Assignment: What is empirical research?

In this assignment, you will practice with all aspects of the wheel of science, you will also
familiarize yourself with the basic aspects of decision making and with the relationship
between decision making and research.
Read this assignment carefully and answer all questions.
Hand in the assignment via Canvas.

1. Research is often done in the context of ‘decision making’. Select a topic related to social
problem that you care about. Write the topic down.

Example of a possible answer: crime, the level of crime in society, or ‘smoking among teenagers’.

2. Write down at least three different research questions about your problem. For each of the
questions, identify whether it is an empirical research question or not.

Example of a correct set of questions about the problem of crime in society:

Question Empirical?
Should the government allow all citizens in the country to No (normative)
keep and bear arms?
What are ‘arms’? What do we consider ‘crimes’? No (conceptual)
Is the level of gun control affecting the level of crime in a Yes
country?
To what extent did the level of crime in The Netherlands Yes
increase between 2000 and 2020?

3. In the context of your topic/problem, possible solutions or policy measures can be identified,
all potentially solving (parts) of the problem. Write down at least three possible solutions to
the problem. It would be nice if the selected solutions are ‘alternatives’ (different attempts
to solve the same problem).

Example of a set of possible solutions (please note that the solutions suggested here are aimed at
reducing crime):

Solution
1 Giving people the right to keep and bear arms
2 Increase the level of punishment for crimes
3 Increase the size of the police force

Also note: these statements are not about whether they are actually effective.

4. Pick one of the solutions and assume that the government decides to implement this
solution. Write down which solution you picked.

Again, this is an example of a correct answer: Increase the size of the police force.

5. Let us assume that the government says that the selected solution is implemented. Checking
whether it (partially) solved the problem, often starts with observing whether the selected
1
 solution indeed was implemented. This is called ‘process evaluation’. Formulate a research
question in the context of process evaluation.

Examples:
 Was the size of the police force increased after the decision taken on …? (descriptive
question)
 Which factors contributed to the increase in some regions and stability and even decrease in
other police regions (after the decision to increase the size of the police force taken on …)?
(causal question)

6. Checking whether the selected solution (partially) solved the problem, often proceeds with
checking whether the problem was actually solved and why (not). This is called ‘ex post
evaluation’. Formulate a research question in which you question what the effect was of the
solution on your problem.

Example:
To what extent was the decrease of the police force in 2008 causing a decrease in the level of crime
in The Netherlands?

7. Answering empirical questions, and especially explanatory/causal questions (like the one you
hopefully formulated in the previous exercise), is often presented as a series of ‘steps’:

Research question: ...

Theory (think): ...

Research design: ...

Data collection: ...

Data analysis: ...

Drawing conclusions: ...

In the figure above, replace the dots with ideas you have to answer the research question
from the previous exercise. More precisely: what things would you do as a researcher to
answer your research question? For example: In the third step, come up with a research
design that can help you answer the research question.

Example:
2
 Research question: To what extent did the decrease in the police force in 2008 cause a decrease
in the level of crime in The Netherlands?

Theory: Generally, higher levels of state suppression reduce conflicts between people and levels
of crime, because people are affected by threats. People tend to optimize their individual well
being by avoiding costs and by increasing positive outcomes. A 'threat' is a (potential) cost... (etc.)

Research design: We compare the situation before and after the increase in police size, we will
also check that other factors that may affect crime levels (such as GDP = gross domestic product)
remained constant in that time ....

Data collection: For crime levels we use 'victim surveys' ...we use official records from the police
to assess the number of police officers etc...

Data analysis: Using time series analysis, we check whether the changes occured as expected and
whether other factors did not cause the observed drop in crime.

Drawing conclusions: The reduction in crime (was/ was not/ was partly) caused by increasing the
size of the police force.

8. We often start with ‘thinking’ (for example about possible causes of some problem). This
thinking often starts with general ideas about why things happen generally and are made
more specific in the context of a specific topic. The more specific expectations are then
tested using data

a. What is this research strategy called?

deduction

b. Sometimes it is argued, we better start with ‘observing’. We observe a specific

phenomenon, compare it with several other yet similar phenomena and on the basis of
this comparison arrive at some general idea about why things happen. What is this
research strategy called?

induction

c. Mention at least two different reasons why it is sometimes better to start with
observation instead of thinking.

- because we do not have a CLUE where to start with our thinking

- because we have so many data, why should we start with thinking, better let the computer find out
(the ‘big’ data challenge) (I am NOT arguing the argument is correct )

3
 9. Explain the concept of confirmation bias and give a personal example of confirmation bias.

Confirmation bias is the tendency to search for, interpret, favor, and recall information in a way that
confirms one's preexisting beliefs or hypotheses. For example: despite all the mistakes he is making,
the fact that he is cheating and the lousy things he is doing, I still think my friend is one of the best
people in the world ….

One of the aims of research methodology is avoiding confirmation bias. It is about the procedure to
systematically answer (empirical) questions.

<<End of the assignment>>