DEFINITION OF THE SUBJECT MATTER GOVERNMENT

Government as an Institution of the State

Government as an institution of the state may be defined as a machinery established by the
state to organize the state, manage its affairs and administer its functions and duties. It is also seen
as a machinery through which the will of the state is formulated, expressed and realized.
The need for government came up as a result of people living together, interacting and
working together as well as forming different associations. This living and working together may
bring about conflicts, disagreements, crises of different dimensions etc. The result would be that
the rich will exert force to oppress the poor. The fundamental function of any state, therefore, is to
come up with a dynamic policy, to control people by the administration of justice so that the weak
are protected for the strong and the poor from the wealthy. Therefore, the need to have a body
capable of regulating their daily activities arises.

Government as a process or the Art of Governing

Government is referred to as an art of governing because it is a body vested with the
supreme power of the affairs of a state. A government is vested with the power of maintaining
peace and security by putting in place machinery for that purpose.
Government makes laws and enforces them on the people of that country. It makes policies
and implements them. Equally, it interprets laws and punishes the offenders. Most of the policies,
actions made and taken are meant for the general well- being of the society.

Government as an academic field of study

Government as an academic field of study involves the study of political institutions in the
state, ideas, values and doctrines about politics, the view of political thinkers on what constitutes
the welfare of the people. It is a social science subject that is taught in schools and colleges as well
as in higher institutions where it is popularly known as Political Science.

Functions of Government
The following are the major functions of modern government.

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1. Law-making: Government is responsible for making laws in a country. Laws are made to
ensure peace and order in the society. The legislature is the organ of government
responsible for law-making.
2. Provision of social amenities: Amenities like electricity, potable water, health centre etc
are provided by the government. These are necessities for human existence.
3. Maintenance of law and order: The maintenance of law and order is the responsibility of
government. The function is usually performed by government agencies like the police.
4. Defence of the country: Government is responsible for defending the country against
external aggression. It is the duty of the armed forces of a country to maintain the territorial
integrity of the state.
5. Protection of lives and property: Government is also responsible for protection of lives
and property. For example, any person can seek the police protection if there is the need
for it.
6. Provision of employment: Job is also provided for the citizens. This goes a long way in
improving the welfare of the people.
7. Formulation and implementation of policies: Formulation and implementation of
policies are carried out to ensure the well-being of the people. The executive arm of
government performs this function.
8. Promotion of economic activities: The promotion of economic activities is done through
the provision of infrastructure, e.g. roads, railways, airports etc and by encouraging
investors.
9. External affairs function: Government maintains good relations with other countries. The
Head of State and the Ministry of External Affairs perform this function in Nigeria.
Diplomats who represent their countries in other countries further this noble role.
10. Administration of justice: The judiciary is responsible for the administration of justice. It
settles disputes between individuals and between individuals and the government.

Importance of studying Government

1. Types of system: The study of government helps in knowing the types and different
systems of government operating in the world.

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2. To widen people’s knowledge: The study of government helps to widen people’s
knowledge about administration and other institutions involve in governance.
3. Political education: Government educates the people of a country on the political life or
affairs of the country.
4. Opportunity for leadership: The opportunity is provided for people through the study of
government to become future political leaders.
5. Conflict resolution: Through government, an opportunity is provided for people to know
how conflicts originate and are resolved.
6. Government provides the opportunity to know: Government provides the opportunity
for people to know their rights, duties and obligations as citizens.
7. Mistakes of past leaders: The Study of government helps to prevent mistakes of some
past political leaders from being repeated.
8. Promotion of the spirit of nationalism and patriotism: These are inculcated into the
lives of the people.

THE STATE
Definition: A state may be defined as a politically organized body of people inhabiting a defined
geographical entity with an organized legitimate government. The state in this respect is entirely
free from external control. The power of a state is also guaranteed with coercive power to secure
obedience from the citizens. A state is different from empires, kingdoms, chieftains etc. Nigeria,
Ghana, Benin Republic, U.S.A., Canada etc are good examples of states.
Features of State
A state possesses the following features or characteristics:
1. Permanence: The state remains a permanent feature. Governments can change many times
but a state remains permanent.
2. A defined territory: A state has a defined territory with a limit to its size. It must have
clearly defined boundaries, separating it from others. Things like waters, mountains, forest
air space etc make up the state.
3. Government: Though government is not a permanent features of a state but it remains a
significant feature because it is a machinery set up by the state to pilot the affairs of the

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 people making up that state. The sustenance and prestige of a state are maintained by the
government.
4. Sovereignty: The supreme power to make decisions and enforce same on the people is
with state. The sovereignty of a state is not negotiable and must be free from external
interference and control.
5. Population: This is an important attribute of a state. For a state to be called a state, there
must be a given number of people making up the entity. However, with time, such number
is bound to increase.
6. Recognition: A state must be recognized both internal and externally.

Relationship between the state and the Government

The state and government are inseparable in the scheme of things. The state is a politically
organized body of people occupying a defined geographical area with an organize legitimate or
constitutional government. Government on the other hand is a feature of a state. It is a machinery
set up by the state to organize and realize the set objective and goals of the state.
No state exists without a government otherwise anarch would reign. The people making up
the state has a government to administer the area and this involves the three organs of government
in place. These organ of government have distinct function to perform in the affairs to the state.
The state is therefore a corporate entity while government is an institution set up by the state.
Government can change as many times as possible but the state remains a permanent feature.
Again, the sovereignty of the state is rested with the government and the government exercise it in
trust for the state.

POLITICAL CULTURE
Meaning: it refers to the way the members of a political community behave in their political
activities, e.g. voting. It refers to the usual attitude, beliefs and perception of people towards
politics. It also deals with the various reasons which conditioned the behaviour of the people in a
political community. The role of political culture is to set the standards of behaviour of public
officials and citizens. Some countries with developed and established political cultures are Britain,
U.S.A., France etc.

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Components of Political Culture
1. Cognitive orientation: it has to do with the beliefs of the people about the political system
involving the government and their roles.
2. Evaluative orientation: The function of any political system is subject to evaluation. The
extent to which people can evaluate or asses the activities of those in power goes along
way in determining their efficiency and acceptability of their policies.
3. Affective orientation: This has to do with the feelings, support and loyalty of the people
towards the activities and performance of the government.

Determinants of Political Culture

1. Historical development: The French Revolution of 1789 violently overthrew the existing
political structures and other events of the 19th and 20th centuries were largely determined
by the attitude, values and beliefs formed by that revolutionary upheaval.
2. The impact of European colonial domination: This colonial influence on many new
states in Africa and Asia is an important factor explaining some aspects of the political
culture of these states. For instance of the British and French control of some areas in West
Africa.
3. Ethnic differences: The impact of ethnic differences on a particular political culture
varies. Ethnic differences have for long affected attitude in Nigeria.
4. Instability: The instability in the political system caused by ethnic groups directing their
loyalties to themselves and not to the national government.
5. Socio- economic structure: the socio economic structure is another determinant of the
political culture. A predominantly urban, industrialized society is a more complex society
where educational standards are higher and participation in the decision – making process
is wider. But this is not so in rural societies which tend to be more conservative.

Political Socialization
Definition: Political socialization is defined as the process of acquiring political beliefs, values,
attitudes as well as citizenship training tat shapes a citizen’s political behaviour. It is also the
process of political learning from childhood to adulthood. It is a life-long development process.

