Open Access Review

Article DOI: 10.7759/cureus.45171

An Introduction and Brief Overview of

Psychoanalysis
Review began 05/31/2023
Martin Tarzian 1 , Mariana Ndrio 2 , Adegbenro O. Fakoya 3
Review ended 09/08/2023
Published 09/13/2023 1. Psychiatry, University of Medicine and Health Sciences, Basseterre, KNA 2. Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences,
© Copyright 2023 University of Medicine and Health Sciences, Basseterre, KNA 3. Cellular Biology and Anatomy, Louisiana State
Tarzian et al. This is an open access article University Health Sciences Center, Shreveport, USA
distributed under the terms of the Creative
Commons Attribution License CC-BY 4.0.,
Corresponding author: Adegbenro O. Fakoya, [email protected]
which permits unrestricted use, distribution,
and reproduction in any medium, provided
the original author and source are credited.

Abstract
The field of psychology has been shaped by the views and perspectives of Sigmund Freud and his former
students: Carl Jung, Alfred Adler, Erik Erikson, and Karen Horney. These psychologists and their respective
schools of thought provide distinct views on psychology and influences on personality and psychosocial
development. The foundation for psychoanalysis was laid by Freud, his work on the unconscious mind, and
his emphasis on early childhood experiences. His students also made substantial contributions that
expanded, sharpened, and challenged his theories. This review will begin by highlighting the work of
Sigmund Freud; it will then compare his theories with the theories of his students. This review will introduce
and bring attention to the most important figures of psychoanalysis and give a brief overview of their
theories.

Categories: Psychiatry, Psychology, Other

Keywords: karen horney, erik erikson, alfred adler, carl jung, sigmund freud, psychology, unconscious,
psychoanalysis

Introduction And Background

Sigmund Freud (Born May 6th, 1856) was an Austrian neurologist widely known as the father of
psychoanalysis. His revolutionary theories, thoughts, and challenges to the field of psychology have changed
how theorists understand the mind and how psychologists treat their patients [1]. Throughout his life, he
worked fervently and tirelessly to advance his theories, beginning in the late 19th century and continuing
until he died in 1939. Today, most clinical psychologists and psychiatrists roll their eyes when Freud’s ideas
are brought up. However, his impact on shaping the theoretical and practical approaches to the human mind
and reasoning for behavior cannot be understated or forgotten [2].

Freud attended medical school at the University of Vienna and graduated as a neurologist [1,2]. He was
interested in the brain’s anatomy and how the nervous system works in relation to the human body. Time
and time again, his research led him to query and ponder the relationship between the human mind and the
physical ailments his patients would experience [3]. He began to question whether the symptomology he
witnessed in his patients came from the illness within the brain or the mind. As time passed, Freud
developed a passion for understanding the complexities of the mind and psyche, eventually leading him to
pursue his pioneering work of psychoanalysis [3].

As his passion and interest in the human mind increased, Sigmund Freud shifted from treating neurological
diseases to treating individuals suffering from psychological issues such as depression and anxiety [3]. This
switch gradually occurred in the late 1800s. By the 1900s, Freud was solely focused on using psychoanalysis
to explain anomalies of human nature [3,4]. While working at the University of Vienna, his professor, Dr.
Josef Breuer, introduced Sigmund Freud to a fascinating case. The patient, referred to as “Anna O,”
experienced a range of physical symptoms such as visual disturbances, hallucinations, partial paralysis, and
speech problems with no apparent physical cause [4]. Dr. Breuer found that her symptoms improved when
he helped her recover memories of traumatic experiences that she had repressed from conscious awareness,
which he called the “Cathartic Method” [4]. Unsurprisingly, Sigmund Freud, who was already fascinated with
anomalies of the human mind, feverishly began exploring the possible psychological phenomena that could
explain Anna Os’s symptomology. Later, in 1895, Freud and Breuer published a book discussing Anna’s case
and other similar clinical cases called “Studies in Hysteria.” This case is significant because it laid the
foundation for developing Freud’s influential ideas about psychoanalysis [5,6].

Continuing his work with Breuer, Freud finally derived his groundbreaking theory about “The Unconscious,”
proposing that repressed memories and desires influence behavioral and emotional states. A revolutionary
concept at the time, this theory would permanently leave its imprint on psychological thinking for centuries
to come [6,7]. This time can also be considered the period when Freud abandoned neurology as a field and
focused solely on practicing psychoanalysis. While initially he used the method of hypnosis taught to him by
Charcot, Freud recognized that he needed a better way of addressing his patients’ unconscious desires and

How to cite this article

Tarzian M, Ndrio M, Fakoya A O (September 13, 2023) An Introduction and Brief Overview of Psychoanalysis. Cureus 15(9): e45171. DOI
10.7759/cureus.45171
 memories. Thus, he developed the “Free Association,” in which patients were encouraged to speak freely
about their thoughts and feelings without censorship or self-editing [7,8]. Through this technique, Freud
believed that he uncovered the unconscious thoughts and memories that were the root cause of many
psychological phenomena and anomalies [7,8].

In 1899, Sigmund Freud released his groundbreaking book “The Interpretation of Dreams.” He proposed a
new theory on the meaning behind dreams and how they relate to the unconscious [9-11]. In his book, he
argued that dreams portal into humankind’s hidden desires and emotions and provide insight into any
underlying conflicts within the unconscious mind. At the start of the 1900s, Freud had established himself as
the master of addressing the unconscious [1-3]. As time passed, his theories continued to grow more
rambunctious and ambitious in their claims of explaining human behavior. His work revolutionized how we
view the human psyche and opened many avenues for further exploration [9].

In the early 1900s, Sigmund Freud had established himself at the frontier of psychological thinking and
began writing about the Oedipus complex [1-3]. This theory claims that young children have an unconscious
sexual desire toward the parent of the opposite sex. The Oedipal complex has come to be known as Sigmund
Freud’s most controversial theory and is often joked about when referenced in popular media [12]. He also
formulated the tripartite theory involving the id, ego, and superego - a theory still taught today to explain
different facets of the human psyche. Over the next decade, Freud dedicated himself to improving these
theories [12]. In 1902, Sigmund Freud formed the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society, and it quickly became a
popular hub for the exploration and development of his theories. He also began instructing other mental
health professionals in psychoanalysis, leading to its increased spread across Europe and the United States
in the following years [1,2]. His work at the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society, along with his time spent
teaching, are regarded as the reasons that psychoanalysis quickly globalized at the turn of the 20th century.

