CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION/ BACKGROUND

Water has been vital to the development and survival of man and the entire environment.
Tamale polytechnic and Ghana at large is not an exception from this development phenomenon.
The flow of tap water at homes and offices has had influence over our reluctance to try other
options in acquiring portable water. Increasing lifestyle expectation and changes in climate have,
however led to heavy demand for water from the environment and this demand is projected to
increase. The Government through various departments, the Ghana Water Company Limited
(GWCL) and some NGO’s are encouraging consumers to conserve public water resources by
reducing wastage and utilizing water efficiently. One measure that has potential to aid water
conservation in this way is used of rainwater.

Tamale polytechnic is an institution with an estimated student population of nine thousand four
hundred and eighteen (9,418), according to the 2012/2013 matriculation ceremony. However the
school only source of water is from the Ghana Water Company Limited (GWCL).
Furthermore, the tremendous increase number of students ‘’squatter ‘’ in the halls, particularly
Ghana house and Getfund hostels, this situation poses nuisance and havoc to the water supply
system in the halls of residence. The shortage of water on campus affects academic work as well
as social life. The water companies have challenges of not able to regularly provide adequate
water for the population.

Besides that, the spiraling increase in population out weight the scanty resources of the country,
because, whiles population is increasing at 2.33 percent per annum. Urban explosion requiring
the use of more water, the sector is expanding around an average of one percent per annum not to
talk of unscrupulous environmental degradation in the form of deforestation, farming near rivers
and streams, and other abuses in the catchment areas. Terminating in high evaporation rates
heavy situation, pollution and attendant poor raw water quality.

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 1.1 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

Nations had begun to co-operate with one another in trying to solve water related problems. In
1965 for instance the first international symposium on water was held in Washington D.C at this
conference, representatives from more than sixty countries shared their knowledge in solving
water problems. It is uncommon and disheartening to see students carrying buckets and
containers moving from house to house within the neighborhood seeking for both drinking water
and bathing water during dry season when water becomes scarce as a result of the dry season.
Consequently this seeks to identify ways of collecting and storing rainwater in order to maximize
its use on the Tamale polytechnic campus.

1.2 PURPOSE OF THE STUDY

The main purpose of this project work is to study, compare the possibility towards rainwater
quality and give a practical guideline to improve and maintain an acceptable water quality of
harvested rainwater for drinking purpose in Ghana and Tamale polytechnic campus without
relying on water from Ghana Water Company Limited.

1.3 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

The aim of the study is to cut down the cost of pumping of water from the Ghana water company
mains in to Tamale polytechnic campus, cost of replacement of pipe materials. It will also serve
as a base for future researchers and the central government, District Assemblies,
Metropolitan/Municipals Assembles and Non - Governmental organizations, who struggle to
provide portable water for communities, could rely on the rain water harvesting and storage
technology.

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 1.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS
To what extend can rainwater alleviate the water problem in Tamale polytechnic campus?
1. Why should rainwater be harvested?
2. What means can rainwater be harvested?
3. How is rainwater treated before use?
4. How can rainwater be harvested and stored for consumption?

1.5 SCOPE OF THE STUDY

The scope of the study of this project work is mainly limited to the collection and usage of
rainwater on Tamale polytechnic hostels and lectures hall. It shall be based on the following:
a) The roofs type and drainage method
b) Methods of collecting rainwater
c) Various ways of storing water on campus
d) Ways of using water
e) Water treatment process
f) Cost effectiveness and efficiency of the project

1.6 LIMITATION OF STUDY

Although the study has been a successful one, the following were the main problems I faced
while writing this project work:
1. Due to limitation of financial, materials and time resource, the sample may be very small
in relation to the entire population
2. Difficulty in analysing data collected; since most words were of technical form and need
out to be decoded.
3. Difficulty in getting access to related Data in the library and on the internet
4. Due to lack of co-operation from respondents, the total number of persons interviewed
may become smaller than anticipated and quality of their responses may leave much to be
desired.

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 1.7 DELIMITATION OF THE STUDY
Upon the problems that hinder the writing of this project work, the researcher though it is wise to
use the whole of Tamale Metropolis as the case study. But due to this academic work and
constrained, the case study is limited to Tamale polytechnic alone.

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 CHAPTER TWO
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

Rainwater harvesting has been used for ages and examples can be found in all the great
civilizations throughout history. The technology can be very simple or complex depending on the
specific local circumstances.
With the increasing availability of corrugated iron roofing covering in many developing
countries, people often place a small container under their eaves to collect rainwater. One 20-litre
container of clean water captured from the roof can save a walk of many kilometers to the
nearest clean water source. Besides small containers, larger sub-surface and surface tanks are
used for collecting larger amounts of rainwater.
Many individuals and groups have taken the initiative and developed a wide variety of different
rain water harvesting systems throughout the world.

2.1 HARVESTING OF RAINWATER AND USES

According to Walt S.B (1978), rainwater harvesting means taking water out of the hydrological
cycle for either human or agricultural use. In achieving this, the rainfall is intercepted and
collected on prepared watersheds, especially from corrugated sheets and stored in tanks for use.

