February 2015

SECTION 3 : PRESSURE AND FLOW

By: Alan A. Manza

 UNITS OF MEASUREMENT

Most work in science and engineering is based upon

exact measurement of physical quantities. A number
alone is insufficient to describe a physical quantity. For
example, to say that the maximum electric power
demand of a particular home is 6,000 has no meaning
unless the “yardstick” or units used to measure the power
is also specified. The importance of specifying the units
of measurement for a number used to describe a
physical quantity is doubly emphasized when it is noted
that the same physical quantity may be measured using
a variety of different units. For example, a length may
be measured in inches, feet, miles, centimeters, meters,
kilometers, or a variety of other units.
 UNITS OF MEASUREMENT

All physical quantities can be expressed in

terms of three fundamental units, (1) length,
(2) mass, and (3) time. Length is the measure
of the distance from one point to another.
Mass is the measure of the quantity of
matter. Time is the measure of a period
during which an event occurs.
 UNITS OF MEASUREMENT

There are three widely used unit systems of

these fundamental units. These are the
meter-kilogram-second (mks) system; the
centimeter-gram-second (cgs) system, and
the English system. Table 3-1 lists the
fundamental units in length, mass, and time
in each of these three systems.
 UNITS OF MEASUREMENT

Table 3-1 Fundamental Units

mks cgs English
Length: meter (m) centimeter (cm) foot (ft)
Mass: kilogram (kg) gram (g) pound (lbs)
Time: second (sec) second (sec) second (sec)
 UNITS OF MEASUREMENT
The fact that there are different sets of fundamental units
contributes a considerable amount of confusion to many
calculations. In the United Sates, the mks system, with some
application of the cgs system, is employed for physics
calculations. However, the English system is employed
exclusively in engineering calculations. Thus, it is necessary to
have some degree of understanding of all three unit systems.
At the present time, there is a movement to standardize units
so that all countries including the United States, will adopt the
mks system. The mks system is much simpler to use than the
English system because it is a decimal system in which prefixes
are used to denote powers of ten. One kilometer is 1,000
meters and one centimeter is one hundredth of a meter.
Whereas, the English system has off units of conversion. A mile
is 5,280 feet and an inch is one twelfth of a foot. Table 3-2
lists some of the more common units in the English system.
 UNITS OF MEASUREMENT
There are wide ranges of lengths, masses and times found in
nature. Even familiar objects illustrate these wide ranges. A
football field is 300 feet (91.44 meters) long, while a piece of
paper is only about one-thousandth of a foot (0.3048 millimeter)
thick. A car weighs almost 3,000 pounds (1,361 kilograms), while
a postage stamp weighs only about one ten-thousandth of pound
(0.04536 gram). The average human life span is about two billion
seconds; the time between heart beats is only about one second.
In science and engineering, even wider ranges of lengths, masses,
and times are encountered. The distance between the Earth and
the Sun is many billions of feet (meters), while the radius of an
electron is only a very, very small fraction of a foot (meter). The
mass of the Earth is many billions of pounds (kilograms), while the
mass of an electron is only a very small fraction of a pound
(kilogram). The age of the Earth is many billions of seconds, while
the time required to emit an x-ray is only a very, very small
fraction of a second.
 UNITS OF MEASUREMENT

Table 3-2 Common Units in the English (Metric) System

12 inches (in) = 1 foot (0.3048 meters)
1 yard (yd) = 3 feet (0.9144 meters)
1 mile (mi) = 5,280 feet (1,609 meters)
16 ounces (oz) = 1 pound (0.4535 kilograms)
1 ton = 2,000 pounds (907.1 kilograms)
1 minute = 60 seconds
1 hour (hr) = 3,600 seconds
1 U.S. gallon (gal) = 0.1337 cubic foot (0.003785 cubic meters)
 UNITS OF MEASUREMENT
Length, mass, and the time are called fundamental units because
most other physical quantities have units which are combination of
these three units. For example, area is the product of two lengths;
it has units of length times length or length squared. In the English
(metric) system, the units of volume are square feet (square
meters), written ft3 (m3), or square inches (square millimeters),
written in3 (mm3). Other physical quantities are also combinations
of the three fundamental units. Velocity is the time rate of change
of distance or length per unit time; thus, it has units of length
divided by time. In the English (metric) system, the units of velocity
are feet (meters) per second, written ft/sec (m/sec), or miles
(kilometers) per hour, written mi/hr (km/hr) or mph. Indeed, it can
be shown that other more complicated physical quantities such as
horsepower (watts), watts, and British thermal units (calories), are
all combinations of the three fundamental units of length, mass,
and time.
 PROPERTIES OF SUBSTANCES

When describing something, we list certain

characteristics about it, which we can observe, or
measure. Thus we describe a person as being tall
or short, or we describe a box as being heavy or
light. These observable and measurable
characteristics of a substance are called the
properties of the substance. Most work in science
and engineering involves working with the
properties of substances, so it is important for us
to understand some of the more important types
of properties.
 PROPERTIES OF SUBSTANCES
MASS
The mass of a substance is a measure of the amount of matter
present. The symbol m is commonly used to designate mass. In
our system of measure, the English (metric) system, mass has units
of pounds (grams), which is abbreviated lb (g). The mass of a
substance is sometimes difficult to measure. Normally, we
measure the weight of a substance. The weight of a substance is
the force exerted by the substance when it is pilled by gravity.
In the English (metric) system, weight also has units of pounds
(newtons). We have all heard it said that the weight of a body
on the surface of the moon is only one-sixth the force of gravity
on the Earth. This means that although the mass of a substance
does not change, its weight can change depending on the force
of gravity. However, in virtually all power plant applications,
weight of a substance equals the mass of the substance.
PROPERTIES OF SUBSTANCES
MASS