Despite the initial success of psychoanalysis, Freud’s theories were controversial and faced criticism from
many quarters. Some critics accused Freud of being overly focused on sex and of exaggerating the influence
of the unconscious mind. Others argued that psychoanalysis lacked scientific validity and was based on
anecdotal evidence rather than empirical data [13]. Ultimately, even his students challenged him and began
their own schools of thought, which we will discuss later [13]. Nevertheless, Freud’s influence on psychology
and culture cannot be overstated. His theories continue to be the subject of debate and research, and
psychoanalysis remains a popular and influential field of study. Freud’s discovery of psychoanalysis paved
the way for a new understanding of the human mind and continues to shape our understanding of
psychology and society [1-3].

Freud’s legacy extends beyond his contributions. His circle of inspired and loyal pupils continued to push
and advance the field. Together, they have expanded the principles of psychoanalysis. These students,
united in their respect and admiration for Freud, carry his ideas forward, establishing psychoanalysis as a
legitimate and influential approach to understanding the human mind. By continuing to explore and apply
psychoanalytic principles, we can gain a deeper understanding of ourselves, our actions, and the intricate
workings of the human mind. This review aims to emphasize the contributions of psychoanalysis, from
Sigmund Freud to his students Carl Jung, Alfred Adler, Erik Erikson, and Karen Horney.

Review
Freud’s Free Association Technique
Free association is the fundamental technique of addressing the unconscious in psychoanalysis. The method
allows patients to freely express their thoughts, feelings, and emotions without censoring themselves.
Commonly, the patient lies on a couch in the physician’s office and is made to feel very comfortable. This
lowers the patient’s guard and thus the ego’s guard, allowing the mind to truly express its reservations [14].
The goal is to elicit the unconscious thoughts and memories contributing to psychological distress [14]. The
theory behind free association is that unconscious thoughts and emotions may be painful, embarrassing, or
socially unacceptable and thus remain submerged in the unconscious [14]. The patient is lulled into a state
of comfort through free association, allowing these subconscious notions to come to light [14].

By bringing these unconscious thoughts and feelings into conscious awareness, the patient is allowed to
address them and understand why they may be experiencing distress from them. The therapist can
encourage the patient to talk about dreams, childhood memories, or anything that may bring the patient’s
underlying issues to conscious awareness [15]. The therapist must listen without interrupting or imposing
their own ideas, thus creating a safe space to express themselves openly and speak honestly [15].

Free association is not without its limitations and criticism. One of the criticisms of free association is that
it relies too much on the therapist’s ability to interpret the patient’s unconscious thoughts and feelings.
This is subjective, and different therapists may interpret the exact words or phrases differently [16]. Take, for
instance, a dream depicting a tiger pursuing a gazelle in the depths of the jungle. One therapist might
interpret the tiger as a symbol of the patient’s personal strength and confidence, while another therapist
could perceive the gazelle as a representation of the patient’s apprehension regarding vulnerability to
external forces. Determining which interpretation is objectively accurate is inherently elusive if not

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 impossible. Another challenge with free association is that it is time-consuming and arduous. Patients may
struggle to access their unconscious thoughts, feelings, and/or emotions, and it may take several months or
even years to express themselves honestly and freely [16]. Despite these limitations, free association
remains a fascinating approach to both therapy and addressing the unconscious. While it has limitations,
free association remains an interesting tool in treating psychological disorders. It is a pivotal technique used
by Sigmund Freud and other followers of psychoanalysis [15].

The Oedipal complex

First proposed by Sigmund Freud, the Oedipal complex is an essential concept within psychoanalysis.
According to Freud, the Oedipal complex is a psychological phenomenon occurring between three and six in
otherwise healthy children [17]. This desire is theorized to originate from the child’s need to satisfy sexual
instincts, which are repressed by social norms and familial expectations [18-20]. It represents a child’s
unconscious desire to own the same-sex parent and eliminate the other, whom they view as competition.
The child develops hostility, jealousy, and anger toward the same-sex parent while experiencing love and
sexual attraction toward the parent of the opposite sex [18-20].

The Oedipal complex has been criticized and debated outside and within the psychoanalytic community.
Some argue that the Oedipal complex is a culturally specific concept that does not apply to all societies, and
it reinforces gender stereotypes and heteronormativity [21]. Despite the ongoing debate, the Oedipal
complex remains a central concept in psychoanalytic theory and continues to shift and influence the
understanding of human psychology, desire, and development [21].

The tripartite theory of the psyche

The id represents our primitive impulses and desires, including sexual and aggressive urges. According to
Freud, the id is the source of our unconscious thoughts and wishes and operates on the principle of
immediate gratification [22]. For instance, consider a situation where one child observes another child
enjoying their favorite snack. In response, the first child impulsively snatches the snack and swiftly
consumes it. This impulsive act reflects the id’s instincts and desires. On the other hand, the ego serves as
the rational and conscious aspect of the psyche, acting as a mediator between the id’s demands and the
realities of the external world [22]. Its role is to satisfy the id’s needs in a socially acceptable manner,
avoiding negative consequences. In our previous example, the child witnessing another child devouring their
favorite snack would refrain from forcibly taking it, as doing so would result in punishment from an
authority figure. Instead, the child might negotiate, offering a piece of their own snack in exchange for a
portion of the other child’s snack, thus achieving their goal in a socially acceptable manner. Lastly, the
superego symbolizes the internalization of societal norms and values [23]. It functions as a moral compass,
determining right from wrong based on cultural and ethical standards. The superego enforces moral
principles and may elicit feelings of guilt or shame when one’s actions violate those standards [22,23]. In the
hypothetical scenario, the child may be tempted to steal the snack but recalls the moral teachings of their
favorite cartoon character, which emphasizes that stealing is morally wrong. As a result, the child refrains
from stealing the snack, influenced by the cultural impact of their beloved cartoon character [23].

Some argue that Freud’s tripartite theory oversimplifies human thought and behavior [24]. According to his
theory, only three components underlie all the behavior a person will ever exhibit in their lifetime. His
theory does not allow change or growth as an individual would continuously operate on at least one of these
three principles [24]. According to Freud’s theory, humans are inherently selfish creatures who are always
trying to manipulate a situation to attain their desires that will not bring punishment or pain [23-25].
Despite these criticisms, the id, ego, and superego concept contributes significantly to psychoanalysis [24]. It
emphasizes the dynamic relationship between our primitive desires, rational consciousness, and societal
norms. While it has been criticized for its narrow focus and deterministic view of the human psyche, it
remains a significant contribution to psychoanalysis.

The secret world of dreams: Sigmund Freud’s interpretation and

analysis
“The Interpretation of Dreams” (published in 1899) is considered one of the most influential books. In “The
Interpretation of Dreams,” Freud provides insights into his theories about the mechanisms that underlie the
unconscious mind [25]. He argued that the content of dreams is symbolic and that it is necessary to decode
the symbolism to understand what the dream truly represents [25].

