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GOVERNMENT OF TAMILNADU
DIRECTORATE OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION
CHENNAI – 600 025
STATE PROJECT COORDINATION UNIT

Diploma in Electrical and Electronics Engineering

Course Code: 1030
M – Scheme

e-TEXTBOOK
on
POWER ELECTRONICS
for
VI Semester DEEE
Convener for EEE Discipline:

Er.R.Anbukarasi ME.,
Principal,
Tamilnadu Polytechnic College,
Madurai, 625011.

Team Members for POWER ELECTRONICS

THIRU M.SHANMUGANATHAM, B.E., M.I.S.T.E

LECTURER (SL.Gr)/ELECTRICAL
TAMILNADU POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE, MADURAI

THIRU S.JAWAHAR, M.E.,

HOD /EEE
VSVN POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE, VIRDHUNAGAR

THIRU S.KANNADHASAN, M.E.,

PTLECT/ELECTRICAL
TAMILNADU POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE, MADURAI

Validated by:

Dr.S.AROKIA EDWIN XAVIER, M.E.,PH.D

Associate Professor,
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering,
Thiagarajar College of Engineering, Madurai.

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DIPLOMA IN ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

M - SCHEME
Course Name: Diploma in Electrical and Electronics Engineering

Subject Code: 1030 Semester: VI

Subject Title: POWER ELECTRONICS

RATIONALE:
Developments in Electronics have their own impact in other fields of Engineering. Today
all the controls and drives for the electrical machines are formed by electronic
components and there are many electronic devices available to handle eclectic power in
terms Kilo-Amps and Kilo-Volts. This subject gives a comprehensive knowledge base
about the devices and circuits used in electrical power control.
OBJECTIVES:
 Explain the scope and application of power electronics
 Explain the operating region and rating of SCR.
 Draw, explain and state the application for commutation circuits and trigger
circuits of SCR.
 Familiarize the phase controlled rectifier and know the applications of the phase
controlled rectifier.
 Draw and describe the working of half wave controlled rectifier circuit with R and
RL load, single phase Semi Converter Bridge, Single phase full Converter Bridge
for RL load, single phase and three phase full converter with RL load.
 Familiarizes the dual converter and twelve pulse converters.
 Study the complete protection of converter circuits.
 Understand the working choppers and inverters.
 Know the applications of choppers and inverters.
 Explain the various types of choppers with circuit diagram.
 Describe the various methods of inverters with circuit diagram.
 Failure of AC voltage controller & cyclo converter.
 Understand the application of power electronics devices as CB,UPS and VAR
compensator
 Understand the control of DC Drives.
 Know the various methods of speed control of DC drives.
 Familiarize the control of AC drives.
 Know the torque - speed characteristics of three phase induction motor.
 Study the speed control of three phase induction motor using PWM and slip
power recovery scheme.
 Understand the closed loop control of AC drive.
 Know the operation of single phase and three phase cyclo converter.
 Understand the micro controller based fault diagnosis in three phase thyristor
converter circuits.
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DETAILED SYLLABUS
1030 - POWER ELECTRONICS (M - SCHEME)

Unit -1 OVERVIEW OF POWER ELECTRONICS Page No: (5-24)

Power electronics-Definition (A-1.1)-Scope and Applications (B-1.3)-Power Electronic
Switch Specifications (A-1.4.3)-Types of Power Electronic Circuits (A-1.5)-Design of Power
Electronics Equipment (A-1.6)-Power module (A-1.9)-Intelligent module (A-1.10). Silicon
Controlled Rectifier(D-2.4.1)-Forward Blocking Region(D-2.4.2)-Forward Conducting
Region(D-2.4.3)-Reverse Blocking Region(D-2.4.4)-Effect of dv/dt and Snubber Circuits (D-
2.4.7)-Effect of Rate of Rise in Current(di/dt)(D-2.4.8)-Thyristor Ratings(D-2.4.11) -Thyristor
Gate Requirements(D-3.2)-Triggering Circuits for Thyristor(D-3.3)-Resistance Triggering
Circuits(D- 3.4.1)-RC Trigger Circuits(D-3.4.1)-UJT based Trigger Circuits- Driver and Buffer
Circuits for Thyristor(D-3.4.7) Thyristor Commutation Techniques-Class A, Class B, Class C,
Class D, Class E Types(C-5.1 to C-5.6)-Power Devices – MOSFET (A.8.3)-IGBT (A.8.5) –
GTO (A.4.8.3)

Unit -2 LINES COMMUTATED POWER CONTROL CIRCUITS Page No: (25-41)

Line Commutated Converters(Controlled Rectifiers)- Principle of Phase Controlled
Converter Operation(A-10.2)-Single Phase Full Converters(A-10.3)-Single Phase Dual
Converters (A-10.3)-Three Phase Full Converters(A-10.6)-Three Phase Dual Converters(A-
10.7)-12 Pulse converters(A-10.12) AC Voltage Controllers-Principle of Phase Control(A- 11.3)-
Single phase Bidirectional controllers with Resistive Load(A- 11.4)-Single Phase Controller with
Inductive Load(A-11.5)-Three Phase Full Wave Controllers(A-11.6)- Cyclo Converters-Single
Phase Cyclo Converters(A-11.9.1)-Three Phase Cyclo Converters(A-11.9.2)

Unit -3 FORCED COMMUTATED POWER CONTROL CIRCUITS Page No: (42-54)

DC-DC Switch-Mode Converters(Choppers)-Control of DCDC Converters(B-7.2)-Step-
Down(BUCK) Converter(B-7.3)- Continuous-Conduction Mode(B-7.3.1) - Step-Up(BOOST)
Converters(B-7.4)-Continuous Conduction Mode (B-7.4.1) –BUCKBOOST Converters (B-7.5)
– Continuous Conduction Mode (B- 7.5.1) - Cuk DC-DC Converters(B-7.6) DC-AC Switch-
Mode Inverters-Pulse Width Modulated Inverters- Introduction(A-6.1)-Principle of Operation(A-
3

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6.2)-Single Phase Bridge Inverters(A-6.4)-Three Phase Inverters(A-6.5)-1800 Conduction

Mode(A-6.5.1)-1200 Conduction Mode(A-6.5.2)- Voltage Control of Single Phase Inverters(A-
6.6)-Single Pulse Width Modulation(A-6.6.1)-Multiple Pulse Width Modulation(A- 6.6.2)-
Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation(A-6.6.3)-Voltage Control of Three Phase Inverters(A-6.8)-
Sinusoidal PWM(A.6.8.1).

Unit -4 APPLICATIONS OF POWER ELECTRONICS Page No: (55-64)

Switch Mode Power Supplies-Full Bridge Converter type(C-11.1.4)-Uninterrupted Power
Supply-ON line(No Break) and OFF line(Short-Break) types(C-11.2)-Static AC Circuit
Breaker(C-11.5.1)-AC Solid State Relays(C-11.6.2). High Frequency Flourescent Lighting (B -
16.2.2)- Induction Heating(B16.3.1)-Electric Welding(B -16.3.2)-High Voltage DC
Transmission(B -17.2)-Wind and Small Hydro Interconnection(B -17.4.2)-Static VAR
Compensators(B -17.3)- Thyristor Controlled Inductors (B -17.3.1)-Thyristor Switched
Capacitors(B -17.3.2).

Unit -5 MOTOR DRIVE APPLICATIONS Page No: (65-84)

DC Drives-DC Motor with a Separately Excited Field Winding(B -13.4)-Line Frequency
Converters (B-13.7.2)-Effect of Discontinuous Armature Current(B -13.7.3)–Control of
Adjustable Speed Drives(B -13.7.4)-Switch-Mode DC-DC Converters(B - 13.7.1) Induction
Motor Drives-Introduction(B -14.1)-Basic Principle of Induction Motor Operation (B -14.2)-
Induction Motor Characteristics at rated(line) frequency and rated voltage(B -14.3)- Speed
Control by Varying Stator frequency and voltage(B -14.4)- Torque-Speed Characteristics(B -
14.4.1)-Start-Up Considerations(B -14.4.2)-Voltage Boost required at low frequencies(B -
14.4.3)-Induction Motor Capability below and above the rated speed(B -14.4.4)-Variable
frequency Converter Classifications(B -14.6)-Variable frequency PWM-VSI Drives (B - 14.7)-
Line frequency Variable-Voltage Drives(B -14.11)-Reduced Voltage Starting(“Soft Start”) of
Induction Motors(B -14.12)-Speed Control by Static Slip-Power Recovery(B -14.13).

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UNIT I
OVERVIEW OF POWER ELECTRONICS

1. Power Electronics – Definition

Power electronics involves the study of electronic circuits intended to control the flow of
electrical energy. All power electronic circuits manage the flow of electrical energy between an
electrical source and a load.

Figure 1.1 Flow of Power Electronics

1.1.1 Scope and Applications
The following are the scope areas in which the power electronics is applicable.

1. Switch Mode DC Power Supplies (SMPS)and Uninterrupted Power Supplies (UPS):

Computers, communication equipment and consumer electronics require SMPS and UPS.

2. Energy Conservation:

In conventional pump system, the pump operates at constant speed and the pump flow
rate is controlled by adjusting the position of the throttling valve. This procedure results in power
loss. The power loss is eliminated by employing adjustable speed drive.
Drive= Power Converter+Motor

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Figure 1.2: Energy Conservation

Another example is the fluorescent lamp. If the fluorescent lamp is operated at higher
frequency, its efficiency increases.

3. Process Control and factory automation:

There is a growing demand for the enhanced performance offered by adjustable-speed

driven pumps and compressors in process control. Robots in automated factories are powered by
electric servo (adjustable speed and position) drives.

4. Transportation:

There is a lot of scope in using electric trains in metropolitan cities, which needs power
electronics converters.

5. Electro – technical applications:

Electro-plating, welding and induction heating are done by the help of power converters
efficiently.

6. Utility related applications:

Power electronics plays an important role in interconnection of photo-voltaic and wind

energy systems with the utility grid. It is also used in HVDC transmission system.