Figure 3-1 Volume

PROPERTIES OF SUBSTANCES
MASS

Figure 3-2 Specific Volume

 PROPERTIES OF SUBSTANCES
VOLUME
The volume of a substance is a measure of the
amount of space it occupies. The symbol V is
commonly used to designate volume. In the English
(metric) system, volume has units of cubic feet
(meters), written ft3 (m3), or cubic inches (milli-
meters), written in3 (mm3). For regular shaped
objects, the volume can be determined from the
dimensions. For example, are the rectangular tank
shown in Figure 3-1, the volume equals the length
times the width times the height.
 PROPERTIES OF SUBSTANCES
VOLUME
Some properties of a substance are defined so they
do not depend upon how much of the substance is
present. For example, the temperature of a
substance is such a property. Other properties, such
as volume, depend upon the amount of substance
present. Sometimes it is convenient to work with
properties which are defined to make them
independent of how much of the substance is
present. This is done by defining properties on a unit
mass basis. For example, the specific volume is
defined as the volume per unit mass. The symbol v is
commonly used to designate specific volume.
 PROPERTIES OF SUBSTANCES
VOLUME
Specific volume has units of cubic feet per pound ( cubic
meters per kilogram), written ft3/lb (m3/kg), or cubic
inches (centimeters) per pound (kilogram), written in
in3/lb (cm3/kg) we can find the specific volume of a
substance by dividing its volume by its mass. By doing this,
we have defined a property of the substance which does
not depend upon how much is present. The specific volume
of the water in the smaller tank shown in Figure 3-2
equals its volume, 24 ft3 (0.68m3), divided by its weight,
1,500 lb (680 kg), which means 0.016 ft3/lb (1
cm3/gram). The specific volume of the water in the larger
tank shown in Figure 3-2 equals its volume, 60 ft (1.7 m3),
divided by its weight, 3,750 lb (1,700 kg), which also
equals 0.016 ft3/in (1cm3/kg).
 PROPERTIES OF SUBSTANCES
DENSITY
The density of a substance is its total mass divided
by its total volume. The symbol p, pronounced rho, is
commonly used to designate density. Density has
units of pounds (kilograms) per cubic foot (meter),
written lb/ft3 (kg/m3), or pounds (kilograms) per
cubic inch (millimeter), written lb/in3 (kg/mm3). We
can find the density of a substance by dividing its
weight or mass by its volume. The density of the
object shown in Figure 3-3 equals its weight, 1,000
lb (453 kg), divided by its volume, 20 ft3 (0.566
m3), which equals 50 lb/ft3 (800 kg/m3).
PROPERTIES OF SUBSTANCES
DENSITY

Figure 3-3 Density

 PROPERTIES OF SUBSTANCES
DENSITY
Another related property which is sometimes encountered in
power plant work is specific gravity. Specific gravity is a
measure of the relative density of a substance compared to
that of water. It is defined as the density of the substance
divided by the density of water. the density of water is
approximately 62.4 lb/ft3 (1,000 kg/m3). The abbreviation
SG is commonly used for specific gravity. The specific gravity
of the object shown in Figure 3-3 equals its density, 50 lb/ft3
(800 kg/m3), divided by the density of water, 62.4 lb/ft3
(1,000 kg/m3), which equals 0.80. Specific gravity is a unit
less quantity since it is the ratio of two quantities having the
same units. Knowing the specific gravity is a quick way to
determine if a substance will float or sink when put in water. If
its specific gravity is less than 1, it will float. The object shown
in Figure 3-3 will float since its specific gravity is less than 1.
 PROPERTIES OF SUBSTANCES
PRESSURE
Pressure is a term encountered every day in
power plant operation, and observing or
recording pressure readings is an important part
of the work the plant staff performs. In order for
these readings to have meaning to us, we need
to understand what pressure is, how it is
measured, and how significant abnormal
readings are.
 PROPERTIES OF SUBSTANCES
PRESSURE
In power plants, we use the definition of pressure
used in physics. Pressure is the force per unit area.
The symbol P is commonly used to designate
pressure. Pressure is generally measured in pounds
(newtons) per square inch (centimeter), written
lb/in2 (N/cm2) or psi (Nscm), but it can also be
measured in inches (centimeters) of water or inches
(centimeters) of mercury. It will be helpful to us in
understanding pressure to see how a pressure or a
force per unit area can be created. There are three
ways to create a pressure: (1) by the weight of a
substance, (2) by mechanical force, and (3) by
heating a fluid in a closed container.
 PROPERTIES OF SUBSTANCES
PRESSURE
A solid object can cause pressure simply due to its weight.
The pressure is simply the weight of the body divided by
the area on which the body rests. If the one-pound (4.448
newton) weight shown in Figure 3-4 rests on a one-
square-inch (6.45 cm2), it causes a pressure of one pound
pound per square inch (0.69 newtons per square
centimeter), written 1 lb/in2 (0.69 N/cm2) or 1 psi (0.69
Nscm). Similarly, if the ten-pound weight in Figure 3-4
rests on a ten-square-inch area, the total force at the
base is ten pounds, but it is distributed over an area of
ten square inches. Thus the force per square inch, which is
the pressure, is the same as for the one-pound weight,
namely, 1psi (0.69 N/cm2).
PROPERTIES OF SUBSTANCES
PRESSURE