For Freud, dreams are a way for people to address their unconscious wishes. These wishes are unacceptable
to our conscious mind and thus remain trapped in the recesses of the subconscious [26]. During sleep, the
boundary between consciousness and unconsciousness becomes blurred, and therefore, we are allowed to
address our repressed emotions within our dreams [26,27]. Freud believed that the manifest content of the
dream (what we remember upon waking) was a disguise for the latent content (the true meaning of the
dream) [26]. For example, in a dream where a person is flying, flight represents the desire to escape from a
difficult situation or a yearning to experience freedom. A dream about a mouse might represent repressed
feelings of inadequacy or weakness compared to others. Freud argued that dreams are a means of processing

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 unresolved psychological conflicts. Thus, for Freud, dreams are a form of therapy that allows people to work
through their difficult emotions and subconscious issues in the comfort of their own beds [26,27].

Unlike his other theories, Freud’s dream interpretation theory was the center of controversy. Some argued
that his ideas were too focused on sexual desires and his approach was too subjective to the interpreter [27].
How can one tell if a dream has some deep underlying meaning or is just a dream? Others questioned the
validity of interpreting dreams as a means of uncovering unconscious thoughts and emotions [27]. Like the
tiger stalking the gazelle example discussed earlier, two therapists may interpret the same dream differently.
There is no objective way to determine whose interpretation is correct. Despite these criticisms, Freud’s
theory of dream interpretation remains a significant contribution to psychoanalysis. It has been used to gain
insights into the workings of the unconscious mind and to treat various psychological disorders, including
anxiety, depression, and post-traumatic stress disorder [27].

Going rogue with the mind: the psychoanalytical mavericks who

challenged Freud
In the 1950s, psychoanalysis was not only established as its own discipline but was now being taken to new
frontiers. Freud’s original ideas were challenged and built upon by a new generation of psychoanalytical
theorists, including Carl Jung, Alfred Adler, Erik Erikson, and Karen Horney. These theorists emphasized
different aspects of the human unconscious. The unconscious was used to address the mental health
concerns of patients worldwide. In addition, therapy and healing became a central aspect of psychoanalysis.

Jung vs. Freud: even the deepest relationships cannot escape the
idiosyncrasies of the ego
Carl Jung (1875-1961) was a Swiss psychiatrist, psychoanalyst, and former student of Freud who developed
his own Analytical Psychology theory. While he was initially a follower of Sigmund Freud, his ideas
eventually diverged from Freud’s, and the two men had a falling out [28]. Jung viewed classical
psychoanalysis as a perspective that does not foster individual growth, nor did it provide the framework for
the commonality of all people. Analytical Psychology is a psychological theory and framework that explores
the collective unconscious, archetypes, and the process of Individuation [28,29]. Carl Jung recognized the
existence of a shared reservoir of universal human experiences and symbols, known as the collective
unconscious, which influences our thoughts, feelings, and behaviors through archetypes [30,31].
Individuation, a central concept in Jungian psychology, involves integrating both conscious and unconscious
aspects of one’s personality to achieve wholeness and self-realization [31]. Like Freud, Jung saw dreams as a
gateway to the unconscious mind [28]. Overall, Jungian psychology offers a holistic approach to
understanding the human mind. Jung’s approach fosters personal growth and embraces a journey toward
self-discovery. The following section will highlight the similarities and differences between Analytical
Psychology and Freud’s Classical Psychoanalysis.

Similarities Between Jung’s Analytical Psychology and Psychoanalysis

The importance of the unconscious: Both Jung and Freud agreed that the unconscious mind plays a vital role
in shaping our behaviors and experiences. They also believed that unconscious conflicts lead to
psychological distress. Finally, they agreed that exploring the unconscious through free association could
lead to spiritual and psychological healing [28]. While sharing these foundational beliefs with Sigmund
Freud, Jung expanded upon them and introduced his own distinctive concepts. Jung argued that the
unconscious had various aspects and was not solely driven by sexual motivations, as proposed by Freud.
Rather the existence of a collective unconscious, a reservoir of shared human experiences, emotions, and
symbols that shape our thoughts and behaviors through archetypes (we will discuss archetypes shortly),
explained much of our behavior, if not all [29]. He saw the unconscious as a rich source of wisdom,
creativity, and spiritual insight. Freud’s focus on repressed memories and painful truths about ourselves
vastly differed from Jung’s, who explored the deepest layers of the psyche to integrate and harmonize
conscious and unconscious aspects of one’s self to achieve personal growth and wholeness [29]. Jung’s views
on the unconscious were not limited to pathology. Still, they encompassed a broader approach to
understanding the human mind and its relation to universal themes, the cosmos, and archetypal patterns
[29].

The use of dream analysis: Both Jung and Freud agreed that dreams are a window into the unconscious mind.
They also decided that analyzing the symbols and themes within someone’s dreams could uncover repressed
thoughts and feelings causing pain and strife in that person’s life [28]. Carl Jung was profoundly interested
in dream analysis. His exploration of the unconscious through dream analysis was driven by his desire to
bridge a gap between religion and science [29]. In his book “Memories, Dreams, Reflections,” Jung discusses
how religion, science, and the unconscious are intertwined. He compares the term “the unconscious” with
Gods, religions, and numinosity that have been present throughout human history [29]. Jung acknowledges
that certain experiences, such as dreams and inspirations, arise spontaneously and cannot be attributed
solely to conscious effort. He suggested that these experiences emanate from the human psyche, a demon, a
god, or the unconscious [29]. Jung believed that the unconscious contains an unknown realm, parallel to

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 reality as we know it, a vast expanse beneath the surface of consciousness. He acknowledged the limitations
of scientific knowledge about the unconscious and the futility of objectively studying the workings of the
unconscious. Like Freud, Jung’s approach to dream analysis sought to uncover the deeper meanings and
symbolic messages embedded in dreams, considering them valuable sources of insight into the unconscious
aspects of the individual’s psyche [29]. He embraced the subjective nature of dream analysis and accepted
that although not perfect, it offers much to the therapist in addressing the psychological issues of their
patients [29].

The emphasis on the therapist-patient relationship: Both Jung and Freud believed that the relationship
between therapist and patient was key to the success of psychotherapy. They agreed that the therapist is a
guide to help navigate unconscious conflicts and promote healing [28]. Carl Jung heavily emphasized the
therapeutic alliance. He saw the relationship between the therapist and the patient as a crucial determinant
for facilitating healing and growth. According to Jung, the therapist’s ability to establish a strong connection
and rapport with the patient is paramount for a successful therapeutic process. He believed that a trusting
and collaborative alliance allows the patient to feel safe, understood, and supported, creating a conducive
environment for exploration and self-discovery [29]. His stress on creating a safe haven for patients to
express themselves freely goes hand in hand with Freud’s free association.

