MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS

PART II
The Directly-Useful Technical Series
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Mathematics for Engineers

By W. N. ROSE, B.Sc. Eng. (Lond.)

Part I.
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Contains chapters on : Aids to Calculations ; Equations ;
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struction ofPractical Charts, etc., etc.
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To the young engineer it will be a God-send." — Managing Engineer.

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*
The Directly-Useful Technical Series

FOUNDED BY THE LATE WILFRID J. LINEHAM, B.Sc., M.Inst.C.E.

Mathematics for Engineers

PART II

BY

W. N. ROSE
B.Sc. ENG. (LOND.)
Late Lecturer in Engineering Mathematics at the
University of London Goldsmiths' College
Teacher of Mathematics, Borough
Polytechnic Institute

LONDON
CHAPMAN & HALL, LTD.
11 HENRIETTA STREET, W.C. 2
1920
 PRINTED IN GREAT BRITAIN BY
RICHARD CLAY AND SONS, LIMITED,
BRUNSWICK STREET, STAMFORD STREET, S.E.
AND BUNGAY, SUFFOLK.
 EDITORIAL NOTE
THE DIRECTLY-USEFUL TECHNICAL SERIES requires a few words
by way of introduction. Technical books of the past have arranged
themselves largely under two sections : the Theoretical and the
Practical. Theoretical books have been written more for the
training of- college students than for the supply of information to
men in practice, and have been greatly filled with problems of an
academic character. Practical books have often sought the other
extreme, omitting the scientific basis upon which all good practice
is built, whether discernible or not. The present series is intended
to occupy a midway position. ,The information, the problems and
the exercises are to be of a directly-useful character, but must at
the same time be wedded to that proper amount of scientific
explanation which alone will satisfy the inquiring mind. We
shall thus appeal to all technical people throughout the land, either
students or those in actual practice.
 AUTHOR'S PREFACE
CONCERNING the aim and scope of this work nothing need be added
here to the statement made in the Preface to the former volume..
It is there asserted that the subject-matter has been so chosen, and,
through the examples, so applied to practical problems, that the
two volumes " embrace all the mathematical work needed by-
engineers in their practice, and by students in all branches of
engineering science."
As with the first volume, much thought has been given to the
elimination of all rules and processes of academic interest only ;
but the fact of the importance and necessity of logical reasoning
has not been overlooked.
With the exception of the chapters on Spherical Trigonometry
and Mathematical Probability, this volume is devoted to the study
of the Calculus, both Differential and Integral. Whilst it is wise,
and even imperative, if this subject is to be presented in an intelligible
manner, that much attention should be paid to the graphic interpre-
tation of its rules, care must be taken to ensure that the graphic
methods do not become other than auxiliaries. Accordingly the
treatment throughout is based upon algebraic principles ; but
whenever graphic proofs or constructions have been found to amplify
or explain the subject, they have been utilised to the fullest extent.
Thus from the commencement the connection between the rate of
change of a quantity and the slope of a curve is clearly demonstrated :
and this correlation of the algebraic and the graphic methods is con-
tinued through all the stages of the development of the subject.
The conception of " limiting values," mentioned briefly in Part I,
is further discussed in Chapter I, a familiar example from Dynamics
being chosen as the illustration : in this chapter also two methods
of graphic differentiation are given ; the second of which, and the
less familiar, being the simpler to apply.
viii AUTHOR'S PREFACE
The various rules for the differentiation of both algebraic and
trigonometric functions are explained in detail in Chapter II ;
and Chapter III, containing the rules for the differentiation of a
function of a function, a product of functions, etc., together with an
introduction to partial differentiation, may be regarded as comple-
mentary to Chapter II.
From the abstract reasoning required for comprehension of such
an idea as that of " limiting values/' the practical mind turns with
relief to the applications of differentiation found in Chapter IV ;
the determination of maximum and minimum values making a
particularly strong appeal. In view of the importance of this
branch of the subject, a very varied selection of practical examples
is presented, in the choice of which the method of solution has
been a determining factor. In this chapter also the use of Taylor's
theorem in cases of interpolation from steam tables is demonstrated.
Chapters V and VI contain the rules required for the integration
of functions occurring in engineering theory and practice. The
former chapter serves as an introduction to integration, the signifi-
cance of the symbols f and dx being explained by reference to a
graph ; whilst in the latter chapter the various types of integrals,
many of them of a somewhat complicated character, are discussed.
At this stage also the reduction formulae are introduced, and mention
is made of the Gamma function and its uses.
Instances of the application of the rules of integration are to be
found in the processes enumerated in Chapter VII ; and special
features of this chapter are the determination of the perimeter of
the ellipse, the graphic method for fixing the position of the centroid
vertical, the drawing of ist and 2nd moment curves and the evalua-
tion of the moment of inertia of a compound vibrator.
The utility of polar co-ordinates to the electrical engineer is shown
by the inclusion of examples on the candle-powers of lamps, and the
employment of the Rousseau diagram to find the mean spherical
candle-power ; and Dr. Fleming's graphic method for determina-
tion of root mean square values of currents is here inserted, since
it involves polar plotting.
Differential equations occur so frequently that the methods of
solution demand most careful study. Chapter IX presents the most
common types, and the selection of examples based upon these,
both worked and set, emphasises the need for a proper appreciation
of the method of solution.
Chapter X, with its applications of the Calculus to problems
encountered in the study of Thermodynamics, Strength of Materials,
 AUTHOR'S PREFACE ix
Applied Mechanics, Applied Electricity and Hydraulics, provides
further illustration of the need of a sound knowledge of the subject
to the engineer desirous of equipping himself at all points.
The last two chapters contain much of interest to the surveyor,
the examples chosen being such as arise in his practice ; and par-
ticular attention is directed to the investigation relating to the
corrections following errors of observation.
The Author greatly deplores the fact that the inspirer of this work,
the late Mr. W. J. LINEHAM, B.Sc., M.I.C.E., does not see its com-
pletion :to his enthusiasm for his ideals in education, and for his
many personal kindnesses to the Author, tribute is here paid.
Sincere thanks are also tendered to Messrs. J. L. BALE and C. B.
CLAPHAM, B.Sc., for much valuable assistance.
Great care has been taken to produce the book free from errors,
but some may remain, notification of which will be esteemed a great
favour.
W. N. ROSE.
Borough Polytechnic Institute,
S.E. i,
December, 1919.
 CONTENTS
PAGE

INTRODUCTORY i
Abbreviations.

CHAPTER *I
INTRODUCTION TO DIFFERENTIATION 3
Historical note — Rates of change — Average and actual rates of
change — Slopes of curves — Graphic differentiation by two methods.

CHAPTER II
DIFFERENTIATION OF FUNCTIONS 26
Differentiation of ax" — Differentiation of a sum of terms — Proof
of construction for slope curves — Beam problems — Lengths of
sub-tangents and sub-normals of curves — Differentiation of ex-
ponential functions — Differentiation of log* — Differentiation of
sinh x and cosh x — Differentiation of the trigonometric functions —
Simple harmonic motion.

CHAPTER III
ADDITIONAL RULES OF DIFFERENTIATION .... 63
Differentiation of a function of a function — Differentiation of a
product — Differentiation of a quotient — Differentiation of inverse
trigonometric functions — Partial differentiation — Total differential
—Logarithmic differentiation.

CHAPTER IV
APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION ...... 88
Maximum and minimum values — Point of inflexion — Calculation
of small corrections — Expansion of functions in series — Theorems
of Taylor and Maclaurin.
xii CONTENTS

CHAPTER V PAGE

INTEGRATION 115
Meaning of integration — Graphic integration — Application of in-
tegration to " beam " problems — Coradi integraph — Rules for
integration of simpler functions — Integration of powers of x —
Integration of exponential functions— Integration of trigonometric
functions — Indefinite and definite integrals — Method of determining
the values of definite integrals — Proof of Simpson's rule.

CHAPTER VI

FURTHER METHODS OF INTEGRATION . . . . . . 146

Integration by the aid of partial fractions — Integration by the
resolution of a product into a sum — Integration by substitution —
Integration by parts — Reduction formulae — Gamma function —
List of integrals.

CHAPTER VII

MEAN VALUES, ETC. . . • . . . . . . 180

Determination of mean values — Root mean square values —
Volumes — Volumes of solids of revolution — Length of arc — Peri-
meter of ellipse — Area of surface of solid of revolution— Centre of
gravity — Centroid — " Double sum curve " method of finding the
centroid vertical — Centroids of sections by calculation — Centroids
found by algebraic integration — Centre of gravity of irregular
solids — Centre of gravity of a solid of revolution — Centre of pressure
— Moment of inertia — Swing radius — The parallel axis theorem —
Theorems of perpendicular axes — Moment of inertia of compound
vibrators — Determination of ist and 2nd moments of sections by
means of a graphic construction and the use of a planimeter.

CHAPTER VIII

POLAR CO-ORDINATES 257

Polar co-ordinates — Spirals — Connection between rectangular and
polar co-ordinates — Use of polar co-ordinates for the determination
of areas — The Rousseau diagram — Dr. Fleming's graphic method for
the
meter.determination of R.M.S. values — Theory of the Amsler plani-
 CONTENTS xiii

CHAPTER IX
PAGE

dy
SIMPLE DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS . - 270
Differential equations, definition and classification — Types : ~-
given as a functi of x : -~ given as a functi o y : Genera linear
on on f l
equations of the first order : Exact differential equations : Equa-
tions homogeneous in x and y : Linear equations of the second order
— Use of the operator D — Useful theorems involving the operator D
— Equations of the second degree.
CHAPTER X
APPLICATIONS OF THE CALCULUS 300
Examples in Thermodynamics : Work done in the expansion of a
gas — Work done in a complete theoretical cycle — Entropy of water
- — Efficiency of engine working on the Rankine cycle — Efficiency of
engine working on the Rankine cycle, with steam kept saturated by
jacket steam — Examples relating to loaded beams, simply supported
or with fixed ends, the loading and the section varying — Shearing
stress in beams — Examples on Applied Electricity — Examples on
Strengths of Materials — Loaded struts — Tension in belt — Friction
in a footstep bearing — Schiele pivot — Examples on Hydraulics —
Centre of Pressure — Transition curve in surveying.
CHAPTER XI

HARMONIC ANALYSIS . .- . 342

Fourier's theorem — Analysis by calculation — Harrison's graphic
method of analysis — Analysis by superposition.
CHAPTER XII
THE SOLUTION OF SPHERICAL TRIANGLES . . . • 355
Definition of terms — Spherical triangle — Solution of spherical
triangles — Solution of right-angled spherical triangles — Napier's
rules of circular parts — The "ambiguous" case — Applications in
spherical astronomy — Graphic solution of a spherical triangle.
CHAPTER XIII
MATHEMATICAL PROBABILITY AND THEOREM OF LEAST
SQUARES 370
Probability — Exclusive events — Probability of the happening
together of two independent events — Probability of error —
Theorem of least squares — Error of the arithmetic mean — Weight
of an observation.
xiv .CONTENTS PAGE

ANSWERS TO EXERCISES . 387

TABLES :—
Trigonometrical ratios 397
Logarithms 398
Antilogarithms 400
Napierian logarithms 402
Natural sines 404
Natural cosines 406
Natural tangents 408
Logarithmic sines 410
Logarithmic cosines , .412
Logarithmic tangents . . . . . . . . . .414
Exponential and hyperbolic functions 416

INDEX ...... 417

 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS

PART II
INTRODUCTORY

THE subject-matter of this volume presents greater difficulty

than that of Part I. Many of the processes described herein de-
pend upon rules explained and proved in the former volume ;
and accordingly it is suggested that, before commencing to read
this work, special attention should first be paid to Part I, pp. 452-
460, 463-467, 469-472, and pp. 273-299 ; whilst a knowledge of the
forms of the curves plotted in Chapter IX should certainly prove
of great assistance.
The abbreviations detailed below will be adopted throughout.
-> stands for " approaches."
„ " equals " or " is equal to."
+ ,, ,, " plus."
„ ,, " minus."
X „ „ " multiplied by."
4- „ „ " divided by."
„ „ " therefore."
± „ „ " plus or minus."
„ ,, " greater than."
" less than."
0 ,, „ " circle."
©ce ,, ,, " circumference."
« „ ,, " varies as."
co „ ,, " infinity."
L. ,, ,, " angle."
A >, ,, triangle " or " area of triangle."
Li_ or 4 ! „ „ " factorial four " ; the value being that of the
product 1.2.3.4 or 24-
"P, „ „ " the number of permutations of n things taken
two at a time."
"C2 „ „ " the number of combinations of n things taken
two at a time."
n.3 „ „ n (n — i) (n — 2).
B 1
2 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS

t\ stands for " efficiency."

0 „ „ " angle in degrees."
6 ,, ,, " angle in radians."
I.H.P. ,, „ " indicated horse-power."
B.H.P. ,, „ " brake horse-power."
m.p.h. „ ,, " miles per hour."
r.p.m. ,, ,, " revolutions per minute."
r.p.s. „ „ " revolutions per second."
I.V. ,, ,, " independent variable."
F.° ,, „ " degrees Fahrenheit."
C.° ., ,, " degrees Centigrade."
E.M.F. ,, ,, " electro-motive force."
1 ,, .., " moment of inertia."
E „ „ " Young's modulus of elasticity."
Sn „ ,, " the sum to n terms."
S^ ,, „ " the sum to infinity (of terms)."
2 ,, ,, " sum of."
B.T.U. „ „ " Board of Trade unit."
B.Th.U. „ „ " British thermal unit."
T ,, ,, " absolute temperature."
M ,, ,, " coefficient of friction."
sin"1 x ,, ,, " the angle whose sine is x."
e ,, ,, " the base of Napierian logarithms."
g ,, the acceleration due to the force of gravity."
cms. ,, ,, " centimetres."
grms. ,, ,, " grammes."
-Ly ,, „ " the limit to which y approaches as x approaches
the value a."
C. of G. ,, ,, " centre of gravity."
C. of P. „ ,, " centre of pressure."
k ,, ,, " swing radius," or " radius of gyration."

M.V. „ ,, " mean value."

R.M.S. „ „ " root mean square."
f'(x]
dy ,, ,, " the first derivative of a function of x."
f"(x] ,, ,, " the second derivative of a function of x."
-j- ,, ,, " the differential coefficient of y with regard to x."

I ydx ,, ,, " the integral of y with respect to x as the I.V."

8 ,,..," difference of."
,, " the operation -3-.."
" candle-power."
M.S.C.P. „ ,, " mean spherical candle-power."
p ,, ,, " density."
 CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION TO DIFFERENTIATION
THE seventeenth century will ever be remarkable for the number
of great mathematicians that it produced, and still more so for the
magnitude of the research accomplished by them. In the early
part of the century Napier and Briggs had introduced their systems
of logarithms/ whilst Wallis and others directed their thoughts to
the quadrature of curves, which they effected in some instances
by expansion into series, although the Binomial Theorem was then
unknown to them. In 1665 Newton, in his search for the method of
quadrature, evolved what he termed to be a system of " fluxions " or
flowing quantities : if x and y, say, were flowing quantities, then
he denoted the velocity by which each of these fluents increased by
x and y respectively. By the use of these new forms he was enabled
to determine expressions for the tangents of curves, and also for
their radii of curvature. At about the same time Leibnitz of Leipsic,
also concerned with the same problem, arrived at practically the
same system, although he obtained his tangents by determining
" differences of numbers." To Leibnitz is due the introduction of
the term " differential," and also the differential notation, viz.,
dx and dy for the differentials of x and y : he also in his expression
for the summation of a number of quantities first wrote the symbol
f, his first idea being to employ the word " omnia " or its abbre-
viation "omn~." Thus, if summing a number of quantities like x,
he first wrote " omnia x," which he contracted to " omn. x," and
later he modified this form to fx.
Great controversy raged for some time as to the claims of
Newton and Leibnitz to be called the inventor of the system of the
" Calculus," which is" the generic term for a classified collection of
rules; but it is now generally conceded that the discoveries were
independent, and were in fact the natural culmination of the
research and discoveries of many minds.
3
 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS

The Calculus was further developed by Euler, Bernoulli, Legendre

and many others, but until a very recent date it remained merely
" a classified collection of rules" : its true meaning and the wide
field of its application were for long obscured.
Nowadays, however, a knowledge of the Calculus is regarded,
particularly by the engineer, as a vital part of his mental equip-
ment :its rules have been so modified as to become no serious tax
on the memory, and the true significance of the processes has
been presented in so clear a light that the study of the Calculus
presents few difficulties even to the ultra-practical engineer.
This revolution of thought has been brought about entirely
through the efforts of men who, realising the vast potentialities
of the Calculus, have reorganised the teaching of the subject :
they have clothed it and made it a live thing.
The Calculus may be divided into two sections, viz., those
treating of differentiation and integration respectively. Differentia-
tion, as the name suggests, is that part of the subject which is
concerned with differences, or more strictly with the comparison
of differences of two quantities. Thus the process of differentia-
tion resolves itself into a calculation of rates of change; but the
manner in which the rate of change is determined depends on the
form in which the problem is stated. Thus, if the given quantities
are expressed by the co-ordinates of a curve, the rate of change of
the ordinate compared with the change in the abscissa for any
particular value of the abscissa is measured by the slope of the
curve at the point considered.
Differentiation is really nothing more nor less than the deter-
mination ofrates of change or of slopes of curves.
The term " rate of change " does not necessarily imply a " time
rate of change," i. e., a rate of change with regard to time, such as
the rate at which an electric current is changing per second, or the
rate at which energy is being stored per minute; but the change
15
in one quantity may be compared with the change in any other
quantity. As an illustration of this fact we may discuss the
following example —
The velocity of a moving body was measured at various distances
from its starting point and the results were tabulated, thus —
12

s (distance in feet) . o 5

v (velocity in feet per sec.) 10 M

 INTRODUCTION TO DIFFERENTIATION 5

To find the values of the " space rate of change of velocity " for
the separate space intervals.
Considering the displacement from o to 5 ft., the change in the
velocity corresponding to this change of position is 14—10, *. e.,
4 ft. per sec.
change of velocity 14—10 4
Hence — —* .^— = - - = - = -8
change of position 5— o 5
or, the change of velocity per one foot change of position = -8 ft.
per sec., and rate of change of velocity = -8 ft. per sec. per foot.
Again, if s varies from o to 12, the change of v = 15—10 = 5 ;
or, the rate of change of velocity (for this period) = T5^ ft. per
sec. per foot.
Similarly, the rate of change of v, whilst s ranges from 5 to 12,
15—14
-^— -5 = 7-i ft.
— 12- ,, ,
per sec. per foot.