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1.2 Power Electronic Switch Specifications

The important parameters of power electronic devices are given below.

1. Voltage ratings: Forward and reverse repetitive peak voltages and ON state forward
voltage drop.
2. Current ratings: average, rms, repetitive and non repetitive peak current and OFF state
leakage currents.
3. Switching frequency: Transition from fully conduction state to fully non conduction state
and vice versa are important parameter that decides the switching frequency.

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4. di/dt rating: If the rate of rise of current through the device is rapid, the device may get
damaged.
5. dv/dt rating: If the voltage across the device changes rapidly, the device will not have any
control over gate.
6. Switching losses: During the device turn on process the forward current rises before
voltage falls and during the turn off process the voltage raises before the current falls.
This creates switching power loss in the device.
7. Gate drive requirement: The gate-drive voltage and current are the important parameters
to turn on and turn off the device.

1.3 Types of Power Electronic Circuits

For the control of electric power, the conversion of electric power from one form (AC or
DC) to another form (Variable AC or DC) is necessary. The switching characteristics of the
power electronic devices permit these power conversions. The power electronic circuits are
classified into six types.
a. Diode rectifiers – converts ac voltage into fixed dc voltage.
b. AC-DC Converters (Controlled rectifiers) – converts ac voltage into variable dc voltage.
c. AC-AC Converters (ac voltage regulators) – converts fixed ac voltage into variable ac
voltage.
d. DC-DC Converters ( dc choppers) – converts fixed dc voltage into variable dc voltage.
e. DC-AC converters (inverters) – converts dc voltage into variable ac voltage.
f. Static Switches – connect or disconnect ac or dc input voltage to load.

1.4 Design of Power Electronics Equipments

The design of power electronics equipments can be divided into four parts:
1. Design of power circuits
2. Protection of power devices
3. Determination of control strategy
4. Design of logic and gating circuits

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The practical power devices and circuits differ from ideal conditions. However, in the early
stage of design, the simplified analysis of a circuit is very useful to understand the operation of
the circuit. When prototype is developed, the device and environment should be considered.
1.4.1 Power Modules
Power devices are available as a single unit or in a module. A power converter often
requires two, four or six devices depending on its topology. Power modules with dual (in half-
bridge configuration) or quad (in full bridge) or six (in three phase) are available. The module
offer the advantages of lower on state losses, high voltage and current characteristics and higher
speed than that of individual units. Some modules include transient protection and gate drive
circuits.
1.4.2 Intelligent modules
Intelligent modules integrate the power module and the peripheral circuit. The peripheral
circuit consists of input or output isolators, drive circuit, protection and diagnostic circuits
(against excess current, short circuit, an open load, overheating and an excess voltage),
microcomputer control and a controlled power supply. An intelligent module is also known as
smart power module.

Figure 1.3: Intelligent Modules

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1.5 Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR)

1.5.1 Basic Structure and Operation:

SCR is a three-terminal device. It has four layers of p-type and n-type material (i.e. three
p–n junctions). The control terminal of the SCR is called the gate (G) electrode. The other two
terminals, called the anode (A) and cathode (K), handle the large applied potentials and conduct
the major current through the SCR. The anode and cathode terminals are connected in series with
the load to which the power is to be controlled. SCRs are used as closed switch (no voltage drop
between anode and cathode) or open (no anode current flow) switch for the control of power
flow in a circuit.

Figure 1.4: SCR Symbol

1.5.2 SCR construction and Symbol

When a positive voltage is applied to the anode with respect to cathode, the thyristor
is in its forward-blocking state. Junction J1 and J3 are forward biased and junction J2 is reverse
biased. In this operating mode the gate current is zero. As long as the forward applied voltage
does not exceed the value necessary to cause avalanche breakdown around J2, the SCR remains
in off-state (forward-blocking). If the applied voltage exceeds the maximum forward-blocking
voltage of the SCR, it will switch to its on-state. This method of turn on damages the device.

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Figure 1.5: SCR V-I Characteristics

When the gate current is given the turn on takes place at lesser anode to cathode voltages.
The effect of gate current is to lower the blocking voltage at which switching takes place. The
SCR moves rapidly along the negatively sloped portion of the curve until it reaches a stable
operating point determined by the external circuit. As the SCR moves from forward-blocking to
forward conduction, the external circuit must allow sufficient anode current to flow to keep the
device latched.

When the SCR is reverse-biased, a small reverse leakage current flows. This is called
reverse blocking state. If the reverse bias is increased beyond the reverse breakdown voltage, the
reverse current will increase sharply. If the current is not limited to a safe value, the SCR will be
destroyed.

1.5.3 Latching and Holding Current

The minimum anode current that will cause the device to remain in forward conduction
stage as it switches from forward-blocking is called the latching current IL. If the thyristor is
already in forward conduction stage and the anode current is reduced, then the device can move
its operating mode from forward-conduction stage back to forward-blocking stage. The

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minimum value of anode current necessary to keep the device in forward-conduction after it has
been operating at a high anode current value is called the holding current IH. The holding current
value is lower than the latching current value.

1.5.4 SCR Ratings

A data sheet for a typical thyristor follows this section and includes the following information:
Surge Current Rating (IFM)—The surge current rating (IFM) of an SCR is the peak anode current
an SCR can handle for a short duration.
Latching Current (IL)—A minimum anode current must flow through the SCR in order for it to
stay ON initially after the gate signal is removed. This current is called the latching current (IL).
Holding Current (IH)—After the SCR is latched on, a certain minimum value of anode current is
needed to maintain conduction. If the anode current is reduced below this minimum value, the
SCR will turn OFF.
Peak Repetitive Reverse Voltage (VRRM)—The maximum instantaneous reverse voltage that an
SCR can withstand, without breakdown.
Peak Repetitive Forward Blocking Voltage (VDRM)—The maximum instantaneous voltage that
the SCR can block in the forward direction. If the VDRM rating is exceeded, the SCR will
conduct without a gate voltage.
Nonrepetitive Peak Reverse Voltage (VRSM)—The maximum transient reverse voltage that the
SCR can withstand.
Maximum Gate Trigger Current (IGTM)—The maximum DC gate current allowed to turn the
SCR.
Minimum Gate Trigger Voltage (VGT)—The minimum DC gate-to-cathode voltage required to
trigger the SCR.
Minimum Gate Trigger Current (IGT)—The minimum DC gate current necessary to turn the SCR
ON.

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1.5.5 Effect of dv/dt and snubber circuits

When the SCR is forward biased, junctions J1 and J3 are forward biased and junction J2
is reverse biased. This reverse biased junction J2 exhibits the characteristics of a capacitor.
Therefore, if the rate of forward voltage applied is very high across the SCR, charging current
flows through the junction J2 is high enough to turn ON the SCR even without any gate signal.
The snubber circuit consists of a series combination of capacitor and resistor which is connected
across the SCR. This also consists an inductance in series with the SCR to prevent the high
di/dt. When the switch closed, a sudden voltage appears across the SCR which is bypassed to the
RC network. This is because the capacitor acts as a short circuit which reduces the voltage across
the SCR to zero. If the SCR is turned ON, the capacitor starts discharging which causes a high
current to flow through the SCR. To limit the discharge current, a small resistance is placed in
series with the capacitor.

Figure 1.6: Snubber Circuits

1.5.6 Effect of rate of rise of current (di/dt)
The anode current starts flowing through the SCR when it is turned ON by the
application of gate signal. This anode current takes some finite time to spread across the
junctions of an SCR. For a good working of SCR, this current must spread uniformly over the
surface of the junction. If the rate of rise of anode current (di/dt) is high results a non-uniform
spreading of current over the junction. Due to the high current density, this further leads to form
local hot spots near the gate-cathode junction. This effect may damage the SCR due to
overheating. Hence, during turn ON process of SCR, the di/dt must be kept below the specified
limits.

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To prevent the high rate of change of current, an inductor is connected in series with
thyristor.

1.6RESISTANCETRIGGERING(R-Triggering):

The following circuit shows the resistance triggering.

Figure1.7: R-Triggering
 In this method, the variable resistance R is used to control the gate current.
 Depending upon the value of R, when the magnitude of the gate current reaches the
sufficient value (latching current of the device) the SCR starts to conduct.
 The diode D is called as blocking diode. It prevents the gate cathode junction from
getting damaged in the negative half cycle.
 Using this method we can achieve maximum firing angle of 90°.

1.7RCTriggering

The following circuit shows the resistance-capacitance triggering.

Figure1.8: RC-Triggering
 By using this method we can achieve firing angle up to 180°.

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 In the positive half cycle, the capacitor is charged through the variable resistance R up to
the peak value of the applied voltage.
 The variable resistor R controls the charging time of the capacitor.
 The Voltage across the capacitor is applied across the gate. When this voltage reaches the
gate threshold voltage the thyristor starts conduction.

The diode D is called as blocking diode. It prevents the gate cathode junction from getting
damaged in the negative half cycle.

1.8 UJT Triggering

AC input voltage is stepped down and rectified. The portion of the positive half cycle is
clipped by zener diode.
The capacitor charges through R. When the capacitor voltage reaches ηVz, UJT conducts
and sharp pulses produced across primary of the pulse transformer where ‘η’ is intrinsic stand off
ratio. The sharp pulses are used to trigger the SCR.

Figure 1.9: UJT Trigger Circuit

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Figure 1.9: UJT Trigger circuit Waveforms

1.9 Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor

Power BJTs have good on-state characteristics but have long switching times especially
at turn-off. Since they are current-controlled devices, they require complex base drive circuits to
provide the base current during on-state, which increases the power loss in the device. On the
other hand power MOSFETs are voltage-controlled devices, which require very small current
during switching period and hence have simple gate drive requirements. Power MOSFETs are
majority carrier devices, which exhibit very high switching speeds. But the unipolar nature of the
power MOSFETs causes inferior conduction characteristics as the voltage rating is increased
above 200V. Therefore their on state resistance increases with increasing in applied voltage.

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In order to improve the power device performance, a device which has low on-state drop
and insulated gate is needed. This concept gave rise to the commercially available IGBTs with
superior on-state characteristics, good switching speed and excellent safe operating area.

