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 IT8602-MOBILE
COMMUNICATION
UNIT I
Department : Information Technology

Batch/Year : 2019 - 2023/III

Created by : Dr. S .A. Angayarkanni

Date : 02.05.2022
 Table of Contents

S
CONTENTS PAGE NO
NO

1 Contents 5

2 Course Objectives 6
8
3 Pre Requisites (Course Names with Code)

4 Syllabus (With Subject Code, Name, LTPC details) 10

5 Course Outcomes 12

6 CO- PO/PSO Mapping 14

7 Lecture Plan 16

8 Activity Based Learning 18

9 Lecture Notes 20

Lecture Slides 78

Lecture Videos 80

10 Assignments 82

11 Part A (Q & A) 84

12 Part B Qs 91

13 Supportive Online Certification Courses 93

Real time Applications in day to day life and to 95

14
Industry
97
15 Contents Beyond the Syllabus
99
16 Assessment Schedule
101
17 Prescribed Text Books & Reference Books

18 Mini Project Suggestions 103

Course Objectives
 IT 8602 MOBILE COMMUNICATION

COURSE OBJECTIVES
Understand the basic concepts of mobile computing
Understand Wireless LAN, Bluetooth and WiFi Technologies
Be familiar with the network protocol stack
Learn the basics of mobile telecommunication system
Be exposed to Ad-Hoc networks
Prerequisite
 IT 8602 MOBILE COMMUNICATION

PREREQUISITE
CS 8591 Computer Networks
Syllabus
 IT 8602 MOBILE COMMUNICATION

SYLLABUS 3003

UNIT I INTRODUCTION 9

Introduction to Mobile Computing – Applications of Mobile

Computing- Generations of Mobile Communication Technologies-
MAC Protocols – SDMA- TDMA- FDMA- CDMA.

UNIT II MOBILE TELECOMMUNICATION SYSTEM 9

GSM – Architecture – Protocols – Connection Establishment –
Frequency Allocation – Routing – Mobility Management – Security
–GPRS- UMTS- Architecture

UNIT III WIRELESS NETWORKS 9

Wireless LANs and PANs – IEEE 802.11 Standard – Architecture
–Services – Blue Tooth- Wi-Fi – WiMAX

UNIT IV MOBILE NETWORK LAYER 9

Mobile IP – DHCP – AdHoc– Proactive and Reactive Routing
Protocols – Multicast Routing- Vehicular Ad Hoc networks ( VANET)
–MANET Vs VANET – Security

UNIT V MOBILE TRANSPORT AND APPLICATION LAYER 9

Mobile TCP– WAP – Architecture – WDP – WTLS – WTP –WSP –
WAE – WTA Architecture – WML
Total 45
Course Outcomes
COURSE OUTCOMES

CO# Course Outcomes

CO1 Explain the basics of mobile telecommunication

system

Illustrate the generations of telecommunication

CO2 systems in wireless network

Understand the architecture of Wireless LAN

CO3
technologies

Determine the functionality of network layer and

CO4 Identify a routing protocol for a given Ad hoc
networks

Explain the functionality of Transport and

CO5
Application layer
CO – PO/ PSO Mapping
 CO – PO MAPPING

CO PO1 PO2 PO3 PO4 PO5 PO6 PO7 PO8 PO9 PO10 PO11 PO12

CO1 3 2 2 - - - - - - - - -

CO2 3 3 2 - - - - - - - - -

CO3 2 2 1 - - - - - - - - -

CO4 3 3 1 - - - - - - - - -

CO5 3 3 1 - - - - - - - - -

CO – PSO MAPPING

CO PSO1 PSO2 PSO3

CO1 2 - -

CO2 2 - -

CO3 2 - -

CO4 2 - -

CO5 3 1 -

1 – Low, 2 – Medium, 3 – Strong

Lecture Plan
LECTURE PLAN

No of Taxo Mode
S No Topics perio Actual Pertainin nom of
Proposed date
ds Lecture Date g CO y delivery
level

ICT
CO4
1 Mobile IP 2 07.04.2021 07.04.2021 K2 Tools

ICT
2 DHCP 1 09.04.2021 09.04.2021 CO4 K2
Tools
AdHoc–
Proactive
and ICT
3 1 12.04.2021 12.04.2021 CO4 K2
Reactive Tools
Routing
Protocols

Multicast ICT
4 1 12.04.2021 12.04.2021 CO4 K2
Routing- Tools

Vehicular
Ad Hoc ICT
5 1 19.04.2021 19.04.2021 CO4 K2
networks Tools
( VANET) –

MANET Vs
ICT
6 VANET – 1 19.04.2021 19.04.2021 CO4 K2
Tools
Security

ICT
7 Revision 1 20.04.2021 20.04.2021 CO4 K2 Tools
Activity Based Learning
 ACTIVITY BASED LEARNING

(QUIZ)

Students were asked to prepare ‘Connexions Quiz’ for mobile technology terms
and standards

Link :
h t t p s : / / d r i v e . g o o g l e . c o m / d r i v e / f o l d e r s / 1 o b 2 7 N I Q y C N r g x Y 7 B d R-
TcSxQZHfmrEsm_e9g3fvyaxM7sXxJ4eqloid4ov9lXsKIwuQwTdgS?usp=sharing
Lecture Notes
4.1 Mobile IP
Motivation for Mobile IP
Routing
Ø based on IP destination address

Ø network prefix (e.g. 129.13.42)determines physical subnet

Ø change of physical subnet implies change of IP address to have a topological

correct address (standard IP) or needs special entries in the routing tables
Specific routes to end-systems?
Ø change of all routing table entries to forward packets to the right destination

Ø does not scale with the number of mobile hosts and frequent changes in the
location, security problems
Changing the IP-address?
Ø adjust the host IP address depending on the current location
Ø almost impossible to find a mobile system, DNS updates take to long time
TCP connections break, security problems.

4.1.1Mobile IP - Entities and terminology

The following defines several entities and terms needed as defined in mobile IP
(Figure 4.1).

Ø Mobile node (MN): A mobile node is an end-system or router that can change
its point of attachment to the internet using mobile IP. The MN keeps its IP
address and can continuously communicate with any other system in the internet
as long as link-layer connectivity is given.

Ø Correspondent node (CN): It is a communication partner. The CN can be a

fixed or mobile node.

21
 Fig 4.1 Mobile IP - Entities and terminology

Home network: The home network is the subnet the MN belongs to with respect
to its IP address. No mobile IP support is needed within the home network.

Foreign network: The foreign network is the current subnet the MN visits and
which is not the home network.

Foreign agent (FA): The FA can provide several services to the MN during its
visit to the foreign network. The FA can have the COA (defined below),acting as
tunnel endpoint and forwarding packets to the MN. The FA can be the
default router for the MN. FAs can also provide security services because they
belong to the foreign network as opposed to the MN which is only visiting. For
mobile IP functioning, FAs are not necessarily needed. Typically, an FA is
implemented on a router for the subnet the MN attaches to.

Tunnel –It is the path taken by the encapsulated packets.

Care-of address (COA): The COA defines the current location of the MN from an
IP point of view. All IP packets sent to the MN are delivered to the COA, not
directly to the IP address of the MN. Packet delivery toward the MN is done using a
tunnel. The COA marks the tunnel endpoint, i.e., the address where packets exit
the tunnel. There are two different possibilities for the location of the COA:

. 22
Ø Foreign agent COA: The COA could be located at the FA, i.e., the COA is an IP
address of the FA. The FA is the tunnel end-point and forwards packets to the MN.
Many MN using the FA can share this COA as common COA.

Ø Co-located COA: The COA is co-located if the MN temporarily acquired an

additional IP address which acts as COA. This address is now topologically correct,
and the tunnel endpoint is at the MN. Co-located addresses can be acquired using
services such as DHCP. One problem associated with this approach is the need for
additional addresses if MNs request a COA. This is not always a good idea
considering the scarcity of IPv4 addresses.

Home agent (HA): The HA provides several services for the MN and is located in
the home network. The tunnel for packets toward the MN starts at the HA. The
HA maintains a location registry, i.e., it is informed of the MN’s location by the
current COA. Three alternatives for the implementation of an HA exist.

Ø The HA can be implemented on a router that is responsible for the home network.
This is obviously the best position, because without optimizations to mobile IP, all
packets for the MN have to go through the router anyway.