The rates of change have thus been found by comparing differ-

ences. The phrase " change of" occurs frequently in this investi-
gation, and to avoid continually writing it a symbol is adopted in
its place. The letter thus introduced is 8 (delta), the Greek form
of d, the initial letter of the word " difference " : it must be regarded
on all occasions as an abbreviation, and hence no operation must
be performed upon it that could not be performed if the phrase for
which S stands was written in full. In other words, the ordinary
rules applying to algebraic quantities, such as multiplication,
division, addition or subtraction, would be incorrectly used in
conjunction with 8.
Thus, mv (the formula for momentum) means m multiplied by v,
or a mass multiplied by a velocity, whilst Sv represents " the change
of v," or if v is the symbol for velocity, 8v — change of velocity.
Again, 8/ = change of time or change of temperature, as the
case may be. Using this notation our previous statements can be
written in the shorter forms : thus—
(1) As s changes from o to 5 Sv = 14—10 = 4
8s = 5-0 = 5

(2) As s changes from o to 12 Sv = 15 — 10 = 5

H-*
8s = 12— o = 12
and !_y = A
Ss 12 * *
 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS

(3) As s changes from 5 to 12 8v = 15 — 14 = i

Ss = 12 — 5 = 7
Sv i
and ~=s — s= •!<:
It must be noted that we do not cancel S from the numerator and

denominator of the fraction ^-.

The final result in (i), viz., ^- = -8, as s changes from o to 5, needs

further qualification. From the information supplied we cannot
say with truth that the change in the velocity for each foot from
o to 5 ft. is -8 ft. per sec. : all that we know with certainty is that,
as s changes from o to 5 ft., the average rate of change of velocity
over this space period is -8 ft. per sec. Supposing the change of
velocity to be continuous over the period considered, the value of ^
already obtained would be the actual rate of change of velocity at
some point or points in the period considered.
It is usual to tabulate the values of the original quantities and
their changes, and unless anything is given to the contrary the
average values of the rate of change are written in the middle of the
respective periods.
The table is set out thus —
Ss
14 Ss
Sv
s V Sv
15

0 IO
— —
5 4 i = -8
5 — — —
12 7 i
~~~" ~~ r = _—.'143

To distinguish in writing between average and actual rates of

change the notation employed is slightly modified, d being used in
dv
place of 8 ; -j- thus representing an actual rate of change of velocity,

and ^7 representing an average rate of change of velocity. Once

again it must be emphasised that d must be treated strictly in
association with the v or t, as the case may be, and dt does not mean
, , j dv • v
dxt, nor does -j- give .
 INTRODUCTION TO DIFFERENTIATION

Another example can now be considered to demonstrate clearly

the distinction between an average and an actual rate of change.
For a body falling freely under the influence of gravity the
values of the distances covered to the ends of the ist, 2nd and 3rd
seconds of the motion are as in the table —

t (sees.) . o I 2 3
64.4

s (feet) . 0
16.1 144.9

Find the average velocities during the various intervals of time,

and also the actual velocities at the ends of the ist, 2nd and 3rd
seconds respectively.
The average velocities are found in the manner described before,
i. e., by the comparison of differences of space and time, and the
results are tabulated, thus —

' ' 5s st

o 0
— — i
I —
16-1 — —
— —
16-1 i 16-1
64-4 — — 80-5
—
2 80-5 v-Ss
48-3 i
3 ~ 48-3
144-9
~~~"~

The average velocities, viz., the values in the last column, are
written in the lines between the values of the time to signify that
they are the averages for the particular intervals. As also it is
known that in this case the velocity is increased at a uniform rate,
it is perfectly correct to state that the actual velocities at the ends
of -5, 1-5 and 2-5 seconds respectively are given by the average
velocities over the three periods and are 16-1, 48-3 and 80-5 ft.
per sec.
We have thus found the actual velocities at the half seconds,
but not those at the ends of the ist, 2nd and 3rd seconds. The
determination of these velocities introduces a most important
process, illustrating well the elements of differentiation, and in
consequence the investigation is discussed in great detail. .
The student of Dynamics knows that -the law connecting space
and time, in the case of a falling body, is s = \gtz = i6-i/2, and
8 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS

a glance at the table of values of s and t confirms this law ; thus,

when t = 2, s = 64-4, which = i6-iX22 or i6-i^2.
To find the actual velocity at the end of the first second we
must calculate the average velocities over small intervals of time
in the neighbourhood of I sec., and see to what figure these velocities
approach as the interval of time is taken smaller and smaller.
Thus if— t— i s = 16-1 x i2 = 16-1
t = i-i s = 16-1 x i-i2 = 19-481
8s = 19-481 — 16-1 = 3-381 U = i-i — i = -i
\ &s 3-381
and (average) v = ^ = ^- = 33-81
i. e., the average velocity over the interval of time i to i-i sec.
is 33-81 ft. per sec. This value must be somewhere near the velocity
at the end of the first second, but it cannot be the absolute value,
since even in the short interval of time, viz., -i sec., the velocity has
been increased by a measurable amount. A better approximation
will evidently be found if the time interval is narrowed to -01 sec.
Then — t— i s = 16-1
t = i-oi s = 16-1 X i-oi2 = 16-42361
Ss = -32361 St = -oi
8s -32361
(average) v = ^ = -^~ = 32-361
A value still nearer to the true will be obtained if the time
interval is made -ooi sec. only.
t= i s = 16-1
t = i-ooi s = 16-1 X i-ooi2 = 16-1322161
8s = -0322161 8^ = -ooi
8s -0322161
and (average) v = ^ = ~^^— = 32-2161
By taking still smaller intervals of time, more and more nearly
correct approximations would be found for the velocity ; the values
of v all tending to 32-2, and thus we are quite justified in saying that
when / = i, v = 32-2 ft. per sec.
Or, using the language of p. 458 (Mathematics for Engineers, Pt. 1),
we state that the limiting value of v as t approaches i is 32-2 ; a
result expressed in the shorter form
(average) v -» 32-2 as 8/ -> o when t = i
where the symbol -> means " approaches "
but (average) v = •£,
ot and thus ot
~ -> 32-2 as St -> o when t = i
 INTRODUCTION TO DIFFERENTIATION

Again, an actual velocity is an average velocity over an extremely

small interval of time ; or, in other words, an actual velocity is the
limiting value of an average velocity, so that — .
(actual) v = 8t
(average) v
st-^-o
i.e., ds
dt

By similar reasoning it could be proved that the actual velocity

at the end of the 2nd second was 64-4 ft. per sec., and at the end
of the 3rd second the velocity was 96-6 ft. per sec.
This example may usefully be continued a step further, by
calculating the values of the acceleration; this being
a = sl now possible
since the velocities are known.
Tabulating as before — &v

1 V Sv Si

I — — —
— — I
2 64-4 — — —
— — -2
32 — —
I
—
3
32-2

the actual acceleration.

96-6 acceleration
and we note that the average 32-2 is constant
32-2 and is thus
32-2
Our results may now be grouped together in one table, in which
some new symbols are introduced, for the following reason. A
velocity is the rate of change of displacement, and is found by
" differentiating space with regard to time," and an acceleration
is the rate of change of velocity, and hence it is a rate of change
of the change of position, and so implies a double differentiation.
Thus whilst -T- is called the first derivative or differential coefficient
dl)

of s with regard to t, -^ is the first derivative of v with regard to t

and the second derivative of s with regard to t.
TU ds , dv dfds\ ,,.,,, , • n
Then v = -,at , and « = at
TT = at\atj
-T, -57 , this last form being usually
d2s
written as ^ (spoken as d two s, dt squared) ; and it denotes that
the operation of differentiating has been performed twice upon s.
10 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
--•GO
The complete table of the values of the velocity and the accelera-
tion reads —
Ss st ~ St ~ SP