Furthermore, Rainwater catchment schemes intended for agricultural purpose. In this type of
design the ground surface is used as the catchment area. Water harvested on such catchment
areas highly polluted and as result, not good for human consumption unless it is well treated
before used. Mean while, rainwater catchment scheme design for human use. This type is
normally cleaner and more convenient for general use than the former. Roofs are used as
catchment surface as their elevation protects them from communication which is common to
ground surface catchments. (This scheme is under consideration for study in this project work)
In addition, rainwater is generally of high quality, it does not have much pathogenic organisms
as compare to surface water. Rainwater roof catchment system is independent and therefore
suitable for scattered settlements and communities which need extra water supply apart from the
water company system. Also, local materials and craftsmanship can be used in rainwater system

5
construction. In most areas where the system is effectively used, valuable time is saved in
collecting water usually from very long distance sources. It is therefore more convenient and
accessible. No energy costs are needed to run the system. There is easy of maintenance by the
owners or user (which in these cases will be the institution and its students).
Besides that, Michael Mcgarry (1977) outlines that water consumption depending on climate
and workload, the human body needs about 3-10 litres of water per day for normal functioning.
Part of this water is derived from food. The use of water for other purposes varies widely and is
greatly influenced by the type and availability of the water supply. Factors influencing the use of
the water are cultural habits, pattern and standard of living, whether the water is charged for, and
cost quality of the water. The use of water for domestic purpose may be divided in the following
categories:
(i). Drinking
(ii). Cleaning, washing and personal hygienic
(iii). Food preparation and cooking
(iv). Vegetable gardens watering
(v). Stock watering and
(vi). Waste disposal.
Mean while, individual house connection provide higher level of service than a tap placed in the
house yard, which in its turn generally preferred over a communal water point such as a village
well or standpipe. In the selection of the type of water supply, finance is usually an important
factor and the choice also depends on the location and size of the group of people using it. The
number of house hold (families) in a community or group of students is easier to using and
estimated average size of family. Usually, water from the community, water supply is also used
for purpose other than domestic, and in such case additional amount of water should be provided
for these categories.
If there is considerable leakage or unauthorized withdrawal of water from the distribution system
that required supply of water will obviously be greater.
In my opinion, the need for water in different regions in different developing countries generally
varies greatly. In the drought stricken areas of the sahel, it may be needed to keep the people and
their animal alive, where as in the high potential region of Ghana it may be needed to boost an
already relatively high standard of living.

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 2.2 DEMANDS FOR WATER ON TAMALE- POLY CAMPUS

According to RICHARD F. (1977), rainwater standards are likely to form the basis for water
quality management in tropical developing in the foreseeable future. They should be carefully
chosen to maintain only the minimum water quality level required for legitimate uses of the
water resource. Maximum advantage should be taken of the waste assimilative capacity of
receiving waters in the early stages of industrial development of a country. All possible
technological alternatives in rainwater control should be considered in attempting to achieve
desirable rainwater standards. A regional water authority is the efficient administration unit for
water quality management. Effluent charges should not be overlooked as a mechanism for
managing water quality in developing countries, but they are likely to be suitable for application
in particular situation rather than over a whole country because of trained manpower limitations.
The technologist has an important part to play in supplying quantitative information on
alternative water management schemes so that objective decision can be made by public
authorities, taking into consideration the local environmental and conditions.
Moreover, effective demand for water means the quantity of water that people demand and are
prepared to pay for a particular price level. It is determined by a complex interrelationship for a
number of factors including the size and nature of the population, the level of education, social
and religious philosophy, income, housing conditions, water user habits, climate, available
technology and especially the accessibility of the supply. Given knowledge of the pattern is of
demand the quantity demanded can be determined by the price charge. Over the past two decades
a considerable number of evaluation studies have been conducted on water supply schemes in
developing countries and nearly all of these have indicated that supply may be necessary, but is
never a sufficient condition, for development.
These studies (Feachem 1973, Saunders and Warfoord, 1974) have stressed the fact that water
supply development must be accompanied by a carefully designed package of complementary
inputs if it is to achieve its stated goals.

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 2.3 PROCESSES OF TREATING RAINWATER

Rainwater unlike any type of water involves a lot of processes before its fit for human
consumption. Boiling and chlorination are the most common water disinfection processes in use
throughout the world. Boiling is primarily used in rural areas in developing countries like Ghana
to eliminate living organisms, especially bacteria, present in the water. It is also used in
emergencies when other, more sophisticated methods of disinfection are not available. Prior to
the development of chlorination boiling was the principal method used to kill pathogenic
organisms.

TECHNICAL DESCRIPTION OF BOILING RAINWATER

Boiling is very simple method of water disinfection. Heating water to a high temperature, 100 OC,
kills most of the pathogenic organisms particularly viruses and bacteria causing water born
diseases. In order for boiling to be most effective, the water must boil for at least 20 minutes.
Since boiling requires a source of heat, rudimentary or non-conventional methods of heat
generation may be needed in areas where electricity or fossils are not available.

EFFECTIVENESS OF THE TECHNOLOGY

Boiling is a very effective disinfection technology, but it is recommended only as a backup to
other technologies because of its volume limitations and energy requirements. Chlorination is a
very effective and well known technology. It’s effectiveness function of the quality of the water
that is being chlorinated and the method of chlorination used. Normally gas chlorination is a
more efficient method of disinfection, although a system based on the use of hypochlorite tablets
is easier to operate and maintain and is preferred by individual users.