Ø If changing the router’s software is not possible, the HA could also be

implemented on an arbitrary node in the subnet. One disadvantage of this
solution is the double crossing of the router by the packet if the MN is in a foreign
network. A packet for the MN comes in via the router; the HA sends it through the
tunnel which again crosses the router.

Ø Finally, a home network is not necessary at all. The HA could be again on the
‘router’ but this time only acting as a manager for MNs belonging to a virtual
home network. All MNs are always in a foreign network with this solution.

Reference Video

Working of Mobile IP

23
4.1.2 IP packet delivery

Ø Figure 4.2 illustrates packet delivery to and from the MN using the example
network of Figure 4.1.

Ø A correspondent node CN wants to send an IP packet to the MN. One of the

requirements of mobile IP was to support hiding the mobility of the MN.

Ø CN does not need to know anything about the MN’s current location and sends the
packet as usual to the IP address of MN (step 1).

Ø The internet, not having information on the current location of MN, routes the
packet to the router responsible for the home network of MN. This is done using
the standard routing mechanisms of the internet.

Ø The HA now intercepts the packet, knowing that MN is currently not in its home
n e t w o r k . T h e p a c ke t i s n o t fo r wa rd e d i n t o t h e s u b n e t a s u s u a l , b u t
encapsulated and tunnelled to the COA.

Ø A new header is put in front of the old IP header showing the COA as new
destination and HA as source of the encapsulated packet (step 2).

Ø The foreign agent now decapsulates the packet, i.e., removes the additional
header, and forwards the original packet with CN as source and MN as destination
to the MN (step 3).

Ø Again, for the MN mobility is not visible. It receives the packet with the same
sender and receiver address as it would haved one in the home network.

Fig 4.2- Packet delivery to and from the mobile node

24
4.1.3 Agent discovery

During call establishment it is necessary for a mobile node to determine its foreign
agent. This task is referred to as Agent Discovery.
The following two discovery methods are popularly used :
Ø Agent Advertisement

Ø Agent Solicitation.

1. Agent advertisement:

Ø Foreign agents and home agents advertise their presence periodically using
special agent advertisement messages. These advertisement messages can be
seen as a beacon broadcast into the subnet or these advertisements Internet
control message protocol (ICMP) messages are used with some mobility
extensions.

Ø The agent advertisement packet according to RFC 1256 with the extension for
mobility is shown in Figure 4.3. The upper part represents the ICMP packet while
the lower part is the extension needed for mobility.

Fig-4.3 Agent advertisement packet (RFC 1256 + mobility extension)

25
Ø This extension for mobility has the following fields defined:

Ø type is set to 16

Ø Length depends on the number of COAs provided with the message and equals 6
+ 4*(number of addresses).

Ø An agent shows the total number of advertisements sent since initialization in the
sequence number.

Ø By the registration lifetime the agent can specify the maximum lifetime in
seconds a node can request during registration

Ø The following bits specify the characteristics of an agent in detail.

Ø R bit (registration) shows, if a registration with this agent is required even when
using a co-located COA at the MN.

Ø If the agent is currently too busy to accept new registrations it can set the B bit.

Ø The following two bits denote if the agent offers services as a home agent (H) or
foreign agent (F) on the link where the advertisement has been sent.

Ø Bits M and G specify the method of encapsulation used for the tunnel.

Ø the field r at the same bit position is set to zero and must be ignored.

Ø The new field T indicates that reverse tunneling is supported by the FA. The
following fields contain the COAs advertised.

2.Agent solicitation

Ø If no agent advertisements are present or the inter-arrival time is too high, and an
MN has not received a COA, the mobile node must send agent solicitations.

Ø These solicitations are again based on RFC 1256 for router solicitations. Care must
be taken to ensure that these solicitation messages do not flood the network, but
basically an MN can search for an FA endlessly sending out solicitation messages.

26
Ø Typically, a mobile node can send out three solicitations, one per second, as soon
as it enters a new network. The basic purpose of the solicitation messages sent by
a MN is to search for a given FA.

Ø In highly dynamic wireless networks with moving MNs and probably with
applications requiring continuous packet streams even one second intervals
between solicitation messages might be too long.

Ø If a node does not receive an answer to its solicitations it must decrease the rate
of solicitations exponentially to avoid flooding the network until it reaches a
maximum interval between solicitations (typically one minute).

After these steps of advertisements or solicitations the MN can now receive a COA,
either one for an FA or a co-located COA.

4.1.4 Key Mechanisms in Mobile IP

Mobile IP associated with the following three basic mechanisms

1. Discovering the care-of-address

2. Registering the care-of-address

3. Tunneling the care-of-address

A schematic diagram of Mobile IP is shown below. The specific protocols used by

the basic mechanisms have also been shown. Observe that the registration
process works over UDP and the discovery process over ICMP.

1 Discovering Care-of-Address

Ø A mobile node (MN) listens for agent advertisement and then initiates registration.

Ø If responding agent is the home agent (HA), then mobile IP is not necessary

Ø After receiving the registration request from a MN, the HA acknowledges and
registration is complete.

Ø Registration happens as often as MN changes networks

27
 Fig 4.4 – Schematic Model of Mobile IP
Ø HA intercepts all packets destined for MN
This is simple unless sending application is on or near the same network as
the MN.

HA masquerades as MN.

There is a specific lifetime for service before a MN must re-register

There is also a de-registration process with HA if an MN returns home.

2. Registering the care-of-address

Fig 4.5– Registration Process in Mobile IP

28
 If a mobile node discovers that it is on the home network, it operates without any
mobility services. If the mobile node is on a new network, it registers with the
foreign agent by sending a Registration Request message which includes the
permanent IP address of the mobile host and the IP address of its home agent.
The foreign agent that receives the registration request message will in turn
perform the registration process on behalf of the mobile host by forwarding the
Registration Request containing the permanent IP address of the mobile node and
the IP address of the foreign agent to the home agent. When the home agent
receives the Registration Request, it updates the mobility binding by associating
the care-of-address of the mobile node with its home address. The home agent
then sends an acknowledgement to the foreign agent. The foreign agent in turn
updates its visitor list by inserting the entry for the mobile node and relays the
reply to the mobile node.

1. If the mobile node travels to a foreign network, it registers with the foreign agent
by sending a registration request messages which include the permanent IP
address of the mobile host and the IP address of its home agent.

2. The foreign agent in turn performs the registration process on behalf of the
mobile host by sending a Registration Request containing the permanent IP
address of the mobile node and the IP address of the foreign agent to the home
agent.

3. When the home agent receives the Registration request, it updates the mobility
binding by associating the COA of the MN with its home address.

4. The home agent then sends an acknowledgment to the foreign agent.

5. The foreign agent in turn updates its visitors list by inserting the entry for the
mobile node and relays the reply to the mobile node.

29
 Fig. 4.6 – IP Encapsulation

3. Tunneling the care-of-address

When a home agent receives a packet addressed to a mobile host, it forwards the
packet to the care-of address using IP-within-IP (Encapsulation), (above Fig)

Ø Using IP-within-IP, the home agent inserts a new IP header in from of the IP
header of any datagram.

Ø Destination address is set to the care-of-address.

Ø Source address is set to the home agents address.

A tunnel establishes a virtual pipe for data packets between a tunnel entry and a
tunnel endpoint. Packets entering a tunnel are forwarded inside the tunnel and
leave the tunnel unchanged. Tunneling, i.e., sending a packet through a tunnel, is
achieved by using encapsulation.

Encapsulation is the mechanism of taking a packet consisting of packet header

and data and putting it into the data part of a new packet. The reverse operation,
taking a packet out of the data part of another packet, is called decapsulation.

30
 The HA takes the original packet with the MN as destination, puts it into the data
part of a new packet and sets the new IP header in such a way that the packet is
routed to the COA. The new header is also called the outer header for obvious
reasons. There is an inner header which can be identical to the original header
as this is the case for IP-in-IP encapsulation, or the inner header can be computed
during encapsulation.

Fields:

Ø Ver is 4 for IP version 4, internet header length (IHL) denotes the length of the
outer header in 32 bit words.

Ø DS(TOS)  copied from the inner header,

Ø The length covers the complete encapsulated packet.

Ø The fields up to TTL have no special meaning for mobile IP and are set according
to RFC 791. TTL must be high enough so the packet can reach the tunnel
endpoint.

