THE UNIVERSITY OF BAMENDA

COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY (COLTECH)

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER ENGINEERING

COURSE TITLE: EngInEERIng PhySICS (EEEP 2119)

SEMESTER: FIRST (20-10-0)
OPTIOnS: Computer Networks and Systems Maintenance (CNSM)

COURSE CONTENT
Mechanics
 Mechanics of a single particle (Newton’s laws); Solid Mechanics (Elasticity and
Plasticity); Potential and kinetic energy; Statics (action of forces on bodies at rest and in
equilibrium); Dynamics (action of forces on bodies in motion)
Electricity
 Charges and charge density; Electric current and current density; Complex and vector
representation (Fresnel diagram); Electrostatics: Electric field, electric dipoles, Gauss
Theorem, Poisson equation, Energy, Electric potential;
Magnetism
 Magnetic Field and flux, Magnetic circuits; Ampere Theorem; Biot and Savart Law;
Energy and magnetic forces
Waves
 Free Oscillations; Progressive waves; Electromagnetic Waves; Thermal phenomena;
Heat transmission; Thermal dissipation of materials

COURSE OBJECTIVES
 To develop the capacity to apply Physics principles in analyzing problems arising in the
Electrical and Computer Engineering.
After the successful completion of the course student should be able to:
 Resolve engineering problems requiring knowledge in Physics.

RECOMMENDED TEXT
Jimmie J. Cathey and Syed A. Nasar (2000), Theory and Problems of Basic Electrical
Engineering, Schaum's Outline Series,
Bo Thidé (2012), “Electromagnetic Field Theory”, Second Edition, CED book,
Uma Mukherji (2007), “Engineering Physics”, Second Edition, Alpha Science International
Ltd.,
Andy Ruina and Rudra Pratap (2012), “Introduction to Statics and Dynamics”, Oxford University
Press.
 Engineering Physics I (EEEP2119)

CHAPTER 1. PRELIMINARIES
1. Quantities and Units
1.1 Physical Quantity
A physical quantity is any quantity that can be measured and it is usually represented by a
numerical magnitude and a unit. Physical quantities can be classified into base quantities and
derived quantities.
1.2 Classification of Physical Quantities
1.2.1 Base and Derived Quantities
A) Base quantities: Base quantities are the quantities on the basis of which other quantities are
expressed. There are seven base quantities namely. The units of these base quantities are called
base units. The SI units (International system of units) of these base quantities and their
corresponding symbols are shown in the table below
Base Quantity Symbol of quantity Name of S.I Unit Symbol of Unit Other units
Length l, d, s meter m Mile,
Mass m kilogram kg Pound, tonne

Time t second s Minute, hour

Electric Current I, i ampere A -
Temperature T kelvin K oC, oF

Amount of Substance n mole mol -

Luminous Intensity lv candela cd -

B) Derived quantities: Derived quantities on the other hand are quantities that are obtained
through the combination of two or more base quantities. Their units are also known as derived
unites. Some derived quantities and their corresponding units are shown in the table below
Derived Quantity Symbol of quantity Name of S.I Unit Symbol of Unit
Area A square meter m2
Volume v cubic meter m3
Speed, velocity s or v meter per second m/s
Acceleration a meter per second squared m/s2
Wave number k reciprocal meter m-1
Mass density ρ kilogram per cubic meter kg/m3
Specific volume cubic meter per kilogram m3/kg
Current density J ampere per square meter A/m2
Magnetic field strength B ampere per meter A/m
luminance L candela per square meter cd/m2
For ease of understanding and convenience, 22 SI derived units have been given special names
and symbols, as shown in the table below
Derived quantity Name Symbol Expression Expression
in terms of in terms of
other SI units SI base units
plane angle radian rad - -

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solid angle steradian sr - -

frequency hertz Hz - s-1
force newton N - m·kg·s-2
pressure, stress pascal Pa N/m2 m-1·kg·s-2
energy, work, quantity of heat joule J N·m m2·kg·s-2
power, radiant flux watt W J/s m2·kg·s-3
electric charge, quantity of coulomb C - s·A
electricity
electric potential difference, volt V W/A m2·kg·s-3·A-1
electromotive force
capacitance farad F C/V m-2·kg-1·s4·A2
electric resistance ohm V/A m2·kg·s-3·A-2
electric conductance siemens S A/V m-2·kg-1·s3·A2
magnetic flux weber Wb V·s m2·kg·s-2·A-1
magnetic flux density tesla T Wb/m2 kg·s-2·A-1
inductance henry H Wb/A m2·kg·s-2·A-2
Celsius temperature degree Celsius °C - -
luminous flux lumen lm cd·sr (c) m2·m-2·cd = cd
illuminance lux lx lm/m2 m2·m-4·cd = m-2·cd
activity (of a radionuclide) becquerel Bq - s-1
absorbed dose, specific energy gray Gy J/kg m2·s-2
(imparted), kerma
dose equivalent (d) sievert Sv J/kg m2·s-2
catalytic activity katal kat - s-1·mol

Remark: Some derived quantities do not have units. E.g mechanical advantage, velocity ratio, etc
Multiples and Sub-multiples
The 20 SI prefixes used to form decimal multiples and submultiples of SI units are given below

SI prefixes
Multiples Sub-multiples
Factor Name Symbol Factor Name Symbol
1024 yotta Y 10-1 deci d
1021 zetta Z 10-2 centi c
1018 exa E 10-3 milli m
1015 peta P 10-6 micro µ
1012 tera T 10-9 nano n
109 giga G 10-12 pico p
106 mega M 10-15 femto f
103 kilo k 10-18 atto a
102 hecto h 10-21 zepto z
101 deka da 10-24 yocto y

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1.2.2 Vector and Scalar Quantities

A) Scalar Quantity
Scalar quantity: The term scalar refers to a quantity whose value may be represented by a single
(positive or negative) real number. Examples include; mass, volume, temperature, density, pressure
etc.
B) Vector Quantity
Vector quantity: A vector quantity on the other hand has both magnitude and direction. Examples
include; force, velocity, acceleration, momentum etc.
Remark: There are other classes of physical quantities called Tensors: where magnitude and direction
vary with coordinate axes

1.3 Collinear vector

These are vectors having a common line of action. There are of two types.
 Parallel vector (θ=0°):- Two vectors acting along same direction are called parallel vectors.
 Anti parallel vector (θ=180°):-Two vectors which are directed in opposite directions are called
anti-parallel vectors.
1.4 Co-planar vectors
Vectors situated in one plane (2D e.g x-y plane), irrespective of their directions, are known as co-
planar vectors
NB: Coplanar Concurrent vectors are vectors which act in the same plane and they all meet at the
same point
Coplanar parallel (non-concurrent) vectors act in the same plane and have a parallel lines of action (do
not meet).

1.5 Vector Algebra

 Addition and Subtraction
The addition and subtraction of vectors take into consideration the magnitude and direction of
the vectors involved. When two or more vectors are added, the single vector obtained is called
the resultant vector. This resultant vector will produce the same effect as all the individual
vectors acting together under the same conditions.
Vectors along the same plane (coplanar parallel) can be added directly using vector addition,
while vectors inclined to each other (coplanar concurrent) can be added using Pythagoras
theorem (component addition), the parallelogram rule or the polygon rule (head to tail addition).

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 Resolution of Vectors
The splitting of a single vector into two or more vectors is called
resolution of vectors. The separate vectors obtained are called the
components of the original vector.

Examples/Exercise 1.0
1. A student drives his car 6.0 km, North before making a right hand turn and driving 6.0 km to the
East. Finally, the student makes a left hand turn and travels another 2.0 km to the north. What is
the magnitude of the overall displacement of the student?
2. Mac and Tosh are doing the Vector Walk Lab. Starting at the door of their physics class room, they
walk 2.0 meters, south. They make a right hand turn and walk 16.0 meters, west. They turn right
again and walk 24.0 meters, north. They then turn left and walk 36.0 meters, west. What is the
magnitude of their overall displacement?
3. What are the components of a vector of magnitude 1.5 m at an angle of 35° from the positive x-
axis?
4. Find the resultant of the following two displacements: 2 m at 30 deg and 4 m at 120 deg. The
angles are taken relative to the x axis
5. Vector a has magnitude of 5.0m and is directed due east. Vector b has magnitude 4.0m and is
directed at 35 degrees west of north. What are
(a) The magnitude and direction of a+b?
(b) The magnitude and direction of b−a?
6. An airplane flies due north at 235 km/h with respect to the air. There is a wind blowing at 65 km/h
to the northeast with respect to the ground. What are the plane’s speed and direction with
respect to the ground?
7. The two vectors a and b in the figure below have equal magnitudes of 10.0m. Find
(a) The x-component and the y-component of their vector
sum r,

(b) The magnitude of r and the angle r makes with the positive
direction of the x-axis.

8. In the sum A + B = C, vector A has a magnitude of 12.0m and is angled 40.0 degrees
counterclockwise from the + x direction, and vector C has magnitude of 15.0m and is angled 20.0
degrees counterclockwise from the –x direction. What are
(a) The magnitude and
(b) The angle (relative to +x) of B?
9. Three forces act on a point: 3 N at 0°, 4 N at 90°, and 5 N at 217°. What is the net force?
10. A river flows with speed 10 m/s in the northeast direction. A particular boat can propel itself at
speed 20 m/s relative to the water. In which direction should the boat point in order to travel due
west?