FILTRATION OF RAINWATER
Filtration systems are primarily used to purify water for domestic consumption. Several types of
filtration systems have been used extensively in developing countries throughout the world,
particularly in Latin America and the Caribbean. These include residential filtration, slow and
rapid send filtration and dual media filters vertical flow pre- filters with gravel media tested in
Guatemala and up flow solids contact filters used in Brazil have potential for future use.

8
The design and application of different types of filters depend on the volume, flow rate, and
quality of the inflowing water, the desired degree of water purification, and the use of the filtered
water. The availabilities of filtering material and skilled personnel are also factors to be
considered in the selection of an appropriate filtration system.

TECHNICAL DESCRIPTION
Residential filtrations are common type of filtration. They can be either homemade or purchased
commercially. The homemade filters usually consist of sand or gravel filled pipe or tub, while
the commercial systems usually have a stainless steel frame, with appropriate connection that
make installation and operation relatively simple. Many commercial filters contain filtration
media other than sand or gravel.
The basic form of residential filter, used in rural areas with no public water supply, is the tub
filter. The tub filter consists of two tubs made of mud or clay, pottery or plastic and joined
together. The upper tub contained the filter medium (sand, gravel, coal, stone etc) into which the
water to be treated is poured. It moves through the filter medium, through holes in the base of the
upper tub, to the lower tub where it is stored until used.

LEVEL OF INVOLVEMENT
In many developing countries, filtration methods are introduced and promoted by both
governmental agencies and NGOs, with the full participation of the community. In Dominican
Republic, the private sector, particularly the companies which manufacture filtration systems,
promotes the technology. In Ecuador, NGOs like plan international and care actively participate
in the implementation of these technologies in order to reduce the use of contaminated water.

SUITABILITY
Filtration technologies are suitable for use throughout the region. Homemade residential filters
are better suited to rural areas where the equipment, skills and infrastructure necessary to provide
piped domestic water supplies are lacking. The other, more complex filtration systems are best
used at water treatment plants and are generally located in urban areas.

9
CULTURAL ACCEPTABILITY
Filtration is well accepted technology when applied in the treatment of industrial and public
water supplies. It has limited acceptance in other application and at the householder level in the
rural areas.

OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE

Operation of most non- conventional system is relatively simple although most require addition
labour. Some of the pumps like the hand rope pumps require constant attention to keep them
operating efficiently. Most of the pumps require the use of anti- corrosive paints to protect the
exposed metal parts and frequent oiling of the parts of the pump where friction between different
parts can be expected. In general the following factors should be considered in the design of a
hand pump system.

The – wearing parts should be readily accessible, require no special skills to service, be
inexpensive to replace, and be of consistent high quality to ensure interchange ability.
A below – ground system should be as light as possible so that it can be extracted when
necessary , even from deep wells , without the need for specialized lifting equipment.
The impact of corrosion should be minimized by using materials which are inherently corrosion
– resistant.
Non – wearing parts of the pump must be durable and reliable enough to last at least ten years.
Pumps and spare parts should be cost- effective.
Boreholes must be designed and constructed in a manner appropriate to the capabilities of the
pump to be used and suitable for use under local conditions.
Pumps should be acceptable to the user.
The need for maintenance varies with the type of pumps, from requiring minimal maintenance
to pumps requiring almost constant upkeep. The hydraulic pump, which is impelled by the river
stream, requires very little maintenance. On the other hand, maintenance is probably the single
most important element in hand pump operation. To address this issue, the concept of village –
level operation and maintenance (VLOM) was developed to provide local village with the option
of maintaining the pumps as at the community level.

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LEVEL OF INVOLVEMENT
Few governments have participated in the application of non- conventional energy sources to the
pumping of water. Most pumping system using such sources have been developed by local
communities in cooperation with NGOs and financed by external agencies, such as USAID.
Likewise , whenever system operators have needed technical and financial assistance (for
example to replace a pump), NGOs generally have provided the necessary technical assistance
and financial support has been forthcoming from organisation such as the U. S peace corps and
volunteers in technical assistance (VITA) and in Honduras, the Sandia National Laboratory of
the united states.

SUITABILITY
This technology is suitable for use in regions where fuel or electricity is unavailable. For this
reason, these alternative powered pumps are well suited for use in the rural areas of Ghana.

2.4 WAYS OF HARVESTING RAINWATER

The application of an appropriate rainwater harvesting technology can make possible the
utilisation of rainwater as a valuable and in many cases, necessary water resource. Rainwater
harvesting has been practiced for more than 4,000 years and in most developing countries is
becoming essential, owing to the temporary and spatial variability of rainfall. Rainwater
harvesting is necessary in areas having significant rainfall but lacking any kind of conventional
centralized government supply system, also in areas where good quality fresh surface water or
groundwater is lacking.
Annual rainfall ranging from less than 500 to more than 150mm can be found in most Latin
America countries and the Caribbean. There are countries in which the annual and regional
distribution of rainfall also differs significantly.

11
For more than three countries, rooftop catchment and cistern storage have been that basis of
domestic water supply on many small Islands in the Caribbean. During World War II, several
airfields were also turned into catchments. Although the use of rooftop catchment systems has
declined in some countries, it is estimated that more than 500,000 people in the Caribbean
Islands depend at least in part on such supplies. In Tamale Metropolis the use of rooftop
catchment systems in the University of Development (UDS) campus is very effective in all
private hostels around the campus, thereby given students access to water when the commodity
becomes scarce.