Ø IP-in-IP is the type of the protocol used in the IP payload.

Ø IP checksum is calculated as usual. The next fields are the tunnel entry as
source address (the IP address of the HA) and the tunnel exit point as
destination address (the COA).

Fig. 4.7 – IP in IP Encapsulation

31
4.1.5 Route Optimization

Inefficient behavior of a non optimized mobile IP is called triangular routing. The

triangle is made of the three segments, CN to HA, HA to COA/MN, and MN back to
CN.

In mobile IP all the data packets to the mobile node (MN) have to go through the
home agent (HA). Because of this there will be heavy traffic between HA and CN
in the network causing latency to increase.

To avoid this following route optimization techniques are used,

Ø Enable direct notification of the corresponding host

Ø Direct tunneling from CN to mobile host

Ø Binding cache maintained at the CN.

Messages transmitted in Optimized Mobile IP

Ø Binding Request: If a node wants to know the current location of a mobile node
(MN) it sends a request to home agent (HA)

Ø Binding Update: This is a message sent by HA to CN mentioning the current

location of MN. The message contains fixed IP address of the mobile node and
care-of-address. The binding update can request for an acknowledgment.

Ø Binding Acknowledgement: On request the node will return an

acknowledgement message after getting the binding update message.

Ø Binding Warning: If a node encapsulates a packet for a mobile node (MN) but it
is not the current foreign agent (FA) then this node sends a binding warning to
the home agent (HA) of mobile node (MN).

32
4.1.6 Desirable Features of Mobile IP

Ø Compatibility: A new standard cannot require changes for applications or

network protocols already in use.

Ø Transparency: Mobility should remain “invisible” for many higher layer protocols
and applications.

Ø Scalability and efficiency: Introducing a new mechanism into the Internet

must not degrade the efficiency of the network.

Ø Security: All messages used to transmit information to another node about the
location of a mobile node must be authenticated to protect against remote
redirection attacks.

4.2 DYNAMIC HOST CONFIGURATION PROTOCOL (DHCP)

Ø The dynamic host configuration protocol is mainly used to simplify the installation
and maintenance of networked computers.

Ø DHCP is an extension of BOOTP and compatible with it.

Ø If a new computer is connected to a network, DHCP can provide it with all the
necessary information for full system integration into the network, e.g., addresses
of a DNS server and the default router, the subnet mask, the domain name, and
an IP address.

Ø Providing an IP address makes DHCP very attractive for mobile IP as a source of

care-of-addresses.

Ø DHCP is based on a client/server model as shown in Fig.

Ø DHCP clients send a request to a server (DHCPDISCOVER in the example) to

which the server responds.

33
 Fig. 4.8 – Basic DHCP Configuration

Ø A typical initialization of a DHCP client is shown in the below Figure. The figure
shows one client and two servers.

Ø The client broadcasts a DHCP DISCOVER into the subnet.

Ø There might be a relay to forward this broadcast.

Ø Two servers receive this broadcast and determine the configuration they can offer
to the client.

Ø Server will be the checking of available IP addresses and choosing one for the
client.

Ø Servers reply to the client‘s request with DHCPOFFER and offer a list of
configuration parameters.

Ø The client can now choose one of the configurations offered.

Ø The client in turn replies to the servers, accepting one of the configurations and
rejecting the others using DHCPREQUEST.

Ø If a server receives a DHCPREQUEST with a rejection, it can free the reserved

configuration for other possible clients.

Ø The server with the configuration accepted by the client now confirms the
configuration with DHCPACK.

34
 Fig . 4.9 – Client Initialization wit DHCP

Ø This completes the initialization phase.

Ø If a client leaves a subnet, it should release the configuration received by the

server using DHCPRELEASE.

Ø Now the server can free the context stored for the client and offer the
configuration again.

Ø DHCP supports the following three mechanisms for IP address allocation

v Automatic allocation: Assigns a permanent IP address to a client

v Dynamic allocation: Assigns an IP address to a client for a set period of

time

v Manual allocation: Assigns a specific IP address to a client as defined by

the administrator using the client’s MAC

Reference Video

Working of DHCP

35
4.3 MOBILE Ad Hoc Networks ( MANET)
Ø A mobile ad hoc network (MANET), also known as wireless ad hoc network
or ad hoc wireless network is a continuously self-configuring, infrastructure-
less network of mobile devices connected wirelessly. Each device in a MANET is
free to move independently in any direction, and will therefore change its links to
other devices frequently.

Ø Each node behaves as a router as they forward traffic to other specified node in
the network. MANET may operate as standalone fashion or they can be the part of
larger internet. They form highly dynamic autonomous topology with the presence
of one or multiple different transceivers between nodes. The main challenge for
the MANET is to equip each device to continuously maintain the information
required to properly route traffic. MANET peer-to-peer, self-forming, self-healing
network MANET’s circa 2000-2015 typically communicate at radio frequencies
(30MHz – 5 GHz). This can be used in road safety, ranging from sensors for
environment, home, health, disaster rescue operations, air/land/navy defense,
weapons, robots, etc.

Fig . 4.10 – Mobile Ad hoc Network

36
Characteristics of MANET

Ø Dynamic Topologies: Network topology which is typically multihops, may

change randomly and rapidly with time, it can form unidirectional or bi-directional
links.

Ø Bandwidth constrained, variable capacity links: Wireless links usually have

lower reliability, efficiency, stability and capacity as compared to wired network.
The throughput of wireless communication is even less than a radio’s maximum
transmission rate after dealing with the constraints like multiple access, noise,
interference conditions, etc.

Ø Autonomous Behavior: Each nodes can act as a host and router, which shows
its autonomous behavior.

Ø Energy Constrained Operation: As some or all the nodes rely on batteries or

other exhaustible means for their energy. Mobile nodes are characterized with less
memory, power and light weight features.

Ø Limited Security: Wireless network are more prone to security threats. A

centralized firewall is absent due to its distributed nature of operation for security,
routing and host configuration.

Ø Less Human Intervention: They require minimum human intervention to

configure the network, therefore they are dynamically autonomous in nature.

Advantages of MANET

Ø Separation from central network administration.

Ø Each nodes can play both the roles ie. of router and host showing autonomous
nature.

Ø Self configuring and self healing nodes, does not require human intervention.

37
Disadvantages of MANET

Ø Resources are limited due to various constraints like noise, interference conditions,
etc.

Ø Lack of authorization facilities.

Ø More prone to attacks due to limited physical security.

Applications of MANET

Ø Some specific applications of ad hoc networks include industrial and

commercial applications involving cooperative mobile data exchange. There are
many existing and future military networking requirements for robust, IP-
compliant data services within mobile wireless communication networks, with
many of these networks consist of highly dynamic autonomous topology
segments. Advanced features of Mobile ad hoc networks, including data rates
compatible with multimedia applications global roaming capability, and
coordination with other network structures are enabling new applications.

Ø Defense applications: Many defense applications require on the fly

communications set-up, and ad hoc/sensor networks are excellent candidates for
use in battlefield management.

Ø Crisis management applications: These arise, for example, as a result of

natural disasters in which the entire communication infrastructure is in disarray.
Restoring communications quickly is essential.

Ø Telemedicine: The paramedic assisting the victim of a traffic accident in a

remote location must access medical records (e.g. X-rays) and may need video
conference assistance from a surgeon for an emergency intervention. In fact, the
paramedic may need to instantaneously relay back to the hospital the victim's X-
rays and other diagnostic tests from the site of the accident.

Ø Tele-geoprocessing application: The combination of GPS, GIS (Geographical

Information Systems), and high-capacity wireless mobile systems enables a new
type of application referred to as tele- geo processing.

38
Ø Virtual Navigation: A remote database contains the graphical representation of
building, streets, and physical characteristics of a large metropolis. They may also
"virtually" see the internal layout of buildings, including an emergency rescue
plan, or find possible points of interest.

Ø Education via the internet: Educational opportunities available on the internet

or remote areas because of the economic infeasibility of providing expensive last-
mile wire line internet access in these areas to all subscribers.

Ø Vehicular area network: This a growing and very useful application of adhoc
network in providing emergency services and other information. This is equally
effective in both urban and rural setup. The basic and exchange necessary data
that is beneficial in a given situation.