When a positive potential is applied to the gate and exceeds the threshold voltage an n
channel is formed, which provides a path for electrons to flow into the n− drift region. The pn
junction between the p+ substrate and n− drift region is forward biased and holes are injected
into the drift region. The electrons in the drift region recombine with these holes to maintain
space charge neutrality. The remaining holes are collected at the emitter, causing a vertical
current flow between the emitter and collector.

Figure 1.9: IGBT symbol and Characteristics

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1.10 MOSFET

Figure 1.10: MOSFET symbol and Characteristics

Most of the MOSFET devices used in power electronics applications are of the n-
channel, enhancement-type are shown in figure. For the MOSFET to carry drain current, a
channel between the drain and the source must be created. This occurs when the gate-to-source
voltage exceeds the device threshold voltage, VTh. For vGS > VTh, the device can be either in the
triode region, (constant resistance) region, or in the saturation region, depending on the value of
vDS. For the given vGS, with small vDS (vDS <vGS −VTh), the device operates in the triode region
(saturation region in the BJT), and for larger vDS(vDS > vGS − VTh), the device enters the saturation
region (active region in the BJT). For vGS <VTh, the device turns off, with drain current almost
equals zero. Under both regions of operation, the gate current is almost zero. Due to this reason
the MOSFET is known as a voltage-driven device, and it, requires simple gate control circuit.
The characteristic curves in Fig. shows that there are three distinct regions of operation labeled
as triode region, saturation region, and cut-off-region. The MOSFET will act as a switch when it
is operated in saturation (ON Condition) and cutoff (OFF Condition) region. It will act as an
amplifier when it is operated in linear region (triode region).

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1.11 Commutation

The turn OFF process of an SCR is called commutation. The term commutation means
the transfer of currents from one path to another. The commutation circuit does this job by
reduces the forward current to zero so as to turn OFF the SCR or Thyristor.

To turn OFF the conducting SCR the following conditions must be satisfied.

 The anode or forward current of SCR must be reduced to zero or below the level of
holding current.
 A sufficient reverse voltage must be applied across the SCR to regain its forward
blocking state.

1.11.1 Methods of Commutation

The reverse voltage which causes to commutate the SCR is called commutation voltage.
The commutation methods are classified into two major types. Those are 1) Forced commutation
and 2) Natural commutation.
1.11.1.1 Natural Commutation
It happens only when the input is an AC Supply. If the SCR is connected to an AC
supply, at every end of the positive half cycle the anode current goes through the natural current
zero and also immediately a reverse voltage is applied across the SCR. These are the conditions
to turn OFF the SCR.
This method of commutation is also called as source commutation, or line commutation,
or class F commutation. This commutation is possible with line commutated inverters, controlled
rectifiers, cyclo converters and AC voltage regulators because the input supply is AC.

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Figure 1.11: Natural Commutation

1.11.1.2 Forced Commutation
In case of DC circuits, there is no natural current zero to turn OFF the SCR. In such
circuits, forward current must be forced to zero with an external circuit hence named as forced
commutation. This commutating circuit consists of components like inductors and capacitors
called as commutating components. These commutating components apply a reverse voltage
across the SCR that immediately bring the anode current in the SCR to zero. Based on the zero
current achievement forced commutation is classified into different types such as class A, B, C,
D, and E.
1.11.1.3 Class A Commutation
This is also known as self commutation, or resonant commutation, or load commutation.
In this commutation, the source of commutation voltage is in the load. This load must be an
under damped R-L-C circuit so that natural zero of current is obtained. The commutating
components L and C are connected either parallel or series with the load resistance R. The
waveforms of SCR current, voltage and capacitor voltage are shown in figure.

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Figure 1.12: Class A Commutation

The value of load resistance and commutating components are so selected that they form
a under damped resonant circuit to produce natural zero. When the thyristor or SCR is triggered,
the forward currents starts flowing through it and during this the capacitor is charged up to the
value of E. Once the capacitor is fully charged (more than the supply source voltage) the SCR
becomes reverse biased and hence the commutation of the device is taken place. The time for
switching OFF the SCR depends on the resonant frequency which further depends on the L and
C components.
1.11.1.4 Class B Commutation
This is also a self commutation circuit in which the commutation of SCR is achieved
automatically by L and C components. In this, the LC resonant circuit is connected across the
SCR but not in series with load as in case of class A commutation and hence the L and C
components do not carry the load current.

Figure 1.13: Class B Commutation

When the DC supply is applied to the circuit, the capacitor charges to a value of ‘E’ with
an upper plate positive and lower plate negative. Once the SCR is turned ON, the capacitor is
starts discharging through C+ – L – T – C-. When the capacitor is fully discharged, it starts
charging with a reverse polarity. Hence a reverse voltage applied across the SCR which causes
the commutating current IC to opposes the load current IL. When the commutating current Ic is
higher than the load current, the SCR will automatically turn OFF and the capacitor charges with
original polarity. In the above process, the SCR is turned ON for some time and then

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automatically turned OFF for some time. This is a continuous process and the desired frequency
depends on the values of L and C. This type of commutation is mostly used in chopper circuits.

1.11.1.5 Class C Commutation

In this commutation method, the main SCR which is to be commutated is connected in
series with the load. An additional or complementary SCR is connected in series with the resistor
‘R’. This method is also called as complementary commutation. In this, SCR turns OFF with a
reverse voltage of a charged capacitor. The figure shows the complementary commutation with
appropriate waveforms.

Figure 1.14: Class C Commutation

Initially, both SCRs are in OFF state so the capacitor voltage is also zero. When the
SCR1 or main SCR is triggered, current starts flowing in two directions, one path is E+ – R1 –
SCR1 – E- and another path is the charging current E+ – R2- C+ – C- SCR1 – E- . Therefore, the
capacitor starts charging up to the value of E.
When the SCR2 is triggered, it is turned ON and simultaneously a negative voltage is
applied across the SCR1. So this reverse voltage across the SCR1 immediately causes to turn
OFF the SCR1. Now the capacitor starts charging with a reverse polarity through the path of E+
– R1- C+ – C- SCR2 – E-. If the SCR 1 is triggered, discharging current of the capacitor turns
OFF the SCR2.
This commutation is mainly used in single phase inverters with a centre tapped
transformers. The Mc Murray Bedford inverter is the best example of this commutation circuit.

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This is a very reliable method of commutation and it is also useful in circuits even at frequencies
below 1000Hz.
1.11.1.6 Class D Commutation
This is also called as auxiliary commutation because it uses an auxiliary SCR to switch the
charged capacitor. In this, the main SCR is commutated by the auxiliary SCR. The main SCR
with load resistance forms the power circuit while the diode D, inductor L and SCR2 forms the
commutation circuit.

Figure 1.15: Class D Commutation

When the supply voltage E is applied, both SCRs are in OFF state and hence the
capacitor voltage is zero. In order to charge the capacitor, SCR2 must be triggered first. So the
capacitor charges through the path E+ – C+ – C- – SCR2- R- E-.
When the capacitor is fully charged the SCR2 becomes turned OFF because no current
will flow through the SCR2 when capacitor is charged fully. If the SCR1 is triggered, the current
will flows in two directions; one is the load current path E+ – SCR1- R- E- and another one is
commutation current path C+ – SCR1- L- D- C.
As soon as the capacitor completely discharges, the inductor ‘L’ is fully charged. This
inductor charges the capacitor in reverse direction. When inductor completely discharges the
capacitor is charged fully. Now the capacitor is unable to discharge because of the reversed
diode.When the SCR2 is triggered capacitor starts discharging through C+ – SCR2- SCR1- C-.
When this discharging current is more than the load current the SCR1 becomes turned OFF.
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Again, the capacitor starts charging through the SCR2 to a supply voltage E and then the
SCR2 is turned OFF. Therefore, both SCRs are turned OFF and the above cyclic process is
repeated. This commutation method is mainly used in inverters and also used in the Jones
chopper circuit.
1.11.1.7 Class E Commutation
This is also known as external pulse commutation. In this, an external pulse source is
used to produce the reverse voltage across the SCR. The circuit below shows the class E
commutation circuit which uses a pulse transformer to produce the commutating pulse and is
designed with tight coupling between the primary and secondary with a small air gap.
When the SCR is triggered, load current flows through the pulse transformer. If the SCR
need to be commutated, pulse duration equal to the turn OFF time of the SCR is applied. If the
pulse is applied to the primary of the pulse transformer, an emf or voltage is induced in the
secondary of the pulse transformer.
This induced voltage is applied across the SCR as a reverse polarity and hence the SCR is turned
OFF. The capacitor offers a very low or zero impedance to the high frequency pulse.

Figure 1.16: Class E Commutation

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UNIT II
LINE COMMUTATED POWER CONTROL CIRCUITS

2.1 Line Commutated Converters

When the input AC supply voltage reverses the thyristor becomes reverse biased and
hence turns off. There are several types of power converters which use ac line commutation.
These are referred to as line commutated converters.

Different types of line commutated converters are

 Phase controlled rectifiers which are AC to DC converters.
 AC to AC converters
 AC voltage controllers, which convert input ac voltage into variable ac output
voltage at the same frequency.
 Cyclo converters, which give low output frequencies.

All these power converters operate from ac power supply at a fixed supply voltage and at a fixed
input supply frequency. Hence they use ac line commutation for turning off the conducting
thyristors.

2.2 Principle of Phase Controlled Converter Operation

In a phase controlled rectifier circuit a high current and a high power thyristor device
(SCR) for conversion of ac input power into dc output power is used. Phase controlled rectifier
circuits are used to provide a variable AC voltage output voltage from a constant AC input
voltage.
We can vary, the average value (dc value) of the output load voltage is varied (and hence
the average dc load current) by varying the thyristor firing angle. Thyristor conduction angle δ is
varied from 1800 to 00 by varying the trigger angle α from 00 to 1800, where thyristor conduction
angle δ = (π –α).

