 − sin −1 0
2
= π −0
6
= π.
6

Find the antiderivative of ⌠

5.40 dx .
⌡ 1 − 16x 2

Example 5.50

Finding an Antiderivative Involving an Inverse Trigonometric Function

⌠ dx .
⌡ 4 − 9x 2
Evaluate the integral
610 Chapter 5 | Integration

Solution
Substitute u = 3x. Then du = 3dx and we have

⌠ dx = 1 ⌠ du .
⌡ 4 − 9x 2 3 ⌡ 4 − u 2
Applying the formula with a = 2, we obtain

⌠ dx = 1 ⌠ du
⌡ 4 − 9x 2 3⌡ 4 − u2

⎛ ⎞
= 1 sin −1 ⎝u ⎠ + C
3 2
1 −1 ⎛3x ⎞
= sin ⎝ ⎠ + C.
3 2

Find the indefinite integral using an inverse trigonometric function and substitution for ⌠ dx .
5.41
⌡ 9 − x2

Example 5.51

Evaluating a Definite Integral

3/2
⌠ du .
⌡0
Evaluate the definite integral
1 − u2

Solution
The format of the problem matches the inverse sine formula. Thus,

3/2
⌠
|
3/2
du = sin −1 u
⌡0 1 − u2 0

⎡ ⎛ ⎞⎤
= ⎣sin −1 ⎝ 3 ⎠⎦ − ⎡⎣sin −1 (0)⎤⎦
2
= π.
3

Integrals Resulting in Other Inverse Trigonometric Functions

There are six inverse trigonometric functions. However, only three integration formulas are noted in the rule on integration
formulas resulting in inverse trigonometric functions because the remaining three are negative versions of the ones we use.
The only difference is whether the integrand is positive or negative. Rather than memorizing three more formulas, if the
integrand is negative, simply factor out −1 and evaluate the integral using one of the formulas already provided. To close
this section, we examine one more formula: the integral resulting in the inverse tangent function.

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Chapter 5 | Integration 611

Example 5.52

Finding an Antiderivative Involving the Inverse Tangent Function

Find an antiderivative of ⌠ 1 dx.

⌡1 + 4x 2

Solution
Comparing this problem with the formulas stated in the rule on integration formulas resulting in inverse
trigonometric functions, the integrand looks similar to the formula for tan −1 u + C. So we use substitution,
letting u = 2x, then du = 2dx and 1/2du = dx. Then, we have

1 ⌠ 1 du = 1 tan −1 u + C = 1 tan −1 (2x) + C.

2 ⌡1 + u 2 2 2

Use substitution to find the antiderivative ⌠ dx 2 .

5.42
⌡25 + 4x

Example 5.53

Applying the Integration Formulas

Find the antiderivative of ⌠ 1 dx.

⌡9 + x 2

Solution
Apply the formula with a = 3. Then,

⌠ dx = 1 tan −1 ⎛ x ⎞ + C.
⎝3 ⎠
⌡9 + x 2 3

Find the antiderivative of ⌠ dx 2 .

5.43
⌡16 + x

Example 5.54

Evaluating a Definite Integral

3
Evaluate the definite integral ⌠ dx .
⌡ 3/3
1 + x2
612 Chapter 5 | Integration

Solution
Use the formula for the inverse tangent. We have

3
⌠
|
3
dx = tan −1 x
⌡ 3/3
1 + x 2
3/3

⎡ ⎛ ⎞⎤
= ⎡⎣tan −1 ⎛⎝ 3⎞⎠⎤⎦ − ⎣tan −1 ⎝ 3 ⎠⎦
3
= .π
6

2
Evaluate the definite integral ⌠ dx 2 .
5.44
⌡0 4 + x

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Chapter 5 | Integration 613

5.7 EXERCISES
In the following exercises, evaluate each integral in terms 403. Explain the relationship

−cos −1 t + C = ⌠ dt = sin −1 t + C. Is it true, in

of an inverse trigonometric function.

