BAL BHARATI PUBLIC SCHOOL, PITAMPURA, DELHI – 110034

CLASS XI
HISTORY
THEME : 2 WRITING & CITY LIFE

 In this E- lesson we shall cover the following subtopics

 Mesopotamia and its Geography
 The Significance of Urbanism
 Movement of Goods into Cities
 Refer to the text book link http://ncert.nic.in/ncerts/l/kehs101.pdf
 Please refer to this You tube for a better understanding of the concept explained
https://youtu.be/xVf5kZA0HtQ

Mesopotamia is derived from two Greek words mesos meaning middle and Potamas meaning river
Mesopotamia means land between two rivers-Euphrates and Tigris. Today it is part of the Republic of Iraq.
Writing & City Life began in Mesopotamia.

MESOPOTAMIA WAS KNOWN FOR ITS

Writing City life Trade Literature Mathematics Astronomy

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SOURCES TO STUDY MESOPOTAMIA ARE

Buildings Statues Graves Tools Seals Documents

KINGDOMS IN MESOPOTAMIA

Southern Mesopotamia - was called Sumer and Akkad. After 2000 BCE, when Babylon became an important city,
the term Babylonia was used for the southern region.

Northern Mesopotamia - From about 1100 BCE, when the Assyrians established their kingdom in the north, the
region became known as Assyria.

LANGUAGE OF THE MESOPOTAMIANS

The first known language of the land was Sumerian

It was gradually replaced by Akkadian around 2400 BCE when Akkadian speakers arrived. This language flourished
till about Alexander’s time (336-323 BCE), with some regional changes occurring.

From 1400 BCE, Aramaic,( similar to Hebrew,) became widely spoken after 1000 BCE. It is still spoken in parts of
Iraq.

ARCHAEOLOGICAL EXCAVATIONS IN MESOPOTAMIA & ITS RELEVANCE /IMPORTANCE TO THE EUROPEANS

Archaeology in Mesopotamia began in the 1840s.At Uruk and Mari, excavations continued for decades

 Mesopotamia was important to Europeans because of references to it in the Old Testament. the Book of
Genesis of the Old Testament refers to ‘Shimar’, meaning Sumer, as a land of brick-built cities. Travellers
and scholars of Europe looked on Mesopotamia as a kind of ancestral land, and when archaeological work
began in the area, there was an attempt to prove the literal truth of the Old Testament.
 In 1873, a British newspaper funded an expedition of the British Museum to search for a tablet narrating
the story of the Flood, mentioned in the Bible
 By the 1960s, it was understood that the stories of the Old Testament were not literally true, but may have
been ways of expressing memories about important changes in history.

MESOPOTAMIA & ITS GEOGRAPHY

Iraq is a land of diverse environments

 North east lie green undulating plains, gradually rising to tree-covered mountain ranges with clean
streams and wild flowers, with enough rainfall to grow crops. Here, Agriculture began between 7000 and
6000 BCE.

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  In North-There is a stretch of upland called a steppe, where animals herding offers people a better
 livelihood than agriculture. Sheep and goats produced meat, milk and wool in abundance

 In the East-tributaries of the Tigris provide routes of communication in to mountains of Iran


 The South is a desert-the place with the first cities and writing emerged. Euphrates and Tigris carry loads
 of silt and deposited on the flood fields.

The small channels of Euphrates and Tigris functioned as irrigation canals. Fish was available in rivers and date-
palms gave fruit in summer

THE SIGNIFICANCE OF URBANISATION

 Urban centres involve in various economic activities such as food production trade, manufactures and
 services.

  City people were not self sufficient. The carver of stone seal requires bronze tools, coloured stones.

  The bronze tool maker needs metals, charcoal. So they depend on the products or services of other people.
 The division of labour is a mark of urban life.
 There must be a social organisation in cities
  Fuel,metal,various stones, wood etc.,come from many places for city manufacturers

 There are deliveries of grain and other food items from the village to the city
  Thus organized trade and storage is needed.

  In such a system some people commands and those others obey.

Urban economies often require the keeping of written records

MOVEMENT OF GOODS INTO CITIES

 Food resources were abundant in Mesopotamia but lacked stones, wood, metal.
  So they imported wood, copper, tin, silver, gold, shell, stones from Turkey and Iran.