s i st Sv S*s

O o
— — i — — —
— — — i
~~~ '

i 16-1 16-1 _S
s
16-1
— — i — — —
— — —
80-5 ' i
64-4 2
80-5 — —
— 48*3 i 48*3 —

3
— — —
144-9 _—
32-2
32- 2
The next example refers to a similar case,
32-2 but is treated from
the graphical aspect. 32-2

Example i. — Experiments made with the rolling of a ball down an

inclined plane gave the following results —

t (sees.) o I 2 3
80
180
s (cms.) o 20

Draw curves giving the space, velocity and acceleration respectively

at any time during the period o to 3 sees.
By plotting the given values, 5 vertically and t horizontally, the
" space-time " curve or " displacement " curve is obtained; the curve
being a parabola (Fig. i).
Select any two points P and Q on the curve, not too far apart,
and draw the chord PQ, the vertical QN and the horizontal PN.

Then the slope of the chord PQ =

Now PN may be written as St since it represents a small addition

to the value of t at P : also QN = 8s,
8s
so that— slope of chord PQ = ^
Of
but ^ — average velocity between the times OM and OR, hence
the average velocity is measured by the slope of a chord. Now
let Q approach P, then the chord PQ tends more and more to lie
along the tangent at P, and by taking Q extremely close to P the
chord PQ and the tangent at P are practically indistinguishable
 INTRODUCTION TO DIFFERENTIATION
ot ir
the one from the other; whilst in the limit the two lines coincide.
Then since the slope of the chord PQ gives the value of ~ , and

the limiting value of ot7 is -^

(it , it follows that the slope of the tangent

expresses -^ ; but the slope of a curve at any point is measured

o
g

.30

1-5 2-O 2-5

Values of hmc
FIG. i.

by the slope of its tangent at that point, and hence we have evolved
the most important principle, viz., that differentiation is the deter-
mination ofthe slopes of curves.
[Incidentally it may be remarked that here is a good illustration
of the work on limiting values ; for the slope of a curve, or of the
tangent to the curve, is the limiting value of the slope of the chord,
*'. e., the value found when the extremities of the chord coincide;
and this value does not take the indeterminate form oC), as might at
first sight be supposed, but is a definite figure.]
12 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS

Thus the slope of the tangent at any point on the space-time

curve measures the actual rate of change of the space with regard
to time at that particular instant; or, in other words, the actual
velocity at that instant. Hence by drawing tangents to the space-
time curve at various points and calculating the slopes, a set of
values of the velocity is obtained : these values are then plotted
to a base of time and a new curve is drawn, which gives by its
ordinate the value of the velocity at any time and is known as the
" velocity-time " curve.
Since this curve is obtained by the calculation of slopes, or
rates of change, it is designated a derived or slope curve; the
original curve, viz., the space-time curve, being termed the
primitive.
In the case under notice the velocity-time curve is a sloping
straight line, and in consequence its slope is constant, having the
value 40. Hence the derived curve, which is the acceleration-time
curve, is a horizontal line, to which the ordinate is 40. There are
thus the three curves, viz., the primitive or space-time curve, the
first derived curve or the velocity-time curve, and the second derived
curve or the acceleration-time curve.
Graphic Differentiation. — The accurate construction of slope
curves is a most tedious business, for the process already described
necessitates the drawing of a great number of tangents, the calcu-
lations of their respective slopes and the plotting of these values.
There are, however, two modes of graphic differentiation, both of
which give results very nearly correct provided that reasonable
care is taken over their use.
Method i (see Fig. 2). — Divide the base into small elements,
the lengths of the elements not being necessarily alike, but being
so chosen that the parts of the curve joining the tops of the con-
secutive ordinates drawn through the points of section of the base
are, as nearly as possible, straight lines. Thus, when the slope
of the primitive is changing rapidly, the ordinates must be close
together; and when the curve is straight for a good length, the
ordinates may be placed well apart. Choose a pole P, to the left
of some vertical OA, the distance OP being made a round number
of units, according to the horizontal scale. Erect the mid-ordinates
for all the strips.
Through P draw PA parallel to ab, the first portion of the
curve, and draw the horizontal Ac to meet the mid-ordinate of the
first strip in c. Then dc measures, to some scale, the slope of the
chord ab, and therefore the slope of the tangent to the primitive
 INTRODUCTION TO DIFFERENTIATION 13
curve at m, or the average slope of the primitive from a to b, with
reasonable accuracy.
Continue the process by drawing PM parallel to bl and Ms
horizontal to meet the mid-ordinate of the second strip in s : then
cs is a portion of the slope or derived curve.
Repeat the operations for ah1 the strips and draw the smooth
curve through the points c, s, etc. : then this curve is the curve
of slopes.

FIG. 2. — Graphic Differentiation, Method i.

Indicate a scale of slope along a convenient vertical axis and

the diagram is complete : the scale of slope being the old vertical scale
divided by the polar distance expressed in terms of the horizontal units.
E. g., if the original vertical scale is i" = 40 ft. Ibs. and the
horizontal scale is i" = 10 ft. : then, if the polar distance p is taken
as 2", i. e., as 20 horizontal units,
the new vertical scale, or scale of slope, is i" = 20 ^ft.— ' — 2 Ibs.
Proof of the construction. —
The slope of the primitive curve at m = slope of curve ab
~af~ p "= cd
= bf = OA. p
14 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
or, the ordinate dc, measured to the old scale, = p x the slope of
the curve at m.
If, then, the original vertical scale is divided by p the ordinate
dc, measured to the new scale, = slope of the curve at m.
The great disadvantage of this method is that parallels have
to be drawn to very small lengths of line and a slight error in the
setting of the set square may quite easily be magnified in the draw-
ing of the parallel. Hence, for accuracy, extreme care in draughts-
manship isnecessary.
It should be observed that this method of graphic differentiation
is the converse of the method of graphic integration described in

FIG. 3. — Graphic Differentiation, Method 2.

Chapter VII (Part I), and referred to in greater detail in Chapter V
of the present volume.
Method 2. — Let ABC (Fig. 3) be the primitive curve.
Shift the curve ABC forward to the right a horizontal distance
sufficiently large to give a well-defined difference between the
curves DEF and ABC ; but the horizontal distance, denoted by h,
must not be great. From the straight line base OX set up ordinates
which give the differences between the ordinates of the curves
ABC and DEF, the latter curve being treated as the base : thus
ab = a'b'. Join the tops of the ordinates so obtained to give the
new curve G6H, and shift the curve G6H to the left a horizontal
distance = -, this operation giving the curve MPN, which is the
true slope or derived curve of the primitive ABC. Complete the
diagram by adding a scale of slope, which is the old vertical scale
divided by h (expressed in horizontal units).
 INTRODUCTION TO DIFFERENTIATION

This method can be still further simplified by the use of tracing

paper, thus : Place the tracing paper over the diagram and trace
the curve ABC upon it; move the tracing paper very carefully
forward the requisite amount, viz., h, and with the dividers take
the various differences between the curves, such as a'b'. Step off
these differences from OX as base, but along ordinates - units re-
moved to the left of those on which the differences were actually
measured : then draw the curve through the points and 45 this is
the slope curve.

Tamp (C*)

JO 4O SO 6O O
65
h" 20 H "Tung (mins.)
FIG. 30. — Variation of Temperature of Motor Field Coils.

Examples on the use of these25 two methods now follow.

15
Example 2. — The temperature of the field coils of a motor was
measured at various times during the passage of a strong current, with
the following results —
10
Time (mins.) . o 5 55 62
20
49 35 45 61-7
60
20 26
Temperature (C.°)
32-5 52-5 56-5 61
Draw a curve to represent this variation
54-5 of temperature,
59-5
and a
curve to show the rate at which the temperature is rising at any instant
during the period of 65 mins. 4i 46 3°
40
The values of the temperature when plotted to a base
50 of time give
the primitive curve in Fig. 30. 58
i6 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS

To draw the slope curve we first divide the base in such a way that
the portions of the curve between consecutive ordinates have the same
inclination for the whole of their lengths, i. e., the elements of the curve
are approximately straight lines. Thus, in the figure, there is no
appreciable change of slope between A and a, or a and d. There is
no need to draw the ordinates through the points of section for their
full lengths, since the intersections with the primitive curve are all that
is required. Next a pole P is chosen, 20 horizontal units to the left
of A, and through P the line PB is drawn parallel to the portion of the
curve Aa. A horizontal B6 cuts the mid-ordinate of the first strip
at b, and 6 is a point on the slope or derived curve. The processes
repeated for the second strip, PC being drawn parallel to ad and Cc
drawn horizontal to meet the mid-ordinate of the second strip in c,
which is thus a second point on the slope curve. A smooth curve
through points such as b and c is the slope curve, giving by its ordinates
the rate of increase of the temperature ; and it will be observed that
the rate of increase is diminished until at the end of 65 mins. the rate
of change of temperature is zero, thus indicating that at the end of
65 mins. the losses due to radiation just begin to balance the heating
effect of the current.
Since the polar distance = 20 units, the scale of slope
20
_ original vertical scale

and in the figure the original vertical scale is i" = 20 units ; hence the
scale of slope is i" = i unit; and this scale is indicated to the right of
the diagram.

Example
Method 2 to 3. — Plotthethederived
obtain curve ycurve.
= x"-, x ranging from o to 3, and use

The values for the ordinates of the primitive curve y — x"- are as
in the table —
X o I 2 3

y o I 4 9

and the plotting of these gives the curve OAB in Fig. 4.

Choosing h as -5 horizontal unit, the curve is first shifted forward
this amount, and the curve CG results. The vertical differences be-
tween these two curves are measured, CG being regarded as the base
curve, and are then set off from the axis of x as the base. Thus when
x — 3, the ordinate of the curve OAB is 9 units, and that of CG is 6-25,
so that the difference is 2-75, and this is the ordinate of the curve MN.
By shifting the curve MN to the left by a distance = — , i. e., -25 hori-
zontal unit, the true slope curve ODE is obtained : this is a straight
 INTRODUCTION TO DIFFERENTIATION

line, as would be expected since the primitive curve is a " square "
parabola.
As regards the scale of slope, the new vertical scale
_ old vertical scale,

and since h = -5, the new vertical scale, or scale of slope, which is used
when measuring ordinates of the curve ODE, is twice the original
vertical scale.

The derived curve supplies much information about the primi-

tive. Thus, when the ordinate of the derived curve is zero, i. e.,
when the derived curve touches or cuts the horizontal axis, the

O -5 / 1-5 2. 2-5
FIG. 4. — Graphic Differentiation.
slope of the primitive is zero; but if the slope is zero the curve
must be horizontal, since it neither rises nor falls, and this is the
case at a turning point, either maximum or minimum. Hence turning
points on the primitive curve are at once indicated by zero ordinates
of the slope curve.
Again, a positive ordinate of the derived curve implies a positive
slope of the primitive, and thus indicates that in the neighbourhood
considered the ordinate increases with increase of abscissa. Also
a large ordinate of the slope curve indicates rapid change of ordinate
of the primitive with regard to the abscissa.
This last fact suggests another and a more important one. By
a careful examination of the primitive curve we see what is actually
c
iS MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS

happening, whilst the slope curve carries us further and tells us

what is likely to happen. In fact, the rate at which a quantity is
changing is very often of far greater importance than the actual
value of the quantity; and as illustrations of this statement the
following examples present the case clearly.

Example 4. — The following table gives the values of the displacement

of a 21 knot battleship and the weight of the offensive and defensive
factors, viz., armament, armour and protection. From these figures

(2000 _

TOGO
2OOOO 84OOO £60OO E8OOO 3OOOO
Values of P

FIG. 5. — Displacement and Armament of Battleship.

calculate values of Q (ratio of armament, etc., to displacement) and q

(rate of increase of armament, etc., with regard to displacement).
Find also the values of ..

Displacement \ 18000 28000 12845

2000O 22OOO
P tons J 2600O
24000

Armament, etc., \ 8830 30000

6880 10810 11820
p tons /
7850
9820
 INTRODUCTION TO DIFFERENTIATION

The values of Q are found by direct division and are —

•409
p 18000 20000 22OOO 26OOO 28OOO
•383 •392 •40!
24000 •416
•422 •428

Q dp
3OOOO

Values of q, i. e., -,£, may be found by (a) construction of a slope

curve, or (6) tabulating differences.
(a) By construction of a slope curve. — Plotting p along the vertical
axis and P along the horizontal axis (see Fig. 5), we find that the points
lie very nearly on a straight line. Hence the slope curve is a hori-
zontal line, whose ordinate everywhere is the slope of the original
line. By actual measurement the slope is found to be -498 and thus
di)
the average value for ~~, over the range considered, is •498. This
average value of the rate of change doessp not, however, give as much
information for our immediate purpose as the separate rates of change
considered over the various small increases in the displacement.
(6) By tabulation of differences, as in previous examples
? SP —
•485
p P SP
, Sp•495
18000 6880 _ _ _
— — 2OOO •495
— —
2OOOO
— —
—
2OOO
.490
22OOO
7850
8830 — 97° —
— — 2OOO

24000
— — 980 — '.
2OOO
—

26OOO 9820
I08IO — —
— — 990
1025
1010 2OOO .505
— •5125
—
28OOO II820
— 12—845 990 2OOO
— — —
3OOOO

Now oJrsfs = rate of increase of armament compared with displace-

ment ; as the displacement increases it is seen from the table of values
*
JV

that this ratio increases, and the questions then arise : " Does this
increase coincide with an increase or a decrease in the values of Q,
and if with one of these, what is the relation between the two changes ? "
By tabulating the corresponding values of q and Q and calculating
the values of i, we obtain the following table (the values of Q at 19000,
21000, etc., being found from a separate plotting not shown here) —
20 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
•495 •505

•495 •5125
p 19000
•485 21000

•490 •
23000
405 25000
•419
27000 29OOO
p •387 •396
•426
I-2O4
1-203
Q 1-223 .412
1-253
q 1-236 1-202

g
It will be seen by examination of this table that the fraction Q
decreases as ships are made larger : in other words, while the arma-
ment increases with the displacement, the increase is not so great as
it should be for the size of the ship, since the weight of the necessary
engines, etc., is greater in proportion to the weight of armament and
protection for the larger than for the smaller ships.
Thus, other things being equal, beyond a certain point it is better
to rely on a greater number of smaller ships than a few very large
ones. 13 19

Example 5. — Friend gives the following figures as the results of

tests on iron plates exposed to the action of air and water. The
•093
original plates weighed about 2-5 to 3 grms.
Plot these figures and obtain the rate curves •08 for the two cases,
37
these curves being a measure of the corrosion : comment on •1 the
26 results.
•0645 26
2 •0731
Time in days .' . •0048 •0674
•037
In the light : loss of \ •058 —
weight in grms. . J •0816 •0916
•0032
In the dark : loss of) •0208
weight in grms. . /

The two sets of values are plotted in Fig. 6, the respective curves
being LLL for the plates exposed in the light, and DDD for those 32
left in the dark. The effect of the action of light is very apparent
from an examination of these curves. Next, the slope curves for the
two cases are drawn, Method 2 being employed, but the intermediate
steps are not shown. The curve /// is the slope curve for LLL, and
ddd that for the curve DDD.
It will be observed that in both cases the rate of loss is great at
the commencement, but decreases to a minimum value after 20 days
exposure in the case of t the curve ///, and after 25 days in the case of
the curve ddd.
After these turning points have been reached the rate quickens,
 INTRODUCTION TO DIFFERENTIATION
21
the effect being very marked for the plates exposed to the light ; and
for these conditions the slope curve /// suggests that the corrosive
action is a very serious matter, since it appears that the rate of loss
must steadily increase.
A further extremely good illustration of the value of slope curves
is found in connection with the cooling curves of metals. In the
early days of the research in this branch of science, the cooling
curve alone was plotted, viz., temperatures plotted to a base of

o s 10 15 £O 25 30
FIG. 6. — Tests on Corrosion of Iron Plate.

time. Later investigations, however, have shown that three other

curves are necessary, viz., an inverse rate curve, a difference curve
and a derived differential curve ; the co-ordinates for the respective
curves being —