Figure 3-4 Pressure Caused by Weight

 PROPERTIES OF SUBSTANCES
PRESSURE
If the one-pound weight in Figure 3-4 had a sharper
point in Figure 3-5, the weight would not change,
but the pressure would. The pressure changes
because the same weight is not distributed over a
smaller area. In Figure 3-5, the area under pressure
is now a square 1/16 of an inch (0.159 cm) on each
side, or 1/256 square inch (0.025 cm2). The result is
that the pressure is 0.256 psi (178 N/cm2). This
explains why well pointed stakes can be driven into
the ground more easily.
PROPERTIES OF SUBSTANCES
PRESSURE

Figure 3-5 Pressure Caused by Weight on a Small Are

 PROPERTIES OF SUBSTANCES
PRESSURE
A liquid can exert pressure in the same way as a solid. The
left-hand column of water shown in Figure 3-6 weighs one
pound (4.448 newtons). It is enclosed in a tube with a cross-
sectional area of one square inch (6.45 cm2). Thus, the
pressure exerted at the bottom is 1 psi (0.69 N/cm2). If you
slipped a cover under the bottom of the water tube, your
fingers would have to exert a total force on the cover of one
pound (4.448 newtons) to keep the water from coming out. The
right-hand column of water in Figure 3-6 is twice as large; it is
two square inches (12.9 cm2). Therefore, the pressure at the
bottom is the same, 1 psi (0.69 N/cm2). If a hand were
pressing against the bottom cover on the right-hand column, it
would have to exert a total force of two pounds (8.896
newtons) to keep the water from coming out. Thus, although the
pressures are the same at the bottoms of the two columns, the
total forces are different.
 PROPERTIES OF SUBSTANCES
PRESSURE
We live in an ocean of air, but usually we are
unaware of it. Air is the most common of gases and
is a mixture of several substances. By volume, it is
about 78%nitrogen and 21% oxygen, with the
remainder consisting of argon, carbon dioxide,
hydrogen, neon, krypton, helium, and xenon. Air is
held around the Earth by the force of gravity. Unlike
water in the seas, the atmosphere surrounding the
earth has no well-defined surface. The air gradually
becomes thinner and thinner as we go higher away
from the Earth until, at very high altitudes, there is
no air.
 PROPERTIES OF SUBSTANCES
PRESSURE
We are constantly subjected to large forces due to the weight of the
air above us. Fantastic as it may seem, air exerts a pressure of 14.7
psi (10.13 N/cm2) at sea level. Every surface exposed to air at sea
level has a pressure of 14.7 psi (10.13 N/cm2) pressing on it. In Figure
3-7, air pressure exerts a total force of 22.2 tons (197,500 newtons)
on one side of the door. But, because the air pressure on the other side
of the door is the same, the pressures balance, and the door opens and
closes easily. This is an example of balanced pressures. If the air
pressure on a door from inside of a room is not balanced with the air
pressure from outside, the door will be hard to open into the room and
it will slam shut. Even a small pressure difference on each square inch
of the door would require a strong push to open the door. Such
pressure differences can cause tremendous damage. A sudden
lowering of the atmospheric pressure outside a house caused by a
tornado can cause the pressure inside the house to force the walls
outward. This fact has to be taken into account when designing a
structure to contain power plant equipment.
PROPERTIES OF SUBSTANCES
PRESSURE

Figure 3-6 Pressure from a Liquid

PROPERTIES OF SUBSTANCES
PRESSURE

Figure 3-7 Air Pressure on a Door

PROPERTIES OF SUBSTANCES
PRESSURE

Atmospheric Pressure pushes equally on all sides

Figure 3-8 Balanced Air Pressure in an Open Pipe
 PROPERTIES OF SUBSTANCES
PRESSURE
The human body, because of its many square inches of
surface area, is under the pressure of many tons
(newtons). Why are we not crushed? Again, this is an
example of balanced pressures. We aren’t crushed
because the pressure inside our bodies offsets or balances
the atmospheric pressure outside our bodies. It is much like
the effect of atmospheric pressure on an open pipe like
the one shown in Figure 3-8. If the pipe is open at its
ends, the pressure on the outside is offset by the pressure
inside. If the pipe were not open at its ends and if the
pressure inside the pipe was larger than the pressure
outside, then the structural strength of the pipe wall must
be able to withstand the pressure difference.
 PROPERTIES OF SUBSTANCES
PRESSURE
The second way to create a pressure is by mechanical force. A
tire pump and a hydraulic elevator are examples of a
mechanical force causing pressure. When using a tire pump,
such as the one shown in Fig 3-9, exerting a mechanical force
on the pump handle forces air into the tire. Because more and
more air is forced into the confined space within the tire, the
pressure increases. Thus, a mechanical force has been used to
create a pressure. In this case the pressure inside the tire is
balanced by the pressure outside the tire and the strength of
the tire walls. If too much air is forced in and the pressure
inside becomes too great, the tire will burst. If a pressure gage
is connected to the tire after the pump has been disconnected,
it registers the pressure inside the tire. The air in the tire
remains under pressure, pressing against the inner surface of
the tire in an effort to get out.
PROPERTIES OF SUBSTANCES
PRESSURE