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Agents of Political Socialization
The following are the agents of political socialization:
1. Family unit: Transmission of knowledge about politics, authority and allocation of values
probably stars at home. The child’s knowledge and experience of political activities start
at family unit.
2. The peer group: The group one moves with helps to dictate or at least influence one’s
political emotion.
3. Institutions of learning: Schools, colleges an other educational institutions provided
avenue for political talks, debates and discussion which are basic socializing mechanism.
4. Social/ Religious institutions: Members of social or religious institutions like social clubs,
religious centers, association etc do engage in political arguments and discussions by which
members become politically socialized.
5. The mass media: Radio, T.V., newspapers etc disseminate a lot of political new and also
analyse political issues thereby socializing listeners, readers and viewers politically.
6. Political parties: They educate their members and other people through their manifesto,
campaign, rallies etc thereby stimulating people’s political awareness.
7. Pressure groups; Pressure groups equally educate their members and even the public
through conferences, seminars etc. especially, in the areas of political and civic rights.

CONSTITUTIONS
Definition: a constitution is defined as a body of agreed rules and principles stating how the
powers of governing a country are give and how these powers are to be exercised. It also
establishes a basic frame work or fundamental law of the land. By so doing, it checks and sets
limits not only to the actions of government but also to the actions of ordinary citizens. The
constitution also states the rights, duties and obligations of the citizens.
Sources of constitutions
1. History of the people: It is necessary that the history of the people should be considered in
preparing the basic rules that govern them. Past political developments do form a part of their
history.
2. Acts of parliament: The laws or enactments by parliaments form part of constitutional
framing.

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3. Customs and traditions: They are the beliefs, institutions, norms and values of the people,
and these are important in the formulation of the constitutions.
4. Past constitutions: Past constitutions and constitutions of other country most often form the
basis of any new constitution. For example, the American Constitution provided a model for
the 1979 constitution of Nigeria.
5. Conventions: These are accepted political precepts and practices which often form a part of
the instruments of a country’s constitutions.
6. Constitutional conferences: These are meeting at which difficult constitutional issues are
discussed and resolved in preparation for a new constitution. Decisions at such conferences
often form thee basis for a new constitution.
7. Judicial precedents: These are past judgments at law courts o constitutional matters and they
often form the basis for a new constitution.

Features of a constitution
1. The preamble: a constitution contains a preamble which declares its aspiration.
2. The political structures: It states the structure of government; whether unitary or federal
and at the same time defines the divisions of powers among the component units in the
state.
3. The political institutions: The constitution also defines the powers and functions of these
institutions such as the executive, legislative and judicial arms of government.
4. Type of relationship: it states the type of relationship that would exist among the
institutions of government, i.e. whether there would be separation of powers as in the
presidential system of the U.S.A or fused separation of power as in the parliamentary
system of Britain, together with necessary checks and balances.
5. The party system: The constitution also reveals the type of party system to adopt-one
party, two party or multi-party systems:
6. Type of administrative structure: The constitution states the administrative structure that
would be operated.
7. Fundamental human rights: It defines the rights of citizens, their duties and obligations
to the state.

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8. Fundamental objectives of the state: It also states the fundamental principles and
objectives of the state e.g. its political ideology.
9. The process of amendment: The constitution equally states the process by which it (the
constitution) can be amended. This is very common with all rigid constitutions where the
methods o amendment are clearly stated.
10. Citizenship: It defines the qualifications for citizenship. It states who the citizen of a
country are and how citizenship can be acquired.

Type of constitution
Written constitution
Definition: A written constitution is defined as a document or set of document establishing he
selection of rules embodied in a document in which the fundamental principles concerning the
organization of a political system, power of its various agencies are written down and codified.
Thus the constitution of U.S.A. (1789) outlines the composition of the legislature, the executive
and the judiciary and their powers, the fundamental rights of citizen and also mentions a method
for its amendment.

Reasons why some countries adopt written constitution or merits of written constitution
1. Proper documentation: It allows for proper documentation and entrenchment of
fundamental human rights.
2. Itallays the fear of domination: It protects the minority interests against the domination
by the majority.
3. Procedure for amendment: This is clearly stated so that no one group can change the
constitution to suit their selfish purpose.
4. Prevents conflict in the exercise of power: This is possible because the constitution has
stated clearly and separately the powers and functions of each organ of government
5. Provides a means of assessment: It helps in measuring and assessing the performance of
government as the principles governing their operations are written down.
6. For ease of reference: For example, judges in the law courts can easily turn to it while
deciding cases.

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7. It is easily available: Since it is a single document, it can easily be obtained and studied
making it possible for the people to known their rights, duties and obligations.
8. It ensures political stability: Since it is a single document, the method of acquiring power
is clearly stated. This makes for political stability.

Demerits of a written Constitution

1. Written constitution are generally rigid: They are not easily adaptable to changing
situations.
2. It can discourage reforms: The process of amendment can take a very long time and this
may discourage necessary reforms.
3. Change cannot be effected quickly: Change cannot be effected quickly as the people
might desire.
4. Types of government: A written constitution many not fully accommodate different types
of government, for instance, a unitary forms of government.
5. Tendency of cause political tension: This may result if it does not favour a particular
group and it can cause disaffection and bad blood within the political system.
6. Frequent conflict: Written constitution can cause frequent conflict among the three arms
of government, especially if their functions are not properly defined.
7. A reference point: It is written and can easily be referred to, resulting in litigation as often
as possible between individuals, individuals against the government, etc, especially, when
their rights are trampled upon.

Merits of unwritten constitution

1. It is flexible: It does not require special procedure for its amendment. It can be done in the
same way ordinary law are made.
2. It can be changed quickly: Since it is flexible, it can be changed quickly as the people
might desire.
3. Few individual cases: Cases involving individuals, institutions etc may not be as frequent
as in written constitution.
4. Quick decision: Decisions are easily made and taken too.

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5. Easy to interpret: It is flexible and not rigid and so the constitution can easily be
interpreted.
6. Issue of flexibility: This can help to reduce friction among the three organs of government.
7. Emergencies: Flexible constitution are suitable in time of emergencies.

Demerits of unwritten constitution

1. No checks and balances: Unwritten constitution does not have checks and balances which
are usually entrenched in written constitution.
2. Arbitrary government: This could be made possible in the exercise of powers and
functions by political leaders.
3. It can easily encourage arbitrary changes: Since the parliaments is supreme, unwritten
constitution creates way for them to act arbitrarily; they have the power to manipulate and
change the constitution easily.
4. Not easily known: Since the customs, conventions, statutes etc making up and unwritten
constitution are not contained in a single document, they are not easily known.
5. No ease of reference: It cannot be easily turned to or studied the way we study written
constitution.
6. Violation of the rights of citizens: This could be made possible in the process arbitrary
changes of the constitution.

Rigid Constitution
Rigid constitution is defined as on that is very difficult to amend or change. It requires
special process or a complicated method before it can be amended or changed. Most written
constitution are rigid. U.S.A., Ghana, Nigeria (Second Republic Constitution of 1979/83 and
Fourth Republic Constitution of 1999- 2003, Australia etc have rigid constitutions.

Rigid constitutions are four types:

1. Where the legislature could be involved in some constitution amendment with some
restrictions and at the same time may go through the electorate (referendum) before adoption.
2. Secondly, the method by which the consent of the majority of the voters is needed for
constitution amendment.