Reference Video

MANET with its applications

4.3.1.Routing

Ø Routing is the process of finding the best path for traffic in a network, or across
multiple networks. In a MANET, each node or device is expected to serve as a
router, and each router is indistinguishable from another in the sense that all
routers execute the same routing algorithm to compute paths through the entire
network.

Routing in a mobile ad-hoc network depends on many factors such as:

Ø Modeling of the topology,

Ø Selection of routers,

Ø Initiation of a route request,

Ø And specific underlying characteristics that could serve as heuristics in finding the
path effectively.

39
Need for Routing

There are following needs for routing:

Ø Since centralized routing in a dynamic and even for small networks is impossible
therefore routing computation must be distributed.

Ø Route computation should not add many more nodes.

Ø If any host demands for the route, they must have quick access.

Ø Maintenance of a global state should not involve in the route computation.

Ø Each node should care about their destination node to its route and should not be
involved in frequent topology updates for those portions of the network that have no
traffic.

Ø Since broadcast can be time consuming for MANETs, it must be avoided as much as
possible.

Ø In routing there must have a backup route when the primary route has become stale.

Reference Video

MANET routing protocols

4.3.2 Goals of MANET routing:

Ø Route computation must be distributed, because centralized routing in a dynamic

network is impossible, even for fairly small networks.

Ø Route computation should not involve maintenance of a global state, or even significant
amounts of volatile nonlocal state. In particular, link state routing is not feasible due to
the enormous state propagation overhead when the network topology changes.

Ø As few nodes as possible must be involved in route computation and state propagation,
as this involves monitoring and updating at least some states in the network. On the
other hand, every host must have quick access to the routes on demand.

40
Ø Each node must care only about the routes to its destination and must not be
involved in frequent topology updates for those portions of the network that have
no traffic.

Ø Stale routes must be either avoided or detected and eliminated quickly.

Ø Broadcasts must be avoided as much as possible, because broadcasts can be time

consuming for MANETs. The simpler function of multicasting is observed to be
even more complex than uncontrolled broadcasting.

Ø If the topology stabilizes, then routes must converge to the optimal routes.

Ø It is desirable to have a backup route when the primary route has become stale
and is to be recomputed.

4.4 MANET ROUTING PROTOCOLS

Ø MANET Routing protocols are classified into three categories

Ø Proactive (or) table driven Routing Protocols

Ø Reactive (or) on-demand Routing protocols

Ø Hybrid Protocols

4.4.1 PROACTIVE ROUTING PROTOCOL

Ø Proactive Routing Protocol is also called as table driven routing protocol. Each
node in the network maintains routing table ,storing information about routers to
every other node in the network. The tables are periodically updated. Since each
Node knows the entire topology a node itself can determine the best route

41
Advantage:

Ø The advantage of these protocols is that a source node does not need route-
discovery procedures to find a route to a destination node.

Disadvantage:

Ø Proactive protocols usually generate a large number of control messages to keep

the routing tables up-to-date.

Ø Excess routing overhead depletes available bandwidth and battery.

Ø Not suitable for large networks as the size of the routing table can be enormous
because each node maintains routing table.

Ø Not suitable for networks where nodes are highly mobile.

Ø There are various types of Table Driven Protocols: Destination Sequenced Distance
Vector routing (DSDV), Wireless routing protocol (WRP), Fish eye State Routing
protocol (FSR), Optimized Link State Routing protocol (OLSR), Cluster Gateway
Switch Routing protocol (CGSR), Topology Dissemination Based on Reverse Path
Forwarding (TBRPF).

4.4.2 Destination sequence distance vector [DSDV]

Ø It is based on table driven proactive approach

Ø It is an adapted modified extension of distance vector protocol of wired networks.

Traditional distance vector protocol suffers from routing loops and count to infinity
problem creating loops and unreachable regions.

Ø  Additions are made routing loops and count to infinity avoid suit MANET they
are (1) sequence number and (2) Damping.

Ø Sequence Number: Each routing advertisement done is associated with

sequence number. Sequence number helps in deciding the correct order and
eliminates routing loop problem.

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 Damping: Due to changes in topology due to mobility(movement) each nodes
waits for short duration before updating the new route. The waiting time depends
on the time between first and best path announcement to a destination node.
DSDV protocol for MANET generate lot of control traffic in the network, leading to
inefficient utilization of network resources. To overcome this problem DSDV uses
two types of route update packets Full Dump and New route Broadcast

Full Dump: Full dump packets are transmitted infrequently only if the node
experiences major occasional movement. The mobile nodes maintain a separate
additional table to store information about theses incremental routing packets
received from various nodes. This type of update packet contains only the
information that has changed since the latest full dump was sent out by
the node. Hence, incremental packets only consume a fraction of the network
resources compared to a full dump.

New Route broadcast: A new route broadcast contains address of the

destination, the number of hops to reach the destination a well as a unique
sequence number. The route with the most recent sequence number is always
used. Settling time: It is the weighted average time that routes to destination will
fluctuate before route with best metric is received.

Important steps in DSDV

Ø Step-1: Each router(node) in the network collects route information from all its
neighbors.

Ø Step-2: After Gathering information, the node determines the shortest path to
destination based on gathered information.

Ø Step-3: Based on the gathered information, a new routing table is generated.

Ø Step-4: The Router broadcasts this table to its neighbors. On receipt of this
information by neighbors, the neighbor nodes re compute their respective routing
table.

Ø Step-5: This process continues till the routing information becomes stable.

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Fig- 4.11 An Example of MANET topology at a given instance of time T for
Node N4 acting as source

Table 4.1 : DSDV Routing table in MANET for NODE N4

Ø The Metric Field in the routing table helps to determine the number of hops
required for a packet to traverse to its destination.

Ø The install field indicates when the entry was made. It is used to delete stale
entries from the table.

Advantages

Ø The availability of paths to all destinations in network always shows that less delay
is required in the path set up process.

Ø The method of incremental update with sequence number labels, reduces

overhead

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Disadvantages

Ø DSDV requires a regular update of its routing tables, which uses up battery power
and a small amount of bandwidth even when the network is idle.

Ø Whenever the topology of the network changes, a new sequence number is

necessary before the network re-converges; thus, DSDV is not suitable for highly

dynamic or large-scale networks.

4.5 REACTIVE ROUTING PROTOCOL

Ø It is also called on-demand routing protocol

Ø Nodes do not maintain up-to-date routes to different destinations.

Ø New routes to destination is /are discovered only when required.

Ø When a node does not have any knowledge about any route to a specific
destination, it uses flooding technique.

Advantage

Ø Reduced overhead caused -due to periodic updates.

Ø Maintains information for active routes only.

Ø Route update messages are used very infrequently.

4.5.1 DYNAMIC SOURCE ROUTING

Ø DSR is a source initiated, on demand,reactive routing protocol for ad hoc network.

Ø Dynamic source routing protocol is suitable within a small diameter range of 5 to

10 hops and when nodes need not move very fast.

Ø The Dynamic Source Routing protocol (DSR) is a simple and efficient routing
protocol designed specifically for use in multi-hop wireless ad hoc networks of
mobile nodes.

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Ø DSR allows the network to be completely self-organizing and self-configuring,
without the need for any existing network infrastructure or administration.

Ø In DSR protocol even when two packets may have the same source, they may
have different routes. For this reason, it is called dynamic source routing.

Ø It works on the concept of source routing.

Source routing is a routing technique in which the sender of a packet

determines the complete sequence of nodes through which, the packets are
forwarded and records the exact path (sequence of intermediate node) in the
packet’s header. This makes easy for each node in the path to identify the next
node to which it should transmit the packet.

Ø Each mobile node in MANET maintains the route cache table information, which
contains list of all routes that the node has learnt.

q If a node has a packet to send, it attempts to use this cache to deliver the
packet.

q If the destination does not exist in the cache, then a route discovery phase is
initiated to discover a route to destination, by sending a route request.

q This request includes the destination address, source address and a unique
identification number.

q If path to destination route is stored in route cache , but it is not valid

anymore a route maintenance procedure is started.

The source routing works in 2 steps

Ø Route Discovery

Ø Route Maintenance

Route Discovery

Route discovery allows any host to dynamically discover route to any destination
in ad hoc network.

46
 When a node has a packet to send it first checks its own routing cache. If it finds
a valid route in its own routing cache it sends out packet. Otherwise it initiates a
route discovery process by broadcasting a Route Request Packet (RREQ) to all
its neighbors.