Figure 3-9 Tire Pump

PROPERTIES OF SUBSTANCES
PRESSURE

Figure 3-10 Hydraulic Elevator

PROPERTIES OF SUBSTANCES
PRESSURE

Figure 3-11 Steam Pressure

 PROPERTIES OF SUBSTANCES
PRESSURE

When pressing the up button in a hydraulic

elevator, a pump mechanically displaces some
hydraulic fluid from the reservoir into the system
as shown in Figure 3-10. The hydraulic fluid
thereby exerts a pressure on the underside of
the elevator piston and the piston is pushed
upward.
 PROPERTIES OF SUBSTANCES
PRESSURE
The third way to create a pressure is by heating. When most
substances are heated, they expand. If they are confined when
they are heated so that they cannot expand, they create a
pressure. Heating water to form steam in a closed container is a
good example of creating a pressure by heating. In Figure 3-11,
the pressure gage attached to the container will indicate
increasing pressure as the container heats and steam is formed. If
sufficient heat is applied, the container may rupture or explode
due to high steam pressure. The creation of pressure by heating
water and converting it to steam is particularly important in the
operation of power plants and will be discussed in more detail
later in this section. Gases, such as air, also increase in pressure if
heated in a closed container. This is why we are warned never to
throw aerosol cans into a fire. The increase in temperature inside
the can causes the pressure to increase until the can is not strong
enough to contain it. The rapid bursting of the can results in noise
and forces similar to an explosion.
 PROPERTIES OF SUBSTANCES
THE UNITS OF PRESSURE
Pressure can be measured in several different units. The designation psi
(Nsm) is abbreviation for pressure in pounds per square inch (newtons per
square meter). The designation psig (Nsmg) is the abbreviation for pounds
per square inch gage (newtons per square meter gage), where gage refers
to the indication of a standard pressure gage. For example, a gage
attached to an automobile tire may indicate a pressure of 24 pounds per
square inch (0.1655 newtons per square millimeter). This is 24 pounds per
square inch gage, written 24 psig (0.1655 newtons per square millimeter).
This is 24 pounds per square inch gage written 24 psig (0.1655 Nsmg).
This is a term used when it is necessary to measure pressure relative to
atmospheric pressure. When the pressure of air in an automobile tire is 24
psig (0.1655 Nsmmg), the pressure inside the tire is 24 pounds per square
inch (0.1655 newtons per square millimeter) more than it is outside the tire.
If atmospheric pressure is considered, which is about 14.7 psi (0.1013
Nsmm), the total or absolute pressure of the air in the tire is 38.7 pounds
per square inch absolute (0.2668 newtons per square millimeter absolute),
which is written 38.7 psia (0.2668 Nsmma).
 PROPERTIES OF SUBSTANCES
THE UNITS OF PRESSURE
In a power plant, almost all of the pressure measurements are measured in
pounds per square inch gage (newtons per square centimeter gage). In
other words, atmospheric pressure is not included. In very accurate
measurements such as required in test work, the atmospheric pressure must
be taken into account. Atmospheric pressure is measured with an instrument
called a barometer. The reading on the barometer in psi (Nscm) is then
added to the pressure gage reading in psig (Nscmg) is then added to the
pressure gage reading in psig (Nscmg) to convert the total pressure in psia
(Nscma). Table 3-3 shows the relationship between psig and psia, as well
as some other scales which you may see in your work. In addition to psig
and psia, pressure can also be measured in inches (centimeters) of mercury,
written “Hg (cmHg), since Hg is the chemical symbol for mercury, or inches
(centimeters) of water, written “H2O (cmH2O)”. In each case, these units
refer to the pressure at the bottom of a column of mercury or water. For
example, a column of mercury 30 inches (76.2 cm) high causes a pressure
of about 14.7 psi (10.13 Nscm) at the bottom. This pressure is due to the
weight of the mercury in the column. Table 3-3 gives the relations between
pressure expressed in units or psig or psia and pressure expressed in units
of “Hg” or “H2O”.
 PROPERTIES OF SUBSTANCES
THE UNITS OF PRESSURE
Vacuum is a term referring to pressures less than
atmospheric pressure. For example, a vacuum is created
when we drink water through a straw. In Figure 3-12,
suction at the top of the straw removes air and thereby
reduces the pressure at the point. The atmospheric
pressure on the surface of the water in the glass pushes
the water up the straw. It is the difference between the
atmospheric pressure and the pressure caused by our
mouth suction that causes the liquid to flow up the straw.
PROPERTIES OF SUBSTANCES
THE UNITS OF PRESSURE

Figure 3-12
USING A VACUUM TO TAKE A DRINK
 PROPERTIES OF SUBSTANCES
THE UNITS OF PRESSURE
Of course, there are ways of causing a vacuum. Suppose
a vacuum pump has pulled out one-half of the air
normally present in a steel tank. As a result, air pressure
within the tank drops to 7.35 psia (5.06 newtons per
square centimeter absolute). If the vacuum pump
continues to operate, more and more of the air in the
tank will be removed. The pressure will continue to
decrease until it becomes almost 0 psia (Nscma). A
prefect vacuum would be 0 psia (Nscma). If a valve is
opened so that outside air can enter the tank, air pushes
in until the tank is again full of air. Air is forced into the
tank because the atmospheric pressure is greater than
the air pressure inside the tank.
PROPERTIES OF SUBSTANCES
THE UNITS OF PRESSURE

*Assuming a 30” Barometer Reading

Table 3-3 Comparison of Pressure Units and Terms
 PROPERTIES OF SUBSTANCES
THE UNITS OF PRESSURE
Unless a tank is designed to operate with reduced
internal pressure, it can be seriously damaged by
creating a vacuum inside. This is the reason that
draining or pumping water from an unvented tank
can cause the tank to collapse.