3/2 ⌡ 1 − t2
391. ⌠ dx general, that cos −1 t = −sin −1 t ?
⌡0 1 − x2
404. Explain the relationship

sec −1 t + C = ⌠ dt
1/2
392. ⌠ dx = −csc −1 t + C. Is it true, in
⌡−1/2 1 − x 2 ⌡|t| t 2 − 1
general, that sec −1 t = −csc −1 t ?
1
393. ⌠ dx 405. Explain what is wrong with the following integral:
⌡ 31 - x2 2
⌠ dt .
3 ⌡1 1 − t 2
394. ⌠ dx
⌡1/ 3 1 + x 2 406. Explain what is wrong with the following integral:
1
⌠ dt .
⌡−1 |t| t 2 − 1
2
⌠ dx
⌡1 |x| x 2 − 1
395.

In the following exercises, solve for the antiderivative ∫f

2/ 3
⌠ dx of f with C = 0, then use a calculator to graph f and
⌡1 |x| x 2 − 1
396.
the antiderivative over the given interval ⎡⎣a, b⎤⎦. Identify a
value of C such that adding C to the antiderivative recovers
x
In the following exercises, find each indefinite integral, the definite integral F(x) = ∫ f (t)dt.
using appropriate substitutions. a

⌠ dx ⌠ 1 dx over [−3, 3]
⌡ 9 − x2
397.
⌡ 9 − x2
407. [T]

⌠ dx 408. [T] ⌠ 9 dx over ⎡⎣−6, 6⎤⎦

⌡ 1 − 16x 2
398.
⌡9 + x 2

399. ⌠ dx 2 409. [T] ⌠ cos x2 dx over ⎡⎣−6, 6⎤⎦

⌡9 + x ⌡4 + sin x

400. ⌠ dx 410. [T] ⌠ e x dx over ⎡⎣−6, 6⎤⎦

⌡25 + 16x 2 ⌡1 + e 2x

⌠ dx
In the following exercises, compute the antiderivative using

⌡|x| x 2 − 9
401. appropriate substitutions.

⌠sin −1 tdt
⌠ ⌡ 1 − t2
411.
dx
⌡|x| 4x 2 − 16
402.

⌠ dt
⌡sin t 1 − t 2
412.
−1
614 Chapter 5 | Integration

413. ⌠ ⌠ dt
−1
tan (2t)
dt
⌡ 1 + 4t 2
⌡t⎝1 + ln t⎠
426. ⎛ 2 ⎞

⌠ttan ⎝t
−1 ⎛ 2⎞
⌠cos (2t) dt
⎠ −1
dt
⌡ 1+t
414. 4
⌡ 1 − 4t 2
427.

⌠sec ⎝2 ⎠ dt
−1 ⎛ t ⎞
⌠e cos ⎝e ⎠dt
t −1 ⎛ t⎞

⌡|t| t 2 − 4
415.
⌡ 1 − e 2t
428.

⌠tsec ⎝t ⎠dt
−1 ⎛ 2⎞ In the following exercises, compute each definite integral.

⌡t 2 t 4 − 1
416.

⌠
1/2
tan⎛⎝sin −1 t⎞⎠
dt
⌡0
429.
In the following exercises, use a calculator to graph the 1 − t2
antiderivative ∫f with C = 0 over the given interval

⌠ tan⎝cos t⎠dt
⎡
1/2 ⎛ −1 ⎞
⎣a, b⎤⎦. Approximate a value of C, if possible, such that

⌡1/4 1 − t 2
430.
adding C to the antiderivative gives the same value as the
x
definite integral F(x) = ∫ f (t)dt.
a

⌠
1/2
sin⎛⎝tan −1 t⎞⎠
⌠ 1 dx over 2, 6
dt
⌡0
431.
⎡ ⎤ 1 + t2
⌡x x 2 − 4
417. [T] ⎣ ⎦