Emphasis on the therapeutic alliance as a partnership is central to analytical therapy. The therapist must
provide guidance, support, and overall compassion. Encouraging active engagement is crucial to success,
according to Jung [28,29]. He underscored the value of empathy, listening actively, and caring. By
demonstrating respect, acceptance, and a non-judgmental attitude, the therapist creates an environment
that allows the patient to freely express their thoughts, real feelings, and true emotions [29]. The similarities
between Freud’s emphasis on creating a safe environment and Jung’s emphasis on empathy highlight that
Jung’s theories, although unique from Freud’s, remain rooted in classical psychoanalysis. Jung also believed
that the therapeutic alliance provides the foundation for exploring the unconscious aspects of the patient’s
psyche. He recognized that the unconscious holds valuable insights and symbols that can shed light on the
patient’s inner world. Through collaboration and trust, the therapist can guide the patient into navigating
and understanding the facets of their psyche. Ultimately uncovering hidden patterns, unresolved conflicts,
and potentiating self-growth were the goals of Carl Jung [29].

Differences Between Jung’s Analytical Psychology and Psychoanalysis

The structure of the psyche: While both Jung and Freud emphasized the importance of the unconscious
mind, they disagreed about its structure. Freud saw the psyche as consisting of the id, ego, and superego (as
discussed earlier). Jung, in contrast, saw the psyche as consisting of three different layers: the conscious, the
personal unconscious, and the collective unconscious. According to Jung, the conscious mind is just the tip
of the iceberg and is limited in its ability to understand our true nature [29]. The conscious is what we are
actively aware of and thinking about at the moment. The personal unconscious is the second layer of
consciousness, which consists of all the experiences, memories, and feelings that are not within our
immediate awareness. For example, a person may have an upsetting and recurring dream which initially
appears to have no meaning. However, upon exploration in analytical therapy, the meaning behind this
recurring dream may be discovered and addressed. This idea is very similar to Freud’s latent and manifest
dreams. The personal unconscious also includes forgotten memories, repressed thoughts, and feelings we
have not fully processed or are ready to acknowledge. Jung believed that the personal unconscious is a
fundamental part of our psyche that could house the positive and negative components of the self [29]. The
third and deepest layer of consciousness is the collective unconscious. Here we find the archetypes, symbols,
and universal experiences that all humans share, regardless of dominion. Here, according to Jung, is the
foundation of human thinking. It is the source of our deepest spiritual and creative impulses and what
defines us as humans [29]. Jung believed that the collective unconscious was responsible for producing
myths, fairy tales, and other universal symbols found in cultures and civilizations worldwide. Even day-to-
day interactions can be explained with Jung’s theory. For example, a traffic light that uses green to
symbolize go and red to symbolize stop may be defined by some deeply shared human positive emotion
toward the color green and reservation to the color red. He believed that by tapping into this deeper layer of
consciousness, individuals could better understand their psyche and the world around them [29].

What motivates people: Freud believed that repressed sexual desires universally lead to psychological
distress and are the primary motivation source for human behavior [12,13]. Analytical psychologists argue
that sexual desire is just one aspect of a broader human desire termed “Life Energy.” While acknowledging
that sexual conflicts may be a source of distress, Jungian psychologists do not see sexual desire as the
essential source of conflict for most people [28,29]. Instead, Life Energy is the primary psychic need that
motivates us all to grow and pursue fulfilling lives [30]. Jung saw Life Energy as the fundamental aspect that
drives individuals toward self-realization and wholeness [29]. Life Energy encompasses all forms of psychic
energy, including creative needs, spiritual pursuits, and intelligence desires [28,29]. Jung saw the expression
of life energy as being closely tied to a process he termed “Individuation,” which involves the integration of
all aspects of self to reach a state of peace and tranquility [29]. He believed that Life Energy drives all
humans toward pursuing Individuation. Life Energy manifests itself in various ways, such as creative
pursuits, meaningful relationships, and spiritual practice. Jung saw the suppression of Life Energy as
harmful to our well-being. People who suppress their Life Energy may experience physical or psychological

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 symptoms [28,29]. Thus, unlike Freud, who viewed the unconscious as a place of shame and distress for his
patients, Jung saw the unconscious as a gateway to reaching a state of Individuation or idealistic self.

Archetypes: According to Carl Jung, archetypes are recurring universal human experience themes rooted
within the collective unconscious [29]. Archetypes represent fundamental aspects of human existence, such
as characters, symbols, or situations, and they are shared across different cultures and periods [30,31]. For
example, weddings have occurred in cultures worldwide despite no prior interaction between most cultures.
It would seem then that getting married is a normal aspect of being human, which is shared among the
collective unconscious of all people. Archetypes, therefore, arise from the innate psychological
predispositions of humankind. They can manifest in arts, religion, literature, mythology, and poetry [32]. For
example, the “Hero Archetype” has existed in numerous cultures throughout history. This is the story of a
protagonist who must accomplish a quest to attain a goal, from Babylon’s Gilgamesh to today’s Hollywood
movies. No culture has ever existed without a story that involves the “Hero Archetype.” Archetypes provide
organizing patterns of thinking that shape our thoughts. Archetypes reflect shared human nature, providing
a framework for interpreting the world [32]. By recognizing and working with archetypes, psychologists can
gain insight into integrating shared unconscious elements into conscious awareness to provide effective
therapy [30-32].

Individuation: Individuation is a central theme in analytical psychology. It refers to the psychological

process of integrating all the aspects of oneself and thus realizing one’s true potential [31]. It requires
putting together the conscious and unconscious elements of the mind. For Individuation to occur, one must
strive to develop a unique identity and establish a harmony between conscious thoughts and unconscious
desires and instincts [31,32]. It is a lifelong process that involves self-reflection, self-discovery, and self-
acceptance, in that order [31]. Individuation goes beyond conforming to societal expectations. Jung
highlights the need to explore inner depths and integrate the repressed aspects of the self no matter how
shameful [31]. Through Individuation, individuals become more self-aware and authentic. The ultimate goal
is to become in tune with oneself and one’s purpose. It is a journey of transformation that leads to personal
fulfillment and a more meaningful life [30-33]. Although Sigmund Freud did acknowledge the importance of
personal growth, he differed from Jung’s concept of Individuation. Freud’s goal was to alleviate
psychological distress through the process of psychoanalysis. He never emphasized achieving a sense of
wholeness or integration of the self [29,29,33].