Vacuum is normally expressed in units of Hg, but as

can be seen by looking carefully at Table 3-3, the
vacuum gets larger as the pressure drops from
atmospheric pressure to 0 psia (Nscma). Thus, 0” Hg
(0 cm Hg) vacuum actually represents atmospheric
pressure, and about 30” Hg (76.2 cm Hg) vacuum
represents a perfect vacuum.
 PROPERTIES OF SUBSTANCES
THE UNITS OF PRESSURE
In a steam power plant, to obtain efficient operation, a
vacuum must be constantly maintained in the condenser. This
vacuum is destroyed if there are any air leaks through which
outside air at atmospheric pressure can enter the condenser.
Also, any gases mixed with steam entering the condenser will
decrease the vacuum. Such gases can cause another serious
problem. These gases surround the cooling tubes preventing
the efficient transfer of heat from the steam to the circulating
water. Back pressure is a special term commonly used in power
plants when referring to the vacuum within the condenser. Back
pressure is the absolute pressure at the point where the steam
leaves the turbine to enter the condenser. In other words, back
pressure is the absolute pressure in the condenser is perfect,
meaning no air and no gases, the back pressure is 0 psia
(Nsma).
 PROPERTIES OF SUBSTANCES
THE UNITS OF PRESSURE
Pressure measured across two different
points in a system are called differential
pressures. They are measured based on
their difference rather than any relationship
to atmospheric pressure. Most flow
measuring devices actually measure
differential pressure and convert that
reading to units of flow. The symbol
normally used for differential pressure is P,
stated “delta P.”
 PROPERTIES OF SUBSTANCES
HOW IS PRESSURE MEASURED?
As a starting point in the explanation of
how pressure is measured, Figure 3-13
shows a device used to measure the air
pressure produced by our lungs. The height
of the column of water changes with the
change of air pressure in the bottle. The
tube is calibrated by marking one-inch
(one-centimeter) intervals on it. The height
of water in the tube can be varied by
blowing into the top of the bottle.
PROPERTIES OF SUBSTANCES
HOW IS PRESSURE MEASURED?

MEASURING LUNG PRESSURE

Figure 3-13
 PROPERTIES OF SUBSTANCES
HOW IS PRESSURE MEASURED?
A manometer is a more sophisticated instrument
for measuring pressures. To understand how it
operates, look at the simple U tube in Figure 3-
14. It is open at both ends to the atmosphere.
When it is filled with a liquid such as mercury,
the height of mercury in each leg is the same. If
air pressure is applied at one end of manometer,
the mercury is forced toward the other end as
shown in Figure 3-14. The difference in the
heights of the two columns, shown as H in Figure
3-14, is a measure of the pressure applied.
 PROPERTIES OF SUBSTANCES
HOW IS PRESSURE MEASURED?
The greater the air pressure, the larger H. a
height of one inch of mercury represents a
pressure of 0.491 psi (0.3385 Nscm). Similarly,
a height of five inches (12.7 centimeters)
represents five times 0.491 psi (0.3385 Nscm) or
2.455 psi (1.6925 Nscm) pressure. When
mercury is used, the measurements are obtained
in terms of inches (centimeters) of mercury or “Hg
(cm Hg). Because mercury is 13.6 times as heavy
as water, the height of a mercury column is much
less than the height of a water column that
measures the same pressure.
 PROPERTIES OF SUBSTANCES
HOW IS PRESSURE MEASURED?
A reading in “H2O (cm H2O) can be
converted to “Hg (cm Hg) by dividing the
number of inches (centimeters) of water by
13.6. Similarly, a reading in “Hg (cm Hg)
can be converted to “H2O (cm H2O) by
multiplying by 13.6. for example,
13.6”H2O (34.54 cm H2O) is the same
pressure as 1”Hg (2.54 cm Hg). 4” Hg
(10.16 cm Hg) is the same pressure as
54.5” H2O (138.18 cm H2O).
PROPERTIES OF SUBSTANCES
HOW IS PRESSURE MEASURED?

MANOMETERS
Figure 3-14
 PROPERTIES OF SUBSTANCES
HOW IS PRESSURE MEASURED?

As indicated by Table 3-3, it is easy to

convert between different systems of
measuring pressure. Figure 3-15 shows a
pressure gage and two manometers
subjected to the same pressure. Each
measurement has different numbers and
different units, but they all represent the
same force per unit area.
 PROPERTIES OF SUBSTANCES
HOW IS PRESSURE MEASURED?

Both “H2O and “Hg can be converted to psia

and psig, and vice versa. 1” Hg (2.54 cm Hg) is
equal to 0.491 psi (0.3385 Nscm), or 1 psi (0.69
Nscm) is equal to 2.039” Hg (5.179 cm Hg) or
27.74” H2O (70.46 cm H2O). a pressure of 10”
Hg (25.4 cm Hg) is equivalent to 4.91 psi (3.385
Nscm). What psi (Nscm) corresponds to 5” H2O
(12.7 cm H2O)? The conversion is performed by
dividing 5” H2O (12.7 cm H2O) by 13.6 and
then multiplying by 0.491 (0.1333). the result is
about 0.18 psi (0.124 Nscm).
 PROPERTIES OF SUBSTANCES
HOW IS PRESSURE MEASURED?
A Bourdon tube gage is one of the most commonly used
instruments in a power plant. The face or dial of a
Bourdon tube gage can be marked to indicate pressure
in psi (Nscm), “Hg (cm Hg), or “H2O (cm H2O). Pressures
of liquids such as water and oil are generally measured
by Bourdon tube gages in terms of psig (Nscmg). Steam
pressure measurements are also made with Bourdon
tubes calibrated in psig (Nscmg). Some Bourdon tubes
are designed to indicate both pressure and vacuum.
Figure 3-16 shows the faces of several Bourdon tub
gages. A detailed description of how this type of gage
operates will be given later.
PROPERTIES OF SUBSTANCES
HOW IS PRESSURE MEASURED?