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2.2.1 Applications of Phase Controlled Rectifiers

 DC motor control in steel mills, paper and textile mills employing dc motor
 drives.
 AC fed traction system using dc traction motor.
 Electro-chemical and electro-metallurgical process controls.
 Portable hand tool drives.
 Variable speed industrial drives.
 Battery charges.
 High voltage DC transmission.
 Uninterruptible power supply systems (UPS).

2.3 Controlled Rectifiers

Controlled rectifiers are line commutated ac to dc power converters which are used to
convert a fixed voltage, fixed frequency ac power supply into variable dc
output voltage.

Figure 2.1: Controlled Rectifiers

2.3.1 TYPES OF CONTROLLED RECTIFIERS

Half wave controlled rectifier which uses a single thyristor device (which
provides output control only in one half cycle of input ac supply, and it
provides low dc output).
semi-converter (half controlled bridge converter, using two SCR’s and two diodes, to
provide single quadrant operation).

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full converter (fully controlled bridge converter which requires four SCR’s, to provide
two quadrant operation).
Controlled Rectifier

Half Wave Full Wave

Center Tapped Transformer Type Bridge Type

Full Converter Semiconverter

2.4 Single Phase Full Converter (Fully Controlled Bridge Converter)

The circuit diagram of a single phase fully controlled bridge converter is shown in the
figure with a resistive and highly inductive load so that the load current is continuous and ripple
free (constant load current operation). The fully controlled bridge converter consists of four
thyristors T1 , T2 , T3 and T4 connected in the form of full wave bridge configuration as shown
in the figure.

Figure 2.2: Single Phase Full Converter

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Each thyristor is controlled and turned on by its gating signal and naturally turned off
when a reverse voltage appears across it. During the positive half cycle the upper line of the
transformer secondary winding is at a positive potential with respect to the lower end. The
thyristors T1 andT2 are forward biased during the time interval ωt = 0 to π . The thyristors T1
andT2 are triggered simultaneously at ωt =α ; (0 ≤α ≤π ). The load is connected to the input
supply through the conducting thyristors T1 andT2. The output voltage across the load follows the
input supply voltage. Due to the inductive load T1 andT2 will continue to conduct beyond ωt =π ,
even though the input voltage becomes negative. T1 and T2 conduct together during the time
period α to (π +α), for a time duration of π radians (conduction angle of each thyristor = 1800 )
During the negative half cycle of input supply voltage from ωt =π to 2π the thyristors T3 and T4
are forward biased. T3 and T4 are triggered at ωt = (π +α). As soon as the thyristors T3 and T4 are
triggered a reverse voltage appears across the thyristors T1 and T2 . They naturally gets turned off
and the load current is transferred from T1 and T2 to the thyristors T3 and T4. The output voltage
across the load follows the supply voltage after π +α upto (2π +α). In the next positive half cycle
when T1 andT2 are triggered, T3 and T4 are reverse biased and they gets turned off. The figure
shows the waveforms of the input supply voltage, the output load voltage, the constant load
current with negligible ripple and the input supply current.

igure 2.3: VI Characteristics of Single Phase Full Converter

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By varying the trigger angle α we can vary the output dc voltage across the load. Thus it
is possible to control the dc output voltage by changing the trigger angle α. For trigger angle α in
the range of 0 to 90 degrees (i.e., 0 ≤α ≤ 90º), V dc is positive and the average dc load current I
dc is also positive. The average or dc output power P dc is positive, hence the circuit operates as
a controlled rectifier to convert ac supply voltage into dc output power.

For trigger angle α > 90º , cosα becomes negative and hence the average dc output
voltage Vdc becomes negative, but the load current flows in the same positive direction i.e., I dc is
positive . Hence the output power becomes negative. This means that the power flows from the
load circuit to the input ac source. This is referred to as line commutated inverter operation.
During the inverter mode operation for α > 900 the load energy can be fed back from the load
circuit to the input ac source.
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2.5 Single Phase Dual Converter

In dual converter, two controlled rectifier are connected back to back. This arrangement,
known as a dual converter configuration, allows four-quadrant operation of the drive. Converter
1 provides positive load current id , while Converter 2 provides negative load current. The motor
can work in forward motoring, forward braking, reverse motoring, and reverse braking. These
operating modes are shown in Fig.

Figure 2.4: Single Phase dual Converter

In non circulating current mode, only one converter is switched on at a time while the
second converter is switched off. When the converter 1 is switched on and the gate trigger
signals are given to the gates of thyristors in converter. The average output voltage across the
load, can be varied by adjusting the trigger angle α1 of the converter 1. If α1 is less than 900, the
converter 1 operates as a controlled rectifier and converts the input ac power into dc output
power to feed the load. V dc and I dc are both positive and the operation occurs in the first
quadrant. The average output power P dc =V dc × I dc is positive. The power flows from the
input ac supply to the load. When α1 is increased above 900 converter 1 operates as a line
commutated inverter and V dc becomes negative while I dc is positive and the output power P dc
becomes negative. The power is fed back from the load circuit to the input ac source through the
converter 1. The load current falls to zero when the load energy is utilized completely.

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In circulating current mode of operation both the converters 1 and 2 are switched on and
operated simultaneously. If converter 1 is operated as a controlled rectifier by adjusting the
trigger angle α1 between 0 to 900 the second converter 2 is operated as a line commutated
inverter by increasing its trigger angle α2 above 900. The trigger angles α 1 and α2 are adjusted
such that they produce the same average dc output voltage across the load terminals.
α 1+ α 2=1800

The advantage of the circulating current mode of operation is that the load current can be
reversed at a faster rate. The disadvantage of the circulating current mode of operation is that a
current flows continuously in the dual converter circuit even at times when the load current is
zero. Hence the current limiting inductors (reactors) are connected to limit the peak circulating
current within specified value.

Figure 2.5: Rotation of Single Phase dual Converter

2.6 Three Phase Full Converter

Three phase full converter is a fully controlled bridge rectifier using six thyristors
connected in the form of a full wave bridge configuration. All the six thyristors are controlled
switches which are turned on at a appropriate times by applying suitable gate trigger signals. The
three phase full converter is extensively used in industrial power applications upto about 120kW

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output power level, where two quadrant operation is required. The figure shows a three phase
full converter with high inductive load. This circuit is also known as three phase full wave bridge
or a six pulse converter. The thyristors are triggered at an interval of π/3.

Figure 2.6: Three Phase Full Converter

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Figure 2.7: Characteristics of Three Phase Full Converter

2.7 Three Phase Dual Converters

In many variable speed drives, the four quadrant operation is generally required. Three
phase dual converters are extensively used in such applications up to 2 kW level. Figure shows
three phase dual converters where two three phase full converters are connected back to back
across a common load.

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The operation of a three phase dual converter is similar to that of a single phase dual
converter system. The main difference between them is being that a three phase dual converter
gives much higher dc output voltage and higher dc output power than a single phase dual
converter system. But the drawback is that the three phase dual converter is more expensive and
the design of control circuit is more complex.

Figure 2.8: Three Phase Dual Converter

In non circulating current mode of operation only one converter is switched on at a time.
When the converter number 1 is switched on and the gate signals are applied to the thyristors.
The converter 1 converts the input ac supply and feeds a dc power to the load. Power flows from
the ac supply to the load during the rectification mode. When the trigger angle α1 is increased
above 900 , V dc becomes negative where as I dc is positive because the thyristors of converter 1
conduct in only one direction. For α1 > 900 converter 1 operates in the inversion mode & the
load energy is supplied back to the ac supply. We obtain a reverse or negative load current when
the converter 2 is switched ON. The average or dc output voltage and the average load current
are controlled by adjusting the trigger angle α2 of the thyristors of converter 2.

Both the converters are switched on at the same time in circulating current mode of
operation. One converter operates in the rectification mode while the other operates in the
inversion mode. Trigger angles α1 & α2 are adjusted such that (α1 +α2 )=1800. When α1 < 900 ,

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converter 1 operates as a controlled rectifier. When α2 is greater than 900 , converter 2 operates
0
in the inversion mode. V dc, I dc, P dc are positive. When α2 < 90 , converter 2 operates as a
controlled rectifier. When α1 is made greater than 900 , converter 1 operates as an Inverter. V dc
and I dc are negative while P dc is positive.

2.8 AC Voltage Controllers

An AC voltage controller is a converter that converts an AC voltage to Variable AC

voltage. Such a converter is also called as AC-AC converter. The most common applications of
AC voltage controllers are light-dimmer circuits and speed control of induction motors.

2.8.1 Single-Phase AC Voltage Controllers with R Loads

Positive half-cycle: S1 is forward biased and S2 is reverse biased. Before S1 conducts,

the output voltage is zero and the voltage across the SCRs is the same as the source voltage.
Suppose S1 is fired at α, then, the output voltage is equal to the input voltage and the voltage
across the SCRs is zero. At π, S1 is turned off because of natural commutation.

Negative half-cycle: S2 is forward biased and S1 is reverse biased. Before S2 conducts, the
output voltage is zero and the voltage across the SCRs is the same as the source voltage. Suppose
S2 is fired at π +α, then, the output voltage is equal to the input voltage and the voltage across the
SCRs is zero. At 2π, S2 is turned off because of natural commutation.

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Figure 2.8: Single Phase AC Voltage Controller

2.9 Single Phase Full Wave Ac Voltage Controller

(Bidirectional Controller) With RL Load
A single phase full wave ac voltage controller circuit (bidirectional controller) with an
RL load using two thyristors T 1and T2 are connected in parallel and is shown in the figure.

Figure 2.9: Bidirectional Controller with Single Phase AC Voltage Controller

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The thyristor T1 is forward biased during the positive half cycle of input supply. Let us
assume that T1 is triggered at ωt = α, by applying a suitable gate trigger pulse to T1 during the
positive half cycle of input supply. The output voltage across the load follows the input supply
voltage when T1 is ON. The load current i0 flows through the thyristor T1 and through the load in
the downward direction. Due to the inductance in the load, the load current iO flowing through T1
would not fall to zero at ωt = π. The thyristor T1 will continue to conduct all the inductive
energy stored in the load inductor L is completely utilized. The load current through T1 falls to
zero at ωt = β , where β is referred to as the Extinction angle, (the value of ωt ).