While Carl Jung was initially a follower of Sigmund Freud, he eventually developed his theory of analytical
psychology and quickly diverged from Freud’s classical psychoanalysis. While there are a few similarities
between the two, such as the emphasis on the unconscious and the use of dream analysis, there were also
poignant differences, such as their views on what drives humans, the structure of the psyche, the concept of
self, and the ultimate goal of humans. Freud emphasized the significance of sexual desire for driving human
nature, but Carl Jung disagreed. He believed sexual needs were a small part of a vast human desire called Life
Energy. Life Energy is the desire to attain Individuation, a state of self-realization. Individuation occurs
when the collective unconscious, personal unconscious, and conscious work harmoniously to acknowledge
all aspects of oneself.

The battle of Vienna: Adler vs. Freud - feelings of inferiority

Alfred Adler (1870-1937) was an Austrian psychiatrist, psychotherapist, and former student of Sigmund
Freud. Like Jung, he developed his theory rooted in psychoanalysis, known as Individual Psychology. Adler
began as a follower of Sigmund Freud. Similarly to Jung, he eventually developed his approach to
psychoanalysis. Individual Psychology emphasizes the holistic nature of people and considers the interplay
between the psychological, biological, and cultural factors for shaping feelings, thoughts, and cognition.
Adler emphasizes the importance of understanding an individual’s perspective to explain why they are the
way they are [34,35]. The Adlerian theory emphasizes personal growth and self-improvement, similar to
Jungian psychology. Individual psychology, however, highlights the concept of inferiority and superiority in
an individual’s development [34]. Adler heavily emphasized negative feelings from childhood stemming into
the strife individuals experience in adulthood. Individual psychology offers a unique framework for
understanding individuals as striving beings influenced by their social environments [34,35]. In this
response, we will summarize Adler’s research concerning psychoanalysis, highlighting both the similarities
and differences between the two approaches.

Similarities Between Adler’s Individual Psychology and Psychoanalysis

The importance of childhood experiences: Both Adler and Freud agreed that early childhood experiences
shape personality, self-image, and behavior in adulthood. They agreed that the therapist should help the
patient explore and understand early life experiences to gain insight into their current strife [34]. Adler, just
like Freud, saw childhood as pivotal. He recognized that early interactions with caregivers and the social
environment impact a person’s sense of self-worth and ability to navigate life’s obstacles [34]. Adler, unlike
Freud, highlighted the importance of empowering children to develop a sense of competence, confidence,
and mastery of tasks. He encouraged children to overcome feelings of inferiority and contribute positively
to society. Adler’s holistic approach to childhood and development emphasized the interplay between social
dynamics, individual aspirations, and the cultivation of social interest as crucial factors in promoting

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 healthy psychological growth [34].

The use of free association: Both Adler and Freud used free association to access the unconscious thoughts
of their patients. They both agreed that exploring the unconscious aspects of the mind could lead to greater
self-awareness and, ultimately, healing [34]. Through Adler’s observations of children affected by “organic
deficiencies” (physical handicaps), he established his theories on Superiority and Inferiority. He found that
children who experienced physical limitations needed to compensate and achieve a feeling of superiority
over other children [35]. This striving for superiority propelled them to take on more significant challenges
in life and perceive the world as enemy territory [35]. For example, someone with no arms walking behind
you may be offended that you opened the door for them despite being willing to open it for anyone.
Perceiving that you opened that door for them because of their organic deficiency, they would be more
inclined to take on the challenge of opening the door themselves than someone with arms to prove they can.
Many of the actions these children performed became part of their adaptive response to their deficiency
[35]. According to Adler, these children quickly and firmly established defensive and offensive attitudes,
developing antagonistic behaviors such as fighting, hesitating, stopping, and pushing [35]. Adler argued that
through intense focus on themselves and their flaws, they tend to be egocentric, lacking social empathy,
courage, and self-confidence, as they fear defeat more than they desire success [35]. These children actively
sought out favorable situations while creating barriers to avoid confronting challenges that they may not be
able to surpass [35]. These children, burdened by the inferiority of their organs, became strongly influenced
by the darker aspects of life [35]. In his therapeutic work, Adler utilized free association to explore and
unravel these unconscious dynamics, helping these children gain insight into their thought patterns and
strategies for compensating for their deficiencies, ultimately supporting them in developing a healthier and
more socially connected life [34-36].

The therapeutic relationship: Adler, Jung, and Freud agreed that therapeutic alliance is critical to success
and change in at-risk children. They also all agreed that the therapist must establish trust and nurture a
relationship based on openness and willingness to communicate. He underscored facilitating a safe space for
exploration and growth [34,35]. According to Adler, the importance of a therapeutic alliance extends beyond
the boundaries of the therapist and patient. Adler believed that therapists, social workers, and teachers all
play roles in addressing the psychological issues of children and thus must work together as a team [35].
Therapists can guide children toward a more hopeful future by establishing a strong partnership with
parents and collaborating with teachers. This future fosters the growth of individuals who have become
accountable, aware, and willing to give back to society [35]. Adler’s emphasis on the therapeutic alliance
highlights the need for a community effort to shape the development of children [35].

Differences Between Adler’s Individual Psychology and Psychoanalysis

The drive of human nature: Freud saw sexual desire as the primary motivation of human behavior. Jung saw
Life Energy as the ultimate drive, but Adler believed that striving for superiority was humankind’s primary
motivation. Individual psychology sees people as inherently needing to overcome feelings of inferiority. Just
like Jung, Adler acknowledged that sexual problems could be a source of psychological distress at times. He
did not emphasize them [35,36]. He believed that people are motivated by a need to overcome their feelings
of inferiority and thus strive for superiority. He termed this ambition the “will to power.” According to Adler,
everyone experiences a sense of inferiority stemming from childhood experiences of inadequacy compared to
others [36]. For example, a child who failed a math test would experience feelings of inferiority and would
work extra hard to do well on the next math test to achieve a feeling of superiority. If the child continues to
do poorly in math, they will carry on through life, avoiding math problems, thus preventing that feeling of
being inferior. Therefore, feeling of inferiority provides all people with two choices, strive to become
superior or avoid that obstacle that once made them feel inferior [36].

The concept of the unconscious: While both Adler and Freud believed in the importance of the unconscious
mind, they disagreed about its structure. Freud saw the unconscious as a repository for repressed thoughts
and feelings that were too painful to be brought into consciousness. Adler believed the unconscious is a
source of creativity and problem-solving, unlike Jung [37]. Adler did not see the need to distinguish between
the conscious and unconscious realms clearly [37]. He recognized the fluidity between levels of awareness,
whereby what may initially seem unconscious can be raised to consciousness through effective therapy or
when it becomes relevant and necessary. Many things remain unconscious because they are not immediately
appropriate or needed in conscious awareness. However, these unconscious elements can be brought into
consciousness when required. Adler understood that individuals tend to focus on and consider only those
aspects supporting their self-enhancement goals. Elements disturbing or challenging their viewpoint are
often left aside in the unconscious [37]. For Adler, the conscious mind becomes a source of encouragement,
while the unconscious holds what might disrupt or hinder the individual’s perspective. The individual’s
lifestyle, to some extent, reflects the degree of narrow or broad focus in their awareness. A narrow focus may
disregard or suppress aspects not aligning with their goals.

