Topic 3.5.

Design of cooling tower

Last lecture This lecture
 Psychrometric (humidity) terminology  humidity of mixed streams
 Plot processes on a psychrometric chart  Gas-liquid contact operation
and analyze processes

The content of this topic was obtained from notes of Professor Zayed Hammouri, ChE-UoJ
Fundamental relations for adiabatic operations
Performance parameters in cooling towers

= × Typical values : 3 – 8 C (6 – 17 C)

+
 o There is no driving force for mass transfer in
the liquid phase, since water is a pure liquid.

o The humidity driving force in the gas phase is

Δ H = (Hi - HG) kg H2O/kg dry air

(a)
o The temperature driving force is (b)

(a)=(b)+(c) (c)
Δ TL = TL - T i in the liquid phase
and
Temperature and humidity (concentration)
Δ TG = Ti - TG in the gas phase. profiles at the top of the cooling tower

o Latent heat leaves the interface in the water vapor, diffusing to the gas phase.

o The sensible heat flow from the liquid to the interface equals the sensible heat flow in the gas
plus the latent heat flow in the gas
 interface
 In the lower part of the tower, Liquid
Air
water
o The bulk water temperature (TL) Hi
my be below the dry bulb HG humidity
temperature (TG).
Water vapor
o Then, the direction of sensible
TL
heat flow is reversed. TG Temperature

Ti
Sensible (a)
heat in Latent heat in gas (b)
liquid (a)+(c)=(b)
Sensible heat in gas (c)

Temperature and humidity (concentration) profiles

at the bottom of the cooling tower
Continuous countercurrent adiabatic water cooling
L= water flow, kg water/s·m2
TL = water temperature, °C or K
G = dry air flow rate, kg/s·m2
TG = air temperature, °C or K
H = Humidity of air, kg water/kg dry air*
Hy = enthalpy of air-water vapor mixture, J/kg dry air
o=latent heat of water, J/kg
cS= humid heat = cL + cG*H

The enthalpy, Hy given by:

H y  c s T  To   H o
 1.005  1.88 H 10 3 T  0   2.501  10 6 H

*Humidity, H can be retrieved from the humidity chart

 Assumptions
i. Flow rate of gas and liquid water is assumed constant
since only a small water evaporated (1-5%).
ii. cL is assumed constant at cL = 4.187103 J/kg·K

 Perform the energy/heat balance:

Heat emitted = Heat absorbed

1) Heat balance for dashed line box making a heat balance

for the dz column height :
 Total sensible heat transferred from bulk fluid to
interface;

LcL dTL = G dHy = hL·a· dz (TL-Ti)

 LcL dTL = G dHy = hL·a·dz (TL-Ti)

Liquid phase volumetric heat a=A/V (m2/m3)

transfer coefficient

Considering the two terms to left, Integration

G (Hy-Hy1) = LcL (TL-TL1)

 Rearrange the above Eq. to have the following

operating line Eq.:

Lc L Lc L
H y  ( H y1  TL1 ) TL
G G
When plotted on a chart of Hy versus TL , this Equation is a straight line

Lc L Lc L
Intercept  H y1  TL1 ; Slope 
G G

 Also, making an overall heat balance over both ends of the

tower,

G (Hy2 - Hy1) = LcL(TL2 - TL1)

To draw the operating line we need either two points or one point and slope (LcL/G).
1. Draw the equilibrium curve: the enthalpy of saturated air versus the dew point
temperature TL using:

H yi  cS (TL  T0 )  H i 0

where the T0 is the base temperature: T0 =0 oC : 0 = 2502.3 kJ/kg water

T0 =32 oF : 0 = 1075.8 Btu/lbm water

cS  1.005  1.88 H i ; kJ/(kg dry air.K)

 0.24  0.45 H i ; btu/(lbm dry air.o F)

Enthalpy; Hyi = (1.005 + 1.88 Hi) ×103 (T - 0) + 2.501×106 Hi J/kg air

Hi is the saturated humidity picked up from the psychrometric chart at TL.

Hyi = 84 kJ/kg DA 0.0225 kg W/ kg DA

TL dew = 26.6 oC
 H yi  cS (TLi  T0 )  H i 0
Enthalpy of air-
vapor mixture, equilibrium line
Hy (J/kg dry Hy* V.s Ti
gas)
Hy

TL
Liquid temperature ºC
  Draw the operating line Equation

Lc L Lc
H y  ( H y1  TL1 )  L TL
G G

o Knowing the entering air conditions TG1 and H1, the

enthalpy of this air Hy1 is calculated

o The point Hy1 and TL1 (desired leaving water temperature)

is plotted as one point on the operating line (TL1 and Hy1)