The Route Request Packet contains the source address, request id and a route
record (sequence of hops)

Fig- 4.11 An Example of the route discovery process in DSR

Ø In above figure a node N1 wishes to send a message to destination node N8.The

intermediate nodes are N2,N3,N4,N5,N6,N7.The node N1 initiates route discovery
process by broadcasting a RREP (Route Request Packet) to its neighbors N2 and
N3.

Ø The Route Request packet initiates a Route Reply message (RREP). Either an
intermediate node that knows a route to destination or by destination node itself
will reply. The route information is piggy backed(copied) on the route reply
message, which contains the path information of communication and is sent from
destination to source. In figure for route reply .RREP message starts from
destination node N8 to source N1 as an acknowledgement of the accepted path
for transmission of packet.

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 Fig- 4.12 An Example of the propagation of route reply in DSR

Route Maintenance

Ø A known Route may get broken either due to movement of some nodes or low
battery. Whenever an intermediate node detects that one of its intermediate
nodes is not responding it sends back a route error message containing its own
address and address of next hop that is not working.

Ø If it has another route information to destination it starts to retransmit the packet

using the alternate node.

Ø Otherwise it initiates route discovery process again

Fig- 4.13 Route maintenance in DSR

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Advantage:

Ø The nodes need not exchange the routing table information.

Ø Reduces bandwidth overhead and saves battery life.

Ø Whenever a node finds a new route it adds the new route to its routing cache.

4.5.2 AD HOC ON DEMAND DISTANCE VECTOR (AODV)

AODV uses routing tables to store routing information. The routing table stores
the following content.

DEST ADDR NEXT HOP DESTINATION HOP COUNT LIFETIME

ADDR SEQUENCE

Route discovery and route maintenance of AODV is same as DSR protocol.

Advantage of AODV and difference with DSR

DSR AODV

Dissimilarity In DSR the complete the route is stored No need to carry route information in
in packet headers. The large headers header of the packets sent. AODV
degrade performance. maintains routing table at each node.
Similarity If a link breaks, a route error message is In AODV also if a link breaks, a route
sent to the source node error message is sent to the source node
Dissimilarity In DSDV routes are maintained to all In AODV Routes are discovered and
destinations. maintained only between those nodes
that need to communicate.
Similarity If a link breaks, a route error message is In AODV also if a link breaks, a route
sent to the source node error message is sent to the source node

AODV Routing procedure

If a node wants to send a packet to some destination at first it checks its routing
table to determine whether it has a current route to the destination or not.

--- If yes, it forwards the packet to next node of the route

--- if No, it initiates a route discovery

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Route Discovery and reply procedure of AODV:-

Ø The node that needs a route to a specific destination generates route request
message(RREQ). The route request is forwarded by intermediate nodes, which
learn a reverse route to source

Ø When the request reaches a node that knows the route to destination it generates
route reply (RREP)containing the number of hops to reach the destination.

RREQ [Route Request packet ] format in AODV

TYPE REVERSED HOP COUNT

BROADCAST ID

DESTINATION IP ADDRESS

DESTINATION SEQUENCE NO

SOURCE IP ADDRESS

SOURCE SEQUENCE NO

TIME STAMP

RREQ [Route Reply packet ] format in AODV

TYPE REVERSED HOP COUNT

DESTINATION IP ADDRESS

DESTINATION SEQUENCE NO

SOURCE IP ADDRESS

LIFETIME

The sequence number helps to avoid forwarding the same packet more than once.
The source node can begin transmission upon receiving the first RREP.

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Illustration of Route discovery in AODV
Node S- Source
Node D -Destination
Node A,B,C -Intermediate nodes
RREQ [ D's IP address, D's SeqNo,S's IP address, S'sSeqNo,hopcount]
RREO Represented shortly as [D,D'seq,S,S'seq,hopcount]

1) Node S, broadcasts RREQ to all its neighbours (in this example only A node).

2) Intermediate node A does not know route to destination node D so broadcasts to

B and C

3) Since node c knows the route to Destination node D ,Node C creates a route reply
packet and forwards to node A and stores the forward path in its routing table.

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4) Now node A creates a RREP packet to S and stores forward path in its routing
table.

5) The forward path is set in node S's routing table and now data packet can be sent
from S to D.

Illustration of Route Maintenance in AODV

If intermediate nodes or destination node move away from the transmission

range. The routing tables are updated about link failure. All active neighbours are
informed about this via RRER( Route Error Packet).When the source node
receives a RRER it can reinitiate the route discovery process.

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Ø Assume link between C and D breaks

Ø Node C invalidates route to D in its route table

Ø Node C then creates RRER packet and sends to node A

Ø Node A sends RRER to S

Ø Node A invalidates old route and discovers a new route.

Advantage of AODV:

Ø Routes are established on demand saving battery life and using bandwidth easily.

Ø Destination Sequence number can find the latest route to destination.

Disadvantage of AODV:

Ø The intermediate nodes can lead to inconsistent routes if not updated properly.

4.6 Hybrid Protocol

Ø This category of protocol features of proactive and reactive protocols.

Ø Most Hybrid protocols are zone-based where network is partitioned into zones.

Ø ZRP is the most popular Hybrid routing protocol.

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4.6.1 Zone routing Protocol(ZRP)
Ø ZRP is a Hybrid protocol. Combines the best features of both proactive and
reactive routing protocol.

Ø Key concept employed in ZRP is to use proactive routing scheme with closer zone
and reactive routing scheme far away zones.

Ø A routing zone is similar to a cluster. However unlike clusters ,zones can overlap. A
routing zone contains few nodes within a few hops from central zone.

Fig :4.14 Routing in MANET using ZRP

Ø With radius -1 zone ,table driven routing protocol is used. Where each node has
a route to all other nodes within the zone.

Ø If a destination node happens to be outside the source zone (radius 2 and

above) ZRP employs on-demand route discovery procedure.

Advantage of ZRP:

Ø Combines Best of both proactive and reactive routing

Ø ZRP reduces control overhead

Disadvantage of ZRP:

Ø ZRP uses an effective query control procedure, if it fails for some reason it
provides more overhead compared to other protocols.

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4.7 MULTICAST ROUTING PROTOCOL

Meaning of Multicast

Ø Multicast is the delivery of message to a group of destination nodes in single

transmission. Supports one-to-many communication scenario. A single source can
transmit to several destination node at the same time.

Figure :4.15 -Multicasting

Multicast routing Protocol

Ø Multicast routing is an effective way to establish the group communication when
the same message or the same stream of data needs to be sent to multiple
receivers.

Ø The advantage of multicast routing lies in its capability of reducing the

communication cost and saving the network resources by sending only one copy
of the message over the shared link leading to different destinations.

Ø For efficient operation of multicast routing protocol it is necessary to minimize

unnecessary packet transmission as well as minimize energy consumption.

Ø Multicast protocols are categorized into two: tree-based and mesh-based.

55
Tree-based Multicast Routing Protocols

Ø Tree based protocol establishes a single path between any two paths in multicast
group. Tree-based multicasting is a concept used in several wired multicast
protocols to achieve high multicast efficiency. There is only one path between a
source receiver pair in tree-based routing protocols.

Fig : 4.16 – Tree-based Multicast routing

56
Tree-based multicast protocols can be categorized into two types:
Ø source-tree-based multicast routing protocols.

Ø shared-tree-based multicast routing protocols.

Ø A single multicast tree is maintained per source in sourced tree-based multicast

routing, where as a single tree is shared by all the sources in a shared-tree-based
multicast routing. Shared-tree-based multicast protocols are more scalable than
source-tree-based multicast protocols.

Advantage of tree-based multicast protocol

Ø Multicast tree can be constructed quickly and efficiently.

Ø This scheme requires minimum number of copies to be sent along the branches of
the tree. Hence they are bandwidth efficient.

Ø It may incur very low overhead for a node to join or rejoin the session.

Ø It incurs low control overhead at low mobility.

Disadvantage of tree-based multicast protocol

Ø Suffers from Link failure.

Ø As Mobility increases ,link failures trigger reconfiguration of entire tree.

Ø When there are many sources ,a node either has to maintain a shared tree ,losing
path optimality or maintain multiple trees resulting in storage and control
overhead.

Ø This tree based protocols are not robust enough to operate in high mobility
environments.