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 3. Final decision is undertaken by the majority of the component units or regions in a federal set
up. For example, ¾ of the majority o states in the U.S.A are needed for such amendment.
4. The development of new customs in the course of time or final decisions in the hands of an
outside authority, e.g. leaving such decision to the sovereign in parliament in Britain.

Advantage of a rigid constitution

1. Enhancement of individuals rights: These rights are not subjects to arbitrary changed by the
government. Adequate consideration is mostly given to the people when a change is sought.
2. Political stability: It makes way for political stability in a country. This is because of the laid
down procedure for constitutional changes.
3. Reduction of violent or revolutionary intentions: It reduced violent or revolutionary
intention to the barest minimum.
4. It is a check: Rigid methods of amendments is a check against rash and hasty decision. Issues
have to be properly examined before actions are taken on them.
5. It serves as a restraint: Rigid constitution restrains or prevents unscrupulous politician from
manipulating the constitution to achieve selfish or sectional ends

Disadvantage of rigid constitution

1. Delay to rapid growth: It is a delay to rapid growth and development. Across-section of
the citizens are consulted before amendments are made or introduce
2. Abuse of rights: The democratic rights of the people may be abused or trampled upon.
3. Complicated method of amendment: The method of amendment is complicated and so
cannot be reasonably adopted in times of emergencies.
4. Innovations: Rigid constitutions are resistant to change and innovations.
5. Slow economic growth: The amendment of a rigid constitution may lead to slow economic
growth and development.

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Flexible constitution
Definition: it is defined as the types of constitution that is easy to amend. If the method of
amending the constitution is the same as that passing of ordinary law, the constitution is said to be
flexible. Again, the amendment can easily be done by a simple majority in the legislature.
Britain, Italy etc, have flexible constitution. However, a flexible constitution may be
written or unwritten. It is, however, opposite in some ways to rigid constitution. The constitution
of Great Britain and Italy are not written but are flexible constitutions.

Merits of a flexible constitution

1. It can easily be changed: This is easily done to meet with fresh and unforeseen
contingency.
2. Decision-making: It helps government to take a quick action or decision.
3. Introduction of new laws: Obsolete law can easily be replaced with new ones.
4. It can easily meet with people’s need: The needs and aspiration of the people can easily
be met because of the ease in amending the constitution.

Demerits of a flexible constitution

1. Manipulation: The provisions of the constitution can easily be manipulated by a powerful
leader.
2. Unsuitable for a federal set-up: This is because the rights of autonomy of some states
may be jeopardized by some radical reforms.
3. Rights of individuals: Fundamental rights of individual may be infringed upon and may
increase the fears of the minority and inter-ethnic disharmony.
4. Different interests and opinions: Different interest and opinions may not be promoted
but could be suppressed.
5. Sectional interest: A section of the country can use it’s influence or position to amend the
constitution to achieve sectional interest.

Federal Constitution
Meaning: A Federal constitutions is one which divides and apportions political powers to the
different tiers of government in a particular country, for example, the central , states an local

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government . The powers of each tier is properly defined and derived from the constitution.
Autonomy of each units, therefore, guaranteed.
For example, functions listed under the exclusive legislative list are for the central
government alone to legislate on.
Functions listed under the concurrent legislative list are for both the central and state governments
to legislate on. If there is a conflict in the exercise of these functions, the powers of the central
government would prevail over the state. Functions listed under the residual legislative list are for
the local government. Nigeria, U.S.A., etc have federal constitutions.

Features of a federal constitution

1. Rigid and written: Federal constitutions are always rigid and written.
2. Division of power: Power are shared between the central government and other
subordinate units e.g. states, local governments, etc.
3. Organs of government: The three organs of government –executive, legislature and
judiciary, have their powers and functions defined and separated in the constitution.
4. Bi- cameral legislature: It always adopts abi-cameral legislature, for example, Senate and
House of Representatives.
5. Supremacy of the constitution: There is the supremacy of the constitution in a federal
state.
6. Exercise of power: Power exercised by different organs are from the constitution.
7. Autonomy of the units: There is autonomy of the units making up a federation.

Merits of a federal constitution

1. Power sharing: Powers are shared between the centre and other component units, for
instance, state and local governments. The tendency for powers to be concentrated in one
had is therefore erased.
2. Political participation: This extends to the grassroots. Decision are mostly taken after
much consultation are done.
3. Protection of individual rights: The provision is made in the constitution for the
protection of the rights of both the majority and the minority.

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4. Duplication of functions: Functions are duplicated, creating the avenue for employment
opportunities in the system.
5. Unity in diversity: This is achieved despite the differences in tribes, culture, language,
belief, etc. a federal constitution makes for unity in diversity.
6. Autonomy of the units: This makes it possible for each unit to act and develop at its own
pace.
7. Political stability: Stability is achieved in the system. This is because every interest group
is accommodated. There is no opposition.
8. Domination: No particular tribe, religious group or sectional interest it specially favoured
in a federal state. No powerful group can dominate others.
9. Supremacy of the constitution: The constitution is respected by every tier of government,
political leaders, etc. not only that, the citizens of a country must equally respect the
provisions of the constitutions as well.

Demerits of a federal constitution

1. Too expensive to operate: A federal constitution is too expensive to operate and maintain.
This is as a result of duplication of functions
2. Rigid constitution: A federal constitution is rigid, making it difficult to amend, Amendment
of the constitution involves about 2/3 of the parliament supporting it and ¾ of state assemblies
equally supporting it.
3. Statism/ Regionalism: People pay loyalty more to their states or regions than to the national
government. To them states come first before the national government.
4. Secession: A section of the country may have feelings of rejection and would want to secede
or break away.
5. The issue of minority: The minority might feel neglected in the areas of provision of
infrastructure, employment opportunities, etc. this can affect the unity of a country.
6. Unhealthy rivalry: This could come up among states in the areas of development, revenue
allocation, etc.
7. Duplication of functions: This can bring about waste of resources both human and material.
8. Revenue allocation formula: This is always a problem with a federal constitution. The
formula used at a particular time may not appeal to any of the tiers of government.

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9. Weak centre: A federal constitution may produce a weak centre. This may affect decision-
making and states may take the advantage of this to arrogate more powers to themselves.

Unitary constitution
Meaning: In a unitary constitution, all political powers are concentrated in the hands of a single
central authority or government. The constitution recognizes the sole authority of the central
government. Other component units, for instance state or local governments, had no powers
deposited in them.
However, the central government in a unitary constitution has the power to create local
authorities and give them power to make policies peculiar to their localities. Britain, Italy France,
etc have unitary constitutions.

Features of a unitary constitution

1. Flexibility: The constitution of a unitary state is flexible, making it east it amend.
2. Political powers: All political powers are concentrated in the hands of a single central
government.
3. Component units: Component units are created by the central government and they are
subordinate to it.
4. Supremacy of the legislature: There is supremacy of the legislature and not the constitution.
5. Exercise of political powers: Exercise of political powers by other component units is
derived from the central government and not from the constitution.
6. Loyalty: Citizens pay loyalty to only one government and that is the central government

Merits of a unitary constitution

1. Flexible constitution: The constitution is flexible, making it easy to amend. The amendment
procedure is in line with the processes of law-making in the parliament.
2. Development: The developments of the various units are even and uniform because the centre
decides for all.
3. Unit: The concentration of powers in the hands of the central government makes it possible
for it to enforce unity in the country.