EQUIVALENT PRESSURE UNITS

Figure 3-15
 PROPERTIES OF SUBSTANCES
HOW IS PRESSURE MEASURED?
When high accuracy is desired, vacuum is
measured with a mercury filled manometer.
Figure 3-17 shows how the reading of a
manometer differs when measuring vacuum
instead of pressure. The vacuum readings occur
in the opposite leg of the manometer when
compared with the pressure readings.
 PROPERTIES OF SUBSTANCES
HOW IS PRESSURE MEASURED?
The pressure produced by a large water pump such as a feed
pump is sometimes referred to as head. This unit is quite easy to
understand. It represents the height of a column of water that the
pump output pressure will support if a tube is installed in the
discharge of a pump, the water will rise in this tube to a height
directly proportional to the head produced by the pump. The
diameter of the tube has no effect on how high the column will
ride. In the case of a feed pump with a discharge head of 1000
psi (689.4 Nscm), the water would rise to a height of 2310 feet
(704 meters), almost half a mile. Another example common to
power plants is a pump discharging into an elevated tank.
Suppose the pump discharge connects to the bottom of the tank,
as shown in Figure 3-18. The discharge head of the pump,
measured in feet, is equal to the height of the water level in the
tank above the center line of the pump. This distance is shown as
H in Figure 3-18.
PROPERTIES OF SUBSTANCES
HOW IS PRESSURE MEASURED?

BOURDON TUBE GAGES

Figure 3-16
PROPERTIES OF SUBSTANCES
HOW IS PRESSURE MEASURED?

MANOMETERS SHOWING PRESSURE AND VACUUM

Figure 3-17
PROPERTIES OF SUBSTANCES
HOW IS PRESSURE MEASURED?

PUMP HEAD
Figure 3-18
 PROPERTIES OF SUBSTANCES
MEASUREMENT OF “DRAFT”

The word “draft” as we use it in power plants

refers to pressure below atmospheric pressure. It
is most often used in connection with furnaces
where combustion takes place at pressures less
than atmospheric. This type of furnace is called
a balanced draft furnace.

Natural Draft – A “draft” is a force that can

cause air (gases) to be set in motion. Chimney
draft is an example of this force. This is an
example of natural draft. (See Figure 3-19)
PROPERTIES OF SUBSTANCES
MEASUREMENT OF “DRAFT”

NATURAL DRAFT
Figure 3-19
 PROPERTIES OF SUBSTANCES
MEASUREMENT OF “DRAFT”
The heated air in the chimney weighs less per cubic
foot of volume than the cooler air outside of the
chimney. The column of heated air in the chimney
exerts less downward pressure (because of its
lighter weight) than the surrounding cooler air. This
difference in pressure forces the heated air mass up
the chimney. This difference in air pressure can be
measured with a manometer. The pressure of the
gases inside the chimney is less than the air pressure
outside, and so is a vacuum. Normally, however, we
don’t refer to it as a vacuum. We refer to it as a
“negative pressure” or as a “draft.” (See Figure 3-
20)
PROPERTIES OF SUBSTANCES
MEASUREMENT OF “DRAFT”

CHIMNEY DRAFT
Figure 3-20
 PROPERTIES OF SUBSTANCES
MEASUREMENT OF “DRAFT”
Forced and Induced Draft – The natural draft of
a chimney is not sufficient to move the
tremendous amounts of air needed in modern
plants. Fans and blowers are used to move air in
and out of the furnace and boiler enclosures.

Pressure or draft measurements are continuously

made to insure proper operation. In Figure 3-21
a manometer is connected to a cold furnace and
boiler enclosure. Because the inside and outside
pressures are equal, the liquid in the legs of the
manometer is at the same level.
PROPERTIES OF SUBSTANCES
MEASUREMENT OF “DRAFT”

COLD FURNACE
Figure 3-21
 PROPERTIES OF SUBSTANCES
MEASUREMENT OF “DRAFT”
Starting up an induced draft fan, the
pressure in the enclosure becomes less
than atmospheric. We may get a
reading of 2 inches (5.08 centimeters)
of water draft. This would be a

negative pressure. (See Figure 3-22)
PROPERTIES OF SUBSTANCES
MEASUREMENT OF “DRAFT”

NEGATIVE PRESSURE FURNACE

Figure 3-22
 PROPERTIES OF SUBSTANCES
MEASUREMENT OF “DRAFT”
If we shut off the induced draft fan,
and start up the forced draft fan, the
pressure inside the enclosure would
become greater than atmospheric. The
enclosure would be under positive
pressure. (See Figure 3-23)
PROPERTIES OF SUBSTANCES
MEASUREMENT OF “DRAFT”

POSITIVE PRESSURE FURNACE

Figure 3-23
 PROPERTIES OF SUBSTANCES
MEASUREMENT OF LIQUID PRESSURES
Pressure of liquids such as water and oil is generally measured
by Bourdon tube gages in terms of pounds per square inch
(newtons per square centimeter) or psi (N/cm2).

Head in Feet – The pressure produced by a boiler feed pump is

sometimes referred to as head in feet. This unit is quite easy to
understand. It represents the height of a column of water that the
pressure will support. Or let’s assume that a tube is installed in
the discharge of a pump, the water will rise in this tube to a
height equal to the head produced. The diameter of the tube
has no effect on this figure. Due to water being a relatively
incompressible liquid, the weight per unit of volume is practically
the same at the top as it is at the bottom, thus the pressure is
directly proportional to the distance below the top. In the case
of a 1500 pounds per square inch (1035 newtons per square
centimeter) boiler feed pressure, the water would rise to 3465
feet (1056 meters), almost two-thirds of a mile.
 PROPERTIES OF SUBSTANCES
MEASUREMENT OF LIQUID PRESSURES
Another example common to power plants
is a pump discharging into an elevated
tank. If the pump discharge connects to the
bottom of the tank as is shown in Figure 3-
24 below, the head in feet of the pump
discharge is equal to the height the water
in the tank is above the center line of the
pump.
 PROPERTIES OF SUBSTANCES
MEASUREMENT OF LIQUID PRESSURES

PUMP HEAD
Figure 3-24
 PROPERTIES OF SUBSTANCES
WHAT CAUSES FLOW?
Water, steam, and air are all fluids involved in the production of steam
power. For proper and efficient operation of equipment, it is necessary to
measure each of these fluids. Fluid quantities may be expressed in units of
weight or volume.

