PROCRAMIAC LAACUACE

(Redirected Irom Computer language)

A programming language is an artiIicial language designed to
communicate instructions to a machine, particularly a computer.
Programming languages can be used to create programs that control
the behavior oI a machine and/or to express algorithms precisely.
The earliest programming languages predate the invention oI the
computer, and were used to direct the behavior oI machines such as
Jacquard looms and player pianos. Thousands oI diIIerent
programming languages have been created, mainly in the computer Iield, with many more being
created every year. Most programming languages describe computation in an imperative style,
i.e., as a sequence oI commands, although some languages, such as those that support Iunctional
programming or logic programming, use alternative Iorms oI description.
A programming language is usually split into the two components oI syntax (Iorm) and
semantics (meaning). Some languages are deIined by a speciIication document (Ior example, the
C programming language is speciIied by an ISO Standard), while other languages, such as Perl 5
and earlier, have a dominant implementation that is used as a reIerence.
Contents
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O 1 DeIinitions
O 2 Elements
4 2.1 Syntax
4 2.2 Semantics
2.2.1 Static semantics
2.2.2 Dynamic semantics
2.2.3 Type system
4 2.3 Standard library and run-time system
O 3 Design and implementation
4 3.1 SpeciIication
4 3.2 Implementation
O 4 Usage
4 4.1 Measuring language usage
O 5 Taxonomies
O 6 History
4 6.1 Early developments
4 6.2 ReIinement
4 6.3 Consolidation and growth
O 7 See also
O 8 ReIerences
O 9 Further reading
!rogramming language
lists
O Alphabetical
O Categorical
O Chronological
O Generational
O 10 External links
A hlghlevel programmlng language ls a programmlng language wlLh sLrong absLracLlon from Lhe deLalls
of Lhe compuLer ln comparlson Lo lowlevel programmlng languages lL may use naLural language
elemenLs be easler Lo use or be from Lhe speclflcaLlon of Lhe program maklng Lhe process of
developlng a program slmpler and more undersLandable wlLh respecL Lo a lowlevel language 1he
amounL of absLracLlon provlded deflnes how hlghlevel a programmlng language ls1

1he flrsL hlghlevel programmlng language Lo be deslgned for a compuLer was lankalkul creaLed by
konrad Zuse Powever lL was noL lmplemenLed ln hls Llme and hls orlglnal conLrlbuLlons were lsolaLed
from oLher developmenLs
cOMPlLk
A compller ls a compuLer program (or seL of programs) LhaL Lransforms source code wrlLLen ln a
programmlng language (Lhe source language
Compller opLlmlzaLlon
Compller opLlmlzaLlon ls Lhe process of Lunlng Lhe ouLpuL of a compller Lo mlnlmlze or maxlmlze some
aLLrlbuLes of an execuLable compuLer

M4cnlN L4N6u46
Machlne code or machlne language ls a sysLem of lmparLlble lnsLrucLlons execuLed dlrecLly by a
compuLers cenLral processlng unlL Lach lnsLrucLlon performs a very speclflc Lask Lyplcally elLher an
operaLlon on a unlL of daLa (ln a reglsLer or ln memory eg add or move) or a [ump operaLlon (decldlng
whlch lnsLrucLlon execuLes nexL ofLen condlLlonal on Lhe resulLs of a prevlous lnsLrucLlon) Lvery
execuLable program ls made up of a serles of Lhese aLomlc lnsLrucLlons Machlne code may be regarded
as a prlmlLlve (and cumbersome) programmlng language or as Lhe lowesLlevel represenLaLlon of a
complled and/or assembled compuLer program Whlle lL ls posslble Lo wrlLe programs ln machlne code
because of Lhe Ledlous dlfflculLy ln managlng Cu resources lL ls rarely done any more excepL for
slLuaLlons LhaL requlre Lhe mosL exLreme opLlmlzaLlon

AlmosL all execuLable programs are wrlLLen ln hlgher level languages and LranslaLed Lo execuLable
machlne code by a compller and llnker Machlne code ls someLlmes called naLlve code when referrlng Lo
plaLformdependenL parLs of language feaLures or llbrarles1

rograms ln lnLerpreLed languages2 are noL represenLed by machlne code however Lhelr lnLerpreLer
(whlch may be seen as a processor execuLlng Lhe hlgher level program) ofLen ls Machlne code should
noL be confused wlLh so called byLecode whlch ls execuLed by an lnLerpreLer
ConLenLs
hlde