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4. Changes are easily made: Change of different proportion can easily be made in the system.
For example, in the areas of infrastructure, restructuring of the economy, appointments, etc.
5. Duplication of functions: Unnecessary duplication of functions are avoided.
6. Cost – saving: Not many workers are involved and so the cost of running the system is
reduced to the barest minimum.
7. Strong centre: This is because all the powers in a unitary state are concentrated in the hands
of the central government. The central government in a unitary state is stronger than that of
the federal state.
8. Quick decision – making: Decisions are easily made in a unitary state with a unitary
constitution. This is because the central government makes decisions in the country.

Demerits of a unitary constitution

1. Homogenous society: Unitary constitution is only suitable for a country that is homogenous
in ethnic composition, culture, language etc.
2. Emergence of a dictator: A unitary constitution can produce a dictator. This is because all
powers are concentrated in the hands of the central government.
3. Concentration of power: Concentration of power in one arm of government can lead to
abuser or misuse of political power.
4. Fundamental human rights: The rights of the individuals in the system could be denied
them.
5. Low grassroots input: The centre of decision-making is very far from the areas of
implementation.
6. Lack of care for the masses: The government at the centre may not be responding to the
problems and needs of the people.
7. Small country: Constitution is only suitable for a country with a small population. It is not
suitable for a country like Nigeria, U.S.A. etc
8. Interest groups: It is not possible for a unitary constitution to accommodate every interest
groups in a system.
9. Amendment of the constitution: The central government can easily amend the constitution
for selfish purposes.

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10. Low political participation and decision-making: The people may not be politically active
and adequately involved in the decision making process of the country.
11. Secession: The concentration of power may favour a particular tribe or group and this may
create bad blood in the system. The aftermath of this could be or break away of a part.

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ARISTOTLE (384 – 322 B. C)
He was an exponent of realism and regarded education as a fundamental part of politics.
He claimed that three issues are involved in education:
1. Nature
2. Habit and
3. Reason
Plato was an advocate of ideas while Aristotle was focused on specific things. Like other
realists, he saw God as the Prime Mover of all things.
He advocated two types of education:
1. Liberal education: This type of education was to be for free man.
2. Practical education: This, he said, should be for person that are not free i.e. slave. He argued
that slaves are occupied with a kind of trade that destroys the body and disturbs the minds,
thereby making them incapable of pursuing wisdom.
To Aristotle, his thought on politics was that man is by nature a politics animal and this
means that:
i. The social instinct is implanted in all men by nature.
ii. Man can attain his full stature only through the enablement of the state.
iii. The state which originated for the sake of life, continues ‘for the sake of the best life’.
The existence of state according to Aristotle, is for the exercise of those qualities which
make men good husbands, fathers, heads of households, good citizens, good men of science and
philosophy.
Furthermore, he maintained that the state through its education, (law both written and
unwritten) succeeds in maintaining a vigorous activity, a life rich in noble aims and deeds, the it
is assumed that the state has fully attained the end or which it exists.
Finally, after studying the history of 158 constitutions, Aristotle was able to generalize that
the major cause or revolutionary movements was he craving of men for equality.

Plato
Plato was a student of Socrates and as an ancient Greek political philosopher and a
conservative was opposed to the course of democratization.
He tried to describe an ideal state as one that embodies justice.

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 In his book ‘The Republic’ plato believed that education was to be one of the means of
deciding individual relationship in the Republic. He founded a philosophical school named the
‘Academy’
According to Plato, justice was to be fund in a state (polis) when everybody did the tasks
for which he was suited.
Similarly, he maintained that rulers had to be highly knowledgeable or intelligent men.
Plato’s ideas can be summarized thus:
1. He formulated a theoretical design of a perfect state.
2. In his Republic, he advocated that an intellectual elite or a philosopher king should govern
rather than the military caste. In modern state, military rule is detested.
3. Only knowledgeable men should govern the state.
4. He maintained that all men should contribute to the general welfare of the state according to
their abilities.
5. The state should pursue justice t its conclusive end.
6. As an idealist, he believed that ideas are buried in the mind and not developed.
7. He also pointed out that to live in a society is to live within the context of discipline. And
discipline of course means curtailment of some of our desires and interests.

The Executive
The executive arm of government is the organ responsible for policy making and
implementation of policies and laws made in the country. The executive arm of government is the
same with administration or cabinet, the president or prime minister of a country, governors of
states, ministers, the civil service, the arm of force, the police, etc, belong to the executive arm of
government. It carries out the day-to-day work of government.

Functions of the Executive

1. Policy formulation: Policy formulation is one of the major functions of the executive.
2. Supervision: The executive supervises the administrative functions and directs the
execution of laws made in the state.
3. Appointment of top officials: The executive has the power to appoint and remove top
officials of the state form government .

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4. Declaration of war: It can declare war, maintain peace and fight back foreign invasion.
5. Representation: It represents the state in its relations with other countries.
6. Power of pardon: It pardons those that have offended the states.
7. Initiation of bills: The executive initiates bills defends them and makes recommendations
on the bill.
8. Budgeting: It prepares and delivers the annual income and expenditure of the state.
9. Maintenance of law and order: The law enforcement agent- the police are responsible
for this function.

The Legislature
The major functions of the legislature as one of the organs of government is law making.
It is also the centre of discussion about policies, programmes and ideas and the place where
important decisions are made.

Function of the Legislature

1. Law - making: The primary function of the legislature is law-making and it is done through
legislative process.
2. Financial control: It controls the raising and spending of money and approves it as proposed
by the executive.
3. Powers of investigation: It conducts investigation into government departments to ascertain
how funds appropriated by them are spent.
4. Power of approval: It has the power to approve, adjust or reject the appointment of senior
public officer, e.g ministers ambassadors etc.
5. Control of activities: It controls the activities of the other branches of government through
legislative committees.
6. Power of questioning: It also receives petitions, questioning the rules and receiving or
rejecting the answers and account of the ruling executive.
7. Amending the constitution: It plays a major apart in the process of amending the constitution.
8. Power o impeachment: It has power to impeach the Head of state if the commits a very serious
offence.

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9. Centre of discussion: Issues, policies, programmes etc of the state are discussed here in the
legislative floor.

BILLS
Meaning: A bill is not a law until it is signed into law by the executive. It is a proposal of action
discussed in the parliament and later signed to become a law by the president.

Types of bill
1. Public bill: This one has to do with the issues confronting the country. It is usually a bill
proposed by the executive arm of government.
2. Private members bill: This is a bill introduced by a parliamentarian of law maker.
3. Money bill: This bill informs on ho government involves itself in raising and spending of
money (Budget). This bill is introduced by the executive arm of government.
The procedure on how a bill could becomes a law in the parliament
i. First reading: This is the first stage of the bill. The bill is presented and it is required that
its title be read by the clerk in the House. At this point, no opposition is registered and the
bill is printed into leaflets for members to study.
ii. Second reading: The bill is now presented, after the member or a minster introducing the
bill moves that the bill be read the second time. At this stage, discussions are made
concerning the principles of the bill. The bill is debated and at the end a vote is taken on
whether the bill should be read and sent to a committee. If the majority are in favour, the
bill will move to the next stage.
iii. The committee stages: At this stage, if the principles of the bill are approved by the Hose
at the second reading, it is referred to one or other of the committees for detailed discussion
amendment and report.
iv. The report stage: The committee’s report, stating the suggestions of the committee to
improve the bill, is presented and any member may move for amendments.
v. Third reading: Only verbal amendments may be made here. At this stage, the bill is passed
or rejected. A thorough examination is done on the bill in order to improve on the actual
drafting of the bill.