 They exported their textiles and food resources

 Transport is also important for urban development

  The canals and natural channels were routes for goods transport

 Euphrates became a world route

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ASSIGNMENT

Q1.Define the following

a.Civilization b.Urbanism

Q2. “Mesopotamia was important to the Europeans “Justify this statement with examples

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 BAL BHARATI PUBLIC SCHOOL, PITAMPURA, DELHI – 110034

WRITING & CITY LIFE

This is part II of Theme 2 : Writing & City Life

Please refer to the NCERT PDF version of the text book http://ncert.nic.in/ncerts/l/kehs101.pdf
This E module will cover the following subtopics
a.Trade and commerce
b.Movement of goods into cities
c.The development of Writing
d. Uses of Writing
e Literacy in Mesopotamia
For a better understanding of the concept please refer to https://youtu.be/dSTsscuw9Rg
https://youtu.be/VroX-_thMLg
Do the Assignment Questions in the History Register .

A BRIEF RECAPITUALATION FROM THE PREVIOUS E- MODULE

 A great civilization flourished in Mesopotamia around 5000 BCE along the banks of the rivers Tigris and
Euphrates which is now known as modern Iraq.
 It was a prosperous urban Bronze age river valley Civilization

WAS THERE A SOCIAL ORGANISATION IN MESOPOTAMIA?

There must have been a social organisation in place.

 Fuel, metal, various stones, wood, etc., come from many different places for city manufacturers.
Thus, organised trade and storage is needed. There were deliveries of grain and other food items
from the village to the city, and food supplies needed to be stored and distributed.
 Besides, many different activities have to be coordinated: there must be not only stones but also
bronze tools and pots available for seal cutters. Obviously, in such a system some people give
commands that others obey, and urban economies often require the keeping of written records.

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 PART II OF E MODULE .......

TRADE & COMMERCE:

Mesopotamia had a vibrant economy dependent on trade on account of the following reasons

 However rich the food resources of Mesopotamia, its mineral resources were few.
 Most parts of the south lacked stones for tools, seals and jewels; the wood of the
Iraqi date- palm and poplar was not good enough for carts, cart wheels or boats;
and there was no metal for tools, vessels or ornaments.
 The ancient Mesopotamians would have traded their abundant textiles and
agricultural produce for wood, copper, tin, silver, gold, shell and various stones from
Turkey and Iran, or across the Gulf.
 These latter regions had mineral resources, but much less scope for agriculture.

MOVEMENT OF GOODS INTO CITIES
Efficient transportation was an important aspect of urban development in Mesopotamia.
 Animals and bullock carts were used only occasionally as it took too much time, or
too much animal feed, to carry grain or charcoal into cities on pack animals or bullock
carts, for the city economy was therefore not viable.
 The cheapest mode of transportation is, everywhere, over water.
 River boats or barges loaded with sacks of grain are propelled by the current of the
river and/or wind, but when animals transport goods, they need to be fed.
 The canals and natural channels of ancient Mesopotamia were in fact routes of goods
transport between large and small settlements.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF WRITING

 The Mesopotamian script is known as Cueniform Script

 By 2600 BCE the letters became cuneiform and the language was Sumerian

 Sumerian was replaced by the Akkadian language in 2400 BCE

 Cuneiform writing in the Akkadian language continued in use until the first century CE more
than 2000 years ago

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 ( A mesopotamian clay tablet )

CLAY TABLETS OF MESOPOTAMIA

 The first Mesopotamian tablets, written around 3200 BCE
contained picture-like signs and numbers. These were about 5,000 lists of oxen, fish, bread loaves,
etc. – lists of goods that were brought into or distributed from the temples of Uruk, a city in the south.

 Each transaction required a separate written tablet

HOW WAS WRITING DONE IN MESPOTAMIA ?

 Mesopotamians wrote on tablets of clay. A scribe would wet clay and pat it into a size he could hold
comfortably in one hand. He would carefully smoothen its surfaces.

 With the sharp end of a reed cut obliquely, he would press wedge-shaped (‘cuneiform*’) signs on to
the smoothened surface while it was still moist.

 Once dried in the sun, the clay would harden and tablets would be almost as indestructible as
pottery

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 ( A scribe writing on the clay tablet with a stylus.)
USES OF WRITING
 Keeping Records
 Making Dictionaries
 Giving legal validity to land transfers
 Narrating the deeds of the Kings
 Announcing the changes in the laws

LITERACY IN MESOPOTAMIA
Very few Mesopotamians could read and write as
 The sound that a cuneiform sign represented was not a single consonant or vowel English
alphabet, but syllables.
 Writing was a skilled craft but, more important, conveying in visual form the system of sounds of
a particular language. There hundreds of signs to learn, many of these were complex to learn.

 If a king could read he made sure that it was recorded in one of his inscriptions.