Figure 2.10: Graph of Single Phase AC Voltage Controller

2.10 Pulse Converters

For high power applications such as high voltage DC transmission and DC motor drives
12 pulse converters are used. It reduces output ripples.

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Figure 2.11: Pulse Converter

Secondary windings in star and delta configurations are connected to 3-phase bridges and
the output connected either in parallel or series. The phase angle between star and delta
secondary voltages is 30°. For instance in the case of a combined star/delta parallel system the
difference between the two wave forms will be 30° ( Fig. 9). This has the effect of introducing
another set of waveforms displaced by 30° giving a 12-pulse output.

Figure 2.12: Graph Pulse Converter

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2.11 Three Phase full wave controllers

The circuit of a three-phase, three-wire ac regulator (termed as ac to ac voltage converter)
with balanced resistive (star-connected) load is shown in Fig. Two thyristors are connected back
to back per phase, thus needing a total of six thyristors. The thyristors are fired in sequence
starting from 1 in ascending order, with the angle between the triggering of thyristors 1 & 2
being 60° (one-sixth of the time period (T ) of a complete cycle). The thyristors are fired or
triggered after a delay of α from the natural commutation point.

Figure 2.13: Three Phase Full Wave Converter

2.12 Cycloconverter
Cycloconverter converts power the AC Supply of one frequency into AC supply of
different frequency.

2.12.1 Single Phase Cycloconverter

Single phase cycloconverter converts the supply frequency into its sub multiple
frequency. Figure shows the centre tapped single phase to single phase cycloconverter circuit. To
obtain one third of supply frequency, the triggering sequence is as follows:
P1P2P1 and N1N2N1.

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Figure 2.14: Single Phase Cyclo Converter

2.12.2 Three-phase to Three-phase Cyclo-converter

The circuit of a three-phase to three-phase cyclo-converter is shown in Fig. Two three
phase half-wave (three-pulse) converters connected back to back for each phase. The total
number of thyristors used is 18.

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Figure 2.15: Three Phase Cyclo Converter

The firing sequence of the thyristors for the phase groups, B & C are same as that for
phase group A, but lag by the angle 120º and 240º respectively. Thus, a balanced three-phase
voltage is obtained at the output terminals. The average value of the output voltage is changed by
varying the firing angles (α ) of the thyristors.

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UNIT - III
FORCED COMMUTATED POWER CONTROL CIRCUITS

3.1 DC-DC Converters

It converts a constant DC supply to a variable DC supply. They are commonly used in
applications requiring regulated DC power, such as computers, medical instrumentation,
communication devices, television receivers, and battery chargers. They are also a part of a
regulated variable DC voltage for DC motor speed control applications.

The switch mode power supply has several functions :

1. Step down an unregulated DC input voltage to produce a regulated DC output voltage using a
buck or step-down converter.
2. Step up an unregulated DC input voltage to produce a regulated DC output voltage using a
boost or step-up converter.
3. Step down and then step up an unregulated DC input voltage to produce a regulated DC output
voltage using a buck–boost converter.
4. Buck or Boost the DC input voltage using a Cúk converter.

One method of controlling the output voltage employs switching at a constant frequency.
Hence the switching time period remains constant (T=ton+toff), and the on-duration of the
switch is adjusted to control the average output voltage. This method is called as pulse-width
modulation (PWM). Here the duty ratio d is defined as the ratio of the on-duration to the
switching time period. .

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Figure 3.1: ON-OFF Condition

In the other control method, Ton or Toff of the switch is varied. This method is mainly
used in force-commutated thyristor converter circuits.

3.2 Step-Down (Buck) Converter

A step-down converter produces an average output voltage, which is lower than the DC
input voltage Vin. The basic circuit of a step-down converter is shown in Fig. In continuous-
conduction mode of operation, assuming an ideal switch, when the switch is on for the time
duration ton, the inductor current passes through the switch, and the diode becomes reverse
biased. This results in a positive voltage (Vin-Vo) across the inductor, which, in turn, causes a
linear increase in the inductor current iL. When the switch is turned off, because of the inductive
energy storage, iL continues to flow. This current flows through the diode and gets discharged.
Average output voltage can be calculated in terms of the switch duty ratio as:

Figure 3.2: Step down converter

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3.3 Step-Up (Boost) Converter

In this converter, the output voltage is always greater than the input voltage. When the
switch is on, the diode is reversed-biased, thus isolating the output stage. The input voltage
source charges the inductor. When the switch is off, the output stage receives energy from the
inductor as well as the input source. In the continuous-conduction mode of operation,
considering d as the duty ratio, the input–output relation is as follows:

Figure 3.3 Step Up converter

3.4 Buck–Boost Converters

Schematic of the buck–boost converter circuit (in one of its simplest forms) is shown
below in Fig. The main power switch is shown and the switch will be a BJT or power MOSFET,
or any other device that could be turned on (and off) in a controlled fashion. The DC output
voltage value can be chosen to be higher or lower than the input DC voltage. The circuit
operation can be explained using inductor current, iL, and the capacitor voltage, vC. Two
differential equations in terms of these variables, the output voltage, vO, and the source voltage,
vS, are shown below.

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Figure 3.4 Buck Boost converter

Note that the inductor is receiving energy from the source and being charged up, while
the capacitor is being discharged into the output load, RL, and the output voltage is falling.

3.5 Cúk Converter

The Cúk converter is a switched-mode power supply and it was invented by Dr. Slobodan
Cúk. The basic non isolated Cúk converter is a SMPS with two inductors, two capacitors, a
diode, and a transistor switch as illustrated in Fig. The transfer capacitor, Ct , stores and transfers
energy from the input to the output. The average value of the inductor voltages for steady-state
operation is zero. As a result, the voltage across the transfer capacitor is assumed to be the
average value in steady state and is the sum of the input and output voltages. The inductor
currents are assumed to be continuous for steady-state operation.

Figure 3.5 Cuk converter

3.6 Pulse Width Modulated Inverters

Fixed DC power can be converted into AC power at desired output voltage and frequency
by using a power electronics converter , called an inverter. The objective of inverter and UPS is
to produce a sinusoidal AC output whose magnitude and frequency can be controlled. The
applications of inverters are for adjustable-speed AC drives, HVDC transmission lines etc.

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There are two common types of inverters, i) Voltage Source Inverters and ii) Current
Source Inverters. When an inverter has a DC source with a small or negligible resistance, which
means the inverter has a stiff DC voltage source at its input terminal, it is called a VSI or voltage
fed inverter. When the input DC source has high resistance, which means the DC source is a stiff
DC current source, the inverter is called a CSI or current fed inverter

3.7 Single Phase Full Bridge Inverter

A single phase bridge inverter is shown in Figure below. The analysis of the single phase
inverter is done by considering the following assumptions and conventions.
1) In the figure The current entering node is considered to be positive.
2) The switches S1, S2, S3 and S4 are unidirectional, i.e. they conduct current in one direction.

Figure 3.6: Single Phase Full Bridge Inverter

When the two switches S1 and S4 are turned on, the voltage at the output is equal to the
DC bus voltage Vdc. Similarly, when the switches S2 and S3 are turned on the output voltage is
equal to - Vdc.

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Figure 3.7: Switch Condition of Single Phase Full Bridge Inverter

3.8 Three Phase DC-AC Converters (Inverter)

Three phase inverters are normally used for high power applications. The advantages of a three
phase inverter are:

• The frequency of the output voltage waveform depends on the switching rate of the swtiches
and hence can be varied over a wide range.

• The direction of rotation of the motor can be reversed by changing the output phase sequence
of the inverter.

• The ac output voltage can be controlled by varying the dc link voltage.

A Three phase inverter can be obtained from a configuration of six transistors and six
diodes as shown. Two types of control signals can be applied to the switches. They are 180˚
conduction and 120˚ conduction.180 ˚ conduction has better utilization of switches and is
preferred method. In 180˚conduction mode each switch conducts for 180˚ and in 120˚conduction
mode each transistor conducts for 120˚.

3.8.1 180o CONDUCTION MODE

In 1800 conduction scheme, each device conducts for 1800. They are turned ON at regular
interval of 600 in the sequence Q1,Q2,Q3,Q4,Q5,Q6.The output terminals A B and C of this bridge
are connected to the terminals of a 3-phase star or delta connected load.

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Figure 3.8: Conduction mode and Switch Condition of Three Phase Inverter

3.8.2 1200 CONDUCTION MODE

In 1200 conduction scheme each device conducts for 1200.It is preferable for a delta
connected load because it provides a six step waveform across any phase. As each device
conducts for 1200, only two devices are in conduction state at any instant.

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Figure 3.9: Conduction mode and Switch Condition of Three Phase Inverter
3.9 Different PWM Techniques
PWM techniques are characterized by constant amplitude pulses. The width of these
pulses is, however, modulated to obtain output voltage control and to reduce its harmonic
content. Different PWM techniques are as under.
 Single-pulse width modulation
 Multiple-pulse width modulation
 Sinusoidal-pulse width modulation
3.9.1 Single-Pulse Width Modulation
In single pulse-width modulation, there is only one pulse per half-cycle and the width of
the pulse is varied to control the inverter output voltage.

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Figure 3.10: Single Pulse Width Modulation

Figure shows the generation of gating signals. The gating signals are generated by
comparing a rectangular reference signal of amplitude, Ar, with a triangular carrier wave of
amplitude, Ac. The frequency of the reference signal determines the fundamental frequency of
the output voltage. The ratio of Ar to Ac is the control variable and defined as the modulation
index.
The amplitude modulation index or simply modulation index is

3.9.2 Multiple -Pulse-Width Modulation

The harmonic content can be reduced using several pulses in each half-cycle of output
voltage. The generation of gating signals for turning on and off of transistors is shown in figure,
by comparing a reference signal with a triangular carrier wave. The frequency of reference signal
sets the output frequency, fo, and the carrier frequency, fc, determines the number of pulses per
half-cycle. The modulation index controls the output voltage. This
type of modulation is also known as uniform pulse-width modulation (UPWM).
The number of pulses per half-cycle is found from

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where mf = f0/fc is defined as the frequency modulation ratio.