21
vi. The Upper House: If the bill is passed, it is sent to the Upper House where is passes through
similar stages. (It first started with the lower House). Any further amendment suggested by
the upper House will require both Houses (Lower and Upper Houses) jointly setting up a
committee to iron things out.
vii. Assent: The bill is then presented or presidential assent, after which it becomes a law.

The Judiciary
Meaning: The judiciary constitutes the arm of government that interprets the law of the state and
applies the existing law to individual cases. In any modern state, the liberty of individual depends
upon the fairness of the courts in providing protection against the tyranny of overzealous members
of the government.
In Nigeria, for example, the judiciary is made up of a large number of courts, ranging from
the Supreme Court, Appeal courts and High courts and down to magistrate and customary courts.
The judiciary consists of judges who are honest and impartial with sound legal knowledge.

Functions of the judiciary

1. Interpretation of laws: The judge interprets the laws of the state and applies the existing law
to individual cases.
2. Settlement of disputes: The courts deal with cases between private individual and the
government. Both criminal and civil cases are settled in the courts.
3. Punishment of offenders: The courts have the power to punish those that have offended the
law of the state.
4. Prevention of wrongful acts: By means of writ an restraining order, courts act to prevent
violation of law.
5. Safe-guarding the rights of citizens: The judiciary safeguards the rights and liberties of
individuals, by way of entertaining complaints from aggrieved people.
6. Protection of the constitution: The judiciary has the power to determine whether the
constitution has been violated or not.
7. Power of review: The judiciary is vested with the power to review some of the activities
of the executive and the legislature.
The Independence of the Judiciary

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Meaning: An independent judiciary is one which is free from the interference of the other two
arms of government, the executive and legislature. Judges should be free when interpreting the
law of the land, they should work without fear or favour. Unless the judiciary is independent. It
will not be able to pass judgments impartially. Besides, it will not be able to defend citizens against
wrongful use of power by an unpopular head of state. Therefore, the independence of the judiciary
is a necessary if people are to enjoy their rights and freedom.

Essentials for the independence of the judiciary

1. Appointment: Judges and magistrates should not be appointed by the executive or the
legislature; they should be appointed by a neutral body such as the Judicial Services
Commission.
2. Independence of the judiciary: Judges must be independent from the absolute control of
either the executive or the legislature. The judiciary should be free from arbitrary control.
3. Promotion of judges: Promotion of judges should also be done by an independent body.
4. Remuneration: The salaries and allowances of judges should not be subject to frequent
alterations and must be sufficient. To promote this. they are pad from the consolidated account.
5. Security of tenure: No other arm of government should have the power to remove a judge.
He has to remain in offices as long as he is of good behavior and free from corruption.
6. Immunity: Judges must be immuned from the law so as to discharge their duties without fear
or favour.
7. Judges must not belongs to any political part: They must not belong to any political party
so that they would not be influenced by the political tide.
8. Extra security: Security should be provided for judges in and outside the courts so that they
will not be intimidated.

Problems/ encroachments on the independence of the judiciary

1. Political appointments: In some countries the appointment of judges is influenced by the
executives. The executive have often used their power to appoint persons known to support
their policies.
2. Decrees: Military regimes promulgate decrees that cannot be challenged in the law courts.

23
3. Disrespect of court decision/ order: Sometimes, the decisions of the law courts are
disobeyed by the executive.
4. Government based on dictatorship: Dictatorial governments have the ability of interfering
in the activities of the judiciary. Such government come up at times with obnoxious laws.
5. Inadequate facilities in the courts: For example, stationery, light, water, verbatim reporting
machine are lacking in courts today etc.
6. Political interference: Often times, the decisions of the court may unduly be influenced by
the other arms of government.
7. Backdating of laws: In Britain, for example no court can questions the Acts of parliament
because of its supremacy. The parliament can even backdate laws to favour a particular
individual, e.g a politician and thereby render decisions of courts useless.
8. Insufficient personnel: There are few judges to deal with large volumes of cases leading to
delays in treatment of cases.
9. Bribery and corruption: Bribery and corruption lead to lack of confidence in the judiciary.
10. Poor conditions of services: Poor conditions of services of the judicial officers are some of
the problems facing the judiciary.
11. Setting up of tribunals: Sometimes people making up the tribunal do not have proper legal
training hence cannot interpret the laws adequately.

PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
The Civil Service
Meaning: The civil service is a body or department in the executive arms of government. It has
the duty of assisting the executive in the planning and implementation of government policies. The
civil services is divided into departments called ministries. For example. Ministry of education,
ministry of information ministry of finance etc. the political head and chief executive of a ministry
is either a minister or a commissioner. The Director- General (Permanent Secretary) is the
administrative head and the accounting officer of a ministry.

Characteristic of the civil service

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1. Impartiality: Civil servants are expected to be fair and just to any government in power.
They must show faith in any government
2. Permanence: It is an institution that does not change with the government. Workers equally
enjoy a permanent tenure of office.
3. Anonymity: A civil servants is not expected to reveal or speak to the press unless authorizes
by the minister of Director General. Creditor failure of the government on any issue is not
blamed on the civil servants but the minister.
4. Neutrality: Workers in the service are not expected to engage themselves in partisan politics
unless they resign their appointments.
5. Expertise: Experts are produced in the field of administration. This is because they put in
long year of service.
6. Merit: Employment into the civic services is based on merit. This will enhance efficiency in
their areas of performance.

Functions of the civil services

1. Formulation of policies: They formulate policies and these are part of the objectives of the
government
2. Implementation of policies: The civil service ensure that the policies made are executed.
3. Preparation of the budget: It prepares the government’s yearly statement of expected
income and expenditure.
4. They draft bills: These bills are prepared by some experts in the ministry of justice. The
executive presents these bills to the legislature.
5. They make bye-laws: The power of make bye-laws is made possible through delegated
legislation. A senior civil servant can make an order or laws.
6. They advise the government: They advice the government on issues facing the country for
a better result.
7. They provide stability: The civil service ensures continuity of government and this makes
for stability.
8. They prepare answers to parliamentary questions: Ministers in a parliamentary system
defend the policies of government through this preparation.

25
9. They inform the people: The civil service educate the public about actions and policies of
the government.
10. Keeping of documents: The civil service keeps officials document that are relevant to the
government of the day.

Factors that can hinder the effectiveness of the civil service in Nigeria
1. Low incentive: The poor condition of service demoralize workers, in addition to slow
promotion policy.
2. Lukewarm attitudes: Civil servants are often lukewarm, claiming that government work is
not worth giving the best.
3. Red Tapism (Bureaucracy): The civil services lays too much emphasis protocol especially,
o issues that demand urgent attention. This slows down decision making and implementation.
4. Political interference: Politicians are always involved in interfering with the planning and
implementation of the policies of government.
5. Tribalism, nepotism and favouritism: These can lead to the appointment of unqualified
personnel into the service.
6. Political instability: Frequent military intervention affects policy making and implementation.
7. Bribery and corruption: Most civil servants seek undue gratification for any work done. Not
only those, kickbacks and corruption are canker worms that have eaten deep in the service.
8. Over- duplication of functions: Functions exercised in the civil service are over duplicated
resulting in redundancy and idleness.