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The most popular tree based multicast protocol is MAODV
MAODV-Multicast Adhoc On-Demand Distance Vector Protocol

Fig: 4.17 – MAODV Multicast Tree

Ø In MAODV, multicast routes are discovered on demand, based on a broadcast

route Request-Reply mechanism. MAODV is a tree based multicast protocol.

Ø The multicast group is identified by the multicast group address, and is associated
with group sequence numbers used for tracing the current group situation.

Ø Group members of the same multicast group compose a tree structure in MADOV.

Ø Non-group tree member : non-group tree member nodes that are not group
members must forward multicast information to group members.

Ø Group leader: When a node wants to join a multicast group that does not
currently exist in the network, that node becomes the multicast group leader. The
group leader is responsible for maintaining the multicast group sequence number
and the tree structure.

Ø All the nodes on the tree can be organized as upstream node or downstream node
from the view of the group leader. The group leader has no upstream node.

58
Ø Multicast Routing Table: An MADOV node keeps a multicast routing table for the
group tree structure. The multicast routing table entry contains fields such as:
multicast group address, multicast group leader address, multicast group
sequence number, hop count to multicast group leader, next hop information, and
lifetime.

Ø Next hops are based on flag value: If the flag is enabled, the next hop is actually
in the tree. The next hop with disabled flag means the node cannot be used for
forwarding or receiving any multicasting information.

Ø The direction of next hop can be upstream or downstream.

Ø At every interior node in a multicast tree, the route entry for the multicast group
should have multiple next hops: one upstream node and at least one downstream
node.

Ø The group leader can only have downstream nodes A leaf node only has one next
hop: its upstream neighbor.

Fig: 4.18 – Discovery of path in MAODV

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 RREQ and RREP: A node sends a RREQ (Route Request Packet) message when it
wishes to join a multicast group or when it has data to send to a multicast group. If
the RREQ is for joining the group, a join flag is set in the RREQ (J-RREQ);
otherwise, the flag is unset. Anode can respond to the RREQ with RREP (Route
Reply Packet).

Mesh-based Multicast Routing Protocols

Ø The protocols which provide multiple paths between a source receiver

pair are classified as mesh-based multicast routing protocols. Multiple
paths in the network adds to the robustness of the mesh-based protocols.

Ø Multicast protocols using mesh networks usually provide multi-path links to nodes
within a multicast group. The mesh-based protocols deliver more data packets as
compared to tree-based due to the presence of multiple paths.

Fig: 4.19 – Mesh based multicast routing protocol

Advantage of Mesh-based multicast protocol

Ø More resilient to link failures and node mobility

Ø Reduces data delivery latency.

Ø Less control overhead with high packet delivery ratio.

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Disadvantage of Mesh-based multicast protocol

Ø Suffers from excessive flooding if there are large number of senders.

Ø Increased control overhead due to excess control messages propagated.

Ø High storage overhead is incurred for each node due to several maintained data
structures.

Ø The multiple ‘periodic message exchanges’ reduces bandwidth and power.

The most popular mesh-based multicast protocol is ODMRP

On-Demand Multicast routing protocol

Ø It is a multicast scheme and uses a forwarding group concept (only a subset of

nodes forwards the ‘multicast packets’ via flooding technique).

Ø ODMRP creates routes on demand, rather than proactively creating routes. It

applies on-demand procedures to dynamically build routes and maintain multicast
group membership.

Ø ODMRP is well suited for ad hoc wireless networks with mobile hosts where
bandwidth is limited, topology changes frequently and rapidly, and power is
constrained.

Fig: 4.20 – On Demand Multicast Routing Protocol

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Ø Node: A device that implements IP.

Ø Neighbor: Nodes that are within the radio transmission range.

Ø Forwarding group (FG): A group of nodes participating in multicast packet

forwarding.

Ø Multicast mesh: The topology defined by the link connection between

forwarding group members.

Ø Join query: The special data packet sent by multicast sources to establish and
update group memberships and routes.

Ø Join reply: The table broadcasted by each multicast receiver and forwarding
node to establish and update group membership and routes

Nodes running ODMRP are required to maintain the following tables.

1. Routing Table:

Ø A routing table is created on demand and is maintained by each node.

Ø An entry is inserted or updated when a non-duplicate Join Query is received.

Ø The node stores the source address and the next hop to the destination

Ø The routing table provides the next hop information when transmitting Join
Replies.

2. Forwarding Group Table:

Ø When a node is a forwarding group node it maintains forwarding group table.

Ø In forwarding group table the multicast group ID and the time when the node was
last refreshed are recorded.

3. Message Cache: The message cache is maintained by each

node to detect duplicates.

Ø When a node receives a new Join Query or data, it stores the source address
and the unique identifier of the packet.

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Ø When a multicast source has packets to send but no route and group
membership is known, it floods a member advertising packet. This packet, called
"Join Query" and is periodically broadcasted to the entire network to refresh the
membership information and update the routes.

Ø When a node receives a Join Query packet, it stores the source address and the
unique identifier of the packet to its "Message Cache" to detect duplicates.

Ø If the Join Query packet is not a duplicate and the Time-To-Live value is greater
than zero, appropriate fields are updated

Ø When a Join Query packet reaches the multicast receiver, it creates "Join Reply"
message and propagates to its neighbors.

Ø When a node receives a Join Reply, the node realizes that it is on the path to the
source and thus is part of the forwarding group; it sets the FG_FLAG (Forwarding
Group Flag). It then broadcasts its own Join Reply.

Figure: 4.21 - Mesh Creation of ODMRP

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Ø This way, the Join Reply is propagated by each forward group member until it
reaches the multicast source via the selected path.

Ø This process constructs (or updates) the routes from sources to receivers and
builds a mesh of nodes involving the forwarding group nodes.

Ø Nodes S1 and S2 are multicast sources, and nodesR1 and R2 are multicast
receivers. Node R2 sends its Join Reply to both S1 and S2. Each source S will
periodically MPR-floods JOIN QUERY message to the entire network. When a
forwarding group node F receives a JOIN QUERY, it chooses whether to refresh its
unicast route table and retransmit the message. The algorithm selects the newest
and shortest dual link as its route according to the value of QUERY_SEQ and
HOP_COUNT. When a group member R receives a JOIN QUERY, it adds S to its
Sender List. R periodically broadcasts the JOIN REPLY message.

4.8 VANET [VEHICULAR AD HOC NETWORK]

A Vehicular Adhoc Network is a special type of MANET. In VANET moving
automobile form nodes of the network. In this type of network a vehicle
communicates with other vehicle that are within a range of about 100 to 300
meters. VANET supports multi-hop communication. Multi-hop communication
often results in rather larger VANETS. In city or Highway, the diameter of the
network can be several tens of kilometers. Any vehicle that goes out of signal
range of all vehicles in the network is excluded from the network. A vehicle that
was out of range can later come in the range and rejoin the network at any time.

Reference Video

Introduction to VANET

64
 Fig: 4.22 – Vehicular Ad Hoc Network

Few Important use of VANET are….

Ø A VANET can help drivers to get advanced information warnings from a nearby
environment via messages reducing fatalities/injuries on the roads. For example
consider the figure below vehicles can be prevented from collision. The travelling
vehicles get advanced notification of collision ahead on road.

FIG : 4.23- A VANET in use scenario

Ø A VANET can help disseminate geographical information to driver as he continues

to drive. Examples are nearby food malls, petrol refilling stations, map display etc.

Ø The driver can also get advance information on road condition or warning about
sudden emergency by a vehicle ahead in the lane. Increase overall performance of
the transport systems by reducing travelling time and congestion.

65
Ø Provide comfort applications for travelers like ‘advanced ‘electronic payment
systems’ and ‘electronic toll collection’ etc.

Ø Drivers can have opportunity to engage in other leisurely tasks such as VOIP with
family, watch news highlights, listen to media files, carry some business activities
such as participating in video conferencing.

Network architecture, signal modeling and propagation mechanism,

mobility modeling, routing protocols and network security are discussed
in detail as follows

Some of the key characteristics of a VANET model are as follows :

Ø Dynamic Topology: VANET environment has a constantly changing topology

due to high mobility of the vehicles.

Ø Frequent Disconnections: The link connection between the vehicles in VANET

has frequent disconnections because of the high movement of the nodes and
frequent change in the environment.