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CHAPTER 2: MECHANICS
2.1 FORCES
A force is a push or a pull acting upon an object as a result of its interaction with another object.
Whenever there is an interaction between two objects, there is a force upon each of the objects.
When the interaction ceases, the two objects no longer experience the force. Forces only exist as a
result of an interaction.
Classification of forces
2.1.1 Contact and Action-at-a-Distance Forces
For simplicity sake, all forces (interactions) between objects can be placed into two broad categories:
1. Contact forces, and
2. Forces resulting from action-at-a-distance or non-contact forces
 Contact forces
These are those types of forces that result when the two interacting objects are perceived to be in
physical contact with each other. Examples of contact forces include frictional forces, tensional forces,
normal forces, air resistance forces etc.
 Action-at-a-distance forces
These are those types of forces that result even when the two interacting objects are not in physical
contact with each other, yet are able to exert a push or a pull despite their physical separation. For
this reason, they are also called non-contact forces or forces of nature or fundamental forces.
Examples of action-at-a-distance forces include gravitational force, electrostatics force and magnetic
force.
2.1.2 Conservative and Non conservative (dissipative) forces
Forces can also be classified into conservative and non-conservative forces.
 Conservative forces
These are those types of forces which store energy in the form of potential energy when they cause
an object to move from one point to another. For example, when lifting a book, the work that you do
"against gravity" in lifting is stored and is available for kinetic energy of the book once you let go.
Gravity, elastic (spring), electric forces, etc are examples of conservative forces. The work a
conservative force does on an object in moving it from A to B is path independent. It depends only on
the end points of the motion and is equal to zero when the path is a closed loop
 Non conservative forces
These are those types of forces which do not store energy when they cause an object to move from
one point to another. For example, when pushing a book, the work that you do "against friction" is
apparently lost. It is certainly not available to the book as kinetic energy. Forces that do not store
energy are called non conservative or dissipative forces. Friction, air resistance, viscous drag etc are
examples of non-conservative forces. For a non-conservative (or dissipative) force, the work done in
going from A to B depends on the path taken.
2.2 Newton’s Laws of Motion
2.2.1 Newton’s First Law
A body remains at rest or in uniform motion unless acted upon by an external unbalanced force. This
law does not tell us very much about the concept of force, except what is meant by zero force. That is,

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if we see a body at rest or in uniform motion, we know that the force acting on the body is zero. This
law is also known as the law of inertia
Applications of inertia
The resistance that a body offers to any change in its state of rest or of uniform motion in a straight
line is called inertia. This concept is evident when a car suddenly stops causing the riders to be pushed
forward or starts, jerking the riders backward. Using seat belts can reduce this effect.
2.2.2 Newton’s Second Law
A body acted upon by a force moves in such a manner that the rate of change of its linear momentum
equals the force. Newton defined the linear momentum of a particle of mass m moving with a velocity
v as:
𝐏 = mv 1.1
The second law can thus be used to define the force as;
𝐏 ( )
𝐅= = 1.2
This definition is of course only useful if the mass and the velocity of the particle are defined.
If the mass is constant, then this law can be written as
( )
𝐅= = ma 1.3
Force is measured in Newton (N). From the above formula, one Newton is defined as the force which
gives a mass of one kilogram an acceleration of one meter per second squared. The above formula
also implies that a constant force produces a constant acceleration and that a force can be measured
by finding the acceleration it produces on a known mass.
The second law can also be written in the form:
𝐅= → Ft = mv − mu = ∆p 1.4
The quantity Ft is a vector quantity called impulse of the force.
Applications of impulse
3. Crumple Zone. These are areas usually found at the front and rear sections of a vehicle. Their
function is to increase impact time and hence reduce the force on the passengers in a car
during a collision.
4. Seat belts. They are designed to increase the impact time and hence reduce the impart force
on the riders of a car during a collision so as to minimize the risk of injury
5. Packing eggs in soft boxes. These soft shock absorbing boxes help to increase the time the
moving eggs take to come to rest and hence reducing the force of impact on the eggs.
6. High jump athletes usually flex their knees after a jump so as to increase the impact time. Long
jump pits are usually filled with sand or sawdust for the same reasons
2.2.3 Newton’s Third Law
If two bodies exert forces on each other, then the forces are equal in magnitude and opposite in
direction. This law is not a general law of nature. It is only true if the force acting between the bodies
is directed along the line connecting the bodies (these forces are called central forces e.g gravitation
(in the non-relativistic limit), electrostatic, etc). Forces that are velocity dependent (such as between

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to moving electric charges) are in general non-central forces and do not satisfy Newton’s Third Law.
Conservation of linear momentum is a direct consequence of the third law.
If F1 = -F2,
(𝐦𝟏 𝐯𝟏 ) (𝐦𝟐 𝐯𝟐 )
then =
or

Using the acceleration “a”

1.5
If one chooses m1 as the reference or unit mass, m2, or the mass of any other object, can be measured
by comparison (if it is allowed to interact with m 1).
Practical Applications of the third law
 Rocket propulsion. The exhaust from the rocket pushes the ground and the ground pushes the
rocket with equal and opposite force to cause the latter to move forward.
 The birds use action and reaction pair while flying. The wings push the air downwards, and the
air pushes the bird upwards. The third law of motion also helps us swim as we propel ourselves
forward and push the water behind us
 When firing a gun, the piston exerts a force on the bullet to propel it, and the reaction from
the bullet causes the piston to move backward (recoil)
 You can’t walk on the slippery surface but you can easily do so on a rough surface. This is
because the horizontal component of the force you exert on the floor for pushing it backwards
gets a reaction force from the rough ground in terms of friction acting forwards on your feet,
but slippery surface lacks this friction
2.3 Conservation Laws
2.3.1 The law of conservation of linear momentum
The law states that the total linear momentum P of a particle is conserved when the total force on it is
zero or when two or more bodies interact, their total momentum remains constant provided no
external force acts on the system. The interaction can either be a collision or an explosion. Considering
an interaction between two bodies A and B, then this law can be written as:
∆(P + P ) = 0
Or
P +P =0 1.6
If the two bodies are moving with initial velocities UA and UB and final velocities VA and VB, then
m u +m u =m v +m v 1.7
2.3.2 The law of conservation of angular momentum
This law is a direct consequence of the definition of angular momentum and torque. In fact one can
argue that torque was defined such that it is equal to the rate of change of the angular momentum
(dL/dt). The law states that the angular momentum L of a particle subject to no torque is conserved.
i.e if Σ𝜏 = 0, then L = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

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2.3.3 The law of conservation of energy

The law states that the total energy E of a particle in a conservative force field is constant in time. The
total energy E is defined as the sum of the kinetic energy T and the potential energy U.
i.e T + U = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
Remarks: The sum of potential and kinetic energy is called mechanical energy.
 Kinetic energy is the energy a body possesses as a result of it motion. Generally, T = 𝑚𝑣
 Potential energy is the energy a body possesses as a result of its position or state. Generally,
gravitational potential energy is expressed as; U = 𝑚𝑔ℎ
2.4 Free Body Diagrams
Free body diagrams represent the forces which act upon an object at a given moment in time. The
individual forces which act upon an object are represented by vector arrows. The directions of the
arrows indicate the direction of the force and the approximate length of the arrow represents the
relative magnitude of the force. The forces are labeled according to their type. A free body diagram
can be a useful aid in the problem-solving process. It provides a visual representation of the forces
exerted upon an object. If the magnitudes of all the individual forces are known, the diagram can be
used to determine the net force. And if the acceleration and the mass are known, then the net force
can be calculated and the diagram can be used to determine the value of a single unknown force.
Examples/ Exercise 2.1
1. A car, of mass 1.1 tonnes, which was initially travelling at 6 ms−1 is brought to rest in 2.2
seconds by a wall. Find the average force exerted by the wall on the car.
2. A 77-kg person is parachuting and experiencing a downward acceleration of 2.5 m/s 2 shortly
after opening the parachute. The mass of the parachute is 5.2 kg.
(a) Find the upward force exerted on the parachute by the air.
(b) Calculate the downward force exerted by the person on the parachute.
3. A 2.00 kg block (mass 1) and a 4.00 kg block (mass 2) are
connected by a light string as shown; the inclination of the
ramp is 40.0°. Friction is negligible. What is
(a) the acceleration of each block
(b) the tension in the string?
4. Two blocks are connected by a massless rope as shown below. The mass of the block on the
table is 4.0 kg and the hanging mass is 1.0 kg. The table and
the pulley are frictionless.
(a) Find the acceleration of the system.
(b) Find the tension in the rope

5. A 20.0-g ball hangs from the roof of a freight car by a string. When the freight car begins to
move, the string makes an angle of 35.0° with the vertical.
(a) What is the acceleration of the freight car?
(b) What is the tension in the string?
(c) Sketch a free body diagram of the ball