(a) Temperature (0) — time (f) curve; t horizontal and 0 vertical.
(b) Inverse rate curve : -, horizontal and 0 vertical. To obtain
this curve from curve (a), the slopes must be very carefully calcu-
lated, and it must be remembered that these slopes are the measures
of the inclinations to the vertical axis and not to the horizontal,
i. e., are values of -^ t not ^ft
dand ,,.
at
22 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS

(c) 0 vertical and 0— 0X horizontal : 0—0! being the difference

of temperature between the sample and a neutral body cooling under
identical conditions.
(d) 0 vertical and JA horizontal : this curve thus being
the inverse rate curve of curve (c).

Exercises 1. — On Rates of Change and Derived Curves

1. What do the fractions ^-

rV and (f(
-,- actually represent (s being a
displacement, and t a time) ? Take some figures to illustrate your
answer.
2. Further explain the meanings of -~- and -r by reference to a
graph.
3. When an armature revolves in a magnetic field the E.M.F.
produced depends on the rate at which the lines of force are being
cut. Express this statement in a very brief form.
4. For a non-steady electric current the voltage V is equal to the
resistance R multiplied by the current C plus the self-inductance L
multiplied by the time rate at which the current is changing. Express
this in the form of an equation.
5. At a certain instant a body is 45-3 cms. distant from a fixed
point. 2-14 seconds afterwards it is 21-7 cms. from this point. Find
the average velocity during this movement. At what instant would
your result probably measure the actual velocity ?
6. At 3 ft. from one end of a beam the bending moment is 5 tons ft.
At 3' 2\" from the same end it is 5-07 tons ft. If the shear is measured
by the rate of change of bending moment, what is the average shearing
force in this neighbourhood ?
7. Tabulate the values of q, i. e., ^ for the following case, the figures
referring to a battleship of 23 knots.
p 18000 2OOOO 22OOO 26OOO
10855
28OOO
24OOO

p 6170 8OOO
8930
II820
3OOOO
I28lO
32OOO

7080 9890
8. Tabulate the values of ^r for the case of a battleship of 25 knots
from the following —
P 18000 2OOOO 22OOO 26OOO 28OOO
24000 II370

p 5210
6050
6910
8660 3OOOO
10460 32OOO

= sp and
7790
Q = F 9550
 •8

•7
INTRODUCTION •6
TO DIFFERENTIATION
4 i-4 •
2 -•42
9. Tabulate the values of the velocity and the acceleration for
the following case — 2O'4

Space (feet) i 6
4'4
II-2
Time (sees.) I 15-6
1-2

10. Plot the space-time curve for the figures given in Question 9
and by graphic differentiation obtain the velocity 7-6 -time and the accelera-
tion-time curves.
11. Plot the curve y — -$x3 from x = —2 to x = +4 and also its
derived curve. What is the ordinate of the latter when x — 1-94?
25
12. Given the following figures for the mean temperatures 23
of24 the
year (the average for 50 years), draw a curve for the rate of change of
temperature and determine at what seasons 19of the year it is most
rapid in either direction.
8 9
I?
Time (intervals of J month) o i 2 3 4 5 6 7 10 ii
14 15
13
Temperature 29
38-4 22
37'9
16 38-5 4°-3
12
IS 20
40-7 4I-5
38-6 39-5
27 61-4 48-5
39-862-5 62-9 21 45-5 45-5
60-5 62-5 26
55
49-3 58-4 34
62-2
52
57-2 33
61-1
28
35

69 1448 58-2 17
-
13. s is the displacement from a fixed point of a tramcar, 59in time5
/ sees. Draw the space-time, velocity-time and acceleration-time curves. 55-8
54-2 43-5 48-8
t 0 .1 2 3 4 5 6 46-8
7 8
40-6 9 10
30
38-6
3*
39-8 38-8
34
42-1
51
s o 21
32
116
4 ii
The scales must be clearly indicated. 19 36
14. The table gives the temperature of a body at time / sees, after
it has been left to cool. Plot the given values and thence 17by differ-
entiation obtain the rate of cooling curve. What conclusions do you
draw from your final curve ? 15
14 50 9i
Time (mins.) o I
1
2 133 4 5 6 7 8 9
34

128 123-3
122
Temp. (F.°) 136 132
130 126-5 120-5
18
10
ii 12 124-8
16
—
119-3 118 II5-5 114-5 II3-5 112-5 111-5 110-5
109-5
II6-8
 14

MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS

15. The following figures give the bending moment at various

points along a beam supported at both ends and loaded uniformly.
Draw the bending moment curve, and by graphic differentiation
8- obtain
the shear and load curves. Indicate clearly the scales and 4write down
the value of the load per foot run. 6-3
8-4 10
Distance from one \ 6-3
0 2 4 6 8 12 16
end (ft.) . . / 18 20

Bending moment \ o 10 O •6
(tons ft.) . . J 3'5 3'5

i •
16. By taking values of 0 in the neighbourhood of 15° find the
actual rate of change of sin 6 with regard to 0 (0 being expressed in
radians). -6
Compare your result with the 9value of cos 15°. In what
general way could the result be expressed ? 9-6 i'5
17. If the shear at various points in the length of a beam is as in
the table, draw the load curve (i. e., the derived curve) and write down
the loading at "3^ ft. from the left-hand end.
Distance from left-hand end (ft.) 0 I 2 3 4 5 6

Shearing force (tons) .... 0 i

2-1

18. An E.M.F. wave is given by the equation

E = 150 sin 314^ + 50 sin 942^.
Derive graphically the wave form of the current which the E.M.F. will
send through a condenser of 20 microfarads capacity, assuming the
condenser loss to be negligible.
dE
Given that C = K~j7' where C is current and K is capacity.
19. If momentum is given by the product of mass into velocity,
and force is defined as the time rate of change of momentum, show
that force is expressed by the product of mass into acceleration.
n-4
20. The following are the approximate
6-15 speeds5 of a 16-33
locomotive on
a run over a not very level road. Plot these figures and thence obtain
2-15
a curve showing the acceleration at any time during the run.
i-o 25 20-52
Time (in mins. and sees.) o
14-26
10 9-22 15
start
Speed (miles per hour) . 6 25-5 23-10
18-2
ctt 28
21. Taking the following figures referring
22-8
to CO2 for use28-6in a re-
26-1
29-2
frigerating machine, draw the rate curve and find the value of -£- when
t=i8° F. 35

t° F. .' 5 o 5 10 20
285
£>lbs.per\ 335 567
sq. in J 363 423
310
392
456
528
491
 25
24
23

INTRODUCTION TO DIFFERENTIATION
22. The weight of a sample of cast iron was measured after various
heatings with the following results; 12the gain in weight being due to
the external gases in the muffle.
Number of heats . . o 2 6 22
27 26

146-94
Weight .... 147-04 I48.27
146-88 H7-54 148-36 148-46
148-02
I48-II

- 35 39
156-44
150-49

152-36
148-61 45
Plot a curve to represent this table of values, and from it construct 149-18

the rate curve.

23. The figures in the table are the readings of the temperature of
a sample of steel at various times during its cooling. Plot0 these values
3 195
to a time base, and thence draw the " inverse 165rate " curve, i. e., 225
the
curve in which values of -«. are
i°5
plotted horizontally
135 and the temperatures
along the vertical axis.
120
Time in sees. (I) . . 150 180
75 j 9° 210
1 838
850 848 842 819 813
837-9
Temperature in C.c (0) 844-7 839-5 8i5
838-5 837-5

255
838-2 838-1
240 270 285 292-5
829 315 345 375 4°5
833
821-7 821-5 821-3 367-5
836 825 8-'3-3
300
822-2
330 8II-6
821-1
360
350
 CHAPTER II
DIFFERENTIATION OF FUNCTIONS

Differentiation of ax". — It has been shown in Chapter I

how to compare the changes in two quantities with one another,
and thus to determine the rate at which one is changing with
regard to the other at any particular instant, for cases in which
sets of values of the two variables have been stated. In a great
number of instances, however, the two quantities are connected
by an equation, indicating that the one depends upon the other,
or, in other words, one is a function of the other. Thus if y = 5#3,
y has a definite value for each value given to %, and this fact is
expressed in the shorter form y =f(x). Again, if z — ijx^y—^xy3
+5 log y> where both x and y vary, z depends for its values on
those given to both x and y, and z — f(x, y).
To differentiate a function it is not necessary to calculate
values of x and y and then to treat them as was done to the given
sets of values in the previous chapter. This would occasion a
great waste of time and would not give absolutely accurate results.
Rules can be developed entirely from first principles which permit
the differentiation of functions without any recourse to tables of
values or to a graph.
We now proceed to develop the first of the rules for the differen-
tiation of functions ; and we shall approach the general case, viz.,
that of y — axn, by first considering the simple case of y = x3.
Our problem is thus to find the rate at which y changes with regard
to x, the two variables (y the dependent and x the independent
variable or I.V.) being connected by the equation y = xs.
The
dv rate of change of y with regard to x is given by the value
of -j-, and this is sometimes written as Dy when it is clearly
understood that differentiation is with regard to x : the operator D
having many important properties, as will be seen later in the
book. If y is expressed as f(x), then fix
-p is often written JfQ
dx
or /'(*). 26
 DIFFERENTIATION OF FUNCTIONS 27

~, Dy, -^-* or f'(x) is called the derivative or differential

coefficient of y with respect to x; and the full significance of the
latter of these terms is shown in Chapter III.
We wish to find a rule giving the actual rate of change of y
with regard to x, y being = x3, the rule to be true for all values
of x. As in the earlier work, the actual rate of change must be
determined as the limiting value of the average rate of change.
Let x be altered by an amount Sx so that the new value of
x = x -f- 8x ; then y, which depends upon x, must change to a
new value y + Sy, and since the relation between y and x is y — x3
for all values of x —

(new value of y) = (new value of x)3

or y+Sy = (x+Sx)3 = ,r3+3#2 . 8x+$x . (Sx)2+($x)3 (i)
but y = x3 ........... (2)
Hence, by subtraction of (2) from (i) —
y+Sy-y = 3*2 . Sx+3x(Sx)2+(Sx)3
and Sy = $x2 . Sx+3x(Sx)2+(Sx)3.
Divide through by Sx, and —

Thus an average value for the rate of change over a small

interval Sx has been found; and to deduce the actual rate of
change the interval Sx must be reduced indefinitely.

Let Sx=-ooi; then ^ = 3*2+ (3* X-ooi) + -000001

-oooooi

whilst if 8x = -ooooi—
jh_j

:- = 3#2-f -00003^;+ -oooooooooi . (3)

Evidently, by still further reducing &x the 2nd and 3rd terms
of (3) can be made practically negligible in comparison with the
ist term.
Then, in the limit, the right-hand side becomes 3*2,

and thus- ^
dx = Ti ^Sx
f = 3*2

dx- = *X
28 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS

This relation can be interpreted graphically in the following

manner : If the curve y = xs be plotted, and if also its slope curve
be drawn by either of the methods of Chapter I, then the equation
to the latter curve is found to be y = $x2.
The two curves are plotted in Fig. 7.

10

01234
X
FIG. 7. — Primitive and Slope Curves.

Example i. — Find the slope of the curve y — x3 when x = 4.

dy = CLX
The slope of the curve = CLX
-v1 dx3
-j— = 3* o

and if x = 4 -,- = 3 X 42 = 48.

Meaning that, in the neighbourhood of x — 4, the ordinate of the
curve y = x3 is changing 48 times as fast as the abscissa ; this fact
being illustrated by Fig. 7.

Working along the same lines, it would be found that -jj— =

and ---y- = 5#4 (the reader is advised to test these results for
himself).dx5
 DIFFERENTIATION OF FUNCTIONS 29

Re-stating these relations in a modified form —

- = 4^ = 4*
ft* dx3

We note that in all these cases the results take the form —

—dx- = nxn ~ \

Thus the three cases considered

dxn suggest a general rule, but
it would be unwise to accept this as the true rule without the
more rigid proof, which can now be given.
Proof of the rule —
- /(vV •
ax — -M Vtt ~~ *

Let y = xn, this relation being

dxn true for all values of x . (i)
If x is increased to x-}-8x, y takes a new value y-f-Sy, and
from (i) it is seen that —
y-|-Sy = (x+8x)n.

Expand (x-\-8x)n by the Binomial Theorem (see p. 463, Part I).

Then —

Subtract (i) from (2), and —

Divide by 8^ —
8v , , n(n—i) „ 0/c. , , «(w — i)(n — 2) M ,/» \9 ,
-•-=«^n-i4- v--- 'xn-2(8x)-\ — s— — 'xn-3(8x)2-t- terms
8,r |_2 |_3
containing products of (Sx}3 and higher powers of (8x).
Let 8* be continually decreased, and then, since Sx is a factor
of the second and all succeeding terms, the values of these terms
can be made as small as we please by sufficiently diminishing Sx.
30 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS

Thus in the limit — dv Sx

f- -> n xn - *

Id
or --

Hence the first rule for differentiation of functions is established,

viz. —

i. e., differentiation lowers the power of the I.V. by one, but the
new power of x must be multiplied by the original exponent.
The reason for the multiplication by the n can be readily seen,
for the bigger the value of n the steeper is the primitive curve
and therefore the greater the change of y for unit change of x.
The n actually determines the slope of the primitive (cf. Part I,
p. 340), and it must therefore be an important factor in the
result of differentiation, since that operation gives the equation of
the slope curve.
To make the rule perfectly general, aUowance must be made
for the presence of the constant multiplier a in axn.
It will be agreed that if the curve y = x3 had been plotted,
the curve y = ^x3 would be the same curve modified by simply
multiplying the vertical scale by 4. Hence, in the measurement
of the slope, the vertical increases would be four times as great
for the curve y = 4#3 as for the curve y = x3, provided that the
same horizontal increments were considered.
Now the slope of the curvedy y- = x3 is given by the equation —
ix*

so that the slope of the curve y = ^x3 is given by —

dx~3X
^ = 4x3*2 = I2x2.
In other words, the constant multiplier 4 remains a multiplier
throughout differentiation. This being true for any constant
factor —
j-axa = nax H-l
Accordingly, a constant factor before differentiation remains as
such after differentiation.
We can approach the differentiation of a multinomial expression

dx*
 DIFFERENTIATION OF FUNCTIONS

by discussing the simple case y = $x2 + 17 (a binomial, or two-

term expression). The curves y = $x2 and y = $x2 + 17 are seen
plotted in Fig. 8, and an examination shows that the latter curve
is the former moved vertically an amount equal to 17 vertical
units, i. e., the two curves have the same form or shape and
consequently their slopes at corresponding points are alike. Thus
if a tangent is drawn to each curve at the point for which x = 2-5,
the slope of each tangent is measured as — , i.e., 25; and con-
sequently the diagram informs us that the term 17 makes no
difference to the slope.
JOO.

FIG. 8.

Thus —

Now, by differentiating 5#2 17 term by term, we have —

dx-

dx^
since 17 is a constant and does not in any way depend upon x,
and therefore its rate of change must be zero.
It is seen that in this simple example it is a perfectly logical
procedure to differentiate term by term and then add the results;
and the method could be equally well applied to all many-term
expressions.
32 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS

Hence— jx(axn+bxn~'i+cxn-2+ . . . d)
= naxn~l+b(n — i)xn~2+c(n — 2)xn~3 + . . .

and ^x(axa-{-b) = nax"-1.

To apply these rules to various numerical examples :—

Example 2. — Differentiate with respect to x the function —

= (gx i-6;r6)
= i4'4#-8+#^'5 or IA-AX-*-\ — — _
V x

'
Example 3.— If y = -Sx AA, * find the value of ^.

y = -8x V
A/L^s ^ = -8^~^
= -8x~, or
so that in comparison with the standard form —
a = -8 and n = —1-5.
Then—
—
or _

Example 4. — If /w1'41 = C, the equation representing the adiabatic

expansion of air, find -—-.

In this example we have to differentiate p with regard to v, and

before this can be done p must be expressed in terms of v.

Now pv1-*1 = C, so that p = ^ = Cw-1'11.

Hence dv ^-Cz;-1-11 = Cx -i-4iy-2-11 = - i-4iCw-2-41

ft = dv
and this result can be put into terms of p and v only, if for C we write
its value pvl'tl.

Thus = -i-4ix/>w1-4lx»-8'll= —i-4ipv-1= - -'.

 DIFFERENTIATION OF FUNCTIONS 33
Example 5. — The formula giving the electrical resistance of a length
of wire at temperature t° C. is —

where R0 = Resistance at o° C. Find the increase of resistance per

i° C. rise of temperature per ohm of initial resistance, and hence state
a meaning for «.

The question may be approached from two standpoints ; viz. —

(a) Working from first principles.
"D _ "O "D •[

i. e., increase in resistance for t° C. =

but this is the resistance increase for initial resistance R0, hence
T? a

increase in resistance per i° C. per ohm initial resistance = -^- = a.

(&) By differentiation.
Rate of change of R« with regard to t = -~

0a = R0a

and consequently the rate of change of resistance per i° C. per i ohm

initial resistance = o.
The symbol a is thus the " temperature coefficient," its numerical
value for pure metals being -0038.

Example 6. — Find the value of -^-(45*—

CIS \ \+6sl — 1-84).
S '

Write the expression as 45*— 3s~2+6s-5— 1-8*.

Then—

2f ' n-l\
Example 7. — If x = an\i — a n /, a formula referring to the flow
dx
of a gas through an orifice, find an expression for -5-.

*( n^\
As it stands an\l — a n ) is a product of functions of the I.V.
(in this case a), and it cannot therefore be differentiated with our
D
34 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
present knowledge. We may simplify, however, by removing the
brackets, and then —
2 n-l 2 2 M+l
x — an — aT^ n — an — a n
, , / 2 n
dx d I •
— = —\an
da da\ — a »
_i -i
+ l
-2 X a n ---
= n n-\-I
• n a
n

2 n
-a
n -- n— a
2-n

7 n .

Example 8. — Determine the value of —

5— -45m9-86
rfm\ 5W

To avoid the quotient of functions of m, divide each term by 5m4'32,

T>7*w»75 .^C*M.^»36
then the expression =

and - (expression) = (3'4X — 3'57^~4'57) — -

~4'" — -499m4-54— 9'

Proof of the construction for the slope curve given on p. 14.

Let us deal first with the particular case in which the equation
of the primitive curve is y = x2.
Referring to Fig. 4, the equation of the curve OAB is y = x2,
and the equation of the curve CG is yl — (x — h)2 = x2 -f h2 — 2xh.