TECHNICAL DESCRIPTION
A rainfall water harvesting system consists of three basic elements a collection area, a
conveyance system, and storage facilities. The collection areas in most cases are the roof of a
house or a building. The effective roof area and the material used in constructing the roof
influence the efficiency of collection and the water quality. A conveyance system usually
consists of gutters or pipes that deliver rainwater falling on the rooftop to cisterns or other
storage vessels. Both drainpipes and roof surfaces should be constructed of chemically inert
material such as wood, plastic, aluminium or fibreglass, in order to avoid adverse effects on
water quality. All catchment surface must be made of nontoxic material painted surface should
be avoided if possible or if the use of paint is unavoidable, only nontoxic, paint should be used
(no lead- chromium or zinc-based paints) overhanging vegetation should also be avoided.

OPERATIONAL AND MAINTENANCE

Rainwater harvesting system requires few skills and little supervision to operate. Major concerns
are the prevention of the tank during a rainfall. Contamination of water supply as a result of
contact with certain materials can be avoided by the use of proper materials during construction
of the system.

The following maintenance guidelines should be considered in the operation of rainwater

harvesting systems:
1. A procedure for eliminating that ‘’foul flush’’ after a long dry spell deserves particular
attention. The first part of each rainfall should be diverted from the storage tank since this

12
 is likely to contain undesirable materials which have accumulated on the roof. Rainfall
during an event of average intensity is unfit for drinking purposes.

2. The storage tank should be checked and cleaned periodically. All tanks need cleaning:
their designs should allow for this cleaning procedures consist of thorough scrubbing of
the inner walls and floors. Use of a chlorine solution is recommended for cleaning
followed by thorough rinsing.

3. Care should be taken to keep rainfall collection surface covered to reduce the likelihood
of frogs, lizards, mosquitoes and other pests using the cistern as a breeding ground.
Gutters and drain pipes need to be periodically inspected and cleaned carefully. Periodic
maintenance must also be carried out on any pump used to lift water to selected areas in
the house or building.

4. Community system required the creation of a community organisation to maintain them

effectively. Similarly, households must establish a maintenance routine that will be
carried out by family members. Problems usually encountered in maintaining the system
at are efficient level include the lack of availability of chemicals required for appropriate
treatment and the lack of adequate funding.

EFFECTIVENESS OF THE TECHNOLOGY

Rainfall harvesting technology has proved to be very effective throughout several Latin
American countries and most of the Caribbean Islands, where cisterns are the principal sources
of water for residences. Cisterns are acceptable of providing a sufficient supply for most
domestic applications. The use of rainwater is very effective in lessening the demand on the
public water supply system in the British virgin Island. It also provides a convenient buffer in
times of emergency or short fall in the public water supply. Also, because of the hilly or
mountainous nature of the terrain in the majority of the British Virgin Islands, combined with
dispersed housing patterns, rainfall harvesting appears to be the most practical way of providing

13
water supply to some residents. In many countries it is very costly and in some cases not
economically feasible, to extent the public water supply to all areas, where houses are isolated
from one another or in mountainous areas.

Steep galvanized iron roofs have to be relatively efficient rainwater collections, while flat
concrete roofs, though highly valued as protection from hurricanes and storms are very
inefficient. Rooftop catchment efficiencies range from 70% to 90%. It has been estimated that 1
cm of rain on 100m2 of roof yields 100001. Most commonly, rooftop catchment yield is
estimated to be 75% of actual rainfall on the catchment area, after accounting for losses due to
evaporation during period when short light showers are interspersed with period of prolonged
sunshine. Likewise, at the other extreme, the roof gutters and down pipes generally cannot cope
with rainfalls of high intensity and excess water run off the roof to waste during these periods.

SUITABILITY
This technology is suitable for the use in all areas as a means of augmenting the amount of water
available. It is also most useful in arid and areas where other sources of water are scarce.

ADVANTAGES
 Rainwater harvesting provides a source of water at the point where it is needed. It is owner
operation and managed.
 It provides an essential reserve in times of emergency and / or breakdown of public water
supply systems, particularly during natural disasters.
 The construction of a rooftop rainwater catchment system is simple and local people can
easily be trained to build one, minimizing its cost.
 The technology is flexible. The systems can be built to meet almost any requirement. Poor
households can be start with a single small tank and add more when they can afford them.
 Running costs are low.
 Construction, operation and maintenance are not labour intensive.

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DISADVANTAGES
 The success of rainfall harvesting depends upon the frequency and amount of rainfall;
therefore, it is not a dependable water source in times of dry weather or prolonged drought.
 Low storage capacities will limit rainwater harvesting so that the system may not be able to
provide water in a low rainfall period.
 Rainwater harvesting systems may reduce revenues to public utilities.

15
 CHAPTER THREE
3.0 METHODOLOGY
3.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter deals with how the research was conducted. It examines the research design,
targeted population, procedure used in sampling, instrument used in gathering data scoring
instrument, validity and reliability analysis. The subject under this is harvesting of rainwater,
storage and uses

3.2 RESEARCH DESIGN

The research design adopted for this study is combination of activities which are organised and
done in phases. This procedure include an explanatory, survey, review on the subject on the
detailed ground survey, data analysis and compilation of the research assessment, that is finding
the facts of the subject and described condition that existed at the time of the research.