Figure 3.11: Multiple Pulse Width Modulation

3.9.3 Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation

In SPWM, the width of each pulse is varied in proportion to the amplitude of a sine wave
evaluated at the centre of the same pulse. The distortion factor and lower-order harmonics are
reduced significantly. The gating signals as shown in figure are generated by comparing a
sinusoidal reference signal with a triangular carrier wave of frequency, fc. This type of
modulation is commonly used in industrial applications and abbreviated as SPWM. The
frequency of the reference signal, fr, determines the output frequency fo. The peak amplitude,
Ar, controls the modulation index m, and then in turn the RMS output voltage,
Vo. The number of pulses per half cycle depends on the carrier frequency.

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Figure 3.12: Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation

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3.10 Three Phase SPWM Inverter

Here for three phase PWM the three modulating sine waves are of 00,1200 and 2400. The
carrier wave is 00 for all three phase. This modulation technique, also known as PWM with
natural sampling, is called sinusoidal PWM because the pulse width is a sinusoidal function of
the angular position in the reference signal.

Figure 3.13: Three Phase SPWM Inverter

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UNIT IV
APPLICATIONS OF POWER ELECTRONICS

4.1 Switched Mode Power Supply (SMPS)

The ‘Switched Mode Power Supply’ owes its name to the dc-to-dc switching converter
which converts unregulated dc input voltage to regulated dc output voltage. The switch
employed is turned ‘ON’ and ‘OFF’ (referred as switching) at a high frequency. During ‘ON’
mode the switch is in saturation mode with negligible voltage drop. During ‘OFF’ mode the
switch is in cut-off mode with negligible current through the collector and emitter terminals. On
the contrary the voltage regulating switch, in a linear regulator circuit, always remains in the
active region.

As shown in Figure, the bridge is used to generate a high-frequency square wave that is
fed to an isolation transformer. Operation at high frequency reduces the size of the transformer
and of the filter components. Power densities in excess of 50W per in3 are commonly available
in some commercially available SMPS.

Figure 4.1: SMPS

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4.2 Uninterruptible Power Supply Systems

There are two distinct types of uninterrupted power supplies, namely, (i) on-line UPS and
(ii) off-line UPS. In the on-line UPS, whether the mains power is on or off, the battery operated
inverter is ON all the time and supplies the ac output voltage. In off-line UPS, the inverter is off
when the mains power is present. The inverter turns on only when the mains supply goes off.
The block diagrams of on-line UPS, off-line UPS are given in fig.
A UPS generally consists of a rectifier, battery charger, a battery bank and inverter
circuit. First it converts the commercial ac input into dc suitable for input to the battery bank and
the inverter. The rectifier should have its input protected and should be capable of supplying
power to the inverter when the commercial supply is either slightly below the normal voltage or
slightly above.
4.2.1 Online UPS

Figure 4.2: Online UPS

In case of On-line UPS, the battery operated inverter works continuously whether the
mains supply is present or not. Triac T1 is on for all the times while Triac T2 has been provided
to bypass the UPS inverter, only when a fault develops in the UPS inverter. When the mains
supply fails, the UPS supplies power from the batteries. However, once the mains power
resumes, the batteries will get charged again. The switching times of these supplies is considered
to be zero. Usually sealed maintenance free batteries are used and the running time of the
inverter is low (approximately 10 to 30 minutes).

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4.2.2 Off Line UPS

Figure 4.3: Off line UPS

In the case of Off-Line UPS, the inverter is off when the mains power is on and the
output voltage is derived directly from the mains. The inverter turns on only when the mains
supply fails. Its switching time is less than 5 ms. These UPS are generally used with PCs or
computers or other appliances where a small duration (5 ms or less) interruption in power supply
can be tolerated. Usually, sealed batteries or lead-acid batteries are used. The running time of
UPS supplies is also low (about 10 to 30 minutes).

4.2.3 Static AC Circuit Breaker

Thyristor, being bistable device is widely used for switching off power signals owing to
their long life, high operation speed and freedom from other defects associated with mechanical
and electro-mechanical switches.

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Figure 4.4: Static AC Circuit Breaker

Figure shows a circuit in which two SCRs are used for making and breaking an ac circuit.
The input voltage is alternating and the trigger pulses are applied to the gates of SCRs through
the control switch S. Resistance R is provided in the gate circuit to limit the gate current while
resistors R1 and R2are to protect the diodes D1 and D2 respectively.
For starting the circuit, when switch S is closed, SCR1 will fire at the beginning of the
positive half-cycle (the gate trigger current is assumed to be very small). It will turn-off when the
current goes through the zero value. As soon as SCR1 is turned-off, SCR2 will be fire since the
voltage polarity is already reversed and it gets the proper gate current. The circuit can be broken
by opening the switch S. Opening of gate circuit poses no problem, as current through this switch
is small. As no further gate signal will be applied to the SCRs, the SCRs will not be triggered
and the load current will be zero. The maximum time delay for breaking the circuit is one half-
cycle. Thus several hundred amperes of load current can be switched on/off simply by handling
gate current of few mA by an ordinary switch. The above circuit is also called the static contactor
breaker because it does not have any moving part.

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4.3 AC Solid State Relay

The AC type Solid State Relay turns “ON” at the zero crossing point of the AC sinusoidal
waveform, prevents high inrush currents when switching inductive or capacitive loads while the
inherent turn “OFF” feature of Thyristors and Triacs provides an improvement over the arcing
contacts of the electromechanical relays.
Resistor-Capacitor (RC) snubber network is generally required across the output
terminals of the SSR to protect the semiconductor output switching device from noise and
voltage transient spikes when used to switch highly inductive or capacitive loads. In most
modern SSR’s this RC snubber network is built as standard into the relay itself reducing the need
for additional external components.

Figure 4.5: High frequency fluorescent lighting

All gas discharge lamps, including fluorescent lamps, require a ballast to operate. The
ballast provides a high initial voltage to initiate the discharge, then rapidly limits the lamp
current to safely sustain the discharge.

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The uncontrolled ac-dc converter with filter is followed by a high frequency inverter.
Resonant inverter can be used here. The switching frequency of the inverter lies in the range of
25 KHz to 40 KHz. The current from the source has a very poor power factor, hence, the power
factor correction is necessary.

4.4 Induction Heating

Induction heating is a non-contact heating process. It uses high frequency electricity to
heat materials that are electrically conductive. Since it is non-contact, the heating process does
not contaminate the material being heated. It is also very efficient since the heat is actually
generated inside the workpiece. This can be contrasted with other heating methods where heat is
generated in a flame or heating element, which is then applied to the workpiece. For these
reasons Induction Heating lends itself to some unique applications in industry.

Figure 4.6: Induction Heating

In high power designs it is common to use a full-bridge (H-bridge) of 4 or more
switching devices. In such designs the matching inductance is usually split equally between the
two bridge legs so that the drive voltage waveforms are balanced with respect to ground. The
DC-blocking capacitor can also be eliminated if current mode control is used to ensure that no
net DC flows between the bridge legs.

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4.5 Electric Welding

Figure 4.7: Electric Welding

The low frequency welding control utilizes an inverse parallel pair of Silicone Controlled
Rectifiers (SCR) to control the output of the welding power transformer. SCRs are turned on by
pulsing a gate with a voltage signal. The welding control uses predictive algorithms to determine
the best point to pulse the gate of the SCRs during the half cycle of the alternating current
supply. The SCRs are turned off only when the alternating current supply is below the threshold
point called "minimum holding current". This occurs near the zero crossing point of the AC
power supply.

4.6 HVDC Transmission

Figure 4.8: HVDC Transmission

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A high voltage direct current (HVDC) power system uses D.C. for transmission of bulk
power over long distances. For long distance power transmission, HVDC lines are less
expensive, and losses are less as compared to AC transmission. It interconnects the networks that
have different frequencies and characteristics.
In generating substation, AC power is generated which can be converted into DC by using a
rectifier. In HVDC substation or converter substation rectifiers and inverters are placed at both
the ends of a line. The terminal substation, which converts AC into DC is called a rectifier
terminal, while the terminal substation which converts DC into AC is called an inverter terminal.
The DC is flowing with the overhead lines and at the user end again DC is converted into AC by
using inverters, which are placed in converter substation. The power remains the same at the
sending and receiving ends of the line. DC is transmitted over long distances because it decreases
the losses and improves the efficiency.

Wind and small hydropower interconnection

4.7 Static VAR Compensator

Static Var Compensator is “a shunt-connected static Var generator or absorber whose
output is adjusted to exchange capacitive or inductive current so as to maintain or control
specific parameters of the electrical power system (typically bus voltage)”. SVC is based on
thyristors without gate turn-off capability. The operating principal and characteristics of
thyristors realize SVC variable reactive impedance. SVC includes two main components and
their combination: Thyristor-controlled and Thyristor-switched Reactor (TCR and TSR); and
Thyristor-switched capacitor (TSC).

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Figure 4.9: Static VAR Compensator

4.8 Thyristor Controlled Inductor

Thyristor controlled reactor consist reactor L placed in series with the thyristor. This
reactor is the controlled element of the TCR, and it controls the thyristor. TCR consists two
opposite poled thyristor which conducts every alternate half cycles of the supply.

Figure 4.10: Thyristor Controlled Inductor

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In TCR the duration of current flowing through the reactor is controlled by the firing angle of
the thyristor. For every half cycle, the thyristor is given a triggering pulse by the controlled
circuit. It is used in EHV (Extra High Voltage) lines for providing lagging VARs during the low
load or load rejection.

4.9 Thyristor Switched Capacitor

The thyristor switched capacitor is used in EHV lines for providing leading VARs during
heavy loads. The current through the capacitor can be varied by controlling the firing angles of
back to back thyristor connected in series with the capacitor.

Figure 4.11: Thyristor Switched Capacitor

When the voltage at a bus reduces below the reference value, the static VAR
compensator used TSC for injected capacitive volt-amperes and when the voltage at the bus rise
above the reference value, inductive VAR are to be injected to lower the bus voltage by using
TCR.