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6. Two bodies A and B with masses, 2m and m respectively, moving in the same direction with A
having a velocity of 5.0m/s and B a velocity of 2.0m/s, make a collision. If the velocity of A after
collision with B is 3.0m/s
(a) Calculate the velocity of B after the collision
(b) Is the collision elastic (total energy conserved) or inelastic (total energy not conserved)
7. A tennis ball (A) of mass 400g moving with a velocity of 5m/s collides with a stationary one (B)
of mass 200g. A is then deflected through 60o to the initial direction with a velocity of 3m/s
and B through an angle of  with a velocity V.
(c) calculate  and V
(d) Is the collision elastic (total energy conserved) or inelastic (total energy not conserved)
8. A ball, of mass 20 grams, hits a wall travelling at 4 ms−1 and rebounds at 3 ms−1. Find the
energy lost during the bounce.
9. A brick, of mass 2 kg, is allowed to fall from rest at a height of 3.2 m. Find the kinetic energy
and speed of the brick when it hits the ground.
2.5 STATICS
2.5.1 Definition
Statics is the branch of mechanics that is concerned with the analysis of loads (force and torque, or
"moment") acting on physical systems that do not experience an acceleration (a=0), but rather, are in
static equilibrium with their environment.
2.5.2 Dynamic vs Static Equilibrium
We say an object is in dynamic equilibrium when it’s in motion. An example of this would be a car
traveling at a constant speed of 45 m/s. Because it’s not accelerating or decelerating, it is still
considered to be in equilibrium, but it’s movement makes it dynamic.
Static equilibrium is the opposite. Your pen on the desk beside you would be a good example of this
form of equilibrium. It is not moving, therefore it’s obviously not accelerating or decelerating and is
therefore in static equilibrium.
2.5.3 Moment of a Force
Moment is the measure of the capacity or ability of the force to produce a twisting or turning effect
about an axis. This axis is perpendicular to the plane containing the line of action of the force. The
magnitude of moment is equal to the product of the force and the perpendicular distance from the
axis to the line of action of the force. The intersection of the plane and the axis is commonly called
the moment center, and the perpendicular distance from the moment center to the line of action of
the force is called moment arm.
From the figure, O is the moment center and d is the moment
arm. The moment M of force F about point O is equal to the
product of F and d.
M=Fxd
Units of moment are N.m. Moment is a vector quantity since it has
a magnitude and specific direction (sense of rotation). The right
hand rule can be used to determine the sense of rotation. As a
convention, clockwise rotation about the center of moments will
be considered a negative moment; while a counter-clockwise rotation about the center of moments
will be considered positive.
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2.5.3.1 Principle of moments

The principle of moments states that the moment of a force about a point is equal to the sum of the
moments of the components of the force about the point.
2.5.3.2 Couples
A Couple is a system of forces whose resultant is zero. That is; two equal forces which act on the same
body in different directions. The moment of a couple is called a torque. The
magnitude of a torque is given by
C=Fxd
Where F are the two forces and d is the moment arm, or the perpendicular
distance between the forces.

The moment of a couple does not depend on the point one takes the moment about. In other words,
a moment of a couple is the same about all points in space.
2.5.4 Equilibrium of Force System
There are two major types of static equilibrium, namely, translational equilibrium and rotational
equilibrium.
 Translational equilibrium
An object is in translational equilibrium when the sum of all the external forces acting on the object
equals zero. i.e the sum of all forces alone any axis is equal to zero.
 Rotational equilibrium
Similarly to translational equilibrium, an object is in rotational equilibrium when the sum of all the
external moments or torques acting on it equals zero. In rotational equilibrium, an object will either
not be moving or will move with a constant angular velocity. This must mean the object is
experiencing zero angular acceleration. i.e sum of clockwise moments equals sum of anticlockwise
moments.
Remark: A body is said to be in equilibrium if it has both translational and rotational equilibrium. That
is; the resultant of all forces acting on it is zero and the sum of clockwise moments equals to the sum
of anticlockwise moments about any point.

Examples 2.2
1. A uniform beam has length 8 m and mass 60 kg. It is suspended by two ropes, as shown in the
diagram below. Find the tension in each rope.

Solution
The diagram shows the forces acting on the beam.
Taking moments about the point where T1 acts to give:
5 T2 = 3 588;
T2 = (3 588)/5 = 352.8 = 353 N (to 3sf)
Taking moments about the point where T2 acts to give:
5 T1 = 2 588
T1=(2 588)/5 = 235.2 = 235 N (to 3sf)
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Finally for vertical equilibrium we require T1+T2=588, which can be used to check the tensions. In is
the case we have:
352.8N+235.2N = 588N
2. A beam, of mass 50 kg and length 5 m, rests on two supports as shown in the diagram. Find the
magnitude of the reaction force exerted by
each support. Find the maximum mass that
could be placed at either end of the beam if
it is to remain in equilibrium.
Solution
The diagram shows the forces acting on the beam.
Taking moments about the point where R1 acts gives:
2 R2=1.5 490
R2=(1.5 490)/2 = 367.5 = 368 N (to 3sf)
Taking moments about the point where R2 acts gives:
2 R1=0.5 490
R1=(0.5 490)/2 = 122.5 = 123 N (to 3sf)
For vertical equilibrium we require R1+R2=490, which can be used to check the tensions. In is the case
we have: 367.5N + 122.5N=490
First consider the greatest mass that can be placed at the left hand end of the beam. The diagram
below shows the extra force that must now be considered. When the maximum possible mass is used,
R2=0.
Taking moments about the point where R1 acts gives:
1 mg=1.5 490
m = (1.5 490)/9.8 = 75 kg
Hence the greatest mass that can be placed at the right
end of the beam is 75 kg.
Similarly for a mass placed at the right hand end of the beam:
2 mg=0.5 490
m = (0.5 490)/2g = 12.5 kg
Hence the greatest mass that can be placed at
the right end of the beam is 12.5 kg.

3. A ladder, of length 3 m and mass 20 kg, leans against a smooth, vertical wall so that the angle
between the horizontal ground and the ladder is 600.
a) Find the magnitude of the friction and normal reaction forces that act on the ladder, if it is in
equilibrium.
b) Find the minimum value of the coefficient of friction between the ladder and the ground.
Solution
The diagram shows the forces acting on the ladder
a) Considering the horizontal forces gives: F = S
Considering the vertical forces gives: R = 196
Taking moment about the base of the ladder gives:

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196 1.5cos600 = S 3sin600

S=(196 1.5cos60)/(3sin60) = 196/(2tan60) = 56.6 N (to 3 sf)
But since F=S, the friction force has magnitude of 56.6 N.

b) Using the friction inequality, F R gives:

196/(2tan60) 196
1/(2tan60)
0.289 (to 3sf)

Exercise 2.2
1. A uniform beam of mass 20 kg and length 3m rests on two supports as shown below.

(a) Find the reaction force exerted by each support.

(b) Find the greatest mass that can be placed at the left hand end of the beam.
2. A plank has a length of 6 m. The plank is placed on a quayside with its mid-point at the edge of
the quay, so that half of the plank projects out over the water. A
rock of mass m kg, which should be modeled as a particle is
placed at the end of the plank which is on the ground. A person
of mass 60 kg walks on the part of plank that is over the water.
When the person is 1 m from the end, the plank is on the point
of tipping. Find m.
3. A uniform beam has mass 20 kg and length 6 m. It rests on two supports that are 1.5 m from each
end of the beam. A concrete block of mass 5 kg is placed at a point on the beam at a distance of
2.5 m from one end. Find the magnitude of the reaction forces exerted on the beam by the two
supports.
4. A uniform rod of mass 18 kg and length 6m rests on two supports.

a) Find the magnitude of each force exerted on the rod by the supports.
b) A particle is attached to the rod at the right hand end. What is the greatest possible mass of
the particle if the rod remains in equilibrium?
5. A metal beam, of mass 6 kg and length 2m, rests in a horizontal position on two supports that are
at a distance of 40 cm from each end of the beam. A 1.2 kg mass is placed at one end of the beam.
a) Find the magnitude of the reaction forces acting on the beam.
b) What is the greatest mass that could be placed at the other end of the beam, if it is to remain in
equilibrium?
6. A ladder, of length 5 m and mass 25 kg, leans against a smooth wall so that it is at an angle of 70 0
to the horizontal. The ladder remains at rest, with its base on rough, horizontal ground.
(a) Find the magnitude of the normal reaction and friction forces acting on the base of the ladder.
(b) Find an inequality that the coefficient of friction must satisfy.
7. A ladder, of mass 20 kg and length 5 m, has its base on rough, horizontal ground and rests against
a smooth vertical wall. The coefficient of friction between the ground and the ladder is 0.6. The
angle between the ladder and the ground is .
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a) Find the magnitude of the friction force acting on the ladder in terms of .
b) Find the smallest value of , for which the ladder will remain at rest.

2.6 DYNAMICS
Definition
Dynamics is the branch of mechanics which deals with the study of bodies in motion.
2.6.1 Symbols and Notations
s = distance
h = height above the ground
x = horizontal displacement
y = vertical displacement
v = final velocity
u = initial velocity
a = acceleration
g = acceleration due to gravity (9.8 ms-2)
t = time
2.6.2 Motion of a Particle
Particle is a term used to denote an object of point size. A system of particles which formed into
appreciable size is termed as body. These terms may apply equally to the same object. The earth for
example may be assumed as a particle in comparison with its orbit, whereas to an observer on the
earth, it is a body with appreciable size. In general, a particle is an object whose size is so small in
comparison to the size of its path.
2.6.2.1 Rectilinear Translation (Motion along a Straight Line)
 Motion with constant velocity (uniform motion)
S=vxt
 Motion with constant acceleration
v = u + at
s = 1/2 (u + v)t
s = ut + ½ at2
v2 = u2+2as
 Free-falling body
v = gt
h = ½ gt2
v2=2gh
Note: From motion with constant acceleration, set u = 0, s = h, and a = g to get the free-fall formulas.
 Motion with variable acceleration
a = dv/dt
v = ds/dt
vdv = ads
Remarks:
• a is positive (+) if v is increasing (accelerate).
• a is negative (-) if v is decreasing (decelerate).
• g is positive (+) if the particle is moving downward.
• g is negative (-)if the particle is moving upward.