3.3 TARGET POPULATION

In choosing the sample frame, which is the list of elements of a sample, the random sampling
was used. Since full coverage of all the interviewers in the Tamale Metropolis could not be
taken, a selection of some was made. This includes the following:
Students, Water Consultant, household’s owners, Hydrological engineers and Plumbers with
knowledge of harvesting rainwater

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 TABLE 1
3.4 SAMPLE SIZE AND SAMPLING TECHNIQUE

SAMPLE FRAME SAMPLE SIZE PERCENTAGE

STUDENTS 40 50%
WATER CONSULTANTS 5 6.25%
HOUSEHOLD OWNERS 20 25%
HYDROLOGICAL 5 6.25%
ENGINEERS
PLUMBERS 10 12.5%
TOTAL 80 100%
SOURCE: Fieldwork 2013

3.5 SAMPLE TECHNIQUE

Random and selective sampling was used in this research .The simple random technique were
used and adopted to find out the opinion and views of the respondents. These were done by
picking respondents at random and orally interview them. Respondents were randomly picked to
answer questionnaires.

3.6 INSTRUMENTS USED FOR THE STUDY

The following were the various instruments which were used for the study:

QUESTIONNAIRES

A close ended questionnaire were accurately designed and given out to the target population to
gather their own views on the study. This was an exercise to enable the researcher to find out
reaction and perceptions of respondents and how the obstacles affect most people who have the
intention to harvest rainwater.
INTERVEIW
17
The interview schedule was another fundamental instrument the researcher adopted in collecting
data and this section comprises of the literate and the illiterate being interviewed, other opinions
and issues by students, water consultants, household owners, hydrological engineers and
plumbers through interviews what contributed to harvesting of rainwater, uses and storage. The
researcher also engaged in various aspect of communication to those who find it difficult to put
their views into writing

3.7 SOURCE OF DATA COLLECTION

3.4.1 COLLECTION OF PRIMARY DATA

For convenience, and to obtain an in-depth of the issues involved in the project, data from the
primary sources were generated from the field through questionnaires administered to the people
who have knowledge in harvesting of rainwater to answer. It also included direct observation and
field survey by the researcher and personal interviews with students, household owners,
plumbers, foremen, pipe supervisors and lecturers.

3.4.2 COLLECTION OF SECONDARY DATA

This is the data that has already been collected or published for purpose other than the research
immediately at hand, the secondary data could come from sources such as previous research
studies, news bulletin, Government publication, journals, the internet and publish and
unpublished books etc. The advantages of this may have fewer resource requirements:

3.8 ADMINISTRATION OF THE INSTRUMENT

Questionnaires and interviews schedules, personal observation and search for related literature
were employed. The selected sampling was used to interview people who could not read and
write.

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3.4.3 DATA ANALYSIS
In analyzing the data that would be used, simple percentage has in particular been used to enable
a quick analysis of the data presented.

19
 CHAPTER FOUR

RESULTS ANALYSIS/DISCUSSIONS
4.0 BACKGROUND ANALYSIS OF DATA

This chapter deals with the data collected from the field, from respondents on their views and
opinions on the subject under discussion. All eighty (80) questionnaires which were served there
was 100% retrieval. A field survey was conducted in some selected professions chosen from the
Tamale Polytechnic Campus and the Metropolis.
Therefore, more questions were asked by means of “face- to- face” interviews, where possible, to
avoid having to include these in the questionnaires which could have resulted in voluminous
questionnaires. This approach enhanced responses from the respondents since most of them
seemed to prefer talking to writing. The following tables indicate the summary of the views of
the various respondents.
A. The use of rainwater
B. Reasons for harvesting rainwater
C. Ways of treating rainwater
D. Importance of storing rainwater

4.1 METHOD OF ANALYSIS,SUMMARY AND REPRESENTATION OF DATA

PREAMBLE: This research is out by HND Building Technology student as a project for
academic purpose to find out THE USES OF RAINWATER
Respondent are also edge to tick the responses that best reflects the extent to which one disagree,
agree or not sure with following statement:

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QUESTIONNAIRES TO STUDENTS, WATER CONSULTANTS,HOUSEHOLD OWNERS,
HYDROLOGICAL ENGINEERS AND PLUMBERS.

4.2 TABLE: 2, USES OF RAINWATER

ITEM STATEMENT RESPONSES NO. PERCENTAGE
RESPONSES
4.2.1 Rainwater is Agree 48 60
very good for Disagree 24 30
drinking Not sure 8 10
4.2.2 Rainwater is Agree 56 70
used for Disagree 24 30
watering plants Not sure 0 -----
and flowers
4.2.3 Rainwater is Agree 32 40
cleaner than Disagree 32 35
pipe water Not sure 16 15

4.2.4 Rainwater is Agree 56 70

used for cooking Disagree 20 25
Not sure 4 5

DATA ANALYSIS
Table 2: ITEM 4.2.1 Respondents representing (60% n=48) agree that rainwater is very good for
drinking, Respondents representing (30% n=24) disagree that rainwater is not good for drinking,
while Respondents representing (10% n=8) are not sure.
It is clear that rainwater is good for drinking especially during the peak of the raining season
periods where roofs are clean from dirt.