In contrast, a more general perspective allows for a more comprehensive understanding and integration of
conscious and unconscious elements [35]. Adler’s views on the unconscious align with his holistic
assessment of the individual. He believed the mind could not be divided into separate and antagonistic
halves of the conscious and unconscious. Instead, consciousness and unconsciousness are directed by the

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 individual’s fictional final goal, representing their ultimate purpose and self-enhancement [38]. Self-
enhancement in this accord is not unlike his contemporary Carl Jung’s “Individuation,” both goals being
continued self-improvement [31,32].

While there are similarities between self-enhancement and Individuation regarding personal growth, there
are also nuances. Self-enhancement focuses on overcoming feelings of inferiority [37], emphasizing building
a sense of superiority [37]. In contrast, Individuation is all about self-discovery and the journey to self-
realization. Wholeness is established through incorporating all aspects of oneself [31,32]. Adler and Jung
recognized the importance of self-actualization and fulfilling one’s potential. Ultimately, self-enhancement
and Individuation represent two different approaches to growth. Self-enhancement focused on personal
achievement and superiority, and Individuation focused on self-discovery, integration, and wholeness.

The concept of the self: Adler did not use the term “self” as Jung did. However, he agreed that people have a
fundamental sense of self shaped by interactions with others and experiences. Thus, Adler saw the goal of
therapy as helping others develop a more positive sense of self and enabling them to overcome feelings of
inferiority [34-36]. Adler’s concept of self emphasizes the indivisibility of the mind rejecting a notion of a
boundary between the conscious and unconscious. Instead, both are guided by the individual’s final goal,
which drives their decision-making [37]. According to Adler, the opposition between conscious and
unconscious impulses is merely a difference in means, with both aspects ultimately working toward
enhancing the self. He argued that there is fluidity between levels of awareness. Thus, at one time, the
unconscious may be raised to consciousness when necessary [37]. Adler recognizes that not everything must
be consciously attended to at all times. Certain thoughts and feelings may remain unconscious until they
become relevant or required to undergo a course of action [37]. The conscious mind focuses on thoughts,
feelings, and experiences that support and reinforce the patient. The unconscious mind possesses ideas and
feelings that disrupt or challenge their perspective of themselves [37]. Overall, Adler’s self-concept
highlights the interconnectedness of conscious and unconscious processes. The fluidity between these levels
of awareness suggests that unconscious elements can be made conscious, and a comprehensive
understanding of the self can be achieved through effective therapy and self-reflection.

Alfred Adler and Sigmund Freud were two of the most influential figures in the development of modern
psychology, yet their theories differed significantly. While Freud focused on the unconscious mind and the
role of instinctual drives, Adler saw the importance of needing to feel superior. While working with children
with organic deficiency, Adler noticed that these children strived to put themselves in situations where they
could feel superior and avoid problems that made them feel inferior [35]. His observations led Adler to
believe that all people have feelings of inferiority that stem from childhood. Adler also emphasized the self
more than Freud did. Adler believed that by combining the positive ideas of one’s self from the conscious
mind and negative aspects from the unconscious mind, one could reach enlightenment and self-awareness.

Emphasizing stages: Erikson and Freud’s views on personality

development
Erik Erikson (1902-1994) was a psychologist who built on Freud’s theories and developed his approach to
psychosocial development. Erikson states that we all must overcome eight stages of development. These
stages encompass a range of challenges, such as establishing trust with caregivers, overwhelming feelings of
guilt, forming an identity, and accomplishing autonomy. The Eriksonian theory emphasizes achieving a
healthy balance between societal demands and our own needs. Thus, he focuses on the societal and cultural
factors that influence us at every point of our lives [38]. Each stage is characterized by a specific crisis that
individuals must resolve to mature and become successful and content with life [39,40]. By addressing the
psychosocial challenges of each stage, individuals have an opportunity to establish a fulfilling life. We will
summarize Erikson’s theory, highlighting the similarities and differences between him and Freud [38].

Similarities Between Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory and Psychoanalysis

The importance of early childhood experiences: Like Freud, Erikson agreed that early childhood experiences
have a lasting impact on personality development. Like Freud, he emphasized the importance of the first few
years of life in shaping a person’s sense of self [38-40]. Classical psychoanalytic theory heavily emphasizes
childhood experience, particularly the psychosexual stages [14]. Freud argued that the experiences of the
first few years of life, especially interactions with parents or caregivers, ultimately shape an individual’s
personality [14]. Erikson expanded on Freud’s emphasis on psychosexual development to encompass a
lifelong journey with stages marked by developmental tasks. Erikson did agree with Freud in regards to
childhood experiences being pivotal. However, he extended the focus to include the entire lifespan [38]. They
both agreed and recognized that early childhood experiences impact an individual’s psychological
development and personality. They believed unresolved conflicts or challenges during these formative years
could lead to long-term consequences [38,39]. Freud focused on the sexual drives that occurred during
infancy and early childhood, but Erikson believed every stage of life has its own drive, and these drives
extend passed just early childhood [14].

The influence of the unconscious mind: While Erikson acknowledged the existence of the unconscious and

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 believed it does play some role in processing information, he did not focus on it or speak about it much [40].
Unlike Freud, Jung, and Adler, Erikson was indifferent to the unconscious processes. He did not acknowledge
them much in his developmental theory. For Erikson, the conscious mind plays a prominent role, and
unconscious processes are irrelevant at best [40]. Erikson believed that individuals actively engage in self-
discovery and identity formation, which involves conscious reflection [40]. While Erikson did not dismiss the
existence of unconscious influence, he placed heavier emphasis on conscious awareness and how this
conscious awareness allowed for integrating social and cultural factors [40].