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Interpreting Graphs
The gradient of a "displacement – time" graph gives the velocity.
The gradient of a "velocity - time" graph gives the acceleration.
The area under a "velocity – time" graph can be used to find the displacement.
Position-time (x vs t), velocity-time (v vs t) and acceleration-time (a vs t) graph for motion in one-
dimension
Displacement(x) Velocity(v) Acceleration (a)
(a) At rest

(b) Motion with constant

velocity

(c) Motion with constant

acceleration

(d) Motion with constant

deceleration

2.6.2.2 Projectile motion in a plane

If a particle having initial speed u is projected at an angle  (angle of projection) with x-axis, then,

Time of Flight, T = (2u sinα)/g

Horizontal Range, R = u2sin2α/g
Maximum Height, H = u2sin2α/2g
Equation of trajectory, y = xtanα-(gx2/2u2cos2α)

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Example 2.3
1. The graph shows how the velocity of a car changes as it moves a short distance along a straight
road.

a) Find the total distance travelled by the car.

b) Calculate the acceleration of the car on

each on each stage of its journey.

Solution
(a) The total distance travelled by the car is given by the area under the graph.
Using the formula for the area of a trapezium gives:
S=1/2 x (12+26) 6 = 114 m
Alternatively, breaking the area under the graph into three parts gives.
S = (1/2 8 6) + (12 6) + (1/2 6 6) = 24 + 72 + 18 = 114 m
(b) The acceleration of the car on each stage of the journey is given by the gradient of the graph.
Stage 1: a = 6/8 = 0.75 ms-2
Stage 2: a = 0 (Since the graph is horizontal.)
Stage 3: a = −6/6 = −1 ms-2
2. As a car travels along a straight road its speed increases from 10 ms−1 to 35 ms−1 in 50 seconds.
a) Calculate the distance travelled by the car.
b) Find the acceleration of the car.
c) Find the distance travelled when the speed of the car is 20 ms −1.
Solution
To start with we have u=10, v=35 and t=50 .
a) Using S = 1/2 (u + v)t gives: S=1/2 (10 + 35) 50 = 1125 m
b) Using v=u + at gives:
35 = 10 + 50a
25 = 50a
a = 25/50 = 0.5 ms-2
c) We now have to work with u=10, v=20 and a=0.5.
Using the equation v2 = u2 + 2as gives:
202 = 102 + 2 0.5 S
400 = 100 + S
S = 300 m
Exercise 2.3
1. A ball is dropped from a height of 10 m and falls until it hits the ground. Assume that no resistance
forces act on the ball as it falls.
a) Find the time that it takes the ball to reach the ground.
b) Find the speed of the ball when it hits the ground.
2. A ball is thrown vertically upwards at a speed of 9 ms−1, from a height of 2 m. Find the maximum
height of the ball and the time it is in the air. Assume g = 10 ms−2.

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3. A lorry is initially travelling at 18 ms−1, when the driver applies the brakes. Assume that the
acceleration of the lorry remains constant at -1.2 ms−2 until it stops.
(a) Find the distance that the lorry travels before stopping.
(b) Find the time that it takes for the lorry to stop.
4. The graph below shows how the velocity of a train changes as it travels along a straight railway
line.
a) Find the total distance travelled by the train in
the 120 seconds.
b) Find the acceleration of the train on the first
stage of the motion.
5. The diagram shows a velocity-time graph for a lift.

a) Find the total distance travelled by the lift.

b) Calculate the acceleration of the lift during the last 2
seconds.
c) At what times is the speed of the lift 1 ms−1?
6. A cyclist accelerates at 0.5 ms−2 from rest for 10 seconds, as she travels along a straight line.
a) Find the distance travelled by the cyclist during the 10 seconds and the speed that she reaches
at the end of this period of time.
b) After the 10 seconds her acceleration changes to 0.2 ms −2 and then remains constant for a
further 5 seconds. Find the speed of the cyclist and the total distance that she has travelled at the
end of the 15 seconds.
7. As a van travels along a straight road, its speed increases from 9 ms −1 to 24 ms−1 as it travels 495m.
a) Find the acceleration of the van.
b) Find the time taken by the van to travel the 495 m.
2.7 SOLID MECHANICS
2.7.1 Definition
Solid mechanics is the branch of continuum mechanics (The study of the physics of continuous materials)
that studies the behavior of solid materials, especially their motion and deformation under the action of
forces, temperature changes, phase changes, and other external or internal agents. Continuum mechanics
is divided into solid mechanics and fluid mechanics. A continuum is a body that can be continually sub-
divided into infinitesimal elements with properties being those of the bulk material

Definition of Basic Terminologies

2.7.2 Deforming Force
A force which produces a change in configuration (shape or size) of an object when applied is called a
deforming force.
2.7.3 Elasticity
Elasticity is that property of the object by virtue of which it regains its original configuration after the
removal of the deforming force.
2.7.4 Elastic Limit
Elastic limit is the upper limit of deforming force up to which, if the deforming force is removed, the body
regains its original form completely and beyond which if the deforming force is increased the body loses its
property of elasticity and get permanently deformed.
2.7.5 Perfectly Elastic Body
A body which regains its original configuration immediately and completely after the removal of
deforming force is called perfectly elastic bodies. e.g., quartz and phosphor bronze etc.

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2.7.6 Elastic Fatigue

It is the property of an elastic body by virtue of which its behavior becomes less elastic under the
action of repeated alternating deforming forces.
2.7.7 Elastomers
The materials for which strain produced is much larger than the stress applied, with in the limit of
elasticity are called elastomers, e.g., rubber, the elastic tissue of aorta, the large vessel carrying blood
from heart. etc. Elastomers have no plastic range.
2.7.8 Plasticity
The inability of a body to return to its original shape and size even on removal of the deforming force
is called plasticity and such a body is called a plastic body.
2.7.9 Perfectly Plastic Body
A body which does not regain its original configuration at all on the removal of the deforming force is
called a perfectly plastic body, e.g., paraffin, wax etc.
2.7.10 Ductile Materials
The materials which show large plastic range beyond elastic limit are called ductile materials, e.g.,
copper, silver, iron, aluminum, etc. Ductile materials are used for making springs and sheets.
2.7.11 Brittle Materials
The materials which show very small plastic range beyond elastic limit are called brittle materials, e.g.,
glass, cast iron, etc.
2.7.12 Stress
When an external force acts on a body, it undergoes deformation. At the same time the body resists
deformation. The magnitude of the resisting force is numerically equal to the applied force. This
internal resisting force per unit area is called stress.
Force (F)
Stress () =
Area (A)
Its unit is N/m2 or Pascal. Stress is a tensor quantity (magnitude and direction vary with coordinate
axes).
Stress is of Two Types
(i) Normal Stress: If deforming force is applied normal to the area, then the stress is called normal
stress. If there is an increase in length, then stress is called tensile stress. On the other hand, if there is
a decrease in length, then stress is called compression stress.
(ii) Tangential or shear Stress: if deforming force is applied tangentially, then the stress is called
tangential stress. This stress tends to slide one part of the body over the other part.
Remark:
The Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS) of a material is the stress required to break a wire or a rod by
pulling on it. The Breaking Stress of the material is the maximum stress which a material can
withstand. Beyond this point breakage occurs.
2.7.13 Strain
When a body is subjected to an external force, there is some change of dimension in the body.
Numerically the strain is equal to the ratio of change in length to the original length of the body.
Change in length (δL)
Strain () =
Original length (L)
It has no unit and it is a dimensionless quantity.
According to the change in configuration, the strain is of three types
(i) Longitudinal or tensile strain: If deforming force produces change in length alone
Longitudinal strain= Change in length / Original length
(ii) Volumetric strain: If deforming force produces change in volume alone
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Volumetric strain = Change in volume / Original volume

(iii) Shearing strain = Angular displacement of the plane perpendicular to the fixed surface.
Remarks:
 The maximum stress to which the body can regain its original status on the removal of the
deforming force is called elastic limit.
 Whenever a body is strained, some amount of energy is absorbed in the body. The energy that
is absorbed in the body due to straining effect is known as strain energy. The total strain
energy stored in the body is generally known as resilience
2.7.14 Hooke’s Law
Robert Hooke (1635—1703) discovered that within the limits of elasticity, the extension of a string is
directly proportional to the load applied to the spring.
This law is expressed mathematically as:
F = kx
Where F is force, ‘x’ is displacement, and k is a constant of proportionality
called the spring constant or stiffness.
The stiffness is different for the different material and different sizes of the
same material. We may eliminate the size by using stress and strain instead of
force and deformation. Thus an alternative form of Hooke’s law state that within elastic limits, the
ratio of stress to the corresponding strain produced is a constant. This constant is called the modulus
of elasticity. i.e
Stress (σ)
Modulus of Elasticity(E) =
Strain (ε)
2.7.15 Types of Modulus of Elasticity
(i) Young’s Modulus of Elasticity
For a solid, in the form of a wire or a thin rod, Young’s modulus of elasticity within elastic limit is
defined as the ratio of normal stress to the longitudinal strain within the elastic limit.
Normal Stress
Young′s Modulus(Y) =
Tensile Strain
𝐹∆𝐿 𝑚𝑔∆𝐿
𝑌= =
𝐴𝐿 𝜋𝑟 𝐿
Its unit is N/m2 or Pascal.
(ii) Bulk Modulus of Elasticity
Within elastic limit the bulk modulus is defined as the ratio of longitudinal stress and volumetric
strain. It is given as:
Normal Stress
Bulk Modulus(B) =
Volumetric Strain
𝐹/𝐴 𝐹∆𝑉
𝐵= =
∆𝑉/𝑉 𝜋𝑟 𝑉
Reciprocal of bulk modulus is commonly referred to as the “compressibility”. It is defined as the
fractional change in volume per unit change in pressure

(iii) Shear Modulus or Modulus of Rigidity

It is defined as the ratio of the tangential stress to the shear strain. Modulus of rigidity is given by
Tangential Stress
Shear Modulus(η) =
Shear Strain
Relations between Elastic Moduli