⌠
1/2
418. [T] ⌠ 1 dx over ⎡⎣0, 6⎤⎦ cos⎛⎝tan −1 t⎞⎠
⌡(2x + 2) x dt
⌡0
432.
1 + t2

419. [T] ⌠
(sin x + x cos x)
dx over ⎡⎣−6, 6⎤⎦
⌡ 1 + x sin x
A
compute I(A) = ⌠
2 2
433. For A > 0, dt and
⌡−A 1 + t 2
⌠ 2e −2x dx over [0, 2] 1
⌡ 1 − e −4x
420. [T] evaluate a lim I(A), the area under the graph of
→∞ 1 + t2
on [−∞, ∞].
421. [T] ⌠ 1 over [0, 2]
⌡x + xln 2 x B
434. For 1 < B < ∞, compute I(B) = ⌠ dt
⌡1 t t − 1
and
⌠ sin −1 x over [−1, 1]
2

⌡ 1 − x2
422. [T]
evaluate lim I(B), the area under the graph of
B→∞

In the following exercises, compute each integral using

1 over [1, ∞).
appropriate substitutions. t t2 − 1

⌠ e t dt 435. Use the substitution u = 2 cot x and the identity

⌡ 1 − e 2t
423.
1 + cot 2 x = csc 2 x to evaluate ⌠ dx 2 . (Hint:
⌡1 + cos x
424. ⌠ e t dt Multiply the top and bottom of the integrand by csc 2 x.)
⌡1 + e 2t

⌠ dt
⌡t 1 − ln 2 t
425.

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Chapter 5 | Integration 615

436. [T] Approximate the points at which the graphs of

−3/2
f (x) = 2x 2 − 1 and g(x) = ⎛⎝1 + 4x 2⎞⎠ intersect to
four decimal places, and approximate the area between
their graphs to three decimal places.

437. 47. [T] Approximate the points at which the graphs

1
⎛ 2
2
2
of f (x) = x − 1 and g(x) = ⎝x + 1⎞⎠ intersect to four
decimal places, and approximate the area between their
graphs to three decimal places.

438. Use the following graph to prove that

x
⌠ 1 − t 2dt = 1 x 1 − x 2 + 1 sin −1 x.
⌡0 2 2
616 Chapter 5 | Integration

CHAPTER 5 REVIEW
KEY TERMS
average value of a function (or fave) the average value of a function on an interval can be found by calculating the
definite integral of the function and dividing that value by the length of the interval
change of variables the substitution of a variable, such as u, for an expression in the integrand
definite integral a primary operation of calculus; the area between the curve and the x-axis over a given interval is a
definite integral
fundamental theorem of calculus the theorem, central to the entire development of calculus, that establishes the
relationship between differentiation and integration
fundamental theorem of calculus, part 1 uses a definite integral to define an antiderivative of a function
fundamental theorem of calculus, part 2 (also, evaluation theorem) we can evaluate a definite integral by
evaluating the antiderivative of the integrand at the endpoints of the interval and subtracting
integrable function a function is integrable if the limit defining the integral exists; in other words, if the limit of the
Riemann sums as n goes to infinity exists
integrand the function to the right of the integration symbol; the integrand includes the function being integrated
integration by substitution a technique for integration that allows integration of functions that are the result of a
chain-rule derivative
left-endpoint approximation an approximation of the area under a curve computed by using the left endpoint of each
subinterval to calculate the height of the vertical sides of each rectangle
limits of integration these values appear near the top and bottom of the integral sign and define the interval over which
the function should be integrated
lower sum a sum obtained by using the minimum value of f (x) on each subinterval

mean value theorem for integrals guarantees that a point c exists such that f (c) is equal to the average value of the
function
net change theorem if we know the rate of change of a quantity, the net change theorem says the future quantity is
equal to the initial quantity plus the integral of the rate of change of the quantity
net signed area the area between a function and the x-axis such that the area below the x-axis is subtracted from the area
above the x-axis; the result is the same as the definite integral of the function
partition a set of points that divides an interval into subintervals
regular partition a partition in which the subintervals all have the same width
riemann sum n
an estimate of the area under the curve of the form A ≈ ∑ f (x*i )Δx
i=1