The term flow, or flow rate, refers to the movement of a specific quantity of a
gas or liquid within a specific time period. Steam flow is measured in terms of
pounds (kilograms) of steam per hour, often written lb/hr (kg/hr). Water flow
may be expressed as either pounds (kilograms) per hour or gallons (liters) per
minute, written gpm (lpm). Water in the steam cycle, such as condensate,
boiler feed, or make-up water, is normally expressed in lb/hr (kg/hr). Water
used for cooling and other miscellaneous purposes is generally measured in
terms of gpm (lpm). Water and oil pump ratings are normally expressed as
gallons per minute (lpm). Gas or air flow is normally measured in pounds per
hour (lb/hr) (kg/hr). Fan and air compressor ratings are usually in terms of
CFM (cubic feet per minute) (cubic meters per minute, CMM) of room air at
average room pressure and temperature.
 PROPERTIES OF SUBSTANCES
WHAT CAUSES FLOW?
Unbalanced pressure can make a fluid move or flow from a
point of high pressure to a point of low pressure. In watering our
lawns, we have learned that the pressure. In watering out lawns,
we have learned that the pressure of the water supply has an
effect on the flow of water. During summer dry spells, for
example, when the water main pressure drops, the water barely
spurts from the nozzle. Also, causing a fluid to flow means
overcoming friction or resistance to flow. A garden hose offers
resistance to the flow of water due to the roughness of the
interior of the hose. You may have discovered that noticeably
less water flows form the nozzle when you use a longer length of
hose. Similarly, you probable have found that a ¾ inch (1.9 cm)
diameter hose delivers more water than a ½ inch (1.27 cm)
diameter hose of the same length and at the same water main
pressure. This is because this smaller diameter hose offers more
rough surface for the same volume of flow.
 PROPERTIES OF SUBSTANCES
WHAT CAUSES FLOW?
In a steam plant, moving fluids such as water, steam, or air from
one point to another is an important task. Just as in the case of
the garden hose, friction or resistance to flow has to be
overcome. This resistance is always present.

Several factors determine how much resistance there is to the

flow of fluids. These include the resistance caused by the fluid
rubbing against the interior surfaces of piping and that caused
by changes in direction of flow, or obstructions such as valves
which may have a smaller diameter than the pipe. In power
plants, pressure is needed to maintain the flow of fluids. These
machines develop the necessary pressure to overcome the
resistance to flow. Pumps are used to move liquids.
PROPERTIES OF SUBSTANCES
WHAT CAUSES FLOW?

PRESSURE DROP IN A RESERVOIR SYSTEM

Figure 3-25
 PROPERTIES OF SUBSTANCES
WHAT CAUSES FLOW?
Because pressure is needed to overcome friction or
resistance, there is a drop in the pressure of a fluid in a
pipe as the fluid flows along the length of the pipe.
This pressure drop occurs only when there is fluid flow,
not when the fluid is simply standing in the pipe. This is
illustrated in Figure 3-25 by a reservoir and a series of
stand pipes. When the valve is shut tight, the resistance
of the main pipe to the flow of water has no effect on
the water pressure in the main pipe, as indicated by the
levels in the stand pipes. Line A represents this
condition. The level of water in the columns is exactly
equal to the level in the reservoir.
 PROPERTIES OF SUBSTANCES
WHAT CAUSES FLOW?
If the valve is slightly opened, the resistance of the main
pipe to the flow of water causes the water pressure to
drop. Line B represents the different pressures that will be
established in the stand pipes. The height of the water in
the right- hand stand pipe is a measure of the pressure
head available at the valve. When the valve is fully open,
line C represents the different pressures that will be
established in the stand pipes. The water level in the
reservoir remains constant because of the water supple and
overflow arrangement. This assures a constant pressure of
water at the reservoir. Yet as the flow becomes more rapid
when the valve is opened, there is a greater loss of
pressure due to friction. This loss in pressure is commonly
called pressure drop and head loss.
 PROPERTIES OF SUBSTANCES
WHAT CAUSES FLOW?
In the above example, the supply pressure was
held constant. If a cump is used in place of te
tank to increase the supple pressure as shown in
Figure 3-26, another fact can be noted. With
the valve wide open, line D represents a greater
pressure drop between the pump discharge and
the valve outlet than line E and the flow through
the valve will also be greater. Thus, the greater
the pressure drop, the greater the flow. The
increase in flow also results in a greater total
loss of pressure due to friction, a greater head
loss.
PROPERTIES OF SUBSTANCES
WHAT CAUSES FLOW?