Hence the difference between the ordinates of the curves OAB
and CG, the latter being regarded as the base curve —

= 2xh—hz
so that the equation of the curve MN is

y-5 = 2xh—h2.
 DIFFERENTIATION OF FUNCTIONS 35
Now the curve ODE is the curve MN shifted back a distance of

- horizontal units,
2 and hence its equation is y3 = z(x-\
\ — ^/jh — h2,
since for x we must now write f x-\—\

Thus the equation of curve ODE is —

A/

or
y»~y3 == 2xh
2x
h
i. e., if Y be written for ~, Y = 2x
or the equation of the curve ODE is that of the slope curve of
the curve y ~ x2 provided that the ordinates are read to a certain
scale; this scale being the original vertical scale divided by h
expressed in horizontal units.
Hence the curve ODE is the slope curve of the curve OAB.

Before discussing the general case, let us take the case of the
primitive with equation y = x3.
If the curve be shifted forward an amount = h, the equation
of the new curve is —
yi = (x-W
and the equation of the curve giving the differences of the
ordinates is — •
y2 = y— y^-x3— (x— h)3 = x3—

By shifting this curve - units to the left we change its equation,

by writing (x-\ — J in 'place of x, into the form —

Dividing by h —
h 4
or Y = 3*2+-
36 MATHEMATICS
y FOR ENGINEERS n
entl ble iso
ici , gi ar
No
w
if h is taken suf
f
small — is negli in c omp

with 3#2, and we thus have the equation of the curve Y = 3#2,
which is the slope curve of the curve y = x3 ; but the ordinates
must be measured to the old vertical scale divided by h.
We may now consider the case of the primitive y = xn. Adopt-
ing the notation of the previous illustrations —
z
n(*L-ll)xnh-2}l2_ . _ \
\

Write (*+2) in place of x, and then

h L 2 8
_ ._, n(n—
_>_2i)—^C^1„— 27ft «(w—
_ i)(w—
- _ 2)OC n_3,2
4 — ft —~

= nXn-1-}- terms containing A as a factor.

Hence if h is made very small —

Y or = w*"-1.

Exercises 2. — On Differentiation of Powers of the I.V.

1. Find from first principles the differential
o
coefficient of x*.
2. Find the slope of the curve y = •^—2 when x = -5
(a) By actual measurement and (6) by differentiation.
3. The sensitiveness of a governor is measured by the change of
height corresponding to the change of speed expressed as a fraction
of the speed. Thus if h and v represent respectively the height and
dl)

speed, the sensitiveness — dh -. --- . If the height is inversely pro-

portional to the square of the velocity, find an expression for the
sensitiveness.
Differentiate with respect to x the functions in Exs. 4 to 15.

4. 3*9. 5. -.
- A/-O
--*» 7. igx™.™
6. 8i-5*-*».
»/ " - ^"
8. '2I5
' .£ ,J
 37

DIFFERENTIATION OF FUNCTIONS

9. 10. «• 12. ~
8*'
15.
13. 14.
(*3-7)2-8
16. Find the value of -]- when pv1-3 = 570 and v = 28-1.
.
17. Find the value of Jv

18. If E = — I5+I4T — -oo68T2, find the rate of change of E with

regard to T when T has the value 240.
, dH , dtt i f dp , \
19. Calculate the value of -j- from -T- = -- \v^-+yp( when
dv <fo 7— 1 1 dv -^)
pv1-3 = C and y = 1-4. 15

20. Find the rate of discharge ( -,- J of air through an orifice from a
tank (the pressure being 55 Ibs./n") from 6the
3 following data —
I44/>V = wRT
R = 53-2, V = 47-7, T = 548.
I35 21$
Time (sees ) (/) o 60 3IS

Pressure (Ibs. per sq. in.) (p) 10

45

Hint. — Plot p against / and find ? when p = 55.

21. If P = load displacement of a ship,
p = weight of offensive and defensive factors.
Then P = aP+bP*+p.
Find the rate of increase of armament and protection in relation
to increase of displacement. 30
""' ^ and
22. if M = w(t xw(I+y)-w(y *> ,
yai [II I __ y \\ O*u\t I
/
4f \\ 901 1I
\) V \I **>
dM
2/ \ // 2
constants.
23. If M = \Vv—2/2^(/2
v — 4y2), find the value of y that makes ('/'M
,— = o.
dy
n* Tt
24. If c*S = -i
w((x-}-ny)2 x2} k find
,. , , , , dS
2 I s— ST-"
/ y J the value of ax -,-.

25. Find the value of h which makes -jr-

dh = o when —

[h is the height of a Warren girder; and the value found will be

the height for maximum stiffness.]
26. If p = -^
r3 — A and q* — -75+
r3 A, find the value of v dr
f in terms of
p and q. (This question refers to the stresses in a thick spherical
shell, p being the radial pressure, and q the hoop tension.)
38 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
27. In a certain vapour the relation between the absolute tem-
perature T and the absolute pressure p is given by the equation
T = 140^1 + 465, and the latent heat L is given by L = 1431 — -ST.
Find the volume, in cu. ft., of i Ib. of the vapour when at a pressure
of 81 Ibs. per sq. in. absolute, from —
V .n-? — J • (T — TjRl
I44T dp

28. For a rolling uniform load of length r on a beam of length /,

the bending moment M at a point is given by —
«)«"!// v\ ieiv%

M =
If y is a constant, find an expression for the shear (i. e., the rate
of change of bending moment).
29. Given that p = electrical resistance in microhms per cu. cm.
and x = percentage of aluminium in the steel,
then p = 12 + 12#— -3#2 for steel with low carbon content.
x = Find
4. the 'rate of increase of p with increase of aluminium when
30. The equation giving the form taken by a trolley wire is —
2000 1760
i
and the radius of curvature =
y = tu re.
Find the value of the radius of curva

Good examples of the great advantage obtained by utilising

dx* proved are furnished by the
the rules of differentiation already
two following examples, which have reference to loaded beams.

Example g. — Prove that the shearing force at any point in a beam

is given by the rate of change of the bending moment at that point.

Consider two sections of the beam 8x apart (see Fig. 9). The
shear at a section being denned as the sum of all the force to the right
of that section, let the shear at b = S, and let the shear at a = S+8S.
Also let the moment of all the forces to the right of b (i. e., the bending
moment at b) = M, and let the bending moment at a = M+SM.
Taking moments about C —

M+SM = M+(S+8S)**+S(8*)

or 8M =
 DIFFERENTIATION OF FUNCTIONS 39
SM , SS
Dividing by Sx, ^- — S-\
and when 8x is diminished indefinitely, SS becomes negligible

and — = S.

S+SS

.^ooooRftooo

FIG. 9.
H
FIG. 10. ""*
s
Examples on Loaded Beams.

The last example should be considered in conjunction with the

following :—
Example 10. — For a beam of length /, fixed at one end and loaded
uniformly with w tons per foot run, the deflection y at distance x
from the fixed end is given by the formula —

E being the Young's Modulus of the material of the beam, and I being
the moment of inertia of the beam section.

Find the values of, -~,

dy -j^,
d*y d?y
, , and, -,—..
d*y
dx? dxv dx3 dx*

Differentiating, == {(W X 2x) - (4l x 3^2) +4*3}

y

Differentiating again, g -
40 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS

Differentiating again, * -

Carrying the differentiation one stage further —

d*y _~ ~
d(d?y\ ~_ dJTw (* '
5** ~ ~dx\dx*J

Physical meanings may now be found for these various deriva-

tives. Referring to Fig. 10, consider a section of the beam distant
x from the fixed end. To the right of this section there is a length
of beam l—x loaded with w tons per foot, so that the total load
or total downward force on this length is w(l — x) ', and since this
load is evenly distributed, it may be all supposed to be concentrated
at distance 2
from the section.
Now the bending moment at the section
= moment of all the force to the right of the section
/l—x\ w
= force X distance = w(l—x)x( ) = ~(l—x)\
d2v
Comparing this result with the value found for ~z> we notice
that the two are alike except for the presence of the constants
E and I : thus -~ must be a measure of the bending moment.
Actually the rule connecting M, the bending moment, and
its-
S
dx* 1 M = i
-tPy°r M„ =

the proof of this rule being given in a later chapter.

Again, we have proved in the previous example that the shear
is given by the rate of change of bending moment : thus —

dx dx dx2 dx3

= w(x— /
 DIFFERENTIATION OF FUNCTIONS 41
a result agreeing with our statement that the shear at a section is
the sum of all the loads to the right of the section. [The reason
for the minus sign, viz., (x— I), being written where (l—x) might
be expected need not be discussed at this stage.]
Continuing the investigation —
d* w

or v3 = w
dtf

but w is the loading on the beam and —

-~d*y d f^d3y\
EFr4
dx* = dx\
j-( j-4 — dS
El dx3/ j-
dx
so that the loading is measured by the rate of change of the shear.
If now the deflected form is set out, by constructing successive
slope curves we obtain, respectively, the slope curve of the deflected
form, the bending moment curve, the shear curve and finally the
curve of loads.

Example n. — The work done in the expansion of gas in gas turbines

is given by —

where r is the ratio of expansion.

Compare governing by expansion control with governing by
alteration of the initial temperature, from the point of view of
efficiency.

Deal first with the expansion control, i. e., regard Tj as constant

and r as variable. Then the rate at which the work is increased with
respect to r is -3—.
dW
Now w
3—
42 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
Now regard r as constant, but T, as variable.
/7W *? P V / w-l\
Then- ^
u J-! = ^^rV
n— i J-o -^)
and, expressing the two results in the form of a ratio —
/7W /fW PVT (w r^T
«vv . «vv _ x-1v0±1 {n i)J-0

^yn\I— r n I

-( ""^
Lengths of Sub-tangents and Sub-normals of Curves. —
The projection of the tangent to a curve on to the axis of x is
known as the sub-tangent, i.e., the distance "sub" or "under'?
the tangent. The projection of the normaldy on the x axis is called
the sub-normal.
The slope of a curve at any point, measured by the slope of
its tangent at that point, is given by the value of -f- there, or if
a = inclination of the tangent to the x axis —

tan a = dx

ay
FIG. n. — Sub-tangent and Sub- normal.
PA dy
In Fig. ii — -x-~i = tan a = dx
AT -f-
AT = PA^

But — AT = sub-tangent and PA = y

and hence the length of the sub-tangent dx
= y,-
 DIFFERENTIATION OF FUNCTIONS

Again — L APN = a, since L TPN = a right angle 43

tan AN sub-normal

i. e.t sub-normal
tan a =
or sub-normal = y X tan a = y-~
To find the length of the tangent PT —
(PT)2 = (PA)2+(AT)2

and

In like manner — PN =

FIG. 12.

Example 12. — Find the lengths of the sub-tangent and the sub-
normal of the parabola y2 = <\ax (Fig. 12).
dy
yz = AfO-x and y = 2 Va . #*
then
dx or
Then length of sub-tangent = y

Va Va
44 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
This result illustrates an important property of the parabola and
one useful in the drawing of tangents. For AT = 2.x — 2 X AO, and
hence to draw the tangent at any point P, drop PA perpendicular to
the axis, set off OT = OA and join TP.
The length of the sub-normal AN = y-2-

— „, /\v- ___
y Va _— 2_
Va Vx Va.
= 2d.
Vx Vx

i. e., the length of the sub-normal is independent of the position of P,

provided that the sub-normal is measured on the axis of the parabola.

Example 13. — Find the lengths of the sub-tangent and the sub-
normal of the parabola — y = i$x2—2x—g
when x = — 2 and also when x — 3.

The axis of this parabola dis y vertical, and consequently the sub-
7dx normal, which is measured along the x axis when given by the value
of y-^, is not constant.

Now — y = i5x*—2X—g
and dx
-r- = 30*— 2.
-r- —
Hence sub-tangent — = y-r-
dx = 2——
dy
dv $ox — 2
ax
and sub-normal = y~~ = (i^xz—2x—g) x (30^—2).
Thus when x = — 2
sub-tangent = - ~ — ? _ __g5 umf-s.
_ __ —60 — 2 _ 62
sub-normal = (60+4— 9) ( — 62) = —3410 units.
When x = 3
/I35— 6— g\ 120 15
sub-tangent = ( g8 j = -88 = ^ units.
sub-normal = 120 X 88 = 10560 units.

Example 14. — A shaft 24 ft. long between the bearings weighs

2 cwt. per foot run, and supports a flywheel which weighs 3! tons
at a distance of 3 ft. from the right-hand bearing. Find at what
point the maximum bending moment occurs and state the maximum
bending moment.

Regarding the shaft as a simply supported beam AB (see Fig. 13),

we may draw the bending moment diagrams for the respective systems
 DIFFERENTIATION OF FUNCTIONS
45
of loading, viz., ADB for the distributed load, being the weight of the
shaft, and ACB for the concentrated load.
The total distributed load is wl, i.e., 24X-I = 2-4 tons, giving
equal reactions of 1-2 tons at A and B; and the bending moment
diagram is a parabola with vertex at D, the maximum ordinate DF
being -5-, i. e., — Q— — or 7-2 tons ft. If for convenience in the
later working the axes of x and y are as shown in the figure, the
equation to this parabola is y2 = <\ax; or taking the value of y as FB
and that of x as DF, 1 22 = 40x7- 2, from which 40 = 20 and
y2 = 20*.

Scale of
Bending Momen pal lei to AC
tons- f r

24

FIG. 13.

The load of 3-5 tons produces reactions of — X3*5 tons at B,

24
and — x 3-5 tons at A, i. e., RB = 3-06 and RA = -44 tons : thus the
ben mom at E is 3-0 = 9-18 tons ft.
dSince
ing the entotal
t bending moment 6x3 is obtained by adding the ordinates
of the diagram ADB to the corresponding ordinates of ACB, the
maximum bending moment will be determined when the tangent to
the parabola is parallel to AC, and the position satisfying this condition
can readily be found by differentiation. Thus —
The equation of the curve ADB is y2 = 20* or y = 4-47**, and
the slope of the curve is given by the value of -~.

Now if y = 4-47* , = 4-47X^4

e.f
tan « =_ 4'47

2*3
 46
Referring to the figure ACB, tan a = =

and thus- 4^42 = ^i

2** 9'l8

or x* = 1:47X9-18

i.e., (DR)» = 4-47X9-18

Again, (PR)2 = 2oxDR, and thus PR =

= 4-37 ft.
Thus the maximum bending moment occurs at a distance of
12 — 4-37, i. e., 7-63 ft. from the right-hand bearing. 2
4
To find the maximum bending moment —
DR = **/^v*" = -956 42
\ 42 /
PQ = DF-DR = 7-2--96 = 6-24 tons ft.
Also — ^jLp = — — X9-i8 = 7-16 tons ft.
Hence the maximum bending moment = 7-16+6-24 — 13-4 tons ft.

Exercises 3. — On the Lengths of the Sub-tangent and Sub-normal : also

Beam Problems.
1. Find the lengths of the sub-normal and sub-tangent of the
curve $y = ^x3 at the point for which x = 3.
2. If y = -^W, V = 117, and g = 32-2, find the value of x that
makes the slope of the curve i in 17-4.
3. A parabolic arched rib has a span of 50 ft. and a rise of 8 ft.
Find the equation of the tangent of the slope of the rib. What is the
slope of the tangent at the end ?
4. Find the equation of the tangent to the curve p = ^- v at the
point for which v — 5.
In Exercises 5 to 7, y is a deflection and x a distance along the
beam. Find, in each case, expressions for the Bending Moment,
Shearing Force and Load. The beam is of uniform section throughout,
and of span /.
5. The beam is supported at both ends, and loaded with W at the
centre.
W llxz xa\
y = -^rT(
2EI\ 4 -=-6 /) {x is the distance from the centre}.
6. The beam is supported at both ends, and loaded continuously
with w per ft. run.

y — ^^^Y^-g j {x is the distance from the centre}.

 DIFFERENTIATION OF FUNCTIONS 47
7. A cantilever loaded with W at the free end.
W/7#2 xa\
y = -p_( --- -j-\ \x is the distance from the fixed end}.
8. Find the lengths of the projections on the y axis of the tangent
and the normal of the parabola, x2 — iob2y + ^c, x having the value ga.
9. Prove that the sub-normal (along the axis of the parabola) of
the parabola x2 — 6y is constant and find the value of this constant.
^10.
A ™If rr
El-/ = ---- ,\-C
/- and, Cr> f. A 4.-
rf* 4 6,. ---a = -------
2 12 , find the value

Differentiation of Exponential Functions. — The rule for

differentiation already given applies only to functions involving
the I.V. (usually the x) raised to some power. A method must
now be found for the differentiation of exponential functions, viz.,
those in which the I.V. appears as exponent ; such as e5x or 4*.
When concerned with the plotting of the curve y = e* (see
Part I, p. 352) mention was made of the fact that, if tangents
are drawn to the curve at various points, the slopes of these
tangents are equal to the ordinates to the primitive curve at the
points at which the tangents touch the curve. Thus the slope
curve of the curve y = ex lies**-along
- 6*the primitive, and —

or the rate of change of the function is equal to the value of the

function itself.
We may establish the result algebraically thus —
X
d %
x ~ 3C
•
ex = i-\-x-\ --- [-—
1.21.2.31.2.3.4
Assuming that a series composed of an unlimited number of
terms can be differentiated term by term and the results added
to give the true derivative (this being true for all the cases with
which we shall deal),
dex then by differentiation —
_
~ f

= ex.
Another respect in which the function e? is unique may be

x3
48 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
dx i
noted : the sub-tangerit = y-,- -•- exx— = i, i. e., the sub-tangent
is constant and equal to unity.
The curve y = ex may be usefully employed as a gauge or
template for testing slopes of lines; the curve being drawn on
tracing-paper and moved over the line to be tested until the curve
and line have the same direction, and the ordinate of the curve
being then read, any necessary change of scales being afterwards
made.
The work may now be carried a stage further, so that the rule
for the differentiation of ebx may be found.
Referring to Part I, p. 354, we note that if the curve y = ex
be plotted, then this curve represents also the equation y = ebx if
the numbers marked along the horizontal scale used for the curve
y = ex are divided by b. If, then, the slope of the construction
curve, i. e., that having the equation y = ex, is measured, we can
obtain from it the slope of the curve y — ebx by multiplying the
slope by b, since vertical distances are unaltered, whilst horizontal
distances in the case of y = ebx are T X corresponding horizontal
distances for y = ex.
Hence the slope of the curve y = ebx is b X slope of curve y = ex

or— -p-
r\pbx = bebx

It should be noticed that the power of the function remains

the same after differentiation, but the multiplier of the I.V. becomes
after differentiation a multiplier of the function. This latter rule
must be remembered throughout differentiation, viz., any multiplier
or divisor of the I.V. in the function to be differentiated must become a
multiplier or divisor of the function after differentiation.