SUMERIAN EPIC POEM ABOUT ENMERKAR

The connection between city life, trade and writing is brought out in a long Sumerian epic poem about
Enmerkar, one of the earliest rulers of Uruk.

 Enmerkar was associated with the organisation of the first trade of Sumer: in the early days, the
epic says, ‘trade was not known’. Enmerkar wanted lapis lazuli and precious metals for the
beautification of a city temple and sent his messenger out to get them from the chief of a very
distant land called Aratta

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  The messenger could not get the chief of Aratta to part with lapis lazuli or silver, and he had to
make the long journey back and forth, again and again, carrying threats and promises from the
king of Uruk

 Then, ‘Enmerkar formed a clay tablet in his hand, and he wrote the words down. In those days,
there had been no writing down of words on clay.’

 Given the written tablet, ‘the ruler of Aratta examined the clay. The spoken words were nails*. His
face was frowning. He kept looking at the tablet.’

CONCLUSION DRAWN FROM THE EPIC POEM OF ENMERKAR

 Besides being a means of storing information and of sending messages afar, writing was seen as a
sign of the superiority of Mesopotamian urban culture

 It was kingship that organised trade and writing.

ASSIGNMENT
Q1”Despite the prevalence of Writing all were not literate in Mesopotamia “Justify.

Q2.Transportation played an important role in the urban life of Mesopotamia .Comment

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 BAL BHARATI PUBLIC SCHOOL, PITAMPURA, DELHI – 110034
HISTORY- CLASS XI
WRITING & CITY LIFE

This is part III of Theme 2 : Writing & City Life

Please refer to the NCERT PDF version of the text book http://ncert.nic.in/ncerts/l/kehs101.pdf
This E module will cover the following subtopics
a. Urbanisation in Southern Mesopotamia: Temples & Kings
b. Life in the City
c. A Trading Town in a Pastoral Zone

For a better understanding of the concept please refer to https://youtu.be/sIGOFlFoCLc

Do the Assignment Questions in the History Register

URBANISATION IN SOUTHERN MESOPOTAMIA: TEMPLES AND KINGS

From 5000 BCE, settlements had begun to develop in southern Mesopotamia
The earliest cities emerged from some of these settlements

TYPES OF MESOPOTAMIAN CITIES

 Temple cities
 Trade cities
 Imperial Cities

FEATURES OF THE TEMPLES & ITS ROLE IN THE DAILY LIFE OF THE MESOPOTAMIANS

(An ancient temple in Mesopotamia)

FEATURES OF THE TEMPLES

 The earliest known temple was a small shrine made of unbaked bricks.

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  Temples were the residences of various gods: of the Moon God of Ur, or of Inanna the Goddess of
Love and War.
 Constructed in brick, temples became larger over time, with several rooms around open
courtyards. Some of the early ones were possibly not unlike the ordinary house – for the temple
was the house of a god.
 But temples always had their outer walls going in and out at regular intervals, which no ordinary
building ever had.

ROLE OF THE TEMPLE AS AN URBAN INSTITUTION

 The god was the focus of worship: to which the people brought grain, curd and fish (the floors of
some early temples had thick layers of fish bones).
 The god was also the theoretical owner of the agricultural fields, the fisheries, and the herds of
the local community.
 The temple was the
a. Organiser of Production such as Oil pressing, grain grinding, spinning, and the weaving of
woolen cloth did in the temple.
b. Employer of the merchants
c. Was the keeper of written records of distribution and allotments of of grain, plough animals,
bread, beer, fish, etc

The temple gradually developed its activities and became the main urban institution.
CONFLICT OVER LAND & WATER IN THE MESOPOTAMIAN COUNTRYSIDE

 Those who lived on the upstream stretches of a channel could divert so much water into their
fields that villages downstream were left without water.
 Or they could neglect to clean out the silt from their stretch of the channel, blocking the flow of
water further down.

So the early Mesopotamian countryside saw repeated conflict over land and water

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would have too much water one year and flood the crops, and sometimes they would change course
altogether. As the archaeological record shows, villages were periodically relocated in Mesopotamian
history. There were man-made problems as well. Those who lived on the upstream

ROLE OF THE KINGS IN CONSTRUCTION & MAINTENANCE OF TEMPLES

 Archaeological records show that villages were periodically relocated in Mesopotamian history
because of flood in the river and change in the course of the rivers.