right-endpoint approximation the right-endpoint approximation is an approximation of the area of the rectangles
under a curve using the right endpoint of each subinterval to construct the vertical sides of each rectangle
sigma notation (also, summation notation) the Greek letter sigma (Σ) indicates addition of the values; the values of the
index above and below the sigma indicate where to begin the summation and where to end it
total area total area between a function and the x-axis is calculated by adding the area above the x-axis and the area
below the x-axis; the result is the same as the definite integral of the absolute value of the function
upper sum a sum obtained by using the maximum value of f (x) on each subinterval

variable of integration indicates which variable you are integrating with respect to; if it is x, then the function in the
integrand is followed by dx

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Chapter 5 | Integration 617

KEY EQUATIONS
• Properties of Sigma Notation
n
∑ c = nc
i=1
n n
∑ ca i = c ∑ a i
i=1 i=1
n n n
∑ ⎛
⎝a i + b i⎞⎠ = ∑ ai + ∑ bi
i=1 i=1 i=1
n n n
∑ ⎛
⎝a i − b i⎞⎠ = ∑ ai − ∑ bi
i=1 i=1 i=1
n m n
∑ ai = ∑ ai + ∑ ai
i=1 i=1 i=m+1

• Sums and Powers of Integers

n
∑ i = 1 + 2 + ⋯ + n = n(n 2+ 1)
i=1
n
∑ i 2 = 1 2 + 2 2 + ⋯ + n 2 = n(n + 1)(2n
6
+ 1)
i=1
n 2
(n + 1) 2
∑ i3 = 13 + 23 + ⋯ + n3 = n 4
i=0

• Left-Endpoint Approximation
n
A ≈ L n = f (x 0)Δx + f (x 1)Δx + ⋯ + f (x n − 1)Δx = ∑ f (x i − 1)Δx
i=1

• Right-Endpoint Approximation
n
A ≈ R n = f (x 1)Δx + f (x 2)Δx + ⋯ + f (x n)Δx = ∑ f (x i)Δx
i=1

• Definite Integral
b n
∫ a f (x)dx = n lim
→∞
∑ f ⎛⎝x*i ⎞⎠Δx
i=1

• Properties of the Definite Integral

a
∫ a f (x)dx = 0
a b
∫ f (x)dx = −∫ f (x)dx
a
b
b b b
∫a ⎡
⎣ f (x) + g(x)⎤⎦dx = ∫ f (x)dx + ∫ g(x)dx
a a

⌠ f (x) − g(x) dx = ⌠ f (x)dx − ∫ bg(x)dx

b b
⎡ ⎤

⌡a ⌡a
⎣ ⎦
a

b b
∫ a c f (x)dx = c∫ a f (x) for constant c

b c b
∫ a f (x)dx = ∫ a f (x)dx + ∫ c f (x)dx

• Mean Value Theorem for Integrals

618 Chapter 5 | Integration

⎡
If f (x) is continuous over an interval ⎣a, b⎤⎦, then there is at least one point c ∈ ⎡⎣a, b⎤⎦ such that
b
1
b − a∫a
f (c) = f (x)dx.

• Fundamental Theorem of Calculus Part 1

x
If f (x) is continuous over an interval ⎡⎣a, b⎤⎦, and the function F(x) is defined by F(x) = ∫ f (t)dt, then
a
F′ (x) = f (x).