ITEM 4.2.2 Respondents representing (70% n=56) agree that rainwater is used for watering
plants and flowers, Respondents representing (30% n=24) disagree to the statement.
It is obvious that rainwater is use to water plants and flowers.

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 ITEM 4.2.3 Respondents representing (40% n=32) agree that rainwater is cleaner than pipe
water, Respondents representing (35% n=32) disagree, and meanwhile Respondents representing
(15% n=16) were not sure.
Rainwater in its natural form is 100% pure when trap in the peak periods of rainfall.

ITEM 4.2.4 Respondents representing (70% n=56) agree that rainwater is used for cooking,
while Representing (25% n=20) disagreed on the statement, Representing (5% n=4) were not
sure.
On the views of the respondent on the use of rainwater, it is clear that most household use
rainwater for domestic purpose. Half of the respondent said during the main rainy season most of
them use the harvested rainwater for drinking and cooking.

22
PREAMBLE: This research is out by HND Building Technology student as a project for
academic purpose to find out HARVESTING OF RAINWATER

Respondent are also edge to tick the responses that best reflects the extent to which one disagree,
agree or not sure with following statement:

QUESTIONNAIRES TO STUDENTS, WATER CONSULTANTS,HOUSEHOLD OWNERS,

HYDROLOGICAL ENGINEERS AND PLUMBERS.
4.3 TABLE: 3, HARVESTING OF RAINWATER
ITEM STATEMENT RESPONSES NO. OF PERCENTAGES
RESPONSES %
4.3.1 Rainwater can Agree 58 73
be stored in Disagree 18 23
PVC tanks Not sure 4 4
4.3.2 Un-plasticised Agree 48 60
PVC rainwater Disagree 26 33
gutters should Not sure 6 7
be used for
harvesting
rainwater
4.3.3 Aluminium Agree 44 56
sheets should Disagree 36 44
use at rainwater Not sure 0 ---
catchment
4.3.4 Rainwater can agree 66 83
be harvested disagree 10 13
from roofs tops not sure 4 4

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DATA ANALYSIS
Table: 3, ITEM 4.3.1 Respondents representing (73% n=58) agree in PVC storage tanks,
Respondents representing (23% n=18) disagree and Respondents representing (4% n=4) were not
sure.
The greater number of the respondent said rainwater can be store in PVC tanks, some reasons
given were easy access of cleaning the tank

ITEM 4.3.2 Respondents representing (60% n=48) agree that un-plastics PVC rainwater gutters
should be used for harvesting rainwater, Respondents representing (33% n= 26) were having
contrary views and Respondents representing (7% n=6) were not sure. It was revealed that un-
plasticised PVC is preferable because it is easy to install and clean.

ITEM 4.3.3 Respondents representing (56% n=44) agree that aluminium sheets should be used at
rainwater catchment areas, Respondents representing (44% n= 36) were haven contrary views of
the statement.
Aluminium sheets were mostly preferred against PVC since most landlords said is much cheaper
than PVC and does not require any special skills to install.

ITEM 4.3.4 Respondents representing (83% n=66) agree that rainwater can be harvested from
roofs top, Respondents representing (13% n=10) disagree and Respondent representing (4% n=4)
were not sure.
Since rain falls on our roofs, majority of the people who helped in answering these
questionnaires said that they agree harvesting water from the roof is the fastest way to trap
rainwater.

24
PREAMBLE: This research is out by HND Building Technology student as a project for
academic purpose to find out HARVESTING OF RAINWATER

Respondent are also edge to tick the responses that best reflects the extent to which one disagree,
agree or not sure with following statement:

QUESTIONNAIRES TO STUDENTS, WATER CONSULTANTS,HOUSEHOLD OWNERS,

HYDROLOGICAL ENGINEERS AND PLUMBERS.
4.4 TABLE: 4, TREATING OF RAINWATER
ITEM STATEMENT RESPONSES NO. OF PERCENTAGE
RESPONSES %
4.4.1 Rainwater is Agree 52 66
treated to kill all Disagree 20 26
the germs Not sure 8 8

4.4.2 Rainwater can Agree 42 53

be treated Disagree 26 33
through aeration Not sure 12 14
method
4.4.3 Rainwater has Agree 32 40
health effect on Disagree 42 53
the user Not sure 6 7
4.4.4 Disinfection is Agree 58 73
the final process Disagree 16 20
treating Not sure 6 7
rainwater

25
DATA ANALYSIS
Table: 4, ITEM 4.4.1 Respondents representing (66% n=52) agree that rainwater is treated to kill
all germs, Respondents representing (26% n=20) disagree the statement and Respondent
representing (8% n=8) were not sure.
Although rainwater is pure due to impurities in the atmosphere is mostly somehow contaminated
and need to be treated before drinking from the majority view of the questionnaire but some also
said is not important and is drinkable even if it is not treated

ITEM 4.4.2 Respondents representing (53% n=42) agree that rainwater can be treated through
aeration method, Respondent representing (33% n=26) disagree and Respondents representing
(14% n=12) were not sure.
Whiles I was thinking of how to explain aeration to my respondents I was surprised of how much
knowledge they have in the said topic, respondents said is the best method of treating water since
it removes any odor in the water quickly.