The Civil Service Commission

It is an independent body with members holding office based on good behavior and is set
up by the government and entrusted with the duty of recruiting men into the service by open
competition supplemented by interviews in some cases. The commission also handles promotion,
discipline and dismissal of civil servants. The body is made up of a chairman and other members
so appointed.

Functions of the Civil Service Commission

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1. Recruitment: It is empowered to recruit high level manpower into the civil service through
open competition and by interview.
2. Transfer: The commission also has the power to transfer civil servants from one ministry to
another within the civil service.
3. Promotion: It promotes civil servants from one salary scale to another. This is done especially
when the civil servant is due for promotion.
4. Discipline: This body is equally empowered to discipline civil servants who disobey the rules
and regulations governing the service.
5. Retirement: it has to retire those civil servants that have reached the stipulated retirement age.
6. Dismissal: The commission has the power to dismiss erring civil servants found to be corrupt
or involve in negative act contrary to the rules and regulations of the service.
7. Conditions of services: The commission has succeeded in stating down, terms, and condition
of service, allowances and remunerations of the civil service.
8. Advice: This body advises the government in areas of appointment of very senior officers of
the state department and parastatals.
9. Efficiency and integrity: These are the watchwords in the civil service and so the commission
sees to its realization.

POLITICAL PARTIES
Definition
A political party is defined as an organized group of citizens, who act together as a political
unit, having distinctive aims and objectives involving political questions in the state and acting
together and seeking to obtain control of government
Secondly, it is also defined as an association of like – minded persons who organize
themselves into a political group for the purpose of controlling political power and the
administrative machinery of a state.

Characteristics of Political Parties

27
1. Organization: Political parties are organized, with procedure for electing party leaders
properly defined. The National Executive Committee responsible for preparing or drawing up
the policies and programmes of the party equally coordinates the activities at local level
including important decisions affecting the constituency and the local committee,
2. Manifesto: This is the cardinal plan or programme of a political party which the party intends
so fulfill to the people if elected into power.
3. Contesting elections: This is the primary motive of a political party, to contest election and
be in government
4. Nomination: In democratic states, it is the political parties that carry out nomination of
candidates and these candidates contest election under the banner of their political parties.
5. Campaign: During the period of campaigns, political parties publicise their manifestos to the
electorate and the purpose of this is to win their support and votes.
6. Ideology: Their philosophy, system of thought, ideas are part of what the political parties tend
to propagate to the electorate. For example, a socialist pray would like to transforms the state
into a welfare socialist state.
7. Primary election: it is an election conducted within a political party to choose popular
candidates that can represent the interest of the party in any election.
8. Rallies, congresses, conference: These are some of the features of a political party.
9. Purposeful leadership: Leaders with purposeful and positive qualities are better at organizing
political parties an giving them a focus.

Functions/ Importance of Political Parties

1. Unity: Political parties unite the people on major issues affecting the state.
2. It serves as a link: Political parties always serve as a link between the people and
government.
3. Accountability: They enable the government to become accountable to the electorate
through constructive criticism of the government in power.
4. Machinery for recruitment: Political parties provide a machinery for recruiting political
leaders.

28
5. Clarification of issues: Political parties try to clarify issues and provide relevant
information on candidates and current events thereby encouraging the electorate to be more
interested in government activities.
6. Provision of organization: They try to provide an organization for running the
government.
7. Control of the government: Political parties exist of contest election and control the
government
8. Dramatization of politics: This is done by keeping the nation politically alive.
9. Sectional or diversified interests: They harmonize sectional and diverse interests.
10. Change of government: With political parties contesting elections, change of government
is made possible with ease.

PRESSURE GROUPS
Definition: Pressure group is defined as organized groups, which influence government decisions
socially or economically, without necessarily entering into election activities for the control of
government. In doing this, they influence the executive, legislature and other officials of
government to achieve their immediate aims.

Types of Pressure Groups

1. Economic pressure groups: These are mostly manufacturers, associations like chamber of
commerce, coca farmers union, cotton producers union, etc. they mount pressure on and at the
same time influence the government whenever they have problems on issues affecting their
members.
2. Professional pressure groups: They are organized professional associations like the Nigeria
Medical Association (NMA), Nigerian Bar Association (NBA), Nigerian Union of Teachers
(NUT), Nigerian Union of Journalists (NUJ).
They can go on strike to press home their demands for an improved better condition of their
members
3. Educational pressure groups: This group has to do with lecturers in colleges and higher
institutions of learning, students and the non-academic staff of these institutions. This group

29
 mount pressures on government for better conditions of services and for the qualitative funding
of education sector; they sometimes go on strikes to press home their demands.
4. Nigerian labour congress (NLC): All the trade unions in Nigeria are under this body. It is the
parent body that can officially represent the interests of the workers with the government.
There are states chapters of NLC.
5. Promotional Interest groups: This group is out to champion the cause from an improved
condition of the people’s welfare. This action may not necessarily benefit the members, but he
less privileged in the society. For example, the Nigerian Bar Association gives free legal
services to the less privileged in the society.
6. Social pressure groups: They are generally out to promote the general welfare of their
members. Some of these groups are Boys Scout, Girls Guide, Rotary Club, Old Boys
Association, etc.
7. Religious pressure groups: This includes Christians, Muslims, traditionalists, etc. most issue
affecting them have been resolved through lobbying of the executive and the parliament.

Factors that can aid effective operations of pressure groups

1. Large size: The impact of the activities of pressure groups having large membership are
usually felt more than those with small membership.
2. Dedication and Unity: The existence of a high degree of dedication and unity among its
members in pursuance of their goals and objectives.
3. Adequate funds: There should be the availability of adequate funds with which to sponsor
their programmes.
4. Capability of the leadership: The more acceptable, pragmatic and charismatic the leaders
are, the more effective the pressure group.
5. Relevance of its aims: If there is popularity or relevance in its aims, objectives and demands,
then its operations will be effective.
6. Attitude of the government: Attitude of the government of the day towards the activities of
pressure groups is very important. The more tolerant the government is, the more effective
the operations of the pressure group.
7. Good organization/ Strategy: With good organization, the operation of pressure group can
be very effective.

30
Techniques Employed by Pressure Groups to Achieve Their Objectives (Mode of Operation)
1. The mass media: pressure groups influence government policy through the mass media
like, Radio, T.V., Newspapers, Press conferences etc, in which they high light their
problems or make special appeal to the government. This is an effective strategy in
mobilising public opinion.
2. Strike/ boycott: Pressure groups may embark on strike (refusal to work). Strike action is
always the last option after all reconciliation and strategies have failed students in higher
institutions of learning can equally embark on boycott of lectures (refusal to attend lectures)
for the same purpose.
3. Lobbying: Pressure groups attempt to lobby influential officials of the state e.g the
legislature. Lobbying is an effective strategy in democratic societies.
4. Dialogue: This is a formal discussion between representative of government and pressure
groups. If dialogue fails, then confrontation is inevitable.
5. Ultimatum: Ultimatum comes up after different avenues for dialogue have been exhausted
without result. It is a condition issued by pressure groups to either the government or
employer and failure may attract unhealthy development.
6. Association with international unions: They join international groups as a way of
attracting international sympathy for example, the Nigerian Labour Congress is a member
of the Organization of African Trade Union Unity (OATUU).
7. Pressure mounted on the Executive: The group amount pressure on the executive, not
to sign into law, bills that are seen as unhealthy. Such bills may not produce something
good for them or for the public.
8. Working alliance with political party: This is done in order to have its progamme
become a major concern to the party, if election result is in their favour. Most pressure
groups give support to the party in order to win the election indirectly.
9. Demonstrations: Demonstration could be peaceful or violent. Pressure groups adopt these
methods to mobilize support from members of the public.
10. Consultations: Most of the policies made by government are done based on consultations
with some pressure groups.