From ebx we can proceed to aebx, the result from the differentia-
tion of which is given by —

dx
= abebx
daebx
Example 15. — If y = yrk*t find the value of -f~
dx

-/- = dxj
dx ^~5e~bx = 5 X — 6T&~^X
 DIFFERENTIATION OF FUNCTIONS 49
Referring to the last example, note that the power of e is

exactly the same after differentiation as before : the factor — ^

multiplies the I.V. in the original function, and therefore it occurs
as a constant multiplier after differentiation; also the constant
factor 5 remains throughout differentiation.

Example 16. — If C = C0e L, where C and C0 are electrical currents,

R is the resistance of a circuit, L is the self-inductance of the circuit
and t is a time, find the time-rate of change of C.

This example illustrates the importance of the rate of change as

compared with the change itself; for it demonstrates the fact that
for an inductive circuit the change of current is often extremely rapid
and consequently dangerous.
T" * i- t /-> dC, d ~ 5*
Time rate of change of C = -^dt = dt
_,XV~ L
-— C^o xPs V?
T~& L

R^
— -C -~

i. e., the rate of decrease of the current when the impressed E.M.F.
is removed is proportional to the current at the instant the circuit is
broken.
To better illustrate the example, take the case for which the
current at the instant of removal of the *o E.M.F.
oo is 14-5 amps., the
resistance of the circuit is 6-4 ohms, and its self-inductance -oo6 henry.
Then the rate of change of the current = — -- ^ X 14-5 = — 15470 amps.
per second, whereas the actual current is only 14-5 amps.

The expressions ex and ebx are particular forms of the more

general exponential function ax; to differentiate which we may
proceed by either of two methods :—
(a) Working from first principles. In Part I, p. 470, the
expansion for ax is given, viz. —

log a+(*log*)%(*joj^)*
50 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS

Differentiating term by term —

dax ., .n \2 , /, \sx2
dx = o+log tf+(log a) x+(log a) ~+ . . .
. . (x log a)2 . (x log a)3 ,
= log a{i+x log a+±~- L± '— > +^— II.— ' +
= log a X ax

da*
(b) Assuming ihe result for the differentiation of ebx —
Let— ax = ebx
so that a — eb, and therefore loge a = b.
d , d
Then— Tax = ax
ax Tebx = bebx = loge ax ebx
Ta = J-*
= ax
or logglogaxax
a
,,
thus — dax
-j— = ax . log a.
d.

dX
Example 17. — Find the value of ^p-

In this case « = 4 and loge 4 = 1-3863.

3
Hence -£— = '1-386 x <\x.
CIX ^^^*^^m**^mm^^^*

dAx that this result cannot be simplified by combining

Note carefully
1-3863 with 4 and writing the result as 5-5452*, which is quite incorrect.
The 4 alone is raised to the x power, and 1-3863 is not raised to this
power. TO

Example 18. — Find the value of , 2(3'^)S-

%
Here a = 3-6 and log 3-6 = 1-2809.

Thus j£(3'6)' = lo§ 3-6 X (3-6)* = 1-2809 x (3-6)*.

Then —

= I -2809 XT-GfS (3-6)* = 1-2809 X 1-2809 x(3-6)j

= 1-64(3-6)*.
 DIFFERENTIATION OF FUNCTIONS 51

Example 19. — Given that s = ^est-\-ye~5tt find the value of -^—255.

s =

= 2O05' — 350 ~5t.

Again — ,.z =

•'• w*~25$ = —
Differentiation of log x. — The rule for the differentiation
of logarithmic functions can be derived either from the expansion
of loge (i + x) into a series, or by assuming the result for the
differentiation of ex. Considering these methods in turn —
(a) Working from first principles. Let y = log x, i. e., loge x.
Then if x be increased to become x-\-8x, y takes a new value
y+Sy, and y+Sy = log (x-{-8x).
(8x\ ( 8x\
i-\— X / ) = log x+log (\ i-j X /),

therefore — / Sx\
(y-j-Sy)— y = log #-|-log (\ i-\— x /)— log x

i. e., 8y = log (l-f*—)

Also log (i-j— ) can be expanded into a series of the form

\ x/
A- 2 /yO A'1*

log (*+x) = x— -+-—-+

^ o 4 • . . (see Part I, p. 470)

so that —

r ~ I — \~ ) ^l~/"r«\~/ T\^7/~r • • •

8y = VA;/ _
2\* _
Dividing all through by SA; —
8y = i 8x (8x)* (Sx)3
8x~ x 2x2 3%3 4** '
By sufficiently diminishing the value of Sx we may make the
52 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS

second and succeeding terms as small as we please, and evidently

the limiting value of the series is -

i* c,. , 8x x
dx
Sx—>o

d _
Hence — i
L S y _
dx ~ x

(b) Assuming the result — ——

Qt% = ex

Let — y = loge x, so that x — ey

dy
and dx
— = dey
- = ey.
dy dy
T

Now ~OA/ = oA/

r- and consequently by considering the limiting
^>. .
*y d
values of these fractions — /- = dx
dx -r-

dv
• Wedy wish to find ~ and we have dalready
y obtained an expression
, dx-= -.

Hence — ~ = ax
dx
T- = —ey . = x

d loge x _ i
\JL dx~
5 — x
—

This result can be amplified to embrace the more general form,

thus —
s—

for, in accordance with the rule given on p. 48, the A which

multiplies the I.V. in the original fun6tion must appear as a
multiplier after differentiation.
All these rules apply to functions involving natural logs, but
 DIFFERENTIATION OF FUNCTIONS 53
they can be modified to meet the cases in which common logs
occur ; for - Iog10 x = -4343 loge x
d logln x d loee x
and hence -$&- = .4343 _J3£L_ =

and --d Iog10

. ,.
(Ax+B) - -4343A

It should be observed that in all these logarithmic functions

the I.V. is raised to the first power only : if "the I.V. is raised to
a power higher than the first, other rules, which are given later,
must be employed.

Example 20. — If y = \oge jx, find ~.

dy
-r**-Td loge
. 7
dx dx _
or alternatively — loge 7* = loge 7+loge x
and thus— loge 7* =
.i i
= o+-X = X-

Example 21. — Differentiate with regard to t the expression

Iog10 (5^—14) and find the numerical value of the derivative when
/ = 3-2.

dt tog],
10£T \y
Ut- 1^ • i_r -
- '4343 X 5 -

When t = 3- 2

log,. (51-14) = = "0858.

We may check this result approximately by taking values of J

3-19 and 3-21 and calculating the value of -' *!-- —•

Thus—
When i = 3-19, Iog10(5f— 14) = Ioglfl(i5'95— 14) = Iog10 1-95 = -2900
when t = 3-21, Iog10(5*— 14) = Iog10(i6-o5— 14) = Iog10 2-05 = -3118
so that —
8 Iog10 (5^—14) = -3118 — -2900 = -0218
while 8t = 3-21 — 3-19 = -02
S . , -0218
and lo <— * ==~~ = I>O9-
54 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS

Differentiation of the Hyperbolic Functions, sinh x and

cosh x. — Expressing the hyperbolic functions in terms of exponential
functions —
sinh x = ex— 2erx

and cosh x = 2
ex-\-e-x
Thus to differentiate sinh % we may differentiate

jncii^c d sinh x —— d7 i(ex—e~x\

H£»r»^£» I — _i,/ x*g
_ I x> — £\
»A;
j «A;\ ~2 // — 2 lu ~ i c? i
= cosh x

d d(ex+e-x\ i. ,
also j- cosh « = dx\
dx j-( - 2 - /) = -wf—g-'i
2V
= sinh #.

Example 22.— Find the inclination to the horizontal of a cable

weighing \ Ib. per ft. and stretched to a tension of 30 Ibs. weight, at
the end of its span of 50 ft.

The equation to the form taken by the cable is —

/ xc-\-e—x\
y = -\e c) = c cosh -
horizontal tension 30 ,.
where c = --- — Cr -••*_— =60.
weight per foot -5
We require the slope of the curve when x = 25, this being given
cl/\}
by the value of - there.

dy d , x i . . x • •> x
~- = dx
dx J- c cosh 60
=— = c x 60
>— sinh 60
>- = sinh 7-
oo
. <
- 4167 _ g— .4167
When x — 25 -/ = sinh -^
dx 60 = sinh -4167 = 2

== -429.
1-517 2— 659

This value is that of the tangent of the angle of inclination to

the horizontal; which is thus tan-1 -429 or 23° 13'.
 DIFFERENTIATION OF FUNCTIONS 55

Exercises 4. — On the Differentiation of ax, Log x and the Hyperbolic

Functions.
Differentiate with respect to # the functions in Nos. i to 20.

1. e~5*. 2. i-se4-1*. 3. -£.

& 4. 4-15*. 5. 8-72^.

. 7. ^xe. 8. 14x2*. 9. 4ie

foa-iX -jpl-ZX

10. 3-i4«»^-5*»-« + 3-ite+6. 11- °,VX^T*E- 12. log 7*.

13. 3 log (4— 5*). 14. iolog108#. 15. c log (4*0 +56).

16. 9«--te-log -2*+^. 17. log 2*(3#-47).

18. log y)"-- 19- (**)3+4 cosh 2*- 17 loglo 2-3*.

20. log 3*2+5#-'7 — i -8 (i -8*) + 12.
21. If y = A^-^+A^-^find the value of S+7
2 ''
22. Find CL1)
-5- log (3 — 4^) when v = 17. Check your result approxi-
mately by taking as values of v 1-65 and 175.
23. Determine the value of -,- 71 log (18 — -04^).
(I If-

24. Write down the value of at

-j- Iog10 18^.

25. If
change T = 5oe'Zd, find the rate of change of
in 6. T compared with
/ _BA
26. If of
resistance C =a circuit
CQ^I— eandL '),L Citsand C0 being electrical
self-inductance, find thecurrents,
rate at Rwhich
the
the current C is changing, / being the time.
dl)

27. Given that v = 2-03 Iog10 (7— i-Su), find ^-.

28. Evaluate -=- 5 cosh - and also -j- p sinh -.

ax 4 ay r q
29. An electromotive force E is given by —
E — A cosh Vlr . #+B sinh Vlr . x.
Find the value of -3-3 in terms of E.
30. If W = i44J/)1(i f log r) — rpb], find the value of r that makes
-T— = o ; W being the work done in the expansion of steam from
pressure pt through a ratio of expansion r.

31. Find the value of ax

-r~ + #y' if y* — a a e~ax.
 56
32. If y = AeZx-\-'Be3x+Ce-*x>
d3y dzy find dy
the value of—

dzV Vyx x/n-*, -J.x

33. Evaluate -7-2
W^?
--? 2 when V=A1ex^ r2 +A2e ^ r2
34. Nernst gives the following rule connecting the pressure p of a
refrigerant (such as Carbon Dioxide or Ammonia) and its absolute
temperature T —
p = A+B log T+Cr+5 T

where A, B, C and D are constants. Find an expression for -J-.

Differentiation of the Trigonometric Functions. — Before

proceeding to establish the rules for the differentiation of sin x
and cos x, it is well to remind ourselves of two trigonometric
relations which are necessary for the proofs of these rules, viz. —
(a) When the angle is small, its sine may be replaced by the
angle itself expressed in radians, i. e. —
T sm6 = T (cf part ^ p 458)>

(b) sin A-sin B = 2 cos

\ 2 /sin -2 (cf. part I, p. 285).

To find -v- sin x we proceed as in former cases ; thus —

Let y = sin # and y+8y = sin (#-f 8#)
then 8y — y -\-8y-y = sin (x-\-8x)—sin x
= 2 cos (\ -2 /
sin

Dividing through by 8x — (2x+8x\

/2^+8^\ I sin
. (—
/Bx\J
_ 2 COS \ ~~ / OAII i
8y V 2 / \2
8* 8x

t\ (8X\
(2x+%x\
COS ( • -/ sin If8x^
)I sm (\2/
— I
 DIFFERENTIATION OF FUNCTIONS 57

The limiting value of ?- is -£-. and that of the right-hand side

is cos x, since cos (x-\ — J approaches more and more nearly to

cos x as 8* is made smaller and smaller, and the limiting value of

//sin —2 \\ .,,.,., sin 9 .

I, or, as we might write it, — ^— , is I.

Hence
d—jsin x
dx
dy
— or * =
dx L
dsinx = cos x.
-^ = cos x

•75
-y dx
«-»
-5

.3G
7
•25
JG
TT.
O

-y- x
.JG

FIG. 14. — Curves of y = sin x and y •= cos x.

By similar reasoning the derivative of cos x may be obtained ;

its value being given by —

The graphs of the sine and cosine curves assist towards the
full appreciation of these results. In Fig. 14 the two curves are
plotted, and it is noted that the cosine curve is simply the sine
curve shifted backwards along the horizontal axis : thus the slope
curve and the primitive have exactly the same shape. This
condition also holds for the primitive curve y = e?1, and so suggests
that there must be some connection between these various natural
functions; and further reference to this subject is made later in
the book.
58 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
Much trouble is caused by the presence of the minus sign in
d COS OC
the relation — -5 — = — sin x, it being rather difficult to remember
whether the minus sign occurs when differentiating sin x or cos x.
A mental picture of the curves, or the curves themselves, may be
used as an aid in this respect. The cosine and sine curves differ
in phase by £ period (see Fig. 14), but are otherwise identical.
Treating y = sin x as the primitive : when x is small, sin x and x
are very nearly alike, and thus the slope of the curve here is i;
as x increases from o to - the slope of the curve continually
7T

diminishes until at x = - the slope of the curve is zero. Now

the ordinate of the cosine curve when x = o is unity, and it
diminishes until at x = ~2
it is zero. From x = ~2 to x = -n- the
slope of the sine curve is negative, but increases numerically to — I,
this being the value when x = TT; and it may be observed that
the ordinates of the cosine curve give these changes exactly, both
as regards magnitude and sign. Thus the cosine curve is the
slope curve of the sine curve.
Now regard the cosine curve as the primitive. At x = o the
curve is horizontal and the slope = o ; from x = o to x = 2~ the
slope increases numerically, but is negative, reaching its maximum
negative value, viz., — i, at x = -2 ; but the ordinates of the sine

curve are all positive from x = o to x = ~,

2 so that although these

ordinates give the slope of the curve as regards magnitude, they

give the wrong sign. In other words, the sine curve must be
folded over the axis of x to be the slope curve of the cosine
curve, i. e., the curve y = — sin x is the slope curve of the curve
y = COS X.
To summarise, we can say that the derived curve for the sine
curve or for the cosine curve is the curve itself shifted back along
the axis a horizontal distance equal to one-quarter of the period.
Thus we can say at once that the slope curve of the curve
y = sin (x-\-b) is the curve y — cos (.r+fr), since the curve
y = sin (x+b) is the simple sine curve shifted along the horizontal
axis an amount given by the value of b, the amplitude and period
being unaltered.
 DIFFERENTIATION OF FUNCTIONS 59

Thus— -,- sin (x+b) = cos (x+b)

and, in like manner —

jx cos (x+b) = - sin (x+b).

Again, -7- sin (5#+6) = 5 cos (5#+6), since 5 multiplies the
I.V. in the original function.
Then in general —

?- A sin (Bx+C) = AB cos (Bx+C)

-? A cos (Bx+C) = — AB sin (Bx+C).

To differentiate tan x with regard to x.

Let y = tan x and (y+8y) then = tan (x-\-8x)
8y = y+Sy— y=tan (x+8x) — tan x
_ sin (x-\-8x) sin #
~ cos (x+8x) cos A;
_ sin (x+Sx) cos A;— cos (*+SA;) sin x
cos #8# cos x
sin
cos (x+8x) cos x

_ sin 8x
~ cos (A; +8x) cos x

Dividing through by 8x —
Sy _ sin 8x I
8x ~ 8x cos (x+8x) cos x

Now as 8x approaches zero, - - approaches i and (x + 8x)

approaches x.

Hence — =1
dx \ _ ,,8* = IX-
* ^ cos A; cos ~=
x *~ A; = sec2 x.
cos2

3- tan x = sec2 x
 60 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS

In like manner it can be proved that —

d cot x
— 3 — = — cosec2 x
d seex sinx
dx x ~ cos2cosx x
d cosec
and — -j~ = -- r-s —
dx sin2 x
To generalise —

^ A tan (Bx+C) = AB sec2 (Bx+C)

J^ A cot (Bx+C) = — AB cosec2 (Bx+C)

rf , ,_ _v AB cos (Bx+C)
a- A eosee (BX+C) = - .2
AB cos2
(Bx+C) .

Example 23. — Find the slope of the curve representing the equation
s = 5-2 sin (40^—2-4) when t — -07.
The slope of the curve —
ds d . . .
5'2 Sm
= ~dt = dt5'2 Sm (4°^—
(4°^— 2'4)
2'4) = 5-2x40 cos (40^—2-4)
= 208 cos (40^—2-4).
Hence when —
t = -07, the slope = 208 cos (2-8—2-4) = 208 cos -4 (radian)
= 192.
= 208 cos 22-9°

Example 24. — Differentiate, with regard to z, the function

9-4 cot (7—5?).

,- 9'4 cot (7-5*) = 9'4 X -5 X - cosec2 (7-5?)

U»6

= 47 cosec2 (7—52).

Simple Harmonic Motion. — We can now make a more strict

examination of simple harmonic motion. Suppose a crank of
length r (see Fig. 15), starting from the position OX, rotates at
a constant angular velocity <o in a right-handed direction. Let it
have reached the position OA after t seconds have elapsed from
the start; then the angle passed through in this interval of time
= AOM = <&t, since the angular distance covered in I sec. = o>
radians and the angular distance in t seconds = a>t radians.
 DIFFERENTIATION OF FUNCTIONS
61
Considering the displacement along the horizontal axis, the dis-
placement intime t = s = OM
= AO cos AOM = r cos tat.
ds
Then the velocity = , , = — rXta sin tat = — rta sin <at

and the acceleration = at,, = — cos tat = — tazxr cos wt

= — 0)2S

*'. e., the acceleration is proportional to the displacement, but is

directed towards the centre : thus, when the displacement from
the centre increases, the acceleration towards the centre increases.
When the displacement is greatest, the
acceleration is greatest : e. g., if the
crank is in the position OX, the
acceleration has its maximum value
wV and is directed towards the centre,
just destroying the outward velocity,
which at X is zero. At O the acceler-
ation = — u>2x o = o, or the velocity is
here a maximum.
An initial lag or lead of the crank
does not affect the truth of the foregoing FlG r .
connection between acceleration and
displacement. The equation of the motion is now s = r cos
where c is the angle of lag or lead, and the differentiation to find the
velocity and the acceleration is as before.

Example 25. — If s — 5 sin 4* — 12 cos \t, show that this is the

equation of a S.H.M. and find the angular velocity.

s = 5 sin ift — 12 cos 4^.

HP

Then — v = ,$ = (5 x 4 cos 4*) — (12 x 4 X — sin 4*).

= 20 cos 4^+48 sin 4^

and a = " = (20 x 4 X — sin 4*) + (48 x 4 cos 4/)

= — 80 sin 4^+192 cos 4*
= —16(5 sin 4^—12 cos 4/) = — i6s
i. e., the acceleration is proportional to the displacement.
Now, in S.H.M., the acceleration = — «2s.
&>2 = 16, i. e., w = angular velocity
= 4 radians per sec.
62 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS

This last question might be treated rather differently by first

expressing 5 sin 4^—12 cos 4^ in the form Msin(4^+c) (see
Part I, p. 276) and then differentiating. This method indicates
that a S.H.M. may be composed of two simple harmonic motions
differing in phase and amplitude.

Exercises 5. — On the Differentiation of Trigonometric Functions.

Differentiate with respect to x the functions in Nos. i to 16.
1. sin (4— 5'3x). 2. 3-2 cos 5-1*. 3. -16 tan (3X-\-g).

4. 2-15 sin i1 \ ^~5).

4 / 5. 8 cot 5%.
6. 43-15 sec (-05 — -117*). 7. be cos (d—gx).
8. 4 cos $x— 7 sin (2^—5). 9. sin 5-2^ cos 3~6x
10. 2-17 cos 4-5* cos 1-7*. 11. 9-04 sin (px+c) sin (qx—c).
12. 5 sin2 x. 13. -065 cos2 3*.
14. cos2 (7*— i-5)+sin2 (7*— 1-5).
15. 3*1-72— 5- 14 log (3#-4-i) + -i4 sin (4-31 — -195*) + 24-93*.
16. 7-05 sin -015*— -23 cos (6-i — -23*) + 1-85 tan (4*— -07).
17. x, the displacement of a valve from its central position, is given
approximately by x = — 1-2 cos a/— 1-8 sin «^ where w = angular
velocity of crank shaft (making 300 r.p.m.) and t is time in seconds
from dead centre position.
Find expressions for the velocity and acceleration of the valve.
18. If 5 = 4-2 sin (2-1 — -172) — -315 cos (2-1 — -J7/), s being a displace-
ment and t a time, find an expression for the acceleration in terms of