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For an isotropic materials (i.e., materials having the same properties in all directions), only two of the
three elastic constants are independent. For example, Young’s modulus can be expressed in terms of
the bulk and shear moduli.
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= +
𝒀 𝜼 𝟑𝚩
2.7.16 Poisson’s Ratio
The ratio of change in diameter (ΔD) to the original diameter (D) is called lateral strain. The ratio of
change in length (Δl) to the original length (l) is called longitudinal strain. The ratio of lateral strain to
the longitudinal strain is called Poisson’s ratio.
Lateral Strain
Poisson s Ratio =
Longitudinal Strain
2.7.17 Elastic Potential Energy in a Stretched Wire
The work done in stretching a wire is stored in form of potential energy of the wire.
Potential energy U = ½ Average force (F) x Increase in length (Δl). i.e
1
𝑈 = 𝐹 × ∆𝑙
2
2.7.18 Stress-Strain curve

The nature of the curve varies from material to material and even on the same material, it depends on
the temperature of the specimen and the speed of loading may yield different results. However it is
possible to find some common characteristics among the Stress-Strain diagram of various groups of
materials. The very useful fact about this curve is that, it does not depend upon the dimension of the
particular specimen used. “The upper stress limit of the linear relationship described by Hooke’s law is
called the proportional limit, labeled point A. At any stress between point A and the elastic limit,
labeled point B, stress is not proportional to strain, but the material will still return to its original size
after the force is removed. For many materials, the proportional and elastic limits are very close
together. Point C is called the yield stress or yield strength. Any stress above the yield stress will
result in plastic deformation of the material (i.e., the material will not return to its original size, but
will deform permanently). As the stress increases beyond the yield stress, the material experiences a
large increase in strain (length) for a small increase in stress (force). At about point D, called the
ultimate stress or ultimate strength, the cross-sectional area the material begins to decrease rapidly
until the material experiences fracture at point E.

Example 2.4
1. A metal wire has a diameter of 2.5 mm and a length of 2m. A force of 12 N is applied to it and it
stretches by 0.3 mm. Assuming that the material is elastic, determine the following

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i) The stress in the wire

ii) The strain in the wire
Solution

2. a) A column of square cross section is subjected to a compressive load of 6 kN. If the width of the
column is 25 cm, find the stress on the column.
Solution
A= 25 (cm) x 25 (cm) = 625 cm2 = 625 x 10-4 m2 = 6.25 x 10-6 m2
σ= F/A = 6x103 N/ 6.25 x 10−6 m2 = 960 MPa
b) A rod with the diameter of 25 cm is subjected to 500N. Find the stress on the rod.
Solution
A= π d2/4 = (3.14 x 252 x 10−4)/4 = 490.625 m2
σ= F/A = 500 N /490.625∗ 10−4 m2 =1.2∗ 104 Pa
3. A steel tensile test specimen has a cross sectional area of 100 mm2 and a gauge length of 50 mm,
the gradient of the elastic section is 410 x 103 N/mm. determine the modulus of elasticity.
Solution

4.

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Exercise 2.4

4.

5.

6.

8.

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CHAPTER 3: ELECTRICITY
3.1 Electrostatics
It is the study of electricity in which the charges are static or not moving.

3.2 Electric charge (Q)

It is a characteristic developed in a particle of a material due to which it exerts a force on other such
particles. It automatically accompanies the particle wherever it goes. Charge cannot exist without a
material carrying it.
There are two types of charges: positive (+) and negative (-). Any particle has vast amount of charges.
The numbers of positive and negative charges in any material are equal, hence matter is basically
neutral. The lost or gain of a negative charge (electron) gives the material a net positive or negative
charge respectively.
Charge is measured in Coulombs (C). One coulomb is defined as that charge, which, when placed at a
distance of 1 m in air or vacuum from an equal and similar charge, repel it with a force of 9 x 10 9
Newton
3.2.1 Properties of Charges
 Addition of charges: Charges can be added by simple rules of algebra. Addition of positive and
negative charge (Annihilation) makes zero charge.
 Quantization of Charge: Electric charge is quantized. i.e. electric charge is not a continuous
quantity, but is an integral multiple of a minimum charge (e). This minimum charge is 1.6 x 10 -19
Coulomb (C). One electron has a charge of - 1.6 x 10-19C while one proton has a charge of + 1.6 x
10-19 C. The total charge on anybody is given by Q = ne. Where n is a whole number 1, 2, 3….
 Conservation of Charge: The law of conservation of charge states that charge can neither be
created nor destroyed but can only be neutralized.

3.2.2 Charge Density

If the electric charge on a body is concentrated at a point, then it is called a ‘point charge’. If it is
distributed all over the body, then it is called a ‘distribution of charge’. Charge distributions
have different names which depend on the shape of the body.
A) Linear distribution:
When charges (Q) are evenly distributed over a length (L) of conductor, the linear
charge density λ is given by
𝜆=

B) Areal distribution:
When charges (Q) are evenly distributed over a surface area (S), the surface
charge density is given by
𝜎=

C) Volumetric distribution:
When charges (Q) are evenly distributed throughout a body which has volume
(V), the volumetric charge density is given by
𝜌=

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Remark: In electromagnetism, charge density is a measure of electric charge per unit volume of
space, in one, two or three dimensions. More specifically: the linear, surface, or volume charge
densities are the amount of electric charge per unit length, surface area, or volume, respectively.
Their respective SI units are C·m−1, C·m−2 or C·m−3

3.3 The laws of electrostatics

It state that similar charges repel each other while opposite charges attract each other

3.4 Coulomb’s Law

Coulomb’s law states that the force of interaction between two stationery point charges is directly
proportional to the product of the charges, and inversely proportional to the square of the distance
between them and acts along the straight line joining the two charges. If two charges q 1 and q2 are
placed at distance r then,
𝐹=𝐾 2.1
where K is a constant called Coulomb's constant and its value is 𝐾 =
𝜀 is permittivity of free space or vacuum and its value is 8.85 x 10 -12 C2N-1m-2
Remark:
Coulomb’s Law can be written in vector form as:

The forces due to two point charges act parallel to the line joining their
centers.

3.5 Principle of Superposition of Forces

This principle states that the interaction between any two charges is completely unaffected by the
presence of other charges. That is, if a number of forces F11, F12, F13, . . . F1n are acting on a single
charge Q1 then it will experience a resultant force F1 which is equal to the vector sum of all these
forces. That is
F1 = F11 + F12 + F13 + …… + F1n
The vector sum is obtained as usual by parallelogram law of vectors.

Example 3.1
1. What is the magnitude of the force between two 1.00 C charges 100.0 cm apart?
Ans.

2. Two charged particles of q1=1.6x10-19C and q2=3.2x10-19C are fixed on the x axis with a separation
of R=0.02m.
(a) Particle 3 with charge q3=-3.2 10-19C is placed at a distance of 3/4R from particle 1. What is the
net force on particle 1 due to particles 2 and 3?
Ans.

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(b) Particle 4 with charge q4=-3.2 10-19C is placed at a distance of 3/4R from particle 1 in the xy plane
with an angle of θ=60 degrees relative to the x axis. What is the net force on particle 1 due to
particles 2 and 4?
Ans.

Hence the magnitude of the resultant force

The direction (angle) of the resultant force is given by

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Exercise 3.1
1. What is the smallest electric force between two protons placed at a distance of 1.0 m apart?
2. Three charges q1=1 µC, q2=-2 µC and q3=3 µC are placed on the vertices of an equilateral triangle
of side 1.0 m. Find the net electric force acting on charge q 1.
3. How many electrons must be removed from the sphere to give it a charge of +2 μC. Is there any
change in the mass when it is given this positive charge? How much is this change?
4. Three equal charges each of 2.0 x 10-6 are fixed at three corners of an equilateral triangle of side 5
cm. Find the Coulomb force experienced by one of the charges due to the other two.
5. Two identical charged copper spheres A and B have their centers separated by a distance of 50 cm.
A third sphere of same size but uncharged is brought in contact with the first, then brought in
contact with the second and finally removed from both. What is the new force of repulsion between
A and B?
6. A charge q is placed at the center of the line joining two equal charges Q. Show that the system of
three charges will be in equilibrium if q = Q/4.
7. Two particles having charges 8q and –2q are fixed at a distance L. where, in the line joining the two
charges, a proton be placed so that it is in equilibrium (the net force is zero). Is that equilibrium
stable or unstable?
8.
What are the horizontal and vertical components of the net
electrostatic force on the charged particle in the lower left corner of
the square below if q = 1.0 x 107C and a = 5.0 cm?

9.
Two tiny conducting balls of identical mass m and identical charge q
hang from non-conducting threads of length L and are separated by a
distance X. Assume that θ is so small that tan θ can be replaced by sin θ;
show that, for equilibrium,

10.
A long non-conducting massless rod of
length L, pivoted at its center and balanced
with a block of weight W at a distance x from
the left end. At the left and right ends of the
rod are attached small conducting spheres
with positive charges q and 2q, respectively.
A distance h directly beneath each of
these spheres is a fixed sphere with positive charge Q.
a) Find the distance x (in terms of L) when the rod is horizontal and balanced.
b) What value should h have so that the rod exerts no vertical force on the bearing when the rod is
horizontal and balanced?

3.6 Capacitance (C)

Capacitance refers to the ability of a body to store an electrical charge. Any object that can be
electrically charged exhibits capacitance. A common form is a parallel-plate capacitor, which consists
of two conductive plates insulated from each other, usually sandwiching a dielectric material. In a
parallel plate capacitor, capacitance is directly proportional to the surface area of the conductor plates
and inversely proportional to the distance between the plates.