Lc L Lc L
Intercept  H y1  TL1 ; Slope 
G G

o Knowing TG2 and H2, the enthalpy of this air Hy2 can be
also calculated and the point (TL2 and Hy2) is plotted as a
second point on the operating line
 TL1: at the bottom of the tower; z=0
TL2: at the top of the tower; z=Z

equilibrium line
the top of the tower
Hy2
operating line,
Enthalpy of air- slope = LcL/G
vapor mixture,
Hy (J/kg dry gas)

Hy1

the bottom of TL1 Ti TL TL2

the tower Liquid temperature ºC

Desired leaving water temperature

• We know from mass transfer course, that the flux, NA, kmol water evaporating/s.m2:

N A  k y ( y A,i -y A,G )  kG ( PA,i -PA,G ) k y  kG P

where kG is gas-phase film mass transfer coefficient in kgmol/(s.m2.Pa), PA,i and PA,G is the
water vapor partial pressure at the interface and in the bulk gas-phase, respectively.
While y is water vapor mole fraction.

• The mass-transfer interfacial area between air and water droplets is not known.
• This film mass-transfer interfacial area is different from the surface area of packing.
Here, a quantity (aM), defined as interfacial area per volume of packing section, is
combined with the gas-phase mass transfer coefficient, kG , to give a volumetric film
mass transfer coefficients defined as (kG aM) in kgmol/(s.m3.Pa).
• Now the volumetric diffusion rate of water vapor, NA,vol is:

N A,vol  k y aM ( y A,i -y A,G )  kG aM ( PA,i -PA,G )

• The relationship between humidity and mole fraction is:

H /MA
y
1/ M B  H / M A
• where MA and MB is the molecular weight of water vapor and air,
respectively.
• Since H is small, an approximation of the relationship is:

M BH MB
y N A,vol  k y aM ( H i -H G )
MA N A,vol  k y aM ( y A,i -y A,G ) MA
Hi is the humidity of the gas at the interface in kg water/kg dry air, and
HG is the humidity of the gas in the bulk gas phase in kg water/kg dry air

Note that MB ky aM= kH aM

kG aM [=] kgmol/(s.m3.Pa)
kH aM [=] kg/(s.m3)
ky aM [=] kgmol/(s.m3)
 LcLdTL=GdHy=hL·a·dz(TL-Ti)

Liquid phase volumetric a=A/V (m2/m3)

heat transfer coefficient
Temperature and concentration profiles

 The sensible heat flow from the liquid to

the interface = the sensible heat flow in
the gas + the latent heat flow in the gas

(a) = (b) + (c)

(a) (b)

(a)=(b)+(c) (c)
 The latent heat in the water vapor being transferred over volume dv=Adz
height column is:
dQ  N A,vol 0 M A dV

dV  dzA N A,vol  M B k y aM ( H i -H G ) / M A

dQ  M B k y aM ( H i -H G )0 Adz

or dQλ = kH aM (Hi-HG)λoAdz
 Further, the rate of sensible heat transfer (convective heat transfer rate in
gas phase) over volume dv =Adz is:
dqs = GcsdTG
= hG·aH,G· (Ti-TG)·dz
 dQ= dQλ+dqs
dQ
dq 
A
 
 M B k y aM ( H i -H G )0  hG a H ,G (Ti - TG ) dz

 Keep in mind that dq  hL aH , L (TL -Ti )dz

 It is found that for water vapor-air mixture the experimental value of

which is called the psychrometric ratio is closed to humid heat cS:
( hG a H ,G M B k y aM )

hG a H ,G k y  kG P hG a H ,G
cS  cS  (Lewis relation)
M B k y aM M B PkG aM
• Using the above Lewis relation:

 
dq  M B k y aM ( H i -H G )0  hG a H ,G (Ti - TG ) dz

hG a H ,G
cS 
M B PkG aM

dq  M B PkG aM H i 0  cS Ti  (cS TG  0 H G )dz

• Adding and subtracting cST0 inside the bracket of the above Eq.:

dq  M B PkG aM cS (Ti  T0 )  H i 0  (cS (TG  T0 )  λ0 H G )dz

 H y  cS (TG  T0 )  λ0 H G Enthalpy of water vapor-air mixture at TG

H yi  cS (Ti  T0 )  H i 0 Enthalpy of water vapor-air mixture at Ti


dq  M B PkG aM H yi  H y ) dz 
But dq  GdH y

H y2
G dHy y
Z  Design Eq. of the cooling tower
M B PkG aM H y1
H yi  H y
 H y2
G dH y
Z   (HTU)(NTU)
M B PkG aM H y1 H yi  H y
     