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Differences Between Political Parties and Pressure Groups
Political Parties Pressure Groups
1. To contest election and control the government To influence government policies
and purse the interest of the members
2. political party is organized to reach everyday Pressure groups are basically self-
In the society, not self-seeking seeking and not organized to reach
everyday in the society.
3. Political party tends to accommodate virtually Pressure groups do not accommodate
different interest in the society in terms of different groups in the society.
membership.
4. Political parties organise themselves into rallies, When they have successfully influ-
debates, lectures, seminar, etc capable of project- enced the government with their
iong their ideologies in order to win aim achieved, they ceased to exist.
more followership
5. Political parties express opinion on several Pressure groups are only concerned
issues e.g education, health, agriculture, with matters affecting their members
housing etc e.g salaries, allowances, loan etc.
6. Political parties purse goals, interest, that Pressure groups pursue interest and
Will improve the life-style of the people in the goals that will improve the life-style
Society. of their members only.
7. Candidates from political parties are to contest Candidates contest election for the
Elections with the aim of being in government leadership of their groups or unions
and ruling the people. and not for the people.

PUBLIC OPINION
Definition: Public opinion may be define as and belief, values and attitudes, which are commonly
held and expressed by the majority of the people on a given pubic issue. In addition, it is about

32
what people think concerning a particular national issue or question as proposed by the
government.

Characteristics of Public Opinion

1. It is the opinion shared: Public opinion deals with an issue affecting most citizens of a
particular country and every citizen has to participate in expressing opinion.
2. It involves public issues: Public involves public issues.
3. Expression by private person: Private individuals express public opinion. It is not the
government or any public institutions.
4. The role of communication: Communication and information play a significant role in public
opinion formation.
5. Specific issues: Opinions expressed by the public are mainly on specific issues rather than on
a general public issue.
6. Public opinion is not static: It is dynamic and changes from time to time

Formation of Public Opinion

1. Through elections: Political parties educate the people on important public issues during
campaigns, rallies, etc and by this, opinion are formed.
2. Through mass media: Public opinion can be formed through mass media radio,
newspapers, televisions etc
3. Through pressure groups and political parties: These two groups help in the formation
of public opinion . they are capable of shaping the views of the people on matters of public
importance. This can be done through their manifestos, conferences, debate, etc
4. Bureau of information: This bureau is established by the government to inform the public
on the activities of government. It helps the public to form opinions on policies made an
implemented by the government.
5. Symposia and lectures: it can be formed through holding of lectures and symposia, where
ideas on matters of public importance are expressed.
6. Individual’s influence: Members of the community, friends and relatives can also
influence one’s opinion about public issues.

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 ELECTIONS
Definition: Elections are defined as the act of electing candidates to represent the people of a given
country in the parliament, the executive and possibly into other arms of government as stipulated
the constitution of that particular country. For example in U.S.A. judges of the lower courts are
elected.

Functions of Election
1. Change of government Elections make it easier for the people to remove a bad government
from office.
2. Election of representatives: It gives elected representative the legitimate right to rule.
3. Free choice of leaders: The people have the free choice of electing leaders into different
political offices.
4. It ensures control and accountability: Election provides the means of ensuring control and
accountability of those who have been elected.
5. It foster democracy: it creates the avenue for people t participate in the decision making of
their country.
6. To educate the electorate: People receive citizenship education and are also educated about
their political rights.
7. Legitimacy: Election confer legitimacy on the elected government in power.
8. Used as a measurement: Results of election can be used to measure the opinion of the people
on issues of national importance.
9. Competition: Election promotes competition among the political parties and even candidates.
Competition is healthy and it may make for efficiency
10. Equality of votes: Election enhances equality of votes of citizens. It is case of one man one
vote.

Type of Elections
1. Direct Election
2. Indirect Election

34
3. By – election
4. Run-off election or second ballot
5. Primary election
6. Referendum

Discussion on the types of elections are mentioned above will be made one at a time.

Direct Election
Meaning: Direction elections involve the electorate (voters) casting their votes directly in an
election for candidates of their choice that will represent them either in the executive or legislature,
without any interference.
Merits of Direct Election
1. Restoration of voters rights: The rights of the electors and restore in voting for the right
candidate of their choice.
2. It is democratic: it affords mass participation in political decision making of the country.
3. Equality of votes: One man, one vote applies. It gives the electorate equality of votes in
the system.
4. Popular choice: Direct elections reflect popular choice of the people.
5. It enhances dedication and hard work: Most of the candidates work very hard to defeat
their political opponents in the elections.
6. It creates the opportunity for people: To know he prospective representatives, aspiring
to represented their interest in government.
7. It is simple to operate: Direct elections are simply and can easily be adopted in many
countries of the world.

Demerits of Direct Election

1. Illiteracy: Those who cannot read or write usually vote wrongly or blindly because they
cannot identify party symbols and names.

35
 2. Problems of rigging: Direct elections are generally characterized by malpractices result
may at times be falsified to favour a particular candidate.
3. Corrupt electoral officers: Some electoral officers connive with politicians to ensure the
success of a particular party or candidate.
4. Poor turn out: Poor turnout of voters is usually not a true reflection of the number of those
who registered.
5. Inadequate security at polling stations: In most cases, many polling stations lack adequate
security and this can lead to intimidation and harassment of voters by thugs and other
miscreants.
6. Thuggery and intimidation: it can encourage violence, victimization of political
opponents etc

Type of Voting
Direct elections could be by public voting or secret balloting. Any of the voting methods, they be
used in electing political leader in a country.

Secret balloting : Voters cast their votes secretly. The voter alone makes the decision in the voting
exercise. In this election, ballot papers inscribing the names of the parties and symbols ballot box,
envelope (may or may not be used), ink pad, etc are some of the materials needed from secret
voting. Also a presiding office polling clerk and polling orderly are the electoral officials in charge
of a polling station. There are also security agents (the police) and party agents.

Merits of secret balloting

1. It is democratic: Secret voting preserves the rights of the voter. He makes the decision
alone without coercion.
2. It is universal: it is more of a universal kind of voting than the public voting (open
balloting).
3. Sense of direction: It gives the voter a sense of direction in deciding whom to vote for.
4. Free from intimidation: The voter is free from intimidation, harassment from his landlord
, employer etc.
5. Freedom of choice: it gives the voter freedom to decide for a candidate to his choice.

36
6. It gives satisfaction: The voter is satisfied with the confidence that he has exercised his
franchise.
7. It gives the voter: a sense of belonging to the political process.

Demerits of Secret Balloting

1. It is difficult to comprehend: This type of system is difficult because to the tedious
process the voter has to go through before voting.
2. Illiteracy: The illiterate ones can vote blindly because they cannot read to write.
3. It is time consuming: Many people might decide not be vote because it’s time consuming
4. Costly to operate: The cost involved in the production of the materials needed for the
election may be so high.
Public Voting: It is the type of voting that is done openly or publicly. The voters will have to line
up according to their political parties and the counting of the voters is done by the presiding officer
before everybody present. The results are declared on the spot. Nigeria has tried the system in the
post.