1 Machlne code lnsLrucLlons
2 rograms
3 Assembly languages
4 Lxample
3 8elaLlonshlp Lo mlcrocode
6 SLorlng ln memory
7 8eadablllLy by humans
8 See also
9 lurLher readlng


Mochine code

Lvery processor or processor famlly has lLs own machlne code lnsLrucLlon seL lnsLrucLlons are paLLerns
of blLs LhaL by physlcal deslgn correspond Lo dlfferenL commands Lo Lhe machlne 1he lnsLrucLlon seL ls
Lhus speclflc Lo a class of processors uslng (much) Lhe same archlLecLure Successor or derlvaLlve
processor deslgns ofLen lnclude all Lhe lnsLrucLlons of a predecessor and may add addlLlonal
lnsLrucLlons Cccaslonally a successor deslgn wlll dlsconLlnue or alLer Lhe meanlng of some lnsLrucLlon
code (Lyplcally because lL ls needed for new purposes) affecLlng code compaLlblllLy Lo some exLenL
even nearly compleLely compaLlble processors may show sllghLly dlfferenL behavlor for some
lnsLrucLlons buL Lhls ls seldom a problem SysLems may also dlffer ln oLher deLalls such as memory
arrangemenL operaLlng sysLems or perlpheral devlces because a program normally relles on such facL
lN1kPk41k
ln compuLer sclence an lnLerpreLer normally means a compuLer program LhaL execuLes le performs
lnsLrucLlons wrlLLen ln a programmlng language An lnLerpreLer may be a program LhaL elLher

execuLes Lhe source code dlrecLly
LranslaLes source code lnLo some efflclenL lnLermedlaLe represenLaLlon (code) and lmmedlaLely
execuLes Lhls
expllclLly execuLes sLored precomplled code1 made by a compller whlch ls parL of Lhe lnLerpreLer
sysLem

Larly verslons of Lhe Llsp programmlng language and uarLmouLh 8ASlC would be examples of Lype 1
erl yLhon MA1LA8 and 8uby are examples of Lype 2 whlle uCSu ascal ls Lype 3 Source programs
are complled ahead of Llme and sLored as machlne lndependenL code whlch ls Lhen llnked aL runLlme
and execuLed by an lnLerpreLer and/or compller (for !l1 sysLems) Some sysLems such as SmallLalk
conLemporary verslons of 8ASlC !ava and oLhers may also comblne 2 and 3

Whlle lnLerpreLlng and complllng are Lhe Lwo maln means by whlch programmlng languages are
lmplemenLed Lhese are noL fully muLually excluslve caLegorles one of Lhe reasons belng LhaL mosL
lnLerpreLlng sysLems also perform some LranslaLlon work [usL llke compllers 1he Lerms lnLerpreLed
language or complled language merely mean LhaL Lhe canonlcal lmplemenLaLlon of LhaL language ls
an lnLerpreLer or a compller a hlgh level language ls baslcally an absLracLlon whlch ls (ldeally)
lndependenL of parLlcular lmp
4PPLlc41lON 5Ol1w4k
AppllcaLlon sofLware also known as an appllcaLlon or an app ls compuLer sofLware deslgned Lo help
Lhe user Lo perform speclflc Lasks Lxamples lnclude enLerprlse sofLware accounLlng sofLware offlce
sulLes graphlcs sofLware and medla players Many appllcaLlon programs deal prlnclpally wlLh
documenLs Apps may be bundled wlLh Lhe compuLer and lLs sysLem sofLware or may be publlshed
separaLely Some users are saLlsfled wlLh Lhe bundled apps and need never lnsLall one

AppllcaLlon sofLware ls conLrasLed wlLh sysLem sofLware and mlddleware whlch manage and lnLegraLe a
compuLers capablllLles buL Lyplcally do noL dlrecLly apply Lhem ln Lhe performance of Lasks LhaL beneflL
Lhe user 1he sysLem sofLware serves Lhe appllcaLlon whlch ln Lurn serves Lhe user

Slmllar relaLlonshlps apply ln oLher flelds lor example a shopplng mall does noL provlde Lhe
merchandlse a shopper ls seeklng buL provldes space and servlces for reLallers LhaL serve Lhe shopper
8all Lracks slmllarly supporL Lralns allowlng Lhe Lralns Lo LransporL passengers

AppllcaLlon sofLware applles Lhe power of a parLlcular compuLlng plaLform or sysLem sofLware Lo a
parLlcular purpose Some apps such as MlcrosofL Cfflce are avallable ln verslons for several dlfferenL
plaLforms oLhers have narrower requlremenLs and are Lhus called for example a Ceography
appllcaLlon for Wlndows or an Androld appllcaLlon for educaLlon or Llnux gamlng SomeLlmes a new and
popular appllcaLlon arlses whlch only runs on one plaLform lncreaslng Lhe deslrablllLy of LhaL plaLform
1hls ls called a klller appllcaLlon
ConLenLs
hlde