 At Uruk, one of the earliest temple towns, we find depictions of armed heroes and their victims,
and careful archaeological surveys have shown that around 3000 BCE, when Uruk grew to the
enormous extent of 250 hectares – twice as large as Mohenjo-daro
 Victorious chiefs began to offer precious booty to the gods and thus beautify the community’s
temples.
 War captives and local people were put to work for the temple, or directly for the ruler.
 With rulers commanding people to fetch stones or metal ores, to come and make bricks or lay the
bricks for a temple, or else to go to a distant country to fetch suitable materials. Eg As the poem
about Enmerkar shows, that the king had a high status and the authority to command the
community.

URUK AS A TECHNOLOGICALLY ADVANCED CITY

There were also technical advances at Uruk around 3000 BCE.

 Bronze tools came into use for various crafts.

 Architects learnt to construct brick columns, there being no suitable wood to bear the weight of
the roof of large halls.
 Hundreds of people were put to work at making and baking clay cones that could be pushed into
temple walls, painted in different colours, creating a colourful mosaic.
 In sculpture, there were superb achievements, not in easily available clay but in imported stone.
 And then there was a technological landmark that we can say is appropriate to an urban
economy: the potter’s wheel. In the long run, the wheel enables a potter’s workshop to ‘mass
produce’ dozens of similar pots at a time.

(The first Potter’s wheel in Ancient Mesopotamia : image from Pin interest)

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Life in the City

 a ruling elite had emerged: a small section of society had a major share of the wealth
 In Mesopotamian society the nuclear family was the norm, although a married son and his family
often resided with his parents. The father was the head of the family
 MARRIAGE

We know little about the procedures of marriage

a.A declaration was made about the willingness to marry by the bride's parents.
b.when the wedding took place gifts were exchanged by both parties who ate together
and made offerings in a temple
 c. The bride was given her share of inheritance by her father

TOWN PLANNING IN UR

Ur was a town and one of the earliest cities excavated in the 1930s

 Narrow winding streets indicate that wheeled carts could not have reached many of the houses.
Sacks of grain and firewood would have arrived on donkey-back.
 Narrow winding streets and the irregular shapes of house plots also indicate an absence of town
planning. There were no street drains of the kind we find in contemporary Mohenjo-daro. Drains
and clay pipes were instead found in the inner courtyards of the Ur houses and it is thought that
house roofs sloped inwards and rainwater was channelled via the drainpipes into sumps* in the
inner courtyards.
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  Yet people seem to have swept all their household refuse into the streets, to be trodden
underfoot!
 This made street levels rise, and over time the thresholds of houses had also to be raised so that
no mud would flow inside after the rains.
 Light came into the rooms not from windows but from doorways opening into the courtyards: this
would also have given families their privacy.
 There were superstitions about houses, recorded in omen tablets at Ur: a raised threshold brought
wealth; a front door that did not open towards another house was lucky; but if the main wooden
door of a house opened outwards (instead of inwards), the wife would be a torment to her
husband!
 There was a town cemetery at Ur in which the graves of royalty and commoners have been found,
but a few individuals were found buried under the floors of ordinary houses.

A TRADING TOWN IN A PASTORAL ZONE-MARI

After 2000 BCE the royal city of Mari flourished.

LOCATION
Mari was located on the upstream of Euphrates.

OCCUPATION OF THE PEOPLE IN MARI

• Agriculture and animal rearing were carried out in this region.
• Most of the region was used for pasturing sheep and goats.
• Herders exchanged animals, cheese, leather and meat in return for, metal tools etc. with the farmers.

PEOPLE WHO INHABITED MARI

• Nomadic groups of the western desert filtered into the prosperous agricultural land.
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 • Such groups would come as herders, harvest labourers or hired soldiers and settled down
• These included the Akkadians, Amorites, Assyrians and Armaneans.

KINGS
• The kings of Mari were Amorites and raised a temple at Mari for Dagan, god of steppe.

MARI AS A TRADING CITY

Mari is a good example of an urban centre prospering on trade.

• Wood, copper, wine, tin,oil,etc. were carried in boats along the Euphrates between the south
and Turkey, Syria and Lebanon.
• Boats carrying grinding stones, wood, and wine and oil jars, would stop at Mari on their way to
southern cities.

• Officers of this town would go abroad, inspect the cargo and levy a charge of about one-tenth the
value of the goods.

• Most important, tablets refer to copper from ‘Alashiya’, the island of Cyprus, known for its copper,
and tin was also an item of trade. As bronze was the main industrial material for tools and weapons,
this trade was of great importance.

Thus, although the kingdom of Mari was not militarily strong, it was exceptionally prosperous.

ASSIGNMENT
Q1. Imagine yourself to be an inhabitant of Mesopotamia. How do you think the urban culture
affected your life ?