Ø Predictable Mobility Patterns: In VANET environment most of the vehicles

move on pre-defined roads and highways. This allows the use of predictable
mobility patterns in network design.

Ø Stringent Delay Constraints: VANETs are responsible for the delivery of critical
medical emergency messages. These messages must be delivered on time in
order to save human lives.

Ø No Power Constraint: As compared to other Mobile Ad-hoc Network (MANET)

devices, the nodes in VANETs have the privilege of having longer battery life. This
can be utilized for efficient processing of complex routing/security mechanisms in
the network.

Ø Use of Other Technology: Most of the vehicles in VANET these days are
capable of integrating with other system like GPS etc.

66
 Figure: 4.24– Vehicle to Vehicle communication and Vehicle to
Infrastructure communication

4.8 MANET Vs VANET

Figure: 4.25– Architecture of MANET and VANET

67
MANET Vs VANET

S.No MANET VANET

1 Collection of mobile nodes form MANET Collection of vehicles form VANET

2 MANET cannot communicate with base station VANET cannot communicate with base
or other infrastructure. station or road-side infrastructure.
3 Movement of nodes in MANET are not Node Mobility in VANET is constraint
constraint to any topology are random in nature to road topologies
4 MANET undergoes topological changes much VANET undergoes heavy topological
less changes
5 In MANET Battery power is limited In VANET Battery power is quite
adequate comparatively
6 MANETs are small in size and less in speed. VANETs are large in size and work at
great speed relatively.

4.9 SECURITY IN MANET

Security issues in MANET

In wired or infrastructure based wireless network the intruder or attacker is
usually a host outside the Network. Where as in Adhoc network the intruder is
part of the network so security techniques like firewalls, Access control and
authentication does not provide protection. It is very difficult to detect an intruder
and isolate an intruder in MANET. Dynamic topology changes cause several
problems like An intruder can jam or overload the network depleting resources like
battery and bandwidth causing breakdown of network. Attackers can disturb
normal operation of routing protocol by modifying the headers of the packet.
Intruder can insert spurious information while routing packets causing erroneous
routing table.

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 Characteristics of MANET(Mobile Adhoc Network) that leads
to several attacks are….

Ø Lack of physical boundary—Difficult to deploy firewall and monitor traffic.

Ø Low power RF transmission –Due to which can monopolize the entire network
Causing signal jamming and DoS attack.

Ø Limited Computational capabilities –So cannot implement strong security solutions

Ø Limited battery power –Attacker can bring the entire network down by exhausting
batteries.

Characteristics of secure Adhoc Networks

A good security solution should ensure that the following characteristics are not
compromised…

1.Availability —Ability to survive DoS (Denial of Service Attack).

2.Cofidentiality—Preventing Unauthorized access of information.

3.Integrity—Protection against tampering of data.

4.Authentication—A node should be able to guarantee true identity of peer node.

5.Non-Repudiation—A node having sent message cannot deny it.

ATTACKS ON MOBILE ADHOC NETWORKS

The various attacks on MANET can be classified into passive and active attacks….

Passive Attacks: Passive attacks monitors and steals data exchanged in the
network, without disrupting the normal network operation. It is difficult to detect
such attacks as they do not show any symptoms. These attacks can be reduced
by encryption techniques.

Active Attacks:

Active attack is destructive and disturbs the normal functionality of the network.

69
 Out of large varieties of attacks that are possible in MANET many fall under
routing attacks.

(1) Routing loop attack:

By sending tampered routing packets attacker can send packets continuously

looping in few nodes. The data packets are sent endlessly consuming resources
like bandwidth and battery power. This attack prevents packets reaching
recipients.

(2) Malicious code attacks:

A malicious can be virus, worms, rabbit, trojan horse or spyware. In MANET the
attacker can propogate malicious code to slow down the nodes, or overload the
network or even crash the network.

(3)Non Repudiation Attacks:

This attack causes denial of participation in communication by a valid user. Eg

Denying legal credit card or bank transaction.

(4) SYN flooding Attack:

An attacker creates a large number of half opened connections by sending

unnecessary synchronization packets. This causes TCP table information stored in
nodes to overflow.

(5) Session Hijacking:

The attacker can spoof the session ID of a node that has just started a session
and hijack the session from the victim node and perform DoS attack.

Fig:4.26- Session Hijacking

70
(6) Man -in -the Middle Attack:

Ø Another type of session hijacking is known as a man-in-the-middle attack, where

the attacker, using a sniffer, can observe the communication between devices and
collect the data that is transmitted.

(7) Fabrication Attack:

Ø In fabrication attack a malicious node(corrupted node) in MANET sends false route

error message to packet sender even though the next hop link is not broken.

(8) Byzantine Attack:

Ø Byzantine attacks can be defined as attacks against routing protocols, in which

two or more routers collude to drop, fabricate, modify, or misroute packets in an
attempt to disrupt the routing services

(9) Routing Table Overflow Attack:

Ø In this attack, routes to nonexistent nodes to legitimate nodes are created by

routing algorithms.

(10) Blacklist Attack:

Ø An Attacker might try to get a good node blacklisted, which futher causes other
nodes in the network to add this good node in the blacklist.

(11) Black Hole Attack:

Ø In this type of attack, a attacking node can set up a route to any destination via
itself. When actual data packets are received by the attacking node ,the packets
are simply dropped. Such nodes forms a black hole to which data packets enter
but never leaves.

Fig:4.27- Black hole attack

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(12) Grey Hole Attack:

A special case of black hole attack is grey hole attack. In this attack the attacker
selectively drops some kinds of packets that pass through it but not others. For
Eg- Attacker might forward routing packets but not data packets This type of
attack is more difficult to detect compared to black hole attack.

(13) Jellyfish Attack:

Ø Jellyfish attack is somewhat different from Black-Hole & Gray-Hole attack. Instead
of blindly dropping the data packets, it delays them before finally delivering them.
It may even scramble the order of packets in which they are received and sends it
in random order

(14) Worm Hole Attack:

Ø In this attack a direct link(tunnel) is formed between two nodes. This link is
referred to as wormhole link. This tunnel or link is comparatively the shortest
route ,so nodes prefer to use it. Once a worm hole link is formed a malicious node
can use it for traffic analysis, eavesdropping or for making denial of service attack.

(15) Partitioning Attack:

Ø The attacker partitions the network in such a way that one set of nodes is not
allowed to communicate with other set of nodes. It partitions the n/w in such a
way that it causes most harm to the system.

Reference Video

Security attacks in MANET

72
(16) Dropping Routing Traffic:

Ø It is essential in Adhoc network that all nodes participate in the routing process. A
attacking node may act selfishly and process only the routing information that is
related to itself. This behavior causes network instability and may sometimes
divide the network.

(17) Denial-of-service attack (DoS attack):

Ø A denial-of-service attack (DoS attack) is a cyber-attack in which the perpetrator

seeks to make a mobile device or network resource unavailable to its intended
users disrupting services of a host connected to the Internet.

(18) Rushing attack:

Ø Rushing attacker quickly forwards with a several malicious RREP on behalf of

some node skipping any proper processing. Due to which, actual valid RREP
message from valid node will be discarded and consequently the attacking node
becomes part of the route.

(19) Sybil attack:

Ø Sybil attack manifests itself by faking multiple identities. So one single node can
assume the role of multiple nodes and can monitor or hamper multiple nodes at a
time.

In figure above, node M1 assumes identities of M2, M3, M4, and M5. So, to node B,
M1 is equivalent to those nodes.

(20) IP Spoofing Attack

Ø In computer networking, IP address spoofing or IP spoofing is the creation of

Internet Protocol packets with a false source IP address, for the purpose of
impersonating another computing system.

73
4.8.1 SECURITY ATTACK COUNTER MEASURES

1.CRYPTOGRAPHIC TECHNIQUE:

Ø Are powerful technique for ensuring confidentiality, authentication, integrity and

non- repudiation. But Cannot solve jamming (overloading) problem.

2.SPREAD SPECTRUM TECHNOLOGY & DIRECTIONAL ANTENNAE:

Ø Spread spectrum is a promising countermeasure against the signal jamming. Also,

Directional antennae can be deployed as a countermeasure against signal
jamming.

3.TRUST RATING OF NODES:

Ø Trust rating of various nodes is a very promising technique to overcome routing

attacks. Packet transmission is carried out using trusted nodes only by using
selective flooding only.