1 1ermlnology
2 AppllcaLlon sofLware classlflcaLlon
3 lnformaLlon worker sofLware
31 ConLenL access sofLware
32 LnLerLalnmenL sofLware
33 LducaLlonal sofLware
34 LnLerprlse lnfrasLrucLure sofLware
33 SlmulaLlon sofLware
36 Medla developmenL sofLware
37 roducL englneerlng sofLware
4 See also
3 8eferences
6 LxLernal llnksA
5lkAu5n1
spreadsheeL ls a compuLer appllcaLlon LhaL slmulaLes a paper accounLlng worksheeL lL dlsplays mulLlple
cells usually ln a Lwodlmenslonal maLrlx or grld conslsLlng of rows and columns Lach cell conLalns
alphanumerlc LexL numerlc values or formulas A formula deflnes how Lhe conLenL of LhaL cell ls Lo be
calculaLed from Lhe conLenLs of any oLher cell (or comblnaLlon of cells) each Llme any cell ls updaLed
SpreadsheeLs are frequenLly used for flnanclal lnformaLlon because of Lhelr ablllLy Lo recalculaLe Lhe
enLlre sheeL auLomaLlcally afLer a change Lo a slngle cell ls made A pseudo Lhlrd dlmenslon Lo Lhe maLrlx
ls someLlmes applled as anoLher layer or layers/sheeLs of Lwodlmenslonal daLa

vlslcalc ls Lhe flrsL elecLronlc spreadsheeL on a mlcrocompuLer and lL helped Lurn Lhe Apple ll compuLer
lnLo a success and greaLly asslsLed ln Lhelr wldespread appllcaLlon LoLus 123 was Lhe leadlng
spreadsheeL when uCS was Lhe domlnanL operaLlng sysLem Lxcel now has Lhe largesL markeL share on
Lhe Wlndows and MaclnLosh plaLforms123
MlcrosofL Lxcel spreadsheeLL
commoolcotloo softwote
lrom Wlklpedla Lhe free encyclopedla
1hls arLlcle needs addlLlonal clLaLlons for verlflcaLlon lease help lmprove Lhls arLlcle by addlng
clLaLlons Lo rellable sources unsourced maLerlal may be challenged and removed (november 2009)

CommunlcaLlon sofLware ls used Lo provlde remoLe access Lo sysLems and exchange flles and messages
ln LexL audlo and/or vldeo formaLs beLween dlfferenL compuLers or user lus 1hls lncludes Lermlnal
emulaLors flle Lransfer programs chaL and lnsLanL messaglng programs as well as slmllar funcLlonallLy
lnLegraLe
otobose

(8edlrecLed from uaLa base)

A daLabase ls an organlzed collecLlon of relaLed daLa for one or more purposes usually ln dlglLal form
runnlng fasL 1he daLa are Lyplcally organlzed Lo model relevanL aspecLs of reallLy (for example Lhe
avallablllLy of rooms ln hoLels) ln a way LhaL supporLs processes requlrlng Lhls lnformaLlon (for example
flndlng a hoLel wlLh vacancles) 1he Lerm daLabase refers boLh Lo Lhe way lLs users vlew lL and Lo Lhe
loglcal and physlcal maLerlallzaLlon of lLs daLa conLenL ln flles compuLer memory and compuLer daLa
sLorage 1hls deflnlLlon ls very general and ls lndependenL of Lhe Lechnology used Powever noL every
collecLlon of daLa ls a daLabase Lhe Lerm daLabase lmplles LhaL Lhe daLa ls managed Lo some level of
quallLy (measured ln Lerms of accuracy avallablllLy usablllLy and reslllence) and Lhls ln Lurn ofLen
lmplles Lhe use of a generalpurpose uaLabase managemenL sysLem (u8MS) A generalpurpose u8MS ls
Lyplcally a complex sofLware sysLem LhaL meeLs many usage requlremenLs and Lhe daLabases LhaL lL
malnLalns are ofLen large and complex 1he uLlllzaLlon of daLabases ls now spread Lo such a wlde degree
LhaL vlrLually every Lechnology and producL relles on daLabases and u8MSs for lLs developmenL and
commerclallzaLlon or even may have such embedded ln lL Also organlzaLlons and companles from
small Lo large heavlly depend on daLabases for Lhelr operaLlonsd wlLhln Muus