ITEM 4.4.3 Respondent representing (40% n=32) agree that rainwater has health effect on the
user, Respondents representing (53% n=42) disagree and Respondent representing (7% n=6)
doubt both agreed and disagreed.

From the data gathered some respondents said rainwater forms part of hard water and is not
suitable if it is not treated, meanwhile majority disagree rainwater has effect on the users health.

ITEM 4.4.4, Respondent representing (73% n=58) agree that disinfection is the final process of
treating rainwater, Respondents representing (20% n=16) having contrary views about the
statement and Respondents representing (7% n=6) were not sure.
Many agreed to this statement and some sited an example of a simple disinfection process by
boring.

26
PREAMBLE: This research is out by HND Building Technology student as a project for
academic purpose to find out STORAGE OF RAINWATER

Respondent are also edge to tick the responses that best reflects the extent to which one disagree,
agree or not sure with following statement:

QUESTIONNAIRES TO STUDENTS, WATER CONSULTANTS,HOUSEHOLD OWNERS,

HYDROLOGICAL ENGINEERS AND PLUMBERS.

4.5 TABLE: 5, STORAGE OF RAINWATER

ITEM STATEMENT RESPONSES NO. OF PERCENTAGE
RESPONSES %
4.5.1 Underground Agree 57 72
tanks are used Disagree 14 18
for storing Not sure 9 10
rainwater
4.5.2 Elevators are Agree 43 54
used for storing Disagree 21 27
water Not sure 16 19
4.5.3 Overhead tanks Agree 64 81
are used for Disagree 16 19
storing water Not sure 0 ------
4.5.4 Rainwater is Agree 57 72
best for washing Disagree 14 18
cloths Not sure 9 10

DATA ANALYSIS

27
Table: 5, ITEM 4.5.1 Respondents representing (72% n=57) agree that underground tanks are
used for storing rainwater, Respondents representing (18% n=14) disagree the statement and
Respondents represents (10% n=9) were not sure.
It was observe that many of the targeted population store water in underground tanks and that
one difficulty they face was fetching the water.

ITEM 4.5.2 Respondents representing (54% n=43) agree that elevators are use for storing, while
Respondent representing (27% n=21) were not sure. Respondents representing (19% n=16)
agreed that this statement is not true.

ITEM 4.5.3 Respondent representing (81% n=64) agree that overhead tanks are use for storing
water, Respondents representing (19% n=16) were haven contrary views and none were not sure.
In fact in my survey I found out that this was the most popular method of storing rainwater in
most cases as I encountered on the University for Development Studies (UDS) health campus in
Tamale, the practice of harvesting rainwater was already put in good use.

ITEM 4.5.4 Respondents representing cloths, Respondents representing (72% n=57) agree that
rainwater is best for washing clothes, Respondent representing (18% n=14) disagree and
Respondents representing (10% n=9) were not sure.
It was obvious that rainwater was use in washing and for other domestic purposes.

28
 CHAPTER FIVE
5.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
5.1 CONCLUSION
As result of the high population growth rate of student in Tamale Polytechnic campus hostels
every academic year, faces challenges in water supply as it becomes inadequate and very
expensive to provide.
In order to arrest this situation, a rainwater roof catchments system has been proposed for
consideration in this dissertation. The study indentified how several volumes of rainwater which
splash on our ground and floors from our roofs can be harvested, stored and used in the halls for
drinking, washing, bathing and for waste disposal with relatively minimum effort and cost.

5.2 RECOMMENDATIONS

It is very clear from the studies that, rainwater roof catchments system will go a long way to
benefit the institution and the Metropolis at large. It is therefore recommended that:
 In order to improve upon the efficiency of water in the Metropolis and the Polytechnic in
particular Ghana Water Company Limited (GWCL) has to liaised with the ministry of
water resource works and housing to undertake a major renovation works, with funds
from the world bank and involve private investors, with technical expertise in order to
serve the public and the institution better.
 Reasonably clean rainwater should be harvested from building on campus which are
roofed with tiles and corrugated galvanised iron or aluminium roofing sheets.
 The authorities of the institution must develop an action plan for promoting rainwater
roof and ground catchments in the school.
 Rainwater from the paved surfaces and ground in general on campus, should be harvested
stored and used for agricultural purpose. This will help maintain carpet grassed surfaces,
green during the dry season.
 This dissertation will be of vital importance when used at the newly constructed facilities
on campus such as the lectures halls, library complex, laboratory, hostels
29
 5.3 SUGGESTION FOR WRITERS I N FUTURE

Due to my inability to source finance, material and time constrained on the part of my academic
work, the sample were very small in relation to the entire population. The scopes of the study
were also limited to Tamale polytechnic campus only. So I suggested that anybody or group of
bodies who will be writing on this topic ‘’harvesting storage and uses of rainwater’’ should try as
much as possible to broaden it to a country or continental to enable it achieve its targeted goals.
The following are also research questions suggested or drafted for future researchers who will be
using this dissertation for the benefit of all.

QUESTIONS
1. What technology can alleviate us from the ‘’deadlock’’ water crises in the world?
2. Why are developed countries not investing in water and water related problem, but
investing in nuclear bombs?