s. What kind of motion does this equation represent ?
19. The current in a circuit is varying according to the law
C = 3-16 sin (2irft— 3-06). At what rate is the current changing when
t — -017, the frequency / being 60 ?
20. If the deflected form of a strut is a sine curve, what will be
the form of the bending moment curve ?
21. If y = deflection of a rod at a distance x from the end, the
end load applied being F —
T 2
Bl
8COS1

Find the value of EI~^-}-Fy-\--& cos -j-; y and x being the only
variables.
=-
22. The primary E.M.F. of ya certain transformer was given by the
expression —
E = 1500 sin pt-\-ioo sin 3^—42 cos ^+28 cos 3pt.
Find the rate at which the E.M.F. varied.
23. A displacement s is given by s = sin izt sin 13^. Show
that the acceleration = 25 sin 12^—1695.
 CHAPTER III
ADDITIONAL RULES OF DD7FERENTIATION

Differentiation of a Function of a Function. — \Vhilst the

expression e sin 4* is essentially a function of x, it can also be spoken
of as a function of sin 4*, which in turn is a function of x; and
thus it is observed that e aa ** is a function of a function of x.
This fact will be seen more clearly, perhaps, if u is written in place
of sin 4* : thus e sin ** = ew, which is a function of u, which,
again, is a function of x, since u = sin 4*.
To differentiate a function of a function the following rule is
employed —
dy_=dyxdu
dx du dx
\
and this rule is easily proved.
Let y be a function of u, and let u be a function of x : then y
is a function of a function of x. Now increase # by a small
amount 8x; then since u depends on x, it takes a new value
u + 8u, and also the new value of y becomes y + Sy. Since these
changes are measurable quantities, although small, the ordinary
rules of arithmetic can be applied, so that —

8y __Sy 8u_
Sx~SuXSx
When Sx approaches zero these fractions approach the limiting
values ax
-, duand dx- respectively : and thus in the limit —

dy
dy _ du
dx du
dx
In like manner, if y is a function63 of u, u a function of w, and
w a function of x, it can be proved that —
dy_dy..du_dw
dx~duxdwxdx
64 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS

It will be observed that on the right-hand side of the equation

we have dy as the first numerator and dx as the last denominator
(these giving in conjunction the left-hand side of the equation) ;
and we may regard the other numerators and denominators as
neutralising one another. The simple arithmetic analogy may help
to impress the rule upon the memory : thus —

Example i .— If y = e 8to tx, find the value of ~ .

dit
Let u = sin 4*, so that j- = 4 cos 4* and y = eu.
Since y is now a function of n, we can differentiate it with regard
to u, whereas it is impossible to differentiate with regard to x directly.

y = eu and ~ = ~du = eu = e s^ **.

du
T,, dy dy du
Then, since dv
-, - = du
dx -/-x dx
j-
JL — e sui tx x ^ cos 4#

= 4 cos *g sin

Example 2. — Find the value of j~log (cos 2x}3.

Let v = (cos 2x)3 and u = cos 2x; and thus y = loge v and u = w3.
dy dy dv du u = cos
Then -~ = -~ x -j- X -j-
-j- — — 2 sin
d log v du3
~~dv~X~duX d cos 2.x
dx
-j-
dv = 3U
X — 2 sin V = U3

_ — 6 sin 2XX (cos 2^r)2 _ — 6 sin 2

(cos 2#)3= —6 costan2x 2 du °

Example 3. — The radius of a sphere is being decreased at the rate

of -02 in. per min. At what rate is (a) the surface, (b) the weight,
varying, when the radius is 15 ins. and the material weighs -3 Ib. per
cu. in. ?
dr
If r — radius, then - ,- = rate of change of the radius, and is in
dt
this case equal to —-02.
 ~ dt
ADDITIONAL RULES OF DIFFERENTIATION 65
(a) The surface = 4irf2, and thus the rate of change of surface

dS dt
=_ _*dv'. ^4*r
dt z

dr* dr
= *v-~drXdf

dr.
—'02
5dr*

Hence when r = 15, -5- = 8v x 15 X — -02 = —7-53, i. e., the surface

is being diminished at the rate of 7-53 sq. ins, per min.

(b) The volume = 4 ^

so that the rate of change of volume = — = jft-***)

and the rate of change of the weight = -rr = -j-.( - X -Sirr3 j

<AV d dr3 dr3 dr
~rr =~JT- '4*r — '4* • -JT = '4* X -j- X T-.—-02.

When r = 15, -, = -4^x3x225 x —-02 = —16-93

or the weight is decreasing at the rate of 16-93 IDS- per min.

Example 4. — Find expressions for the velocity and acceleration of

the piston of a horizontal steam engine when the crank makes n
revolutions per second.

In each turn the angle swept out = 2ir radians.

Hence in i second 2vn radians are swept out, i. e., the angular
velocity = 2.im; and this is the rate of change of angle, so that
dQ
dT=2vn-
From Fig. 16 CD = / sin a
and CD = r sin 6.
Thus I sin a = r sin 6
/ r
or sin 0 = -rsin a, and sin a = TI sin 0.
66 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS

Again, cos « = Vi — sin2 a

n
io
If the connecting rod is long compared with the m at
crank, -j is small
ler
,
ho
d xi
d l l l t t p ro
an 7p 2 st i sm a so th a r
ou me of ap can be
applied to the expansion of the bracket, i. e. —
rz
cos o = i 72 sin2 0, very nearly.

I y^

FIG. 16. — Velocity and Acceleration of Piston.

Let AB = displacement of the piston from its in-dead-centre position
= x = AE+OE— BO = l + r-BV — DO
= l+r—l cos o— r cos 6

= l+r—l (i — £p sin2 0)-y cos 0

— y+~, sin2 0— Y cos 0
i — cos 20 -r cos 0
= r-\ — — r2 cos2 20
~— r COS U.
fl

dx da f r2 r2 cos 20
XT . i. i •. ,,-. • . dx r cos n0
JNow the velocity of the piston = -=- = --=•- -j , --- -.
We cannot differentiate this expression directly, so we writ
dx dx dQ
• dQ
~dt = 50 X dt'
TT
Hence COS 20 ,.) dQ
rcosQ\x,.
dx __df r*
J a/
= -jo-f o — (~ x —2 sin 20J — (rx —sin 0) j-x 2irW
fy sin 20 . . 01
= 2trwy -j- j-- f-sm 0 j-
- = m
or if
r
dx
f sin 20
V = ~dt =
\ 2m
 ADDITIONAL RULES OF DIFFERENTIATION 67
dv dv dQ d (sin 20 , _i d0
Also the acceleration = -rr
at = ay
-j^X^—-^,.
at at) zvnrl I ---
fcos 2m f-sm 6 [ x -r-
at
26 , n)
= 2irnr 1 -- 1- COS 6 h X 2irW

= *
4ir2n2»'
„ „ {Ifcos 0H
Q .—COS 26"|
»» /

Example 5. — Water is flowing into a large tank at the rate of

200 gallons per min. The reservoir is in the form of a frustum of a
pyramid, the length of the top being 40 ft. and width 28 ft., and the
corresponding dimensions of the base being 20 ft. and 14 ft. ; the
depth is 12 ft. (see Fig. 17). At what rate is the level of the water
rising when the depth of water is 4 ft. ?

In 12 ft. the length decreases by 20 ft., and therefore in 8 ft. the

length decreases by — , i. e., 13 J ft., so that the length when the
water is 4 ft. deep is 40— 13^ = 26| ft. 0*24
Similarly, the breadth = 28— (f x 14) = i8f ft.
i. e., the area of surface = 26f 200 x i8| ,, = 498 sq. ft.
200 gals, per mm. = ^ — cu. ft. per mm.
= 32-1 cu.. ft. per min.
i. e., the rate of change of volume = —rr
dv = 32-1.

Now -v-
at = -v
at . Ah, where A = area of surface
and h = depth of water,
*dh f since for the short interval of time considered the\
dt \ area of the surf ace may be considered constant./
Hence the rate of change of level = dt
-JT = -jr
dt X -z-
A
32-1 xi , ,.
= — — Q— = -0644 ft. per nun.
= »773 in. per min.

49°
68 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS

Example 6. — If a curve of velocity be plotted to a base of space,

prove that the sub-normal of this curve represents the acceleration.

The sub-normal of a curve = y~- d'v (see p. 43).

CbX

In this case, since v is plotted along the vertical axis and s along
the horizontal axis —
V'dtXds
the sub-normal = v-^- ds «.
dv dt

= a
v
= vxax--

[for dt = rate of change of velocity = a\

-=r
ds
and -3T
dt = rate of change of space = vI

As a further example of this rule, consider the case of motion due

to gravity; in this instance v2 — 2gs, i.e., the velocity space curve
is a parabola. Hence we know that the sub-normal must be a
constant, i. e., the acceleration must be constant.

The sub-normal = v-r

ds
,T dv2 d ds
Now ds=ds-^S = ^-ds = ^
dvz dvz dv dv
but ds,— = -j—
dv . ds
-T- = 2v ds
j-
dv
2V-j- = 2g
ds
dv
ds
Vds =
i. e., the sub-normal or the acceleration = g.

Exercises 6. — On the Differentiation of a Function of a Function.

T-" j A d sin 2x d . „ 0 d
Find 1. dx
-3- . e . 2. -T-
dv log v2. 3. dt
^2cos2 t.
d _ d n d sin 5x

dx Sm dx 3'14 (5^2+7^~2)- 6. ^a

7< ^1<88' 8< dx logl° (3 + 7^-9^3). 9. ^ cos (log s5).

and 10. a*
~ log tan -.2
 ADDITIONAL RULES OF DIFFERENTIATION 69

11. In the consideration of the theory of Hooke's coupling it is

required to find an expression for — , i. e., a ratio of angular velocities.

If o>B = §r, <"A = -3T and tan <f> = - — , find an expression for
—"AB in terms of the ratios of 9, </> and o.
12. Find an expression for the slope of the cycloid at any point.
The equation of the cycloid is x = a (6 + sin 6)
y — a(i — cos 6)
the co-ordinates # and y being measured as indicated in Fig. 18.

^Rolling Circle
FIG. i 8.

13. Assuming that the loss of head due to turbulent flow of water
in a pipe is expressed by h — C(AV2+BV?), where V = mean velocity
of flow in ft. per sec. ; show that the slope of the curve in which log h
and log V are plotted with rectangular co-ordinates is given by —
2A
d log h
dlogV

14. If 3x*+8xy+5y2 = i
show that dxzT = T(.
15. A vessel in the form of a right circular cone whose height is
7 ft. and diameter of its base 6 ft., placed with its axis vertical and
vertex downwards, is being filled with water at the rate of 10 cu. ft.
per min. ; find the velocity with which the surface is rising (a) when
the depth of the water is 4 ft. and (b) when 60 cu. ft. have been
poured in.

16. If p = (r)K, prove that-j^ = ~ffi(— r^ 1°§ r-

17. If x3— 6x2y— 6xyz+y3 — constant, prove that —

dy _ xz—4xy—r--*
dx= 2X*~
7o MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
18. A ring weight is being turned in a lathe. It is required to
find the weight removed by taking a cut of depth ^thj". The material
is cast iron (-26 Ib. per cu. in.), the outside diameter of the ring is
3-26" and the length is 2-5'*. Find the weight removed.
Find also a general expression for the weight removed for a cut
of depth ^J^" at any diameter.
19. Find the value of -„..,
-rA log tan —

20. If P = -^TT, and -„.., = u, find -w. (This question has refer-
ence to stresses in redundant frames.)
21. Find the angle which the tangent to the ellipse — \-— = 2 at
the point x = 2, y — —3, makes with the axis of x. 4 9
22. Find the slope of the curve 4#2+4y2 = 25 at the point x = 2,
y = — f, giving the angle correct to the nearest minute.
23. If force can be defined as the space-rate of change of kinetic
, , . ,. wvz , , wa
energy, and kinetic energy == - o, prove that force = —o .
dx
24. If x — 8 log (i2t3— 74), find the value of ,-,.
ctt
Differentiation of a Product of Functions of x. — It has
already been seen that to differentiate the sum of a number of
terms we differentiate the terms separately and add the results.
We might therefore be led to suppose that the differentiation of
a product might be effected by a somewhat similar plan, viz., by
multiplication together of the derivatives of the separate factors.
This is, however, not the correct procedure ; thus —
d ,, „, , . d log x dxz . i
j- (log
dx v xxx2) does not equal dx, --X-T—dx
, ^. e.,—x X2x or 2.

The true rule is expressed in the following manner : If u and v

are both functions of x, and y = uv, i. e., their product —
dy d , . du . dv
B -«*"*-«£+•«
Proof. — Let x increase by an amount 8x; then since both u
and v are dependent on x, u changes to a new value w+Sw and
v becomes v -f- 8v.
Now y = uv, and hence the new value of y, which can be
written y-\-8y, is given by —

but
y = uv
 ADDITIONAL RULES OF DIFFERENTIATION 71

whence by subtraction —
Sy = y+8y— y = (u-}-8u)(v-}-8v)—uv
= uv-}- u8v -\-v8u-\-8u . 8v — uv
{-8u . 8v.
Dividing through by 8x —
8y_ 8v <^ , s 8v
Sx ~ U^x^rV^cr U ' 8x

As 8x is decreased without limit, ~, -=- and - approach the

8x 8x 8x ^^
values dx-/, dx
-y- and dx
-3- respectively, and the term 8u . 8x
.— becomes
negligible ; so that in the limit —
dy
dx _ du
dx dv
dx

The rule may be extended to apply to the case of a product

of more than two functions of x. Thus if u, v and w are each
V d
functions of x — x
dluvw) d(wV) , ,, . ,
v,dx
— ' = -j~,
dx where V is wntten for uv
bUVd
x
- wdV^ .j dw
dw
dx
nnd(uv)
( du . x^dv\ . dw
= w( v-j — d\-u-r- )+i dx
\ dx dxj '
and thus — wU "^

w\ ' mil du. i dv itit du

d(uv

Example 7. — Find - when y — xz . log x.

T i ,
Let — u = x* so that -r-=
dx zx

and let v = log x so that -j-

(Kx = X
-.
™, d .uv du dv .. . ,/ „ i\
Then —= — = v^- +Uj~ = (log xx 2x) + \ xz . - I
dx dx dx ^ { '^v xJ
= x(l+2 log X).
72 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS

ctt
Example 8. — Find the value of -7,[5e~7' . sin (6^ — 4)]

Let u = ^e-~l so that cLi>t

— = 5x —je-'1 — — 35e~7t

and let v = sin (6/— 4) so that -,7 = 6 cos (6^—4).

d . uv du , df ttt

-3T = "-^+M-^
= [sin (6/-4)x -35*-7<] + [5*-7' x6 cos (6/-4)]
= 5g~7*[6 cos (6^—4) — 7 sin (6^—4)].

Example g. — If 2q+~ x dx
(pxz) — o, show that 2q = —2p — xf ax
p being a function of x. This example has reference to thick spherical
shells.

If p is a function of x, px* is of the form uv, where u = p and

v = x2.
d 9dp , dx2 dp
9dp ,
Hence — -,- . px2 = x2,"-\-p-r- r = x2-/-4-2Xp.
dx '
Hence — 2q-\ 1---x dx
3- . '
pxz — zq+x dx,-

i.e., o = 2q+x Q//V

,r

Example 10. — Find the value of -y- gx* sin (3^—7) log (i — 5#).

Let u = x*, v = sin (3^—7) and w = log (1 — 5*)

,, du „ dv dw —5 5
then -,~ = 4^3, -; = 3 cos (3^—7) and -y- = — = — —

^ '
>V9** sin (3*- 7) log (1-5*) = 9^ '
= g{LF wv rfw
dx.,--\-wu,
, dx -\-uVj
dv . dw~]
dx-1

— 5x) sin (3^-7)4Ar3+{log (i — 5*)*4X3cos (3^—7)}

sin (3*— 7)

= 9*3[_4 sin (3Af— 7) log (1 — 5*) + 3* cos (31*— 7) log (1 — 5*)

5#sin (3*— 7)1

+ 5*^T~
_
 ADDITIONAL RULES OF DIFFERENTIATION 73

Exercises 7.— On the Differentiation of a Product.

Differentiate, with respect to x, the functions in Nos. i to 12.
1. x2 sin 3*. 2. log 5#X 2#3-4. 3. e9* Iog10 gx.
4. 4Ar-5.tan (3-1 — 2-07*). 5. cos 3-2* cos
6. cos (5 — 3*) tan 2#. 7. 8*1-6 cos
8. 9\ogx3.53*. 9. e*i°g*. 10. ^*

11. 6*te+*(5*+2)«. 12. 7-2 tan ~o log *7.

13. If y = Ae3* cos (— + B), find the value of—

14. Find the value of ^/~5< cosh (— 5/).

15. y = (A + B*)*-1*; find the value of ^+8

W^ W

16. If V = 250 sin (jt— -116), A = 7-2 sin 7* and W = VA, find
the value of, —rr.
d\V
at
*17. Differentiate with respect to t the function i^t2 sin (4— -8tf).
•H
18. Find the value of -r,(4*3'7 cos 3/).

Differentiation of a Quotient. — If u and y are both functions

of x, and y = -, then —

dy Vdx udx
Proof. dx i>2
(a) From first principles. — Let y = - : then a change Sx in x
causes changes of Sy in y, Su in u, and Sy in y, so that the new

value™, of y = y+Sy = -^pr-.

§u u uv-\-v8u. — «y . — uSv
Then — Sy = y+Sy— y =
y(y+Sy)

and, dividing through by Sx —

Sy i _
' Sx~U ' Sx
74 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS

When 8x becomes very small, 8x

P-, 8x.- and 8x
^- approach the values
//-Af CL'IA/ Ul)

-J-, -j- and -j- respectively, whilst v-{-8v becomes indistinguishable

from v.
TT . ,, ,. ., dy i ( du dv\
Hence in the limit dx
-r- = vxv\ (v . -*ax— u . -r-
ax/
du dv
dx tt-j-
V-j ax

(b) Using the rules for a product and a function of a function.

u
v
y = - =
TM dy d , ,, ,du , dir1
Then~" U-v x = ((dx-v ' (UV ^ = V +U ' ~ 2
V
I du\ dy-1 dv

du\ . ( 9 dv
.v . a*/
j / T^ I\
_ I If V
M X\ ^j
Tit — « V
At/ /\

du dv
dx W dx
V ~j ~j~~

Example n. — Differentiate, with regard to 5, the expression —

5 cos (35+4)'
T , ,-, du
.Let — w = 45^+75, tnen as
3- = i2s^ + 7»
dv
and let v = 5 cos (35+4), then ivS
-,- = — 15 sin (35 + 4).
«ZM tiy
„,, d (u\ ds d
Then -.- . I - ) = -
ds \v/ vz
= [5 cos (35+4) X (i252+7)]-[(4S3 + 7*) X -i5sin(35+4)]
25 cos2 (35+4)

5 cos2 (3^+4)
 Example 12. — If y — 94*X, -- -, find the value of -£-

Let
u = g4*, then j- = 4 x 94*loge 9 = 4 X 2-1972 x g*
= 8-789 X94z
and let
v = log 7*, then -=- = -*- = -.
du — ui—
dv
dy d (u\ dx
Hence -/- = T-V - ) = — — , dx
dx dx\v I vz

(log yx x 8 -79 x 94z) — (g4* X ^

94^{(8-79^xlog7^)-i}
(log(log 7#)2

FIG. 19. — Spring loaded Governor.

Example 13. — For a spring loaded governor (see Fig. 19)

where Q = force to elongate the spring i unit, T = tension in

spring, W = weight of i ball, « = angular velocity, r — radius of
path of balls, / = length of each of the 4 arms.

If W = 3, g = 32-2 and -j- — 80 when o> = 26, r = -25 and / = i,

find T and Q.
As there are two unknowns, we must form two equations. By
simple substitution —
V 1—0625
~"V 1—0625)}
_ 32'2{T+2Q(i- - "968

whence T+-o64Q = 60-96 ....... (i)

-vr are told that -^ must equal 80.
We
NOW dta (2)
dr =
-5- da> X dr
-,- j- = 2w dr
T-

d
Also
— r* dr\v
dr
where u = g{T+2Q(l— Vl*—rz)}
and
v =
76 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS

Thus to determine -r- and -y- it is first necessary to find the value
rJ A//2 4,2
ofdr : to do this let l*-r* = y

so that ' — — zr
then
dr

Thus

and
du dv
„,, aw, VT
dr U^
dr
Then - - = »—

/.,\

Thus, differentiating both sides of the original equation with respect

to r, we have from (2) and (3) —

2oi rfy
T- = W° ,
Substituting the numerical values —
2x26x80 =

52X ;° ^9375 X- 968 _ .^SQ+T+^Q . 2g+T

whence J4Q7 = 2Q+T
but from (i) 60-96 = -064(3 +T
and therefore Q — 695-3!
and T = 16-4!

Differentiation of Inverse Trigonometric Functions. —

Since inverse trigonometric functions occur frequently in the study
of the Integral Calculus, it is necessary to demonstrate the rules
for their differentiation; and in view of their importance in the
later stages of the work, the results now to be deduced should be
carefully studied.
The meaning of an inverse trigonometric function has already
been explained (see Part I, p. 297), so that a reminder only is
 ADDITIONAL RULES OF DIFFERENTIATION 77

needed here. Thus sin~x x is an inverse trigonometric function,

and it is such a function that if y = sin"1 x, then sin y = x.

To differentiate sin~l x with regard to x.

Let y = sin-1 x so that, from definition, sin y = x
dy
then

but d sidxn y ~ ddxsi~n y dy

dx dy dx
and hence i = co
syx
^

or dy T. i *
d# ~~ cos y Vi— sin2 y ~ Vi—x2
-?— sin 1 jcy — /—
dxd »in Vi 1 y2

milarlv —
d
^— COS 1 Y — — /
1

(x being supposed to vary between o and -).

*'. ,
Example 14. — Find the value of -5-e.tan-1 -.
tan y
Let
tan-1 a-,
and sec2 y =
y =i+tan*
dy
d tan y i