Attacks can also be classified according to specific layer of ISO/OSI protocol stack.
Multilayer attacks are those that exploit the vulnerabilities existing at more than
one protocol layer. The below table shows few attacks that are subjected to each
layer and their counter measures.

LAYER Attacks Counter measure

Application layer Malicious code Detection and elimination of virus, worms,

attacks(virus,trojenhorse worms), trojen horse etc
Non-Repudiation, Through code analysis, implementation of
Data Corruption. IDS and strong firewalls
Transport layer Session Hijacking, Implementing secure end-to-end and
SYN-Flooding point-to-multipoint communication by
using SSL,TLS,SET and PCT protocols.

Network layer Wormhole attack, Check source authentication, apply

Greyhole attack, integrity mechanism, using SECTOR,
blackhole attack, fabrication attack, IPSec, ESP, SAR, ARAN techniques.
routing loop attack.
Data link layer Jamming, resource consumption Use secure link layer protocol like LLSP ,
(MAC layer) weakness use WPA
Physical layer Traffic analysis, Traffic Monitoring, Use spread spectrum techniques like
eavesdropping, Disruption, DSSS,FHSS and use directional
Interception. antennaes.
Multilayer Denial of service (DoS) attack All of the above technique.
74
Lecture Slides
 Lecture Slides

Lecture Slides

https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/114J1T733_ySMGsodukpG
NO9VJYlMBxlxbb5Q46e9R1M/edit?usp=sharing

https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/1xTNBXaRlQtpArHCq5sFLN
Zi81dfxeHnKDn93HMvmxwg/edit?usp=sharing

https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/13vj423oc-
warXvE0Iq2qRjAmOTx-U0zXFbmYn_SSdrE/edit?usp=sharing

https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/1QuHndmFMo5Qs53Uben
ObSTZr9FLzJudLh41zLQgZhlg/edit?usp=sharing
Lecture Videos
 Lecture Videos

Lecture Videos

https://drive.google.com/file/d/180Ga725GAJ_eEbik29JcnHLPw7-
_ROo0/view?usp=sharing

https://drive.google.com/file/d/1ww4v_6cUPqe1fe0cM-
4uxh10xwN26B2O/view?usp=sharing

https://drive.google.com/file/d/1VRmbCB-
drTQ14HHv4oIL6fzGyZ34JH2s/view?usp=sharing

https://drive.google.com/file/d/1UAi-
jjyA71UHeo93Lj22CgAm31tx7rWb/view?usp=sharing
Assignment
 Assignment
Students were asked to prepare ‘Connexions Quiz’ for mobile
technology terms and standards
Part A Q & A
1.Define MANET. (CO4, K2)

• MANET - Mobile Adhoc NETworks

. Continuously self-configuring, infrastructure-less network of mobile devices

connected without wires

2. List the advantages of MANET. Independence from central network

administration (CO4, K1)

• Self-configuring, nodes are also routers

• Self-healing through continuous re-configuration

• Scalable-accommodates the addition of more nodes

• Flexible-similar to being able to access 'the Internet from many different

locations

• Ease of deployment

• Speed of deployment

• Decreased dependence on infrastructure . Reduced administrative cost

• Supports anytime and anywhere computing

3. What are the limitations of MANET? (CO4, K2)

•Each node must have full performance

•Throughput is affected by system loading

•Reliability requires a sufficient number of available nodes

•Large networks can have excessive latency (time delay), which affects some
applications

•Limited wireless range

•Hidden terminals

•Packet losses due to transmission errors

•Routes changes

•Devices heterogeneity

•Battery power constraints

•Link changes are happening quite often

4. What are the functions of each node in MANET? (CO4, K2)
- Forward the packet to the next hop.
Before forwarding, Sender has to ensure that:
§ the packet moves towards its destination
§ the number of hops(path length) to destination is minimum
§ Delay is minimized
§ Packet loss is minimum through the path
§ Path does not have a loop
5. What is COA? (CO4, K2)
Care Of Address (COA) define the current location of the MN (Mobile Node) from
an IP point of view. DHCP is a good candidate for supporting the acquisition of Care
Of Addresses.
6. What are the possibilities for the location of care-of-address (COA)?
(CO4, K2)
The two possibilities for the location of care-of-address are:
i.Foreign agent COA
ii.Co-related COA
7. What is Binding Request? (CO4, K2)
Any node that wants to know the current location of an MN can send a binding
request to the HA. The HA can check if the MN has allowed dissemination of its
current location.
8. What is Dynamic source Routing? (CO4, K2)
Dynamic Source Routing eliminates all periodic routing updates. If a node needs to
discover a route, it broadcast a route request with a unique identifier and the
destination address as parameters. Any node that receivers a route request gives a
list of addresses representing a possible path on its way toward the destination.
9. What is Encapsulation and Decapsulation? (CO4, K2)
Encapsulation is the mechanism of taking a packet consisting of packet header and
data and putting it into the data part of a new packet. The reverse operation, taking
a packet out of the data part of another packet,is called decapsulation.
10. Compare MANET and VANET. (CO4, K3)

84
Part B Q
 PART – B

1. Explain architecture and packet delivery in Mobile IP. (CO4,K3)

2. What is the need of DHCP in Mobile IP, Explain the working of DHCP? (CO4,K2)
3. Explain DSDV routing protocol with a suitable example. (CO4,K3)
4. Explain DSR protocol with suitable example (CO4,K3)
5. With suitable diagrams, explain Tree based Multicast routing Protocol (CO4,K3)
6. (i) Explain Vehicular Ad-hoc Network in detail. (10) (CO4,K3)
(ii) Compare MANET and VANET. (5) (CO4,K3)
7. How Vehicular Ad-hoc Network can be used to design Intelligent Transportation
system in Chennai city, with neat diagrams. Justify with reasons (CO4,K4)
 Supportive Online
Certification courses
Supportive online Certification courses

COURSERA
Emerging Technologies: From Smartphones to IoT to Big Data Specialization
https://www.coursera.org/specializations/emerging-technologies
Real life Applications in
day to day life and to
Industry
Real time Applications in day to day life and to Industry

Traffic:
Uber
Ola
Emergencies Situation:
Kaavalan App
Payment app
GPay
Amazon Pay
E-commerce
Amazon
Flipkart
Educational Apps
Coursera
Edwisely
Udemy
Content beyond
Syllabus
 Contents beyond the Syllabus

'Connected Vehicle: The Future of Transportation

https://youtu.be/Q8Cn47L8FRQ
IoT: 5 Easy Ways To Promote Social Distancing In Times of COVID-19
• https://youtu.be/-X_T73dyvCs
Assessment Schedule
ASSESSMENT SCHEDULE

SIAT
Proposed date : 23.04.2021
Actual date 23.04.2021
Prescribed Text books &
Reference books
 PRESCRIBED TEXT BOOKS AND REFERENCE BOOKS

TEXT BOOKS
üJochen Schiller, ―Mobile Communications‖, PHI, Second Edition,
2003 [EBOOK -
https://drive.google.com/file/d/1f96Ynce0ErGUXb98_F028t-
wDWlb_f3P/view?usp=sharing ]
üPrasant Kumar Pattnaik, Rajib Mall, ―Fundamentals of Mobile
Computing‖, PHI Learning Pvt.Ltd, New Delhi – 2012
REFERENCE BOOKS
üDharma Prakash Agarval, Qing and An Zeng, "Introduction to
Wireless and Mobile systems",Thomson Asia Pvt Ltd, 2005.
üUwe Hansmann, Lothar Merk, Martin S. Nicklons and Thomas
Stober, ―Principles of Mobile Computing‖, Springer, 2003
üWilliam.C.Y.Lee,―Mobile Cellular Telecommunications-Analog and
Digital Systems‖, Second Edition,Tata Mc Graw Hill Edition ,2006
üC.K.Toh, ―AdHoc Mobile Wireless Networks‖, First Edition, Pearson
Education, 2002
üAndroid Developers : http://developer.android.com/index.html
üApple Developer : https://developer.apple.com/
üWindows Phone Dev Center : http://developer.windowsphone.com
üBlackBerry Developer : http://developer.blackberry.com
Mini Project
Suggestions
MINI PROJECT SUGGESTIONS

Develop Mobile App using Android/iOS

1. Seminar Hall Booking
2. Event Management
 Thank you

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