APPENDIX I

30
 TAMALE POLYTECHNIC
DEPARTMENT OF BUILDING TECNOLOGY

TOPIC: RAINWATER HARVESTING, STORAGE AND USES

(CASE STUDY IN THE TAMALE POLYTECHNIC)

CLOSED ENDED QUESTIONIAIRES ADMINISTERED TO STUDENTS, WATER

CONSULTANTS, HOUSEHOLD OWNERS, HYDROLOGYCAL ENGINEERS AND
PLUMBERS.

INSTRUCTIONS: Please tick (AGREED, DISAGREED, AND NOT SURE) where appropriate

PREAMBLE: This research is out by HND Building Technology student as a project for
academic purpose to find out THE USES OF RAINWATER
Respondent are also edge to tick the responses that best reflects the extent to which one disagree,
agree or not sure with following statement:

QUESTIONNAIRES TO STUDENTS WATER CONSULTANTS,HOUSEHOLD OWNERS,

HYDROLOGICAL ENGINEERS AND PLUMBERS.

31
4.2 TABLE: 2, USES OF RAINWATER
ITEM STATEMENT RESPONSES NO. PERCENTAGE
RESPONSES
4.2.1 Rainwater is Agree
very good for Disagree
drinking Not sure
4.2.2 Rainwater is Agree
used for Disagree
watering plants Not sure
and flowers
4.2.3 Rainwater is Agree
cleaner than Disagree
pipe water Not sure

4.2.4 Rainwater is Agree

used for cooking Disagree
Not sure

PREAMBLE: This research is out by HND Building Technology student as a project for
academic purpose to find out HARVESTING OF RAINWATER

32
Respondent are also edge to tick the responses that best reflects the extent to which one disagree,
agree or not sure with following statement:

QUESTIONNAIRES TO STUDENTS, WATER CONSULTANTS,HOUSEHOLD OWNERS,

HYDROLOGICAL ENGINEERS AND PLUMBERS.
4.3 TABLE: 3, HARVESTING OF RAINWATER
ITEM STATEMENT RESPONSES NO. OF PERCENTAGES
RESPONSES %
4.3.1 Rainwater can Agree
be stored in Disagree
PVC tanks Not sure
4.3.2 Un-plasticised Agree
PVC rainwater Disagree
gutters should Not sure
be used for
harvesting
rainwater
4.3.3 Aluminium Agree
sheets should Disagree
use at rainwater Not sure
catchment
4.3.4 Rainwater can agree
be harvested disagree
from roofs tops not sure

33
PREAMBLE: This research is out by HND Building Technology student as a project for
academic purpose to find out HARVESTING OF RAINWATER

Respondent are also edge to tick the responses that best reflects the extent to which one disagree,
agree or not sure with following statement:

QUESTIONNAIRES TO STUDENTS, WATER CONSULTANTS,HOUSEHOLD OWNERS,

HYDROLOGICAL ENGINEERS AND PLUMBERS.
4.4 TABLE: 4, TREATING OF RAINWATER
ITEM STATEMENT RESPONSES NO. OF PERCENTAGE
RESPONSES %
4.4.1 Rainwater is Agree
treated to kill all Disagree
the germs Not sure

4.4.2 Rainwater can Agree

be treated Disagree
through aeration Not sure
method
4.4.3 Rainwater has Agree
health effect on Disagree
the user Not sure
4.4.4 Disinfection is Agree
the final process Disagree
treating Not sure
rainwater

34
PREAMBLE: This research is out by HND Building Technology student as a project for
academic purpose to find out STORAGE OF RAINWATER

Respondent are also edge to tick the responses that best reflects the extent to which one disagree,
agree or not sure with following statement:

QUESTIONNAIRES TO STUDENTS, WATER CONSULTANTS,HOUSEHOLD OWNERS,

HYDROLOGICAL ENGINEERS AND PLUMBERS.

4.5 TABLE: 5, STORAGE OF RAINWATER

ITEM STATEMENT RESPONSES NO. OF PERCENTAGE
RESPONSES %
4.5.1 Underground Agree
tanks are used Disagree
for storing Not sure
rainwater
4.5.2 Elevators are Agree
used for storing Disagree
water Not sure
4.5.3 Overhead tanks Agree
are used for Disagree
storing water Not sure
4.5.4 Rainwater is Agree
best for washing Disagree
cloths Not sure

35
SOME ROOF GUTTERS FOR RAINWATER

36
Source: http://www.irrigationwarehouse.com.au/images/diverter.jpg

37
 FIRST FLUSH OF RAINWATER

Source: http://www.wateraid.org/uk/news/photography

38
REFERENCES
Balance R.C Water supply sanitation and technology
Interdisciplinary science review VOL.3. No. 3(1978)
Pineo C.S subrahnanyan D.V
Community water supply and excreta disposal
Situation in the developing countries (A commentary) from national geographic channel
World health organisation, Geneva, (1980) 11p
Grover B Harvesting precipitation for community H2O supply
World Bank, Washington D.C 11Opd
Rainwater and storm water harvesting for additional
Water supply in Africa.
www.wateraid.org
University of Nairobi Department of Geography
Nairobi, 1979
Water S.D (1978) IN: Appropriate technology vol. 5
Richard. F. Michael M. And Duncan M
Water Wasted and Health in Hot climates. (1966- 1976)
www.irrigationwarehouse.com.au
I.R.C Canada
Issues and concepts in Rural water supply
Programmers
Information source contact www.youtube.com

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