• Fundamental Theorem of Calculus Part 2

b
If f is continuous over the interval ⎡⎣a, b⎤⎦ and F(x) is any antiderivative of f (x), then ∫ a f (x)dx = F(b) − F(a).
• Net Change Theorem
b b
F(b) = F(a) + ∫ F '(x)dx or ∫ a F '(x)dx = F(b) − F(a)
a

• Substitution with Indefinite Integrals

∫ f g(x) g′ (x)dx = ∫ f (u)du = F(u) + C = F g(x) + C
⎡
⎣
⎤
⎦
⎛
⎝
⎞
⎠

• Substitution with Definite Integrals

⌠ f g(x) g '(x)dx = ∫
b g(b)
⎛ ⎞
f (u)du
⌡a
⎝ ⎠
g(a)

• Integrals of Exponential Functions

∫ e x dx = e x + C
x
⌠a x dx = a +C
⌡ lna
• Integration Formulas Involving Logarithmic Functions
∫ x −1 dx = ln|x| + C
∫ ln x dx = x ln x − x + C = x(ln x − 1) + C
x (ln x − 1) + C
∫ log a x dx = lna
• Integrals That Produce Inverse Trigonometric Functions
⌠ du = sin −1 ⎛⎝u ⎞⎠ + C
⌡ a2 − u2
a

⌠ du = 1 tan −1 ⎛⎝u ⎞⎠ + C
⌡a 2 + u 2 a a

⌠ du = 1a sec −1 ⎛⎝ua ⎞⎠ + C
⌡u u 2 − a 2

KEY CONCEPTS
5.1 Approximating Areas
n
• The use of sigma (summation) notation of the form ∑ ai is useful for expressing long sums of values in compact
i=1
form.

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Chapter 5 | Integration 619

• For a continuous function defined over an interval ⎡⎣a, b⎤⎦, the process of dividing the interval into n equal parts,
extending a rectangle to the graph of the function, calculating the areas of the series of rectangles, and then summing
the areas yields an approximation of the area of that region.

• The width of each rectangle is Δx = b − a

n .
n
• Riemann sums are expressions of the form ∑ f ⎛⎝x*i ⎞⎠Δx, and can be used to estimate the area under the curve
i=1
⎧ ⎫
y = f (x). Left- and right-endpoint approximations are special kinds of Riemann sums where the values of ⎨⎩x*i ⎬
⎭

are chosen to be the left or right endpoints of the subintervals, respectively.

⎧ ⎫
• Riemann sums allow for much flexibility in choosing the set of points ⎨⎩x*i ⎬
⎭
at which the function is evaluated,
often with an eye to obtaining a lower sum or an upper sum.

5.2 The Definite Integral

• The definite integral can be used to calculate net signed area, which is the area above the x-axis less the area below
the x-axis. Net signed area can be positive, negative, or zero.
• The component parts of the definite integral are the integrand, the variable of integration, and the limits of
integration.
• Continuous functions on a closed interval are integrable. Functions that are not continuous may still be integrable,
depending on the nature of the discontinuities.
• The properties of definite integrals can be used to evaluate integrals.
• The area under the curve of many functions can be calculated using geometric formulas.
• The average value of a function can be calculated using definite integrals.

5.3 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

• The Mean Value Theorem for Integrals states that for a continuous function over a closed interval, there is a value c
such that f (c) equals the average value of the function. See The Mean Value Theorem for Integrals.

• The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 1 shows the relationship between the derivative and the integral. See
Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 1.
• The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 2 is a formula for evaluating a definite integral in terms of an
antiderivative of its integrand. The total area under a curve can be found using this formula. See The
Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 2.

5.4 Integration Formulas and the Net Change Theorem

• The net change theorem states that when a quantity changes, the final value equals the initial value plus the integral
of the rate of change. Net change can be a positive number, a negative number, or zero.
• The area under an even function over a symmetric interval can be calculated by doubling the area over the positive
x-axis. For an odd function, the integral over a symmetric interval equals zero, because half the area is negative.