PRESSURE IN A PUMP SYSTEM

Figure 3-26
 PROPERTIES OF SUBSTANCES
HOW IS FLOW MEASURED?
There are three common ways of measuring fluid flow
in a pipe: (1) by measuring the pressure drop (head
loss) across a certain length of pipe; (2) by measuring
the pressure drop on either side of an orifice plate or
nozzle; and (3) by measuring the pressure drop across
a ventury tube. All three ways are based on the basic
principle that the amount of fluid flow can be directly
related to the pressure drop. For example, a pressure
drop of 50 psi (34.5 Nscm) across a pipe of a certain
length or an orifice plate or a venturi tube corresponds
to a flow of 100 gpm (378.5 lpm).
 PROPERTIES OF SUBSTANCES
HOW IS FLOW MEASURED?
Orifice Plate – A fixed length of pipe is seldom used
for actual flow measurements. Normally an orifice
plate or venturi tube is used because they cause larger
pressure drops which are easier to measure. A typical
orifice plate or nozzle used to measure pressure drop
is shown in Figure 3-27.
By calculations, the pressure drop can be used to
indicate flow in lb/hr (kg/hr) or CFM (Cmm). For
example, a 20 pso (13.8 Nscm) pressure drop across a
0.2 in. (/508 cm) sharp-edged orifice corresponds to
about 1600 lb/hr (725.7 kg/hr). pr 0.007 cu. Ft per
second. This type of detector is usually used to measure
steam flow and is relatively inexpensive and simple in
principle.
 PROPERTIES OF SUBSTANCES
HOW IS FLOW MEASURED?
Venturi Tube – Figure 3-28 illustrates how a venturi tube can
be used to measure flow. It constricts or narrows the area
can be used to measure flow. It constricts or narrows the
area through which the fluid passes. The fluid measured can
be any liquid or any gas. Exactly how a venturi tube
operates is difficult to explain. Its operation is based on the
fact that where the velocity of a fluid is high, the pressure is
low, and where the velocity of a fluid is low, the pressure is
high. Most of us know from our experience what happens
when fluid flow is constricted. You may have seen a river
that runs slowly in open country. The same river passing
through a narrow gorge flows much more rapidly. Beyond
the gorge, it resumes its former slower speed.
 PROPERTIES OF SUBSTANCES
HOW IS FLOW MEASURED?
When the valve in Figure 3-22 is closed, line A
represents the water level in all the stand pipes.
When the valve is fully opened, the shaded
portions in the tubes show the water levels that
result. The pressure drops at the venturi tube
and increases after leaving the tube. In this
apparatus, it is possible to calibrate the pressure
drop at the venturi so that the flow rate of the
liquid can be determined directly. In actual
practice, a manometer or a device which
measures differential pressure is used in place
of the stand pipes.
PROPERTIES OF SUBSTANCES
HOW IS FLOW MEASURED?

FLOW MEASUREMENT USING AN ORIFICE PLATE

Figure 3-27
PROPERTIES OF SUBSTANCES
HOW IS FLOW MEASURED?

FLOW MEASUREMENT USING A VENTURI TUBE

Figure 3-28
 PROPERTIES OF SUBSTANCES
MEASUREMENT OF AIR FLOW (DIFFERENTIAL AIR PRESSURE)

At home, we can tell if the air fan in our furnace

is working by putting our hand near the register.
Similarly, you can check the operation of your
air conditioner by feeling the air flow from the
unit.

You can’t use such simple methods in checking air

flow through machinery, such as coal pulverizer.
Yet for proper operation of the pulverizer you
need to know if the air flow carrying the air-
coal mixture into the furnace is correct.
 PROPERTIES OF SUBSTANCES
MEASUREMENT OF AIR FLOW (DIFFERENTIAL AIR PRESSURE)

If you ask an experienced operator, he will tell

you that he checked the air flow through
machinery such as pulverizer by watching the
“air pressure differential.”

Simply stated, air pressure differential is the

difference in the air pressures between the inlet
and outlet of the air flow path. The diagram in
Figure 3-29 illustrates air flow through a device
such as coal pulverizer.
 PROPERTIES OF SUBSTANCES
MEASUREMENT OF AIR FLOW (DIFFERENTIAL AIR PRESSURE)

FLOW DIFFERENTIAL ACROSS EQUIPMENT

Fig. 3-29
 PROPERTIES OF SUBSTANCES
MEASUREMENT OF AIR FLOW (DIFFERENTIAL AIR PRESSURE)

The differential air pressure in the

example above is 2” (5.08 cm) of water. It
is the difference between 5” (12.7 cm) and
3” (7.62 cm).

The differential pressure of 2” (5.08 cm)

could also be read directly on one scale by
connecting it across from the inlet to the
outlet as shown in Figure 3-30.
 PROPERTIES OF SUBSTANCES
MEASUREMENT OF AIR FLOW (DIFFERENTIAL AIR PRESSURE)

DIRECT READING
FLOW DIFFERENTIAL ACROSS EQUIPMENT
Fig. 3-30
 PROPERTIES OF SUBSTANCES
MEASUREMENT OF AIR FLOW (DIFFERENTIAL AIR PRESSURE)

In day-to-day operation, reading the air

pressures across a machine serves as an
indicator of air flow. Changes in the
readings show that the equipment is not
operating normally. For example, if a 2”
(5.08 cm) air pressure differential were
normal, and the difference dropped to
1/ “ (1.27 cm), the operator would know
2
that the flow of air had decreased.
 PROPERTIES OF SUBSTANCES
MEASUREMENT OF AIR FLOW (DIFFERENTIAL AIR PRESSURE)

This principle is used in measuring the air

and gas flow through a boiler. The boiler
air flow recording meter has a pressure
differential device (on some boilers) that
“sense” the pressure differential across a
section of the boiler. The section chosen for
this measurement is one that is usually
clean. Other boilers use venturi sections
located in the air ducts to the furnace to
produce the pressure differential for the
air flow meter.
 PROPERTIES OF SUBSTANCES
MEASUREMENT OF AIR FLOW (DIFFERENTIAL AIR PRESSURE)

Draft gages are installed on boilers to

indicate the pressure at various places in the
boiler. These gages are used to determine if
the boiler sections are becoming fouled or
plugged with ash. When the boiler is
operating with a certain air flow and the
boiler is clean, the gages will show a certain
pressure difference across each section.
When the boiler becomes fouled, operation
at the same air flow will cause a greater
pressure difference due to plugging.