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𝐴
𝐶=𝜀
4𝜋𝑑
Where A is the area of the plates, d is the separation of the plates and 𝜀 is the relative permittivity or
the dielectric constant of the material between the plates.
If the charges on the plates are +q and −q, and V is the voltage between the plates, then the capacitance
C can also be given by;
𝑞
𝐶=
𝑉
The SI unit of capacitance is the farad (symbol: F).

3.6.1 Capacitor networks

Capacitors can be connected in series or parallel configurations.
• Series capacitors

• Parallel capacitors

3.7 Electric Field

It is the space around a charge particle (source charge) where an electric force can be experience by any
other electric charges (test charges). This electrostatic field, and the force it creates, can be illustrated
with lines called "lines of force". Charged objects repel or attract each other because of the way these
fields interact together. The electric field at a point can be defined in terms of either a vector function E
called electric field strength or a scalar function V called electric potential. The electric field can also
be visualized graphically in terms of electric lines of force.

3.7.1 Properties of Electric Field Lines

 They start from positive charge and end at negative.
 The direction of the field at any point is direction in which a free positive charge will move if
placed at that point.
 Electric Lines of forces are imaginary but Electric fields they represent are real.
 The tangent drawn at any point on the line of force gives the direction of force acting on a
positive charge at that point.
 Two lines of force never cross each other, because if they do so then at the point of intersection,
intensity will have two directions which is absurd.
 Electric Lines of force can never be a closed loop since they do not start and end at the same
point. The lines are discontinuous, start from + and terminate at –
 The electric lines of force do not pass through a conductor as electric field inside a conductor is
zero.
 Lines of force have tendency to contract longitudinally like a stretched string, producing
attraction between opposite charges and edge effect.

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 Electric Lines of force start and end Normal to the surface of the conductor.
 Crowded lines represent strong field while distant lines represent weak field. Equidistant
parallel lines represent uniform field. Non-straight or non- parallel represent non-uniform field.
In the diagram bellow, “a” is uniform while “b”, “c”, and “d” are non-uniform fields.

3.7.2 Electric Field Lines Between Point Charges

3.8 Electric Field Strength or Intensity (E)

The intensity (or strength) of an electric field (E⃗) at a location is the force exerted on a unit charge
placed at that location. ie
⃗
𝐸⃗ = 2.7
The direction of force 𝐹⃗ is in the direction of electric field E⃗. By eqn. 2.1 and 2.7, the electric field
intensity due to a source charge q is given by:
𝐸⃗ = 2.8
Remarks:
 If q is positive E is directed away from q. On the other hand if q is negative, then E is directed
towards q.

 The electric field at any point is a vector quantity. Suppose E 1 is the field at a point due to a charge
q1 and E2 is the field at the same point due to a charge q2. Then applying the principle of
superposition, the resultant field when both charges are present is:
E= E + E 2.9

3.9 Electric Flux

In electromagnetism, an electric flux can also be defined as a measure of the flow of electric field
through a given area. The Electric Flux is denoted by the Greek Symbol Phi (φ) and its unit is the
Coulombs.
Since electric flux (ф) is a measure of the number of field lines (E) crossing a surface (S 1) as shown in
diagram (a), it can be expressed as:

∅ = 𝐸𝑆

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If the electric field E is not perpendicular to the area as shown in diagram (b), then the above
expression is modified as following.
∅ = 𝐸𝑆 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

3.9.1 Electric Flux Density (D)

Electric flux is the normal (Perpendicular) flux per unit area. If a flux of ϕ passes through an area
of 𝐴 𝑚 normal to the area then the flux density (D) is defined as:
𝐷=
If an electric charge is place in the center of a sphere or virtual sphere, then the electric flux on the
surface of the sphere is:

,
where r =radius of the sphere. The SI unit of electric flux density is Coulomb per meter square.

3.10 Gauss’s Law for Electrostatics

Gauss’s law of electrostatics states that “the net electric flux through any closed surface is equal to
times the net electric charge enclosed within that closed surface”.
∅=
Where Φ is the electric flux through a closed surface S enclosing any volume V, Q is the total charge
enclosed within S, and ε0 is the electric constant or permittivity of vacuum.
In the integral form; ∅ = ∯𝑺 𝑬 ∙ 𝒅𝑨
Where S is any closed surface (sphere, cube, etc), E is the electric field and dA is a vector representing
an infinitesimal element of area on the surface S.
𝝆
In the differential form; 𝛁 ∙ 𝑬 =
𝜺𝟎
Where ∇ · E is the divergence of the electric field, ε0 is the electric constant, and ρ is the total electric
charge density (charge per unit volume).

Examples 3.2
1. Find the electric field created by the charges A and B at point C in the diagram below in terms
of k, q and d2

Ans.

2. If the electric field at point A in the diagram below is zero, find the charge at point D in terms of
q.

Ans.

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The electric field at D must be equal to the sum of E C and EB in

magnitude and opposite in direction. Thus,

Equating and hence

Exercise 3.2
1. Calculate the electric field at point P, which lies on the perpendicular bisector a distance L from a
dipole of charge q
2. What is the magnitude of a point charge whose E-field at a distance of 25 cm is 3.4 N/C
3. A small charge (q=6.0 mC) is found in a uniform E-field (E=2.9N/C). Determine the force on the
charge
4. Find the electric field acting on a 2.0 C charge if an electrostatic force of 10500N acts on the
particle
5. A dipole is set up with a charge magnitude of 2x10 -7 C for each charge (one is positive and the
other is negative.) The distance between the charges is 0.15 m. What are the magnitude and
direction of the E-field at the midpoint of the dipole? (Assume the positive charge is on the left.)
Also determine the force magnitude and direction for an electron at that position in the field.
6. Find the flux through a spherical Gaussian surface of radius a = 1 m surrounding a charge of 8.85
pC.
7. A 6.0 nC point charge is located at the center of a cube of side length 2.0 m. What is the electric
flux through each of the faces of the cube?
8. Four equal charges are located on the corners of a square as shown below. What is
the magnitude of the E-field at the center position of the square?

9. Find the E-field (both magnitude and direction) at the center of the square charge
distribution shown below. Note that the charges are NOT equal. Assume that the
sides of the square have a length L.

10. Two charges (q1 and q2) are located on the x axis on a coordinate system. They are
both positive, but the second charge has twice the magnitude of the first. q1 is at -0.5 m while q2 is
at +0.5 m. Determine the overall direction of the E-field at the various positions listed below:
A. At the origin
B. At x = 0 and y is negative
C. At x = -0.5 and y is positive
D. At x > 0 but x < +0.5 m and y = 0
E. At x > +0.5 m and y = 0
F. At x = +0.5 m and y > 0
Choose your answers from the following:
Choice 1: Along the +x-axis
Choice 2: Along the +y axis
Choice 3: Along the –x axis
Choice 4: Along the –y axis
Choice 5: Between 1 and 89 degrees from the +x axis

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Choice 6: Between 91 and 179 degrees from the +x axis

Choice 7: Between 181 and 269 degrees from the +x axis
Choice 8: Between 271 and 359 degrees from the +x axis

3.11 Electric Potential (V)

Electric potential due to a source charge is given as: V = =
Basically, V is also the “potential difference” between the potential of this point P and the potential at
∞ (i.e., 0).
Generally, the work done on a unit charge in bringing it from infinity to a point without any
acceleration is called the electric potential at that point.
Remarks:
 The potential at a point due to different charges is the algebraic sum of potentials due to all
individual charges. V = V + V + V + ⋯
 Potential due to a positive charge is positive while potential due to a negative charge is
negative.
3.11.1 Potential due to a spherical shell
Conducting spherical shell

If spherical conducting shell is given change Q, then the electric field produced will be directed
normally from the surface i.e., Radially outward. Hence charge on the surface of a shell behaves as if
all the charge is concentrated at centre.

Hence potential at distance r is

Potential on the surface of shell

Where R is radius of shell

Inside the shell, electric field is Zero. Hence potential inside a spherical shell is same as on the surface.
Relation of V & E with r for a conducting spherical shell

Remark:
The electric field inside conductor is Zero. This phenomenon is called electrostatic shielding

Non conducting spherical shell

In case of non-conducting sphere of charge, Potential keeps on increasing up to centre as shown on the
diagram below
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Equipotential Surface
An equipotential surface is a surface inside an electric field such that all the points on the surface are at
equal potential. One example of equipotential surface is a spherical surface surrounding a charge. The
direction of electric field intensity and electric flux is always normal to the equipotential surface. The
importance of equipotential surface is that because of no difference in potential between points, there is
no current flow or attraction and repulsion between the points in the equipotential surface.