Differences Between Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory and Psychoanalysis

The drive of human nature: According to Freud, humans are driven by sexual urges, particularly in
childhood. Erikson disagreed. For Erikson, every part of life presents its own unique challenge that causes
people to purpose [40]. Erikson’s theory focused more on social and emotional development than the sexual
aspects emphasized by Freud [41]. However, a stage in Erikson’s view is often associated with Freud’s
emphasis on sexuality, and that is Erikson’s “Identity vs. Role Confusion” stage, which occurs during
adolescence (12 to 18 years old). During Erikson’s Identity vs. Role Confusion stage, adolescents explore
their identities, trying to establish a sense of self and figure out their place in society [42]. This stage is
characterized by the search for a cohesive identity, including exploring one’s sexual and gender identity.
Thus, while Erikson did not emphasize sexual development as Freud did, this stage does involve exploring
sexual and romantic relationships, which, in a way, can be seen as parallel to Freud’s focus on sexual
development [42].

The focus on social and cultural influences: Erikson emphasized the role of social and cultural factors in
shaping personality development. Freud rarely acknowledged or spoke about the role of society or culture in
his theoretical approach. Erikson believed that a person’s social context played a significant role in shaping
identity [40]. The fourth stage, “Industry vs. Inferiority,” exemplifies the cultural focus in development. This
stage occurs between the ages of six and 12 [42]. In the Industry vs. Inferiority stage, children develop a
sense of competence in various social and academic settings. The child must strive to acquire new skills,
accomplish tasks, and receive recognition and praise from others. A parallel between Adler’s Will to Power
can be seen in this stage, as the child must strive to feel superior at this point in their life.

Interestingly, many of the children that Adler worked with were between the ages of six and 12 when he
initially formulated his theory [35]. According to Erkison [42], this stage is crucial for developing self-
esteem. Culture significantly influences the activities and expectations during this stage. Educational
systems, societal norms, and cultural practices shape the tasks and activities children are encouraged to
pursue. Cultural factors also influence the standards against which children measure their competence.
Cultural values, beliefs, and social comparisons shape children’s perceptions of success or failure. By
acknowledging the role of culture in the Industry vs. Inferiority stage, Erikson’s theory recognizes that
cultural contexts influence children’s socialization and self-evaluation [42].

The emphasis on stages of development: Erikson’s theory proposes eight stages of psychosocial
development, each characterized by a particular crisis or challenge that must be resolved for them to
progress to the next stage [42]. These stages are influenced by social factors such as family, peers, cultural
norms, and the individual’s personality and temperament. For example, in the first stage of psychosocial
development, trust vs. mistrust, infants must learn to trust their caregivers to develop a sense of security
and basic trust in the world around them [42]. If caregivers are consistently responsive and meet the infant’s
needs, the child will develop a sense of trust, influencing their future relationships and sense of self.
However, if caregivers are unresponsive or inconsistent, the child may develop a sense of mistrust, which
could lead to future difficulties in forming trusting relationships.

Similarly, in the fifth stage of psychosocial development, identity vs. role confusion, adolescents must
navigate the challenges of identity formation and establish a sense of self-consistent with their cultural and
social context [42]. If adolescents can successfully integrate their personal values and goals with the
expectations of their social environment, they will develop a sense of identity and purpose. However, they
may experience confusion and a lack of direction if they cannot do so. According to Erikson, each of the
eight stages of development has its own unique set of challenges [42].

Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development proposed eight stages of development, each characterized by
a particular crisis or challenge that must be resolved to progress to the next stage. Unlike Freud, Erikson
believed that development continues throughout the lifespan and that successful resolution of these stages
leads to a more integrated sense of self. Additionally, Erikson’s theory emphasized the potential for personal
growth and change throughout the lifespan rather than the fixed nature of personality proposed by Freud.
While Freud stresses the role of the unconscious mind and the importance of sexual and aggressive drives in
shaping personality, Erikson believed that social and cultural factors played a more significant role.

Beyond the Oedipus complex: Horney’s feminist challenge to Freudian

psychoanalysis

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 Karen Horney (1885-1952) was a psychoanalyst who developed her own theories about the unconscious
influences and mechanisms that shape and ultimately determine behavior [43]. Horneyian psychology offers
an alternative perspective from traditional psychoanalysis. Like Erikson and Jung, she emphasized the
influence of cultural elements that lead to internal conflict [43]. Horney introduced the “interpersonal
theory.” She highlights the importance of early relationships in shaping someone's personality [44]. In this
regard, social and cultural context is crucial in understanding human behavior and the emergence of what
she termed “neurotic patterns.” At the core of Horney’s theory is “basic anxiety.” Individuals develop a
fundamental sense of insecurity and anxiety during their early years due to feelings of helplessness and
vulnerability, similar to Adler’s inferiority complex [44,45]. According to Horney, we are all imprinted with
certain gender roles, which leads to feelings of internal strife. This anxiety influences the individual’s
subsequent psychological development and contributes to the formation of neurotic behaviors to cope with
the stressors of day-to-day living.

Similarities Between Karen Horney’s Theory and Psychoanalysis

The importance of early childhood experiences: Like all the other psychoanalysts we discussed, Horney
agreed that early childhood experiences play a significant role in shaping a person [43]. Unlike Freud, who
emphasized the influence of unconscious drives, conflicts, and sexual development [1-3], Horney focused on
the impact of gender roles and sexuality in forming an individual’s sense of self and their relationship to
society [43,44].

Karen Horney and Sigmund Freud share similarities in their views on the unconscious [1-3,43,44]. Both
psychologists acknowledged the existence of the unconscious mind, recognizing that individuals are not
always aware of the motivations, desires, and conflicts that drive their thoughts and behaviors. They agreed
that the unconscious significantly influences human behavior, shaping aspects of personality, emotional
experiences, and the formation of psychological symptoms [43,44]. While their theories diverged in specific
mechanisms and influences on the unconscious, such as cultural and social factors in Horney’s approach
versus innate drives in Freud’s theory, they recognized the importance of exploring and understanding the
unconscious to gain insight into human psychology [43,44].

Differences Between Karen Horney’s Theory and Psychoanalysis

The role of culture and society: Horney believed that cultural and societal factors played a significant role in
shaping personality, whereas Freud’s psychoanalytic theory focused primarily on the individual psyche. She
emphasized the importance of social influences such as gender roles, cultural norms, and societal
expectations in shaping a person's sense of self [43,44]. Horney believed that women, in particular, are
socialized to adopt submissive and nurturing roles, which can lead to feelings of inferiority and helplessness
down the line [43]. Women are often taught to prioritize the needs of others over their own, which can lead
to a lack of self-esteem and a sense of being powerless or dependent on others. Horney believed that this
cultural conditioning could lead to the development of what she called “feminine psychology,” which is
characterized by a preoccupation with love, relationships, and the desire for approval from others [44].
Women who internalize these cultural messages may struggle with insecurity and self-doubt, affecting their
sense of self and ability to achieve their goals [43,44]. Horney also believed that men are subject to cultural
expectations and that traditional male gender roles can lead to emotional detachment and a need to prove
oneself through competition and achievement. Men may struggle with feelings of isolation and a sense of
disconnection from their emotions, which can affect their ability to form intimate relationships and achieve
a sense of fulfillment in their lives [43,44]. Karen Horney and Alfred Adler had contrasting views on the
concept of inferiority while sharing some similarities. Horney believed that feelings of inferiority stem from
societal pressures and parental attitudes, leading to inadequacy and insecurity [44,45]. She emphasized the
role of external validation and success as compensatory strategies to overcome these feelings.