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UNIT V
MOTOR DRIVE APPLICATIONS

5.1 DC Motor with a Separately Excited Field Winding

Under no load conditions, the speed of dc shunt motor is given by

Where n=speed; V= armature voltage and φ= field flux

The motor can operate at any speed up to base speed, and at any torque (current) up to the
rated value by appropriate choice of armature voltage. This full flux region of operation is
indicated by the shaded area in Figure. This region is referred to as the ‘constant torque’ region
of the torque–speed plane.

To run faster than base speed the field flux must be reduced. The operation with reduced
flux is known as ‘field weakening’ region.

The speed of dc shunt motor is controlled as follows:

 Below base speed, the field flux is kept at maximum. The speed is set by varying the
armature voltage. Full torque is available at any speed.

 Above base speed, the armature voltage is at maximum and the flux is reduced in order to
raise the speed. The maximum torque available reduces in proportion to the flux.

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Separately excited dc motor - equivalent circuit

Figure 5.1 Separately excited dc motor - equivalent circuit

5.2 Line frequency controlled converters

In many adjustable dc drives, especially in large power ratings, it may be economical to
utilize a line frequency controlled converters.

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Figure 5.2: Line frequency controlled converters

a) Single phase b) three phase
The output of these line frequency converters, also called the phase controlled converters,
contains an ac ripple that is a multiple of 50 Hz line frequency. Because of this low frequency
ripple, an inductance in series with the motor armature may be required to keep low ripple
current. This will minimize its effect on armature heating and ripple in torque and speed.

A disadvantage of line frequency converters is the longer dead time to the changes in the
speed control. So line frequency converters are not suitable for servo drive applications.
Moreover, the voltage of line frequency converter is reversible but not current. The current
reversal is required for braking.

For reverse drive control and regenerative braking, dual converters or converter with
reversing contactor can be used.

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Figure 5.2: Driver Line frequency controlled converters

5.3 Effect of Discontinuous Armature Current

In line frequency controlled converters, the armature current may be discontinuous at
light load condition. For a fixed firing angle α, the discontinuous current causes the output
voltage to go up. This voltage rise causes the motor speed to rise at low armature current. With a
continuously flowing armature current, the voltage drop is due to IaRa and commutation voltage
drop in ac side inductance. These effects results in poor regulation under on open loop operation.

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5.4 Control of Adjustable Speed Drives

The type of control used depends on the drive requirements. An open-loop control is
shown in figure.

5.4.1 Open loop control

A d/dt limiter allows the speed command to change slowly, thus preventing the rotor
current from exceeding its rating. The slope of the d/dt limited can be adjusted to match the
motor – load inertia. The current limiter in such drives may be just a protective measure,
whereby if the measured current exceeds its rated value, the controller shuts the drive to off.

5.4.2 Closed loop Control:

Figure 5.3: Closed loop control

Figure shows closed loop control of dc motor. The outer loop is speed control and the
inner loop is current control. The speed transducer measures the actual speed and the reference
speed and it is compared with actual speed. Speed controller generates current set value. The
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current set value is compared with actual current and the current controller generates control
voltage to trigger the power electronic converter.

5.5 Switch-Mode DC-DC Converters

If a four quadrant operation is needed then a switch mode converter is utilized. The full
bridge dc-dc converter shown in figure is used.

Figure 5.4: Switch-Mode DC-DC Converters

If braking is needed, then the two quadrant converter shown in figure a is used.

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Figure 5.5: a)Two quadrant operation b) single quadrant operation

It consists of two switches, where one of the switches is ‘ON ‘at any time, to keep the output
voltage independent of the direction of Ia. The armature current will get reversed during the
braking mode of operation. Here the power flows from the dc motor to Vd. The output voltage Vt
can be controlled in magnitude, but it always remains unipolar.

For a single quadrant operation where the speed remains unidirectional and braking is not
required then the step down converter as shown in figure b is used.

5.6 Induction Motor Drives

5.6.1 Introduction
Induction motor with squirrel cage rotor, are the workhorse of the industry because of
their low cost and rugged construction. When operated directly from the 50 Hz line voltages, an
induction motor operates nearly at constant speed. However by means of power electronics
converters, it is possible to vary the speed of the induction motor. The induction motor drives can
be classified into two broad categories based on their applications:
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1. Adjustable speed drives - One important application of these drives is in process control
by controlling the speed of fans, compressors, pumps and blowers.
2. Servo control – by means of sophisticate control, induction motor can be served as servo
drives in computer peripherals, machine tools and robotics.

5.6.1 Basic Principle of Induction Motor Operation

The stator of an induction motor consists of three phase windings distributed in the stator
slots. These three windings are displaced by 120º in space, with respect to each other. The
squirrel cage rotor consists of a stack of insulated laminations. It has conducting bars inserted
through it which are electrically shorted at each end of the rotor by end rings.

If a balanced set of three phase sinusoidal voltage at a frequency f=ω/2π are applied to
the stator, it results in a balanced set of currents, which establishes a flux density distribution Bag
in the air gap with the following properties:
1. It has a constant amplitude
2. It rotates with a constant speed, also called the synchronous speed, of ω s radians per
second. In terms of revolution per minute (rpm), the synchronous speed is, Ns=120F/P
rpm.

The air gap flux φag rotates at a synchronous speed relative to the stationary stator windings.
As a consequence, a counter emf, called the air gap voltage Eag is induced in each of the stator
phases at a frequency f.

Figure 5.5: Equivalent Circuit of Induction Motor

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The airgap voltage Eag= kfφag (eqn.2)

The torque in an induction motor is produced by interaction of the air gap flux and the
rotor currents. If the rotor is rotating at the synchronous speed, there will be no relative motion
between φag and the rotor, and hence there will be no induced rotor voltages, rotor currents and
torque. At any other speed ωr of the rotor in the same direction of the air gap flux rotation, the
motor is slipping with respect to the air gap flux.

Torque,T = kφagIr = kφag2fsl (eqn.3)

For normal motor parameters, except for low values of operating frequency f,

Applied voltage,Vs = Eag = kfφag (eqn.4)

The slip frequency fsl = sf (eqn.5)

The following important observations can be drawn from these relations:

1. The synchronous speed can be varied by varying the frequency f of the applied voltages
(eqn.1).
2. With small fsl, except at low values of f, the slip s is small and the motor speed varies
approximately linearly with the frequency f of the applied voltages (eqn.5).
3. For the torque capability equal to the rated torque at any frequency, Qag should be kept
constant (eqn.3) and equals to its rated value. Here Vs is varied proportional to frequency
‘f’.
From the above statements it can be concluded that the motor speed can be varied by
controlling the applied frequency f, by keeping air gap flux constant at its rated value. Here the
applied voltage is varied in proportions with ‘f’ so that V/F remains constant.

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Induction Motor Characteristics at rated (line) frequency and rated voltage

Figure 5.6: Speed – Torque characteristics

The speed torque curve of an induction motor is a plot of speed on the x-axis and torque
on the y-axis. When the motor is started, the initial torque is about 150% of the rated torque.
This is the torque required by the motor to overcome the inertia at standstill. As the motor picks
up speed the torque drops to the pull-up torque. If the pull-up torque of a motor is less than the
torque requirement of the load the motor will stall and over heat. The full load torque is the
torque produced by a motor operating at the rated speed and load. Exceeding the full load torque
causes reduction in the life of the motor. When the motor is run on no load, the rotor speed
reaches the synchronous speed. The slip becomes zero and the motor runs at zero torque.

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5.6.3 Speed Control by Varying Stator frequency and voltage

1. Torque Speed characteristics

Figure 5.6: Speed Torque characteristics with constant air gap flux and constant load torque
The speed torque characteristics shifted horizontally in parallel for different values of
frequency f is shown in figure. Consider two frequencies f1 and f2. The synchronous speeds ns1
and ns2 are in proportion to f1 and f2. If an equal load torque is to be delivered at both these
frequencies, slip should be equal. Therefore, in the speed torque characteristics equal torque and
equal slip speeds (at f1 and f2) result in parallel but shifted horizontally.

2. Start up considerations

For a solid-state inverter driven induction motor, it is an important to keep the large starting
current during start-up. This can be achieved by considering the following relationship:
For a constant φag ,
Ir = kfsl (eqn.6)
From equation (3) and (6), torque and rotor current are plotted in figure to show how the
motor can be started at a small applied frequency f (=fstart). Since at start-up fsl equals fstart, the
rotor current can be limited by selecting appropriate fstart. The stator current is limited, due to
constant φag with constant magnetizing current.

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Figure 5.7: Torque and Rotor Current

Frequency at start-up
In practice, the stator frequency is increased continuously at a preset rate, as shown in
figure which does not let the stator current exceed a specified limit. This rate is decreased for
higher inertia loads to allow the rotor speed to catch up.

Ramping of frequency at start-up

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5.6.4 Voltage Boost required at low frequencies

The effect of stator resistance cannot be neglected at low value of operating frequency .
For constant φag,

Vs ≈ kf+RsIr (eqn.7)

Equation (7) shows that the additional voltage required to compensate voltage drop
across Rs to keep φag constant does not depend on the supply frequency, f but depends on I r .

Figure 5.8: Voltage boost required to keep φag constant

Figure shows that to keep φag constant, a much higher percentage of voltage boost is
required. It is needed at low operating frequencies due to the voltage drop across R s. At large
values of f, voltage drop across Rs can be neglected. The voltage required at no load is shown by
a short- long dashed line.

5.6.5 Induction Motor Capability below and above the rated speed
Speed control by means of frequency (and voltage) variation allows the capability to
operate the motor not only at below the rated speed but also at above the rated speed. This
capability is very attractive in many applications, since most induction motors, are of rugged
construction. It can be operated up to twice the rated speed without mechanical problems.
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However, the torque and power capabilities as a function of rotor speed need to be clearly
established.

Figure 5.9: Induction motor Characteristics and capabilities

In the region of speed below its rated value, φag is maintained constant by controlling
Vs/f. If φag is maintained constant, the motor can deliver its rated torque. Therefore, this region
(below the rated speed) is called the constant torque region.