Q2.”Uruk was a technologically advanced city “Justify .

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 BAL BHARATI PUBLIC SCHOOL, PITAMPURA, DELHI – 110034
HISTORY –XI
WRITING & CITY LIFE

This is the final part of the E-Module on the lesson Writing & City Life . This E-Module has two parts
1.Explanation Notes 2. An Assignment on Writing & City Life
Please refer to the NCERT PDF version of the text book http://ncert.nic.in/ncerts/l/kehs101.pdf
This E module will cover the following subtopics
a. Cities in Mesopotamian Culture
b. The Legacy of Writing
For a better understanding of the concept please refer to the you tube video https://youtu.be/HbZ2asfyHcA
https://youtu.be/HyjLt_RGEww

CITIES IN MESOPOTAMIAN CULTURE

Types of Cities
 Temple cities
 Trade cities
 Imperial cities

Mesopotamians valued city life in which people of many communities and cultures lived side by side. After cities
were destroyed in war, they recalled them in poetry.Example the Giglamesh Epic wriiten on twelve tablets.
• THE EPIC OF GILGAMESH
• A great hero who subdued people far and wide, he got a shock when his heroic friend died
• He then set out to find the secret of immortality, crossing the waters that surround the world.
• After a heroic attempt, Gilgamesh failed, and returned to Uruk. There, he consoled himself by walking along the
city wall, back and forth.
• He admired the foundations made of fired bricks that he had put into place. It is on the city wall of Uruk that the
long tale of heroism and endeavour fizzles out. Gilgamesh does not say that even though he will die his sons will
outlive him, as a tribal hero would have done. He takes consolation in the city that his people had built.

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THE LEGACY OF WRITING
The greatest legacy of Mesopotamia is in the scholarly tradition of time reckoning and Mathematics

a. Scholarly tradition of Time reckoning

CALENDAR
The division of the year into 12 months
The division of the month into 4 weeks
The division of the day into 24 hours
The division of the hour into 60 minutes.
Solar and lunar eclipses were observed
There were schools where students read and copied earlier written tablets

b. Mathematics
Tablets with multiplication and division tables
Square root tables
Tables of compound interest

CONCLUSION: None of these momentous Mesopotamian achievements would have been possible without
writing and the urban institution of schools, where students read and copied earlier written tablets, and where some
boys were trained to become not record keepers for the administration, but intellectuals who could build on the work
of their predecessors.

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 BAL BHARATI PUBLIC SCHOOL, PITAMPURA, DELHI – 110034
HISTORY –XI
WRITING & CITY LIFE
ASSIGNMENT

Q1. The first known language of Mesopotamia

(a).Sumerian ( b.Akkadian (c).Aramaic (d).Hebrew
Q2. Royal capital city of Mesopotamia
(a).Susa (b) .Uruk (c)Ur (d).Mari

Q3. ASSERTION AND REASON

.Assertion( A) The streets were narrow winding and the shapes of the house plots were irregular.
Reason (B) There was absence of town planning in Mesopotamia
a. Both A & R are true and R is the correct explanation of A
b. Both A & R are true but R is not the correct explanation of A
c. A is true but R is false.
d. A is false but R is true .

Q4. Assertion (A) Very few Mesopotamians could read or write.

Reason (B)Not only there were hundreds of signs to learn many of these were very complex..
a. Both A & R are true and R is the correct explanation of A
b. Both A & R are true but R is not the correct explanation of A
c. A is true but R is false.
d. A is false but R is true .

Q5. Enlist the various sources that help us to reconstruct the history of Mesopotamia.
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Q6.Explain the origin of the word Mesopotamia and highlight what it means.
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Q7. Mention the three important languages of Mesopotamia.

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Q8. The shift from foraging to farming was a major turning point in the human history” Explain this
statement in the context of Mesopotamia.
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Q9.”Iraq is a land of diverse environments “Illustrate.
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Q10.”Division of labour is a mark of urban life” Justify.

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Q11.Analyze the importance of transport as a key feature associated with the urban culture of
Mesopotamia.
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Q12.Enlist the various uses of writing in Mesopotamia.
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Q13.Briefly describe he system of writing in Mesopotamia.
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Q14.“Though the kingdom of Mari was not militarily advanced yet it was exceptionally prosperous”
Explain.
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Q15. Evaluate the legacy of Mesopotamia to the world.
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Q16. On the given map of Middle east locate and mark the following
(A.)River Euphrates(B.)River Tigris (C).Ur( D).Uruk( E).Mari

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