5.5 Substitution

• Substitution is a technique that simplifies the integration of functions that are the result of a chain-rule derivative.
The term ‘substitution’ refers to changing variables or substituting the variable u and du for appropriate expressions
in the integrand.
• When using substitution for a definite integral, we also have to change the limits of integration.
620 Chapter 5 | Integration

5.6 Integrals Involving Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

• Exponential and logarithmic functions arise in many real-world applications, especially those involving growth and
decay.
• Substitution is often used to evaluate integrals involving exponential functions or logarithms.

5.7 Integrals Resulting in Inverse Trigonometric Functions

• Formulas for derivatives of inverse trigonometric functions developed in Derivatives of Exponential and
Logarithmic Functions lead directly to integration formulas involving inverse trigonometric functions.
• Use the formulas listed in the rule on integration formulas resulting in inverse trigonometric functions to match up
the correct format and make alterations as necessary to solve the problem.
• Substitution is often required to put the integrand in the correct form.

CHAPTER 5 REVIEW EXERCISES

True or False. Justify your answer with a proof or a 1
⎛ 3
counterexample. Assume all functions f and g are 447. ∫ ⎝x − 2x 2 + 4x⎞⎠dx
−1
continuous over their domains.
439. If f (x) > 0, f ′ (x) > 0 for all x, then the right- 4
448. ⌠ 3t dt
⌡0 1 + 6t 2
b
hand rule underestimates the integral ∫ a f (x). Use a graph
to justify your answer.
π/2
b b b
449. ∫ 2sec(2θ)tan(2θ)dθ
π/3
440. ∫ a f (x) 2
dx = ∫ f (x)dx∫ f (x)dx
a a
π/4 2
441. If f (x) ≤ g(x) for all ⎡
x ∈ a, b ,
⎣
⎤
⎦ then
450. ∫ e cos xsin x cosx dx
0
b b
∫ a f (x) ≤ ∫ a g(x). Find the antiderivative.

⌠ dx
⌡(x + 4) 3
442. All continuous functions have an antiderivative. 451.

Evaluate the Riemann sums L 4 and R 4 for the following

functions over the specified interval. Compare your answer 452. ∫ x ln⎛⎝x 2⎞⎠dx
with the exact answer, when possible, or use a calculator to
determine the answer.
⌠ 4x 2 dx
443. y = 3x 2 − 2x + 1 over [−1, 1]
⌡ 1 − x6
453.

444. y = ln⎛⎝x 2 + 1⎞⎠ over [0, e]

454. ⌠ e 4x dx
2x

⌡1 + e
445. y = x 2 sin x over [0, π]
Find the derivative.
t
446. y = x + 1x over [1, 4] d ⌠ sin x dx
dt ⌡ 1 + x 2
455.
0
Evaluate the following integrals.

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Chapter 5 | Integration 621

x3 463. What is the average velocity of the bullet for the first
d
dx ∫ 1
456. 4 − t 2dt half-second?

ln(x)
d ⎛
4t + e t⎞⎠dt
dx ∫ 1
457. ⎝

cos x 2
d
dx ∫ 0
458. e t dt

The following problems consider the historic average cost

per gigabyte of RAM on a computer.

Year 5-Year Change ($)

1980 0

1985 −5,468,750

1990 −755,495

1995 −73,005

2000 −29,768

2005 −918

2010 −177

459. If the average cost per gigabyte of RAM in 2010 is

$12, find the average cost per gigabyte of RAM in 1980.

460. The average cost per gigabyte of RAM can be

approximated by the function
C(t) = 8, 500, 000(0.65) t, where t is measured in years
since 1980, and C is cost in US$. Find the average cost per
gigabyte of RAM for 1980 to 2010.

461. Find the average cost of 1GB RAM for 2005 to

2010.

462. The velocity of a bullet from a rifle can be

approximated by v(t) = 6400t 2 − 6505t + 2686, where
t is seconds after the shot and v is the velocity measured
in feet per second. This equation only models the velocity
for the first half-second after the shot: 0 ≤ t ≤ 0.5. What
is the total distance the bullet travels in 0.5 sec?