By increasing the frequency above its nominal (rated) value, it is possible to increase the
motor speed beyond the rated speed. By keeping the Vs at its rated value, increasing the
frequency f results in a reduced Vs/f and hence reduced φag and torque. In this region
speed*torque = power is constant. Therefore, this region (above the rated speed) is called the
constant power or constant HP region.

With Vs equal to its rated value, beyond certain speed (nearly 2*ns), torque approaches to
pullout torque. Torque declines with 1/f2.

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5.6.6 Variable frequency Converter Classifications

The variable frequency converters, which act as an interface between utility power
system and the induction motor, must satisfy the following basic requirements:

1. Ability to adjust the frequency according to the desired output speed.

2. Ability to adjust the output voltage so as to maintain a constant air gap flux in the
constant torque region.
3. Ability to supply a rated current on a continuous basis at any frequency.

Figure illustrates the basic concept where the utility input is converted into dc by means
of either a controlled or an uncontrolled rectifier and then inverted to provide three phase
voltages and currents to the motor, adjustable in magnitude and frequency.

Figure 5.10: Variable frequency converter

Variable frequency converters can be classified based on the type of rectifier and inverter
used.
1. Pulse width modulated voltage source inverter (PWM-VSI) with a diode rectifier.
2. Square wave voltage source inverter (square-VSI) with a thyristor rectifier.
3. Current source inverter (CSI) with a thyristor inverter.

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Figure 5.11: a)PWM-VSI with a diode rectifier b) square wave VSI with a controlled rectifier
c) CSI with a controlled rectifier

Figure (a) shows the PWM-VSI with a diode rectifier and (b) shows the square wave-
VSI inverter where a controlled rectifier is used at the front end and the inverter operates in a
square wave mode (also called the six step). The line voltage may be single phase or three phase.
In both VSI converters, large dc bus capacitor is used to make the input to the inverter with very
small internal impedance. Figure (c) shows the schematic of CSI drive in which a line
commutated converter is used at the front end. Because of a large inductor in the dc link, the
input to the inverter appears as a dc current source. The inverter utilizes the thyristors, diodes and
capacitors for forced commutation.

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5.7 Variable frequency PWM-VSI Drives

Figure (a) shows a schematic of PM-VSI drive, assuming a three phase utility input.
PWM inverter controls both the magnitude and frequency of the voltage output. Therefore, at the
input, an uncontrolled diode bridge rectifier is generally used.
One possible method of generating the inverter switch control signal is by comparing
three sinusoidal control voltages (at the desired output frequency and proportional to the output
voltage magnitude) with a triangular waveform at a selected switching frequency as shown in
figure (b).

Figure 5.12: a) PWM-VSI schematic b) waveform

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5.8 Line frequency Variable-Voltage Drives

In some applications, it may be cheaper to use line frequency variable – voltage drives.
In induction motor, the torque is proportional to square of the supply voltage.

T = kVs2 (eqn. 8)

Based on equation (8), Figure shows the motor speed-torque curves at various values of
Vs. The load torque of a fan or pump-type load varies approximately as the square of the speed.
Therefore a small torque is required at low speeds, and as figure shows, the speed can be
controlled over a wide range.

Figure 5.13: Speed Control Range

A practical circuit for controlling the stator voltage of a three phase induction motor is
shown in figure. It consists of three pairs of back-to-back connected thyristors.

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Figure 5.14: Stator Voltage Control Circuit

5.8.1 Reduced Voltage Starting (“Soft Start”) of Induction Motors

The circuit used for stator voltage control can also be used in constant-speed drives to
reduce the motor voltage and hence current at start-up. If the torque developed at reduced voltage
is sufficient to overcome the load, the motor accelerates. During starting, the firing angles of the
thyristors are high. During the steady state operation, each thyristor conducts for an entire half
cycle. Then, these thyristors are shorted by mechanical contactors to eliminate the power loss in
the thyristors.

5.9 Speed Control by Static Slip-Power Recovery

From the induction motor equivalent circuit, it is possible to obtain speed-torque

characteristics for various values of rotor resistances. In a wound-rotor induction motor, the rotor
resistance can be varied by adding an external resistance through the slip rings. The speed of
operation can be continuously varied by varying the rotor resistance.

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Figure 5.15: Speed control by rotor resistance

In the static slip power recovery scheme, the slip power is saved without dissipating in
the external resistance. The resistances are simulated by means of a diode rectifier and the energy
recovered is fed back to ac supply by means of a line commutated inverter.

Figure 5.16: Static slip power recovery scheme

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POWER ELECTRONICS MODEL QUESTION PAPER-1

PART-A

1. Mention the major areas of applications of power electronics.

2. What is firing angle of SCR?
3. Mention the control methods for varying duty ratio.
4. State the advantages of using pulse transformer in trigger circuit.
5. What do you mean by constant power region?
6. Expand IGBT and draw its symbol.
7. Mention the applications of three phase inverters.
8. Mention the voltage control techniques commonly used for three phase inverter and what
drawback does it cause?
PART-B

9. Briefly write a note on classification of thyristor rating.

10. Give a brief note on polarized snubber circuit.
11. What is the necessity for adding two diodes in single phase bidirectional controllers?
12. Draw the input and output waveforms of half wave controlled rectifier with resistive load.
13. Briefly explain the Buck converter
14. Write a brief note on high frequency electronic ballast..
15. Draw the schematic of AC solid state relay using an optocoupler.
16. Write a note on stator voltage control.

PART-C

17. Explain briefly the three operating modes of SCR

(OR)
Discuss the effect of armature current in discontinuous mode of phase controlled
converters
18. Explain the operation of three phase bidirectional controller.
19. Write a note on important specification of SCR
20. Explain the operation of class E commutation using thyristor.
21. Explain the operation of single phase full converter
22. Explain the operation of synchronized UJT triggering circuit with a neat diagram.
23. Explain the operation of single phase cyclo converter with a neat diagram.
24. Explain the operation of Buck-Boost converter.
25. Draw the schematic of single phase bridge inverter with its output waveforms.
26. Draw the circuit diagram of full bridge SMPS.
27. Explain the operation of voltage source series resonant inverter for induction heating.
28. Explain thyristor controlled inductor.

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29. Draw the circuit diagram of separately excited DC motor and its operating regions and
explain.
30. Explain the operation of PWM-VSI drives.
31. Explain the operation of slip ring motor speed control using slip power recovery scheme.

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POWER ELECTRONICS MODEL QUESTION PAPER-2

PART-A

1. Define switching speed of a semiconductor devices.

2. Define chopper. What are the applications of chopper?
3. Define commutation. What are the types of commutation?
4. Define cyclo converters. Give the applications.
5. Define inverter gain. Mention the commonly used techniques to vary the inverter gain.
6. What is the need of UPS? Mention the types of UPS.
7. Draw the block diagram of AC circuit breaker.
8. List the advantages of using no break UPS configuration.

PART-B
9. List the types of power electronic circuits.
10. Write a note on class F commutation.
11. Draw the circuit diagram of three phase dual converter.
12. Draw the input and output waveform of single phase half bridge inverter.
13. List the types of techniques used for voltage control of three phase inverter.
14. Compare on line UPS and off line UPS.
15. Draw the torque speed curves for a wound rotor induction motor.
16. Draw the schematic diagram of current source parallel resonant inverter for induction
heating.
PART-C

17. Explain the operation of SCR.

(OR)
Discuss the effects of dv/dt and snubber circuits
18. Explain RC firing circuit
19. Explain Class D commutation.
20. Draw the circuit diagram of three phase full converters with its output waveforms.
21. Draw the circuit diagram, input and output waveforms of three phase cycloconverter.
22. Explain the operation of Boost converter.
23. Explain the operation of single phase half bridge inverter.
24. Explain the principle of single pulse width modulation.
25. Explain the operation of optocoupler with photo SCR.
26. Write a note on thryristor-switched capacitors.
27. Explain the operation of AC solid state relay using a pulse transformer.
28. Draw the block diagram for interconnection of wind/hydro power generator to the utility
system and explain.
29. Explain single phase dual converter
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30. Draw the torque speed characteristics of induction motor and explain the various regions
31. Explain the operation of stator voltage control in induction motor.

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POWER ELECTRONICS MODEL QUESTION PAPER-3

PART-A

1. What is the other name for intelligent module?

2. Define latching current and holding current
3. Expand SCR and draw its symbol.
4. What is natural commutation?
5. Give the applications of inverter
6. List two advantages of HVDC transmission over AC transmission system.
7. Write the classification of variable frequency converter.
8. What is the need for soft start in induction motor?

PART-B
9. Explain the use of RC snubber circuit in thyristor converters.
10. Calculate the average DC output voltage of half-wave controlled rectifier with resistance
load.
11. Give the advantages of operation of dual converters with circulating current.
12. What are the advantages of using free wheeling diode?
13. Draw the circuit diagram of CUK converter.
14. Draw the schematic diagram of welding with series regulator and explain.
15. Write a brief note on static var controller.
16. Draw the speed vs torque characteristics of induction motor drives.

PART-C
17. Draw the block diagram of a typical HVDC transmission system and explain briefly.
(OR)
Draw the schematic of welding with step down dc-dc converter and explain.
18. Explain the operation of three phase to single phase cyclo converter.
19. With a neat diagrams, explain 12 pulse converter.
20. Explain the operation of fiber optic cable based DBC.
21. Explain the operation of resistance trigger circuits.
22. Explain the operation of class B commutation.
23. Explain the principle of single phase thyristor converter.
24. Explain the operation of continuous conduction mode of step up converter.
25. Draw the schematic diagram of 1800conduction mode of three phase inverter with its
waveforms.
26. Explain the operation of sinusoidal pulse width modulation.
27. Explain the operation of no break UPS configuration.
28. Explain the operation of switch mode welder.
29. Explain the four quadrant operation of a DC motor drive.
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30. Write the basic DC motor speed equation and draw the speed torque characteristics of DC
shunt motor mentioning the armature and field control region.
31. Draw the circuit and output waveforms of stator voltage control.

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