In contrast, Adler viewed inferiority as an inherent part of the human condition, driving individuals to strive
for superiority and personal growth. He emphasized the importance of overcoming inferiority through
developing a sense of community and contributing to society [35,36]. Both theorists recognized the impact
of childhood experiences on the development of inferiority. Still, Horney focused more on cultural and
social influences, while Adler emphasized individual psychology and the pursuit of social interest.

The role of anxiety: Horney placed a greater emphasis on the role of anxiety in shaping behavior and
personality than Freud did. She believed anxiety was a normal and necessary part of life and could be
harnessed to promote growth and change [45]. Horney developed the concept of “basic anxiety,” which refers
to a deep-seated feeling of insecurity and helplessness that arises from early childhood experiences. Basic
anxiety can lead to neurosis and other psychological problems if not addressed. Horney believed that basic
anxiety was a pervasive sense of vulnerability and insecurity from early childhood experiences, such as
neglect, rejection, or criticism from caregivers [45]. This basic anxiety can become a central aspect of an
individual’s personality and affect their relationships, sense of self, and ability to cope with stress.
According to Horney, there are several ways in which individuals may respond to basic anxiety. One
response is to seek security and protection from others, which can lead to a preoccupation with
relationships and a fear of rejection or abandonment. Another response is to develop a strong sense of

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 independence and self-sufficiency, which can lead to a fear of being controlled or dominated by others. A
third response is to become aggressive or domineering, which can be a defense against feelings of
helplessness and vulnerability [45].

The concept of neurotic needs: Horney identified the “neurotic needs” common to everyone and could lead
to neurosis if not addressed. These included the need for affection and approval, the need for power and
control, and the need for perfection as well as others [45]. According to Horney, neurotic needs are
compulsive desires or behaviors that individuals adopt to feel more secure and alleviate anxiety. These
needs are not based on genuine personal interests or values but rather on a perceived need to conform to the
expectations of others or to achieve a sense of control over their environment [45]. These needs can become
so ingrained in an individual’s personality that they interfere with their ability to form healthy relationships,
pursue personal interests, and achieve a sense of fulfillment in life. Horney believed that the development of
neurotic needs was influenced by early childhood experiences, particularly those that involved feelings of
neglect, rejection, or criticism from caregivers. These experiences can make individuals feel insecure and
vulnerable and adopt behaviors or attitudes that they believe will protect them from further harm [45].

The role of psychotherapy: Horney’s approach to psychotherapy differed significantly from traditional
psychoanalysis. She believed the therapist’s role was to create a supportive and empathic environment
where the client could explore and understand their emotions and experiences rather than interpret and
analyze the client’s unconscious motivations and conflicts [43,44].

Karen Horney and Sigmund Freud had significant differences in their personality and psychological
development theories. Freud emphasized the importance of innate drives and instincts in shaping an
individual’s psychological development. At the same time, Horney believed that an individual’s personality
was largely shaped by their social and cultural experiences, particularly their early relationships with
caregivers. Horney also differed from Freud’s views on gender and sexuality, emphasizing that gender roles
were socially constructed and influenced by cultural norms and expectations. Overall, while Freud’s theories
continue to be influential in modern psychology, Horney’s emphasis on the role of social and cultural
experiences in shaping an individual’s personality has had a lasting impact on psychology.

Strengths, limitations, and contributions of this study

One of the major strengths of this review paper is the comprehensive coverage of the major contributors to
the field of psychoanalysis and how their views contrast with the founder, Sigmund Freud. By exploring the
findings of these contributors, the reader is offered many unique perspectives and, thus, a broader
understanding of the field. However, a limitation of this review is its lack of detailed exploration of the
theories and concepts put forth by these major contributors. Due to the nature of the paper, which aims to
provide an overview of the history of psychoanalysis, it does not have the space to delve deeply into each
theorist’s work. Consequently, readers seeking an in-depth analysis of specific theories may use this review
as a starting place for their research and learning. We hope that this paper could put forth a framework for
what psychoanalysis is and where it came from. In addition, we hope to have sparked the reader’s interest to
further read and learn more about this fascinating psychology paradigm.

Conclusions
The theories of Sigmund Freud have laid a foundation for psychoanalytical psychology. Although the
thoughts and attitudes of his students differed from him, they remained grounded in psychoanalysis. All
four psychoanalysts we have discussed agree that childhood plays a significant role in development. Freud,
as we discussed earlier, emphasized the sexual nature of people and believed this was the most significant
factor in determining a person’s behavior and personality. Jung spoke about the collective unconscious and
the need for self-realization, a drive he termed “individuation.” In his theory, we all share a collective
unconscious and must use the archetypes of this collective unconscious with our consciousness to attain
self-realization. Adler had his version of self-realization, called “Will to Power.” Adler saw all people
needing to overcome feelings of inferiority from childhood to attain feelings of superiority in adulthood.
Erikson believed every life stage has unique challenges and drives to overcome negative feelings. Horney
emphasized the feelings of anxiety influencing our behavior and drives.

While Freud spoke of the id, ego, and superego in his theory of the unconscious, this was not a central theme
for his students. Jung highlighted the collective unconscious, a universal shared architecture of
understanding the world around us. Adler saw the unconscious and consciousness as more fluid than Freud
did. He believed people could more easily access the unconscious than Freud had originally postulated.
Erikson acknowledged the unconscious but was indifferent about it in his theoretical framework. Horney’s
view of the unconscious was very similar to Freud’s; however, she heavily emphasized how gender roles
influence our unconsciousness. In conclusion, the diverse perspectives of Freud and his students, such as
Jung, Adler, Erikson, and Horney, have contributed to the rich tapestry of psychoanalytical psychology, each
offering unique insights into the role of childhood, the unconscious mind, and the factors shaping human
behavior and personality.

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 Additional Information
Disclosures
Conflicts of interest: In compliance with the ICMJE uniform disclosure form, all authors declare the
following: Payment/services info: All authors have declared that no financial support was received from
any organization for the submitted work. Financial relationships: All authors have declared that they have
no financial relationships at present or within the previous three years with any organizations that might
have an interest in the submitted work. Other relationships: All authors have declared that there are no
other relationships or activities that could appear to have influenced the submitted work.

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