3.11.2 Electric Potential Energy (U)

The electric potential energy U or the energy stored in an electric field between two charges q 1 and q2 is
given as:
U=
In this expression both charges q1 and q2 are to be substituted with their signs. To find electrical
potential energy of a system of charges, we make pairs. If there is a total of n charges then, the total
( )
number of pairs is . Neither of the pairs should be repeated, nor left out. For example, the electric
potential energy of the four point charges q1, q2, q3 and q4 will be given by:

3.11.3 Relation between Electric Field Strength (E) and Electric Potential (V)
If a test charge q is moved against E for a small distance dr, then the work done dw by the applied force
F = -qE is:
dw = −qE dr
= −Edr → dV = −Edr → E = −
Hence, the electric field is the derivative of electric potential. The negative sign shows that the
direction of E is opposite to the direction of dV. i.e., dV decrease along the direction of E. The above
expression is also sometimes written as,
E = – gradient V = – ∇V
Remark: When a charged particle is moved along a closed contour, no work is required. Ie an
electrostatic field is conservative and irrotational
𝛻×𝐸 =0

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Example 3.3
1. System given below is composed of the charges, 10q, 8q and -5q. Fin the total electric potential
energy of the system.
Solution

2. Find the potential difference between points A and B, VAB in terms of kq/r?
Solution

3. A and B produce potential V at point X. If total potential at point X is -V, find q C.

Solution

4. If we touch two spheres to each other, find the final charges of the spheres

Solution
Exercise 3.3
1. Four charges q1=1 µC, q2=2 µC, q3 = -3 µC and q4=4 µC are kept on the vertices of a square of side 1
m. Find the electric potential energy of this system of charges.
2. Two point charges are located on the x-axis, q1 = –1 µC at x = 0 and q2 = +1 µC at x = 1 m.
(a) Find the work that must be done by an external force to bring a third point charge q3 = +1 µC
from infinity to x = 2 m.
(b) Find the total potential energy of the system of three charges.
3. Find the work done by some external force in moving a charge q = 2µC from infinity to a point
where the electric potential is 104 V.
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4. The electric potential in a region is represented as, V = 2x+3y-z. Compute an expression for the
electric field strength.
5. Find the electric potential energy produced by Q1, Q2 and Q3 in terms of K.q2/r

6. What is the electric potential energy of two electrons separated by 2.00nm? If the separation
increases, does the potential energy increase or decrease?
7. Find the electric potential at the center of the equilateral triangle whose side is 1m if there are
three positive charges of 1 C, 2 C and 3 C in its corners. (Assume that V(r) = 0 when r goes to
infinity)
8. Two identical charged balls hang from the ceiling by insulated ropes of equal length, l = 1.50 m. A
charge q = 25.0 μC is applied to each ball. Then the two balls hang at
rest, and each supporting rope has an angle of 25.0° with respect to
the vertical. What is the mass of each ball?

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CHAPTER FOUR: MAGNETIC FIELDS

4.1 The Laws of Magnetism
The law of magnetism states that like magnetic poles repel and unlike magnetic poles attract one
another (Figure 3).

(a) Unlike poles attract (b) Like poles repel

Figure 3: The Law of Magnetic Attraction and Repulsion
4.2 Magnetic Flux (Φ)
The group of magnetic field lines emitted outward from the north pole of a magnet is called magnetic
flux. The symbol for magnetic flux is Φ (phi). Magnetic flux is usually measured with a fluxmeter; a
device containing a measuring coil and electronics that evaluates the change of voltage in the
measuring coil to calculate the magnetic flux.
The SI unit of magnetic flux is the weber (Wb). One weber is equal to 1 x 10 8 magnetic field lines.
Example: 4.1
If a magnetic flux (Φ) has 5,000 lines, find the number of webers.

4.3 Magnetic Flux Density (B)

Magnetic flux density is the amount of magnetic flux per unit area of a section, perpendicular to the
direction of flux. Mathematical magnetic flux density is represented as:
Φ
𝐵=
A
Where;
B = magnetic flux density in teslas (T)
Φ = magnetic flux in webers (Wb)
A = area in square meters (m2)
The result is that the SI unit for flux density is webers per square meter. One weber per square meter
equals one tesla.
Example: 4.2
Find the flux density in teslas, when the flux is 800 µWb and the area is 0.004 m2.

4.4 Magnetic Materials

Magnetic materials are those materials that can be either attracted or repelled by a magnet and can
be magnetized themselves. The most commonly used magnetic materials are iron and steel.

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 A permanent magnet is made of a very hard magnetic material, such as cobalt steel, that
retains its magnetism for long periods of time when the magnetizing field is removed.
 A temporary magnet is a material that will not retain its magnetism when the field is removed.
Permeability (µ) refers to the ability of a material to concentrate magnetic lines of flux. Those
materials that can be easily magnetized are considered to have a high permeability. Relative
permeability is the ratio of the permeability of a material to the permeability of a vacuum (µ o).The
symbol for relative permeability is µR.

4.4.1 Classification of magnetic materials

Magnetic materials are classified as either magnetic or nonmagnetic based on the highly magnetic
properties of iron. Because even weak magnetic materials may serve a useful purpose in some
applications, classification includes the three groups described below.
 Ferromagnetic Materials: Some of the ferromagnetic materials used are iron, steel, nickel,
cobalt, and the commercial alloys, alnico and permalloy. Ferrites are nonmagnetic, but have
the ferromagnetic properties of iron. Ferrites are made of ceramic material and have relative
permeabilities that range from 50 to 200. They are commonly used in the coils for RF (radio
frequency) transformers. Ferromagnetic materials are further classified as soft or hard. Hard
magnets are also called permanent magnets. These require a large field to demagnetise (and
magnetise). Soft magnets, however, are easily magnetised and demagnetized.
 Paramagnetic Materials: These are materials such as aluminum, platinum, manganese, and
chromium. These materials have a relative permeability of slightly more than one.
 Diamagnetic Materials: These are materials such as bismuth, antimony, copper, zinc, mercury,
gold, and silver. These materials have a relative permeability of less than one.

4.5 Magnetic Field strength (B)

When a substance is placed in external magnetic field, the material gets magnetized. The actual
magnetic field inside the material is the sum of external field and the field due to magnetization. Now
we can define a new vector H where
H=B/μ0 – I
where B is the magnetic field induction inside the substance and I is the intensity of magnetization.
Unit of H is same as that of I i.e Am-1.
In the absence of any material I=0 so H=B/μ0

4.6 Electromagnetism
The relationship between magnetism and electrical current was discovered by a Danish scientist
named Oersted in 1819. He found that if an electric current was caused to flow through a conductor,
the conductor produced a magnetic field around that conductor (Figure 4)

Figure 4: The Magnetic Field Produced by Current in a Conductor

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Remark: Magnetostatics is the study of magnetic fields in systems where the currents are steady
while Electromagnetism is the branch of physics, which studies the forces that occur between
electrically charged particles.
4.6.1 Direction of Magnetic Field Lines for a Single Conductor
A convenient way to determine the relationship between the current flow through a conductor and
the direction of the magnetic lines of force around the conductor is the right-hand rule for current
carrying conductors, as illustrated in Figure 5a. The student should verify that the right-hand rule
holds true for the examples shown in Figure 4.
The right hand rule states that: “If you Grasp a current-carrying conductor with the right hand,
wrapping the four fingers around the wire and extending the thumb along the wire, then If the
thumb points along the wire in the direction of current flow, the fingers will be pointing in the
direction of the magnetic field lines around the conductor”.

Figure 5a: Right-hand Rule for Current Carrying Conductors Figure 5b: Magnetic field lines for Current Carrying Conductors

4.6.2 Magnetic Field and Polarity of a Coil

Bending a straight conductor into a loop has two results. Firstly, the magnetic field lines become
denser inside the loop, and secondly, all lines inside the loop are aiding in the same direction. When a
conductor is shaped into several loops, it is considered to be a coil.

Figure 6a: Aiding effect of field lines in a coil.

To determine the polarity of a coil, we use the right-hand rule for coils (Figure 6b) which states that “If
the coil is grasped with the fingers of the right hand curled in the direction of current flow through the
coil, the thumb points to the north pole of the coil”. Adding an iron core inside the coil increases the
flux density. The polarity of the core is the same as that of the coil. The polarity depends on the
direction of current flow and the direction of winding. Current flow is from the positive side of the
voltage source, through the coil, and back to the negative terminal

Figure 6b: Right-hand Rule for Coils

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4.7 Magnetomotive Force (mmf)

Magnetomotive force is the strength of a magnetic field in a coil of wire. This is dependent on how
much current flows in the turns of the coil (the more current, the stronger the magnetic field), and the
number of turns of the coil (the more the number of turns of the wire, the more concentrated the
lines of force). The current times the number of turns of the coil is expressed in units called "ampere-
turns" (At), also known as mmf. The mathematical representation for ampere-turns (At) is:
Fm= ampere-turns = NI
Where;
Fm= magnetomotive force (mmf)
N = number of turns
I = current
Example 4.3: Calculate the ampere-turns for a coil with 1000 turns anda5mA current.

Remark: When a coil with a certain number of ampere-turns is stretched to twice its length, the
magnetic field intensity, or the concentration of its magnetic lines of force, will be half as great.
Therefore, field intensity depends on the length of the coil. The mathematical representation for field
intensity, which is related to magnetomotive force as shown below.
F NI
H= =
L L
Where;
H = field intensity, (At/m)
NI = ampere-turns (At)
L = length between poles of coil (m)
FM= Magnetomotive force (mmf)

Example 4.4: Find field intensity of an 80 turn, 20 cm coil, with 6A of current.

Example 4.5: If the same coil in Example 1.4 were to be stretched to 40 cm with wire length and
current remaining the same, find the new value of field intensity.

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Example 4.6: The 20 cm coil used in Example 1 with the same current is now wound around an iron
core 40 cm in length. Find the field intensity.

4.8 Reluctance (R)

The opposition to the production of flux in a material is called reluctance, which corresponds to
resistance. The symbol for reluctance is R, and it has the units of ampere-turns per weber (At/wb).
Reluctance is related to magnetomotive force, mmf, and flux, Φ, by the relationship shown in the
equation below.
mmf
R=
Φ
Reluctance is inversely proportional to permeability (µ). Iron cores have high permeability and,
therefore, low reluctance. Air has a low permeability and, therefore, a high reluctance.
Generally, different types of materials have different values of reluctance (Figure 9). Air gap is the air
space between two poles of a magnet. Since air has a very high reluctance, the size of the air gap
affects the value of reluctance: the shorter the air gap, the stronger the field in the gap. Air is
nonmagnetic and will not concentrate magnetic lines. The larger air gap only provides space for the
magnetic lines to spread out.