HTU NTU

HTU ≡ Height of a transfer unit

NTU ≡ Number of transfer units
• The enthalpy, Hyi, at the interface temperature Ti is determined from:


dq  M B PkG aM H yi  H y ) dz 
dq  hL a H , L (TL -Ti )dz

H yi  H y hL a H , L

Ti -TL M B PkG aM
 TL1:at the bottom of the tower; z=0
TL2:at the top of the tower; z=Z

equilibrium line the top of the tower

Hy2
operating line,
Enthalpy of air- slope = LcL/G
vapor mixture, Hyi M
Hy (J/kg dry gas) Hy P
S
H yi  H y hL a H , L
slope  
Ti -TL M B PkG aM
Hy1
the bottom of the TL1 Ti TL TL2
tower
Liquid temperature ºC
Desired leaving water temperature
Design procedure of water cooling tower using film mass transfer
coefficients

1. Draw the equilibrium curve:

o The enthalpy of saturated air H yi is plotted versus Ti on an H versus T plot. This enthalpy is
calculated using the equation

Hyi = (1.005 + 1.88 Hi )×103 (T - 0) + 2.501×106 Hi J/kg air

Hi is the saturated humidity picked up from the psychrometric chart for a given
temperature.

2. Draw the operating line:

Lc L Lc
 Use the operating line equation (enthalpy vs Temp) H y  ( H y1  TL1 )  L TL
G G
and/or the overall steady-state heat balance over the entire cooling tower:

G ( H y 2  H y1 )  Lc L (TL 2 - TL1 )
Hy1 and Hy2 is the gas mixture enthalpy at TG1 and TG2 , respectively.
 To draw the operating line we need either two points or one point and slope (LcL/G).

3. Draw lines with slope: (Lewis relation)

H yi  H y hL a H , L H yi1  H y1 H yi 2  H y 2
  Slope  
Ti -TL M B PkG aM Ti1-TL1 Ti 2 -TL 2

• Select some value of Ti and read Hyi from the equilibrium curve.
• Select some value of TL and calculate Hy from the above equation.
• Draw a line pass through the points (Ti, Hyi) and (TL, Hy) this line must have slope of
hLaH,L/(MBPkGaM).

• At 6 to 8 locations, draw parallel lines (slope= - hLaH,L/(MBPkGaM ) from TL1 to TL2 to read
enthalpies Hyi from equilibrium curve.
4. Calculate the number of transfer units (NTU):
• Use Enthalpy vs. TL graph to find the driving force Hyi-Hy for various
TL value from TL1 to TL2.
• Calculate 1/(Hyi-Hy ) for various TL value from TL1 to TL2.
• Perform graphical or numerical integration to calculate NTU:
H y2
dH y
NTU  
H y1
H yi  H y

5. Calculate the height of a transfer unit umber of transfer units

(HTU):
G
HTU 
M B PkG aM

6. Calculate the height of the cooling tower: Z  (HTU)(NTU)

 Example 3.5.1 Effectiveness of a cooling tower
A packed countercurrent water-cooling tower using gas flow rate of 1.356 kg dry air/(s.m2) and water flow
rate of 1.356 kg/ (s.m2). The water is cooled from 43.3 to 29.4 oC. The entering air at 29.4 oC has a wet bulb
temperature of 23.9 oC. The gas film mass-transfer coefficient is estimated as 1.207 × 10 kgmol/(s.m3.Pa).
The term ℎ / has a value of 41.87 kJ/(kg.K). The tower operates at 1 atm. Calculate the Range,
The approach, the tower effectiveness, and the height of the packed tower.

Solution TL 2  43 .3 o C

G  L  1.356 kg/(s.m 2 )

TG1  29.4 o C ; TWB1  23.9 o C

kG aM  1.207  10 7 kmol/(s.m 3 )
TL1  29 .4 o C
o
Range  TL 2  TL1  43.3  29.4  13.9 C

Approach  TL1  TWB ,1  29.4  23.9  5.5 o C Effectivness  100  Range/0(Range  Approach)  71.6%
 Height of the packed tower.

1. Draw the equilibrium curve: use saturated humidity curve in the psychrometric chart and
enthalpy Eq. to get:

Hyi = (1.005 + 1.88 Hi)×103 (T - 0) + 2.501×106 Hi J/kg air

250
TL Hyi, kJ/kg
Equlibrium curve
15.6 43.7
26.7 84.0 200

Hy (kJ/kg)
29.4 97.2
32.2 112.1
150
35.0 128.9
37.8 148.2
40.6 172.1 100
43.3 197.2
46.1 224.5
50
30 35 40 45 50
o
T ( C)
2. Draw the operating line:

TG 1  29 .4 o C ; TWB1  23 .9 o C
H1 = 0.0165 kg W/kg DA

Hy1 = 71.7 kJ/kg

 Draw the operating line:
cS  1.005  1.88 H 1  1.005  1.88(0.0165)  1.036 kJ/(kg dry air.K)