Merits of Public Voting

1. Simple to operate: The voting exercise is very simple to operate.
2. Less costly: It is less costly to operate. Not as costly as secret ballot.
3. Public responsibility: As voting is a public responsibility is exercise should also be public.
4. Sufficient is a trust: Suffrage is a trust. Every eligible adult is entitled to vote during an
election.
5. Sufficient enlightenment: If as community is adequately enlightened and members are
courageous enough to with and improper pressure, public voting should be desirable.
6. It reduces electoral malpractices: This is possibly reduced because the materials that can
enhance electoral malpractices are not.
7. Immediate release of results: The voters are counted on the spot and the results declared
before everybody.

Demerits of public voting

37
1. Coercion of the voters: The voter may be compelled to vote for a particular person, whose
pressure he may not be able to withstand.
2. Pressure from government: Government can exert pressure upon the electorate to vote
for government officials.
3. Landlords and employers: They can equally exert pressure on those who we more or less
subject to their control.
4. Voters are exposed to intimidation, harassment, etc, and as such many may keep away
from voting.
5. It is crude: Open ballot is seen as crude and uncivilized. It is unacceptable to modern
political system.
6. It can induce violence: Those not satisfied with the outcome of the result, may go on
rampage and destruction of lives and property could result from the process.
7. Manipulation of the result: Electoral officials could still manipulate the results of the
election, by declaration of false figures.

Indirect Election
Meaning: It has to do with a system, whereby, the legislators or local government unit, will form
the body known as ‘electoral college’. They will have to vote for the candidates of their choice,
(on behalf of the citizens), as a result of the failure of the general election to produce elected
candidates. However, the Americans elect the Presidential candidates through electoral college.

Merits of Indirect Election

1. Best qualified to vote: The legislators form an electoral college in indirect election. The
possible advantage is that members for the college are seen as best qualified to elect leaders.
2. Less violent: Indirect election produces less violence than direct election
3. They are well informed: Members of the electoral college have the opportunity of
examining the candidates before the voting.
4. Rigging: The opportunity of rigging is partially absent. It may or may not be there.
5. Less costly: Indirect election is not a costly as direct election:

Demerits of Indirect Election

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 1. It does not allow the ordinary citizens: The right to elect their leaders or representative
directly.
2. Bribery and corruption: indirect election can lead to bribery and corruption among the
members of the electoral college.
3. It is undemocratic: The majority of the citizens of the country are not given the
opportunity to elect their leaders.
4. Enthronement of dishonest leaders: Indirect election can pave way for the election of
bad and dishonest leaders.
5. The issue of victimization: This may happens among the members of the electoral college.
6. Voting out of selfish desire: The idea that the legislators (electoral college) are best
qualified to vote may not be true after-all. Some of them could vote out of selfish desire.
7. Imposition: The members of electoral college seem to be imposed on the people.

By- Election: This is an election that take place to fill a vacant elective post as a result of
disqualification, resignation or death of the individual holding that office. The election take place
in that constituency, where there has been a vacancy. Therefore, only the registered voters in the
constituency are allowed to vote.

Run –Off Election or Second Ballot: When none of the candidates win the election by absolute
majority in a general election, another election would be conducted. In this final election, only the
candidates with the highest votes are allowed to contest.
Primary Election: This involves the political parties presenting candidates for any election in as
country. It is an election conducted within a political party to choose credible candidate (s) that
can adequately represent the interests of the party in any election.
Referendum: This is a ‘yes’ or ‘no’ vote of the people particularly on law in a given political
system. Referendum endures that laws not in conformity with popular will are not passed. This is
a useful check on the power of the legislature.
Plebiscite: This is also a ‘yes’ or ‘no’ vote of the people, especially on issues of national
importance referred to them. It can also be on some relevant public or political question like the
issues of minorities in a political set up.

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The Rule of Law
Definition: The rule of law is defined as the supremacy of law over every day in a political system.
Rule of law is seen as a provision made by the constitution with emphasis on supremacy of the
law, equality before the law and the presence or inclusion of the principle of individual rights. The
law should be able to guide every individual and activities in a state.

Principles of the Rule of Law

The following are the principles of the rule of law as propounded by Professor A. V. Dicey
1. Principle of equality: It state that laws should apply equally to all citizens of a country,
irrespective of their economic or political status. Nobody should be above the law. Also, access
to legal facilities should be granted to alls.
2. Principle of impartiality: This principle is of the view that the law should be impartial in
dealing with offenders. This means that no person should be punished for any offence until
otherwise established by the court. Any accused person is still regarded as a suspect by law,
and should not be detained for more than twenty four hours, without producing the individual
in court
3. Principles of individuals rights: Every human being is entitled to an exercised of fundamental
rights and freedom and that when these rights are violated, citizens should have the rights to
seek redress from the courts. Only the courts have the jurisdiction to entertain such cases.
Additional features of the rule of law
4. Supremacy of law: The supremacy of law over every individual is established
5. Access to legal facilities: Any accused person should be allowed access to his lawyer and
other facilities that might be helpful in the preparation of his case.
6. Provision of the constitution: Every government should rule the people according to the
established laws and provisions of the constitution.
7. Fair hearing: Anybody arrested for any offense is still a suspect and should be given a fair
hearing.
8. The law should be made public: Trial of cases in courts should be made public as well.
9. Right to appeal: The individual should have the right to appeal when not satisfied with the
judgement of the lower court.
10. Backdating of laws: Laws must not be background

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11. Rights of individuals: Right of individual should be enforced and guaranteed.

Limitations of the Application of Rule of Law

1. Immunity of Heads of states: He may not be sued or appear in court. This privilege is not
extended to the citizens and it is a limitation to the rule of law.
2. Diplomatic immunity: Diplomats cannot be prosecuted in the country where they are
residing as accredited representatives of their country.
3. Immunity of the parliament: The law makers are immune from every utterance, actions or
statements made in parliament.
4. Delayed justice: Justice delayed is agreed to be justice denied. The reasons are that some
individuals have spent years are that some individuals have spent years in custody with their
cases frequently postponed.
5. Tribunals: They are not constitutional or legal courts. Memberships of a tribunal in most
cases are people without legal knowledge. Individual rights for a fair hearing are always
denied them.
6. Delegated legislation: Most bodies or organizations exercising this power of legislation have
often made it possible for the rights of citizen to be violated and even without the possibility
of obtaining any redress.
7. The rich and the privileged few: They often use their wealth and positions to prevent justice.
This is a limitation to the application of the rule of law.
8. Types of government: A one- party systems can grow into dictatorship, thereby limiting the
application of the rule of law.
9. The military in politics: The intervention of the military in the political process and
suspension of the constitution are limitations to the rule of law.
10. State of Emergency: If a country is in crises or about fight a war, state of emergency could
be declared. Arbitrary rule may be enthroned and citizens may be denied of some of their
rights.
11. Customs and traditions: in the process of trying to respect customs and traditional of a
particular people, the application of the rule of law may be neglected.
12. Unlawful detention, arrests and torture: Certain punishment administered by the law
enforcement agent e.g. the police, are limitations to the application of the rule of law.

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13. Attitude of government: In most cases, the executive might refuse to honour the decisions
of the law courts.
14. Illiteracy, poverty and ignorance: This can limit the application of the rule of law.

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