Figure 9: Different physical forms of electromagnets

4.9 Ohm’s Law for Magnetic Circuits

Ohm’s law for magnetic circuits, corresponding to I = is;
mmf
Φ=
R
Where;
Φ = magnetic flux, in Wb
R = reluctance, in At/Wb

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mmf = magnetomotive force, in At

Reluctance can be expressed as an equation as follows:
𝑙
𝑅=
𝜇𝐴
Where;
R = reluctance, in At/Wb
l = length of coil, in m
µ = permeability of magnetic material, in (T.m)/At
A = cross-sectional area of coil, in m2

4.10 Comparison between electrical and magnetic variables

Example 4.7: A coil has an mmf of 600 At, and a reluctance of 3x106 At/Wb. Find the total flux Φ.

Example 4.8: Consider a toroid with the mean length of 20 cm, the cross section of 2cm 2, and the relative
magnetic permeability of 6700. What is the magnetic flux and the magnetic flux density if the coil has 10 turns
and the current is 2 amperes?

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4.11 Magnetic Force

The magnetic force F acting on a particle of charge q moving with speed u in a perpendicular magnetic
field B can be written in the form:
𝐹 = 𝑞𝑢 × 𝐵 or
𝐹 = 𝑞𝑢𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃.
Where θ is the angle between the magnetic field B and the velocity u of the charged particle.
Remarks
 Whereas the electric force is always in the direction of the electric field, the magnetic force is
always perpendicular to the magnetic field. Thus when a charged particle moves in a static
magnetic field, it traces a helical path.
 An electric force acts on a charged particle irrespective of whether the charge is moving or
static, the magnetic force acts on it only when it is in motion.
 Under the combined action of electric and magnetic fields, a charge experiences, what is
known as a Lorentz force
𝐹 = 𝐹 + 𝐹 = 𝑞(𝐸 + 𝑢 × 𝐵)
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 Fleming’s left hand rule can be used to determine the direction of the force experienced by a
charged particle moving in a stationary magnetic field. Fleming’s left hand rule states that “if
the thumb and the first two fingers of the left hand are placed at right angles to each other,
with the first finger pointing in the direction of the magnetic field and the second finger
pointing in the direction of conventional current, then the thumb will point in the direction of
the thrust or force.
 The force acting on a current carrying conductor of length L can be derived directly from the
force acting on moving charges as;
F = IL × B
 A magnetic field exerts a torque on a current loop. This toque produces the motor effect which
is the basic working principles of electric motors. An electric motor consists of a coil, free to
turn on an axis, in a magnetic field created a permanent magnet or another coil.

4.12 Coulomb’s Law for Magnetism

Effects of the two magnets to each other are inversely proportional to the square of distance
between them and directly proportional to magnetic pole strength of each magnet. These forces are
equal in magnitudes and opposite in directions.

Where; k is the constant, m1 and m2 are the magnetic intensities of the poles and d is the distance
between them.

2. Three magnets are placed like given picture below. When the system released, magnet B gets closer
to the magnet A. Find the possibilities of pole types of 1 and 4.

Solution
If we assume that 1 is N pole, then since 1 attracts 2, 2 must be S, 3 is N and 4 is S.
If we assume that 1 is S pole, then since 1 attracts 2, 2 must be N, 3 is S and 4 is N.

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3. If the system given below is in equilibrium, find the poles of magnets.

Solution
B attracts C and repels A. Thus;
If B is N, then C must be S and A must be N
If B is S, then C must be N and A must be S

4.13 Biot- Savart’s Law

Biot-Savart’s law states that; The magnetic field at a point P due to an infinite (very long) straight wire
carrying a current I is proportional to I, and is inversely proportional to the perpendicular distance ρ of
the point from the wire.
Consider an infinite wire carrying a current I. The magnitude of part of the flux
density B due to the short current element 𝐼𝑑𝑙 is given by:
×
𝑑𝐵 = ∙
where 𝑅 is a unit vector in the direction from 𝑑𝑙 to P .
For the whole length of wire,
×
𝐵= ∫ → 𝐵=
Where ρ is the perpendicular distance of the point P from the wire.
Remarks:
 The law is an equation describing the magnetic field generated by an electric current. It relates the
magnetic field to the magnitude, direction, length, and proximity of the electric current. The
equation only applies in the case where the electric field is constant in time, meaning the currents
are steady (time-independent, else the magnetic field would change with time).
 The application of this law implicitly relies on the superposition principle for magnetic fields, i.e.
the fact that the magnetic field is a vector sum of the field created by each infinitesimal section of
the wire individually.
 The Biot–Savart law is fundamental to magnetostatics, playing a similar role to Coulomb's law in
electrostatics

4.14 Electromagnetic induction

Electromagnetic induction is the production of an electromotive force (in other words a voltage, and
therefore a current) across a conductor exposed to a time varying magnetic fields. The time varying
magnetic field can be produced by a moving magnet or by an AC current in a nearby circuit.

Figure 10: Experimental observation of electromagnetic induction

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4.14.1 Faraday's Law

Faraday’s law of induction states that “a voltage is induced in a circuit whenever relative motion exists
between a conductor and a magnetic field and that the magnitude of this voltage is proportional to
the rate of change of the flux”. Faraday's law forms the basis of many electrical generators and
electric motors.
Mathematically, Faraday's law is written as:
∅
ε=−
where ɛ is the electromotive force (emf) and Φ is the magnetic flux. For a tightly wound coil of wire,
composed of N identical turns, each with the same magnetic flux going through them, the resulting
emf is given by:
∅
ε = −N
Remarks
 The negative sign was introduced by Lenz in order to comply with the polarity of the induced
emf (ie the direction of the induced emf is given by Lenz's law). Lenz’s Law states that “the
direction of an induced emf is such that it will always oppose the change that is causing it”.
 This version of Faraday's law strictly holds only when the closed circuit is a loop of infinitely
thin wire, and is invalid in some other circumstances.
 The direction of the induced emf can also be obtained using Fleming’s right hand rule which
states that “if the thumb and the first two fingers of the right hand are placed at right angles to
each other, with the first finger pointing in the direction of the magnetic field and the thumb
pointing in the direction of the thrust or force, then the second finger will point in the
direction of the induced current.
4.14.2 Self-Inductance
In order to define the inductance, consider a coil of wire as shown in the diagram below
The induced voltage emf at any instant is:

where is the number of wire turns, and the magnetic flux. We can also write
that:

Hence the above equation becomes:

The term is denoted by and is called (self-) inductance. Thus, the self-inductance of a coil is:

and the equation becomes:

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Inductance can be illustrated by the behavior of a coil of wire which resists any change of electric current that
passes through it. The unit of inductance is the Henry ( ). Thus, a coil has an inductance of if an induced
voltage of flows through it with a rate of change of current of .
4.14.3 Mutual Inductance
Mutual inductance represents the generation of an electromotive force ( ) in a coil as a result of a change
in current in a coupled coil as shown in the diagram below.
The induced in coil 2 due to changes in coil 1 can be
expressed as:

or, furthermore, as:

We defined the mutual inductance between coil 1 and coil 2,

, as:

In this definition, represents the ratio between the generated in coil 2 and the change in current in coil
1 responsible for generating this .
In the case of no magnetic saturation, the mutual inductance can be written as:

Hence the above equation becomes:

The best known application of mutual inductance is the transformer.

Remark
The energy stored in a magnetic field can also be expressed using the (self-) inductance as:
1
W = Li
2

Exercise 4.1
1. Calculate the flux density at a point 0.4 m from a wire carrying a current of 10 A
2. Calculate the force per unit length acting between two conductors of length 1 m each carrying a
current of 2 A in the same direction if they are separated by a distance of 3m.
3. A wire 4 m long carrying a current of 5 A is placed in a field of flux density 0.2 T. What is the force
on the wire if it is placed:
i) At right angle to the field
ii) At 45o to the field
iii) Along the direction of the field
4. Two long straight conductors A and B are placed 0.50 m apart in a vacuum. They carry currents of
5.0 A and 2.0 A respectively in the same direction. At what point on a line perpendicular to both
conductors will the resultant magnetic field be zero.

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5. What is the magnitude of the current flowing in two parallel wires, which are 10 cm apart (center
to center), if the force between them is F = 10−3 N?
6. At what distance from a thin, straight wire the magnetic field strength is 0.000025 T? The current
in the wire is 15 A.
7. The magnetic field strength at a distance of 5 cm from a thin, straight wire is 0.00005 T. What is
the current in the wire?
8. Two long straight wires carrying the same current 15 A exert a force of 0.001 N per unit length on
each other. What is the distance between the wires?
9. A square loop 4 cm on each side carriers a 0.2 A current. The loop is in 0.5 T magnetic field and an
angle between the direction of the magnetic field and the plane of the loop is 30o. What is the
magnitude of the torque on the current loop?
10. A particle with charge of q=5nC enters the region of uniform magnetic field with speed of v=5.0 x
102m/s at an angle of 20o above the xy-plane. The magnetic field points in the negative z-
direction. Find the radius of the particle’s spiral motion. The mass of the particle is 10-10kg and
the magnitude of the magnetic field is 0.1 T.
11. Draw the directions of magnetic field lines at point A, B, C and D in the picture given below.

12. Find resultant magnetic field at point O, produced by I1, I2 and I3.

13. A, B and C wires are given below. Find the magnetic field of A, B and C at points X and Y.

14. Find the magnetic field strength and its direction at point P.

Dr. FOMBU Andrew Muluh Page 46