H y1  cS (TG1  T0 )  H i 0  1.036(29.4  0)  (0.0165)( 2502.3)  71.7 kJ/kg

Apply overall steady-state heat balance over the entire cooling to get Hy2:

G ( H y 2  H y1 )  Lc L (TL 2 - TL1 )

G  L  1.356 kg/(s.m 2 ) cL  4.187 kJ/(kg.K)

TL1  29.4 o C TL 2  43.3 o C H y1  71.7 kJ/kg

H y 2  129.9 kJ/kg
We have two points enough to draw the operating line:

(TL1 , H y1 )  (29.4 o C,71.7 kJ/kg) (TL 2 , H y 2 )  (43.3 o C,129.9 kJ/kg)

 Draw the operating line:
250

(TL1 , H y1 )  (29.4 o C,71.7 kJ/kg) Equlibrium curve

Operating line
200
(TL 2 , H y 2 )  ( 43.3 o C,129.9 kJ/kg)

Hy (kJ/kg)
150

100

T T
L2
L1
50
30 35 40 45 50
TL (oC)
 TL Hyi, kJ/kg
3. Draw lines with constant slope: 15.6 43.7
26.7 84.0
For example, 29.4 97.2
32.2 112.1
35.0 128.9
at Ti =35 oC, from the equilibrium curve Hyi =128.9 kJ/kg . 37.8 148.2
• at TL= 36 oC, calculate Hy from: 40.6 172.1
43.3 197.2
H yi  H y 128.9  H y hLaH ,L 46.1 224.5
   41.87 kJ/(kg.K) 250
Ti -TL 35-36 M B PkGaM Equlibrium curve
Operating line

200

Hy (kJ/kg)
150
H y  87.03kJ/kg
100

• Draw a line passes through the points T

L1
T
L2
50
(35 oC, 128.9 kJ/kg ) and (36 oC, 87.03 kJ). 25 30 35 40 45 50
o
TL ( C)
4. Calculate the number of transfer units (NTU):

• At 6 to 8 locations, draw parallel lines as shown below from TL1 to

TL2 to read enthalpies Hyi from equilibrium curve
250
Equlibrium curve
Operating line
Slope =
200 Line with slope= - 41.87 kJ/(kg.K)
-41.87 x103
Hy (kJ/kg)

150
T
L2

100

T
L1
50
25 30 35 40 45 50
o
TL ( C)
Hyi (kJ/kg) Hy (kJ/kg)
94.4 71.7
4. Calculate the number of transfer units (NTU): 0.05
0.045
0.04
Hyi (kJ/kg) Hy (kJ/kg) Hyi-Hy (kJ/kg) 1/(Hyi - Hy); (kg/kJ) 0.035
94.4 71.7 22.7 0.0441 0.03

1/ (HYI-HY)
108.4 83.5 24.9 0.0402 0.025
124.4 94.9 29.5 0.0339 0.02
141.8 106.5 35.3 0.0283 0.015
H y2
dH y
NTU    1.82
162.1 118.4 43.7 0.0229 0.01 H y1
H yi  H y
184.7 129.9 54.8 0.0182 0.005
0
• Using Trapezoidal rule of numerical integration: 60 80 100 120 140
HY

H y2
dH y G
y2
dH y
H
NTU    1.82 Z  (HTU)(NTU)
H yi  H y 
M B PkG aM H y1 H yi  H y
H y1
     
HTU NTU
5. Calculate the height of a transfer unit (HTU):

G 1.356
HTU    3.82 m
M B PkG aM ( 29)(101325)(1.207  10 7 )

6. Calculate the height of the cooling tower:

Z  (HTU)(NTU)  (3.82)(1.82)  6.96 m

• Minimum air flow gives maximum slope of the operating line Eq.

Lc L Lc Lc L
H y  ( H y1  TL1 )  L TL Slope max 
G G G min

N
equilibrium line

Hy2 P
operating line for Gmin,
slope = LcL/Gmin

operating line,
Hy1 slope = LcL/G
M

TL1 TL2
 Minimum value of air flow Gmin:
• For actual cooling towers, a value of air flow rate greater than Gmin must be used.
A reasonable value of G is (1.3-1.5)Gmin.
Example. Find the minimum air flow for previous example
250
H y 2  H y1 Equlibrium curve
Slope max  Operating line
TL 2  TL1 Operating line with Gmin
200
194  71.7 Hy (kJ/kg)

43.3  29.4
150
 8.8 kJ/(kg.K)
Lc
Slope max  L 100
Gmin
T T
Lc L 50
L1 L2
Gmin 
Slope max 25 30 35 40 45 50
o
TL ( C)
 0.64 kg /( s.m 2 )