Now
d# d (x\ a
d tan y ddxtan
\a' y
but tfy
d*
a^
i sec2yx
Hence
a S
a2
i virfy a2
d# a sec2 y a a2 +#2
a

a2
78 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS

Example 15. — Find the value of ax

~ cosh"1 a,-.

Let
y , - X
a
cosh y = cosh"1
then
d cosh y d (x\ i
So fli'if (i)
dx d!# \a) a
i nit d cosh y d cosh y dy
rf# •^ rf*
i = sinhdy y X ^
Xdx
hence
a

a'
Now cosh2 y— sinh2 y = i
whence sinh2 y = cosh2 y— i = -g— i

2 y

and sinh y = ±- \/#2— a8

Then, substituting this value for sinh y in (i) —

a x
Xs

or dy = ±,
-/ •>-=-i
d , «x . „2— 2
v- cosh"1 — = ± a*

Exercises 8.— On the Differentiation of a Quotient and the

Differentiation of Inverse Functions.
Differentiate with respect to x the functions in Nos. i to 12.

1 5^1
el 2 log (2~7*)
x~5' cos (2— 7*)'
3. . ^X » _. O^f
. 5 sin
— . Tf* cos — ji.
7 rf2
_ 52-to _ cosh 1-8^
&- g9^i' 4l-8a: -•
I *+3 7 cos-1 3^
7- VT'^W- 8' Vf^^2'
q ^o(a x)x ._ ^
a' 2(6-* cot B)* 1U> a2(a2+Ar2)i'
.. /3 — 6lzx -j- 1 2/^r2 — 7*3 (an expression occurring in the solution of
"• 3^—4-^ a b63-111 problem).
 ADDITIONAL RULES OF DIFFERENTIATION 79

12. e sin (l-ar+1-7)

log (8**-7*+3)'
13. Assuming the results for T- cosh # and T- sinh #, find the value

of d#
-j- tanh #.
Nos. 14 and 15 refer to the flow of water through circular pipes;
v being the velocity of flow, Q the quantity flowing, and 0 being the
angle at the centre subtended by the wetted perimeter.
i T* I sm
14. If, = 13-1(1— Q

15. Given that Q - 132-4 l. find <.

0y,s «<*
16. Differentiate, with respect to '- ta
then-iy
expression
. —
2
26
sin 26 ^0
di
17. If » (a velocity) = r* (sin 6+Z and = "' find

the acceleration (-57 ); find also the acceleration when 0 is very small.
40 -it • sin 0 , dQ - , ,, , ., (d<i>\ ,
18. If sm <t> — -- , and -j-. = a>, find the angular velocity I -if) of
m at J \dt J
a connecting-rod and also the angular acceleration / •— j.
19. Given that ^ = TT - . . f find J-R and hence the value of
(p—q) tanO a0
tan 0 that makes ao
-^ = o.
o/>
20. rs-
Findj A*.
the value ofj; <^M
-=— when ,,M = WX(l—
— , X)(l
, — — ?—2X) -. ,,M is
.
a
dx 2(3/— 2x)
bending moment, I is the length of a beam and x is a portion of that
length.
21. Differentiate, with respect to /, the quotient — -— ;,- -- -.

Partial Differentiation. — When dealing with the equation

PV = CT in connection with the theory of heat engines, we know
that C alone is a constant, P, V and T being variables. If one of
these variables has a definite value, the individual values of the
others are not thereby determined ; e. g., assuming that C and T
are known, then so also is the product PV, but not the individual
values of P and V. If, now, the value of one of these is fixed,
say of P, then the value of V can be calculated : therefore V
depends on both P and T, and any change in V may be due to a
change in either or both of the other variables. To find the change
in the value of V consequent on changes in values of P and T,
8o MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS

the change in V due to the change in P (assuming that T is kept

constant) is added to the change in V due to the change in T
(P being kept constant). Rates of change found according to this
plan are spoken of as partial rates of change, or more usually
partial derivatives, and the process of determining them is known
as partial differentiation.
When only two variables occur, a plane curve may be plotted
to depict the connection between them, but for three variables a
surface is needed. The three co-ordinate axes will be mutually at

FIG. 20.

right angles, two in the plane of the paper, and the other at right
angles to it. If x, y and z are the variables, we can say that z is
a function of x and y, or, in the abbreviated form z = f(x, y).
Similarly — x = f(y, z)
and y = f(x, z).
Dealing with the first of these forms, and assuming the axes
of x and y to be horizontal (Fig. 20), let us examine, from the
aspect of the graph, the significance of this form. Giving any
value to x, we know the distance of the point in front of or behind
the paper : the value of y determines the distance to the right or
left of the axis of z, i. e.t the vertical on which the point lies is
 ADDITIONAL RULES OF DIFFERENTIATION 81
determined and the actual height up this vertical is fixed by the
value of z. If z is kept constant whilst values of x and y are
chosen, a number of points are found all lying on a horizontal
plane, and if all such points are joined we have what is known as
a contour line. Therefore, if one of the quantities is constant our
work is confined to one plane; but we have already seen that
when dealing with a plane, the rate of change of one quantity
with regard to another is measured by the slope of a curve, hence
we can ascribe a meaning to a partial derivative.
To illustrate by reference to a diagram (Fig. 20).
The point P on the surface is fixed by its co-ordinates x, y
and z, or SQ, OS and QP.
If x is kept constant, the point must lie on the plane LTND.
The slope of the curve LPT, as given by the tangent of the angle
PMN, must measure the rate of change of z with regard to y when
x is constant; and this is what we have termed the partial
derivative of z with regard to y. This partial derivative may be
expressed by «-, or, more conveniently, by (-j- ) , and if there is
no possibility of ambiguity as to the quantity kept constant the
suffix x may be dispensed with.
fdz\ nn TXT (the slope being negative, since z
(-=-)=
\ay] —tan L PMN v decreases as y increases).
Similarly, the slope of the curve KPH

_ /«fe\
If the variables are connected by an equation, the partial
derivatives can be obtained by the use of the ordinary rules of
differentiation. ' \dx)
Example 16. — Given that
)' (dz y)>
—
W
dz\ ldzz
\ (dz

To find (j ), i. e., to find the rate of change of z with regard to x

when y is constant, differentiate in the ordinary way, but treating y
as a constant.

Thus — K- = (5>> x 2x) — (zyz x 3**) + 2oyexy

= loxy — 6 r2y2 + 2oyery

and yj = (loy x i) - (6y2 A 2x) + (2oy x ye*")

= loy — i zxy 2 + 2oyzexy.
82 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS

To find \-f-} and f jj ^J x must be kept constant.

z = $xzy—'2x3yz-}-2oexy
then (3^- J = (5#2 X i) — (2*3 x 2y) + 20* .

and
3-

Example 17. — If z — 6 log #y — i8x5y2, find the values of [-3— •=-)

\CLX . ^Z^ '

/ rf2^ \
and 1 , — -=- ), and state the conclusion to be drawn from the results.
\dy . dx>

To find (~j— -j-} we must first find the value of (3-), x being
regarded as a constant : then if Y be written for this expression the

value of (^ ,- j must next be determined, y being treated as a constant,

/ dzz \
and this is the value of (\dx, — . dyl
•, ).
XT (dz\ 6xx „, 6 - - ^T
Now I\dxl
T- ) = -xy -- i8x5X2y = --- $6x5y = Y, say.
y
Differentiating this expression with regard to x, y being regarded
as a constant —

\
or /
)= —

and

. dyi \dy . dxi

Hence the order of differentiation does not affect the result.
Total Differential. — If y is a function of x, then y — f(x)
dy d fl . j.,, \
=-
i. e., dy = f'(x)dx.
dy and dx are spoken of as differentials, and f'(x) is the coefficient
of the differential dx; hence we see the reason for the term
differential coefficient.
 ADDITIONAL RULES dy
OF DIFFERENTIATION 83
If z is a function of x and y, i. e., z — f(x, y), the total differential
dz is obtained from the partial differentials dx and dy by the use
of the following rule —
fdz dy.
The reason for this is more clearly seen if we work from the
fundamental idea of rates of change, and introduce the actually
measurable quantities like Sz, Sx and Sy.

FIG. 21.

Thus —
or total change in z = change in z due to the change in
change in z due to the change in y.
The change in z due to the change in x must be measured by
the product of the change in x multiplied by the rate at which z
is changing with regard to x ; and this fact can be better illustrated
by reference to a diagram (Fig. 21).
Let P be a point (x, y, z) on a surface, and let P move to a new
position Q near to P. The change of position is made up of —
(a) A movement 8x to P' on the surface (y being kept constant) .
(b) A movement 8y to Q on the surface (x being kept constant) .
84 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS

In (a) z increases by MP'

and
= Sxx mean value
i oft I -3-
dz \).

In (b) the change in z = NQ

= Sy X mean value of ( j

\dx another, the

If P, P' and Q are taken extremely close to\dyl
one
mean or average slopes become the actual slopes and
the total change in z = 8z
-MP'+NQ = «»(*) +*(*).
YYIV

Example 18. — If Kinetic Energy = K = -- , find the change in the

energy as m changes from 49 to 49-5 and v from 1600 to 1590.
From the above rule, the change in K = 8K
s (dm)+8v
= 8m ,dK\ . s /rfK\
U I
Now 8m = 49-5—49 = '5
and Sy = 1590 — 1600 = — 10.
Also fdK\
I j— ) (i. e., v being constant).. = -j—
,. d {/vz— X m \} = —vz x i
\dm) v dm\2g ] 2g
(d~K.\ . , . ,. d /m ,\ m
and \ WJ (m bemg constant) = dv\2> X V ) = 2 X 2V-
vm

_20 xi6oo X49

~ 64r4~ 64-4
= 19880 — 24380 = —4500 units.

Example 19. — A quantity of water Q is measured by

If rl = the probable error of D, a diameter, r.2 = the probable

error of H, a head, and R = the probable error of Q,

where ( jM) an(i (^u) are Partial derivatives.

Find an expression for R.
 ADDITIONAL RULES OF DIFFERENTIATION 85

Also —

= — IIX
TrCD2 /—
Vlg

Hence— R = V

<r
R

i. e., if the probable error of D is 3% and that of H is i%

that of Q == -0602,
V4 (-03)«+ i(-oi)«~
i. e., is about 6%.

Logarithmic Differentiation. — Occasionally it is necessary

to differentiate an expression which can be resolved into a number
of factors; and in such a case, to avoid repeated applications of
the rules for the differentiation of products and quotients, we may
first take logs throughout, and then differentiate, making use of
the rule for the differentiation of a function of a function. By the
judicious use of this artifice much labour can often be saved.

Example 20. — Find the value of -

Ax
4)(4*-_
Let- y = (3*~(zx-g)
then log y = log (3*— 4) +log (4*+ 7) -log (2*— 9).
Differentiating with regard to x —
dlogy _ 3 , ,I / 4_i ^_\ 2
(3* -4)^(4* +7) (2* -9)
h,,t d_l°gy dlogy dy i dy
dx dy dx y dx
LJUt , — r ^ - - — — . ~= —

so that I • *?. = 3 4 2
y «** (3*-4) (4^+7) (2^—9)
^ _ (3^ -4) (4* + 7) Y
rf* ~ (2^-9)
/24*2— 66*— 189 + 24*2+ 144— 140*— 24*2— 10*4-56!
l~ (3^ -4) (4* +7) (2^ -9) I
86 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
[As an exercise, the reader should work this according to the

following plan. Write y = -.— ^—^r — , and then use the rule for
the differentiation of a quotient.]

It is with examples in which powers of factors occur that this

method is most useful.

T- j dy
—when y = hx+2)3(x
v/- --. — *-*-rs—— i)'.
Example 21. — Find dx (2X— 5)2

Taking logs throughout —

logy = 3 log (7* + 2)+log (#—i)— 2 log (2*— 5)
Then—
djog y _ 3x7 i_ 2x2
dy ~ ~ (?x+2y(x-i) (2X-5)
— I47^r + i4^2— 31^— 10 — 28^2+2O^r+8
(*-i)(2^r— 5)
~
js&ar + 103
^i)(2X - 5)
28*2— 158^+103
y' dx~ \yx+2)(x— i)(2x— 5)
*(x-i) 28^-158^+103

Exercises 9. — On Partial Differentiation and Logarithmic

Differentiation.
1. In measuring the sides of a rectangle, the probable errors in
the sides were Y± and r2. If A = area and a and b are the sides, find
the probable error R in A.
.~»(dA\* .
Given that- R = ^ &) +>>
the derivatives being partial.

2. If * = a-**5'*, find and

3. If 5 = /••«-#/«+log (5^-3) X««, find - and .

4. If v = (4-w)2(3 + 8w)3, find ^.

show that -
, <iy 2wy 2-
 ADDITIONAL RULES OF DIFFERENTIATION 87

6. If y = 8*(i7 + -2*)«, find ^.

7. Differentiate, with respect to x,
(

8. Find the rate of discharge —j- of air from a closed reservoir

when m — -- , m, p, v and r all being variables.
CT
9. If x = r cos Q, y — r sin 0, and u is a function of both x and y,
prove that — \dx
tdu\ t\(du\ i . Jdu
T-) = cos OU-
dx' \dr >o) — r- sin
du
and

T-
 CHAPTER IV
APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION

HAVING developed the rules for the differentiation of the various

functions, algebraic and trigonometric, we are now in a position
to apply these rules to the solution of practical problems. By far
the most important and interesting direction in which differentiation
proves of great service is in the solution of problems concerned with
maximum and minimum values ; and with these problems we shall
now deal.
Maximum and Minimum Values. — Numerous cases present
themselves, both in engineering theory and practice, in which the
value of one quantity is to be found such that another quantity,
which depends on the first, has a maximum or minimum value
when the first has the determined value.
E. g., suppose it is desired to arrange a number of electric
cells in such a way. that the greatest possible current is obtained
from them. Knowing the voltage and internal resistance of each
cell and the external resistance through which the current is to be
passed, it is possible by simple differentiation to determine the
relation that must exist between the external resistance and the
total internal resistance in order that the maximum current flows.
Again, it might be necessary to find the least cost of a hydraulic
installation to transmit a certain horse-power. Here a number of
quantities are concerned, such as diameter of piping, price of
power, length of pipe line, etc., any one of which might be treated
as the main variable. By expressing all the conditions in terms
of this one variable and proceeding according to the plan now to
be demonstrated, the problem would become one easy of solution.
A graphic method for the solution of such problems has already
been treated very fully (see Part I, pp. 183 et seq.). This method,
though direct and perfectly general in its application, is somewhat
laborious, and unless the graphs are drawn to a large scale in
the neighbourhood of the turning points, the results obtained are
usually good approximations only. In consequence of these failings
 APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION

of the graphic treatment, the algebraic method is introduced, but

it should be remembered that its application is not so universal as
that of the solution by plotting.
The theory of the algebraic method can be simply explained
in the following manner :—
The slope of a curve measures the rate of change of the ordinate
with regard to the abscissa; and hence, when the slope of the

FIG, 22. — Maximum and Minimum Values.

curve is zero, the rate of change of the function is zero, and the
function must have a turning value, which must be either a
maximum or a minimum. But it has already been pointed out
that the slope of a curve is otherwise denned as the derivative or
the differential coefficient of the function ; therefore the function
has a turning value whenever its derivative is zero.
Hence, to find maximum or minimum values of a function we
must first determine the derivative of the function, and then find
 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS

the value or values of the I.V. which make the derivative zero;
the actual maximum or minimum values of the function being
found by the substitution of the particular values of the I.V. in
the expression for the function.
The rule, stated in a concise form, is : To find the value of
the I.V. which makes the function a maximum or minimum, differentiate
the function, equate to zero and solve the resulting equation.
The full merit of the method will be best appreciated by the
discussion of a somewhat academic problem before proceeding to
some of a more practical nature.

Example i. — Find the values of x which give to the function

y = 2#3 + 3#2 — 36^ + 15 maximum or minimum values. Find also the
value of x at the point of inflexion of the curve.
83
This question may be treated from two points of view, viz. —
(a) From the graphical aspect. 15
-64
We first plot the primitive curve y — 2#3+3#2— 36^+15 (see
Fig. 22), the -table
4 -27for which is :—
of values
-3
X 2*s+3*2-36#+i5 y — 29
-2 - 8 -16
16
— I - i 2 — 128+48 + 144 + 15
9 764- 54 + 27+108 + 15
4 - 16 + 12+ 72 + 15 — 12
i 2+ 3+ 36 + 15
O o 25
A2
o o+ o- 0 + 15 79
I i i
1285 2+ 3— 36+15
Xs
2 4 16+12— 72 + 15
3 9 47
4 16 54+27-108+15
128+48-144+15
5 1 60
250+75-180+15 96
This curve has two turns and two turns only, and consequently
y has two turning values, one being a maximum and one a minimum.
By successive graphic differentiation the first and second derived 52
curves may be drawn, these being shown on the diagram.
Now for values of x less than —3 the slope of the primitive curve
is positive, as is demonstrated by the fact that the ordinates of the
first derived curve are positive. At x — —3 the primitive curve is
horizontal and the first derived curve crosses the #-axis ; and since
dv
the ordinates of the first derived curve give the values of , , we see
dy
that when the primitive curve has a turning value, thedx value of
•f- = o. For values of x between —3 and +2 the slope of the
primitive is negative; when x = +2 the slope is zero, and from that
 APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION 91

point the slope is positive. Thus y has turning values when x = — 3

and when x = +2; these values being a maximum at x — —3 and
a minimum at x = +2 as observed from the curve.
This investigation proves of service when we proceed to treat the
question from the algebraic aspect; in fact, for complete understanding
the two methods must be interwoven.
(b) From the algebraic point of view.
Let y = 2x3 + $x2— 36*4-15

then *£ = 6x*+6x-36
dy = 6(xz+x-6).
Now in order that y may have turning values we have seen that

it is necessary that -^- — o.

But ^ = o if 6(#2 + *-6) = o

i. e., if 6(^+3) (x — 2) = o
i. e., if x = —3 or 2
and hence y has turning values when x = — 3 and x — +2. We do
not yet, however, know the character of these turning values, so that
our object must now be to devise a simple method enabling us to
discriminate between values of x giving maximum and minimum
values to y.
An obvious, but slow, method is as follows : Let us take a value
of x slightly less than —3, say —3-1; then the calculated value of y
is 95 "85. Next, taking a value of x rather bigger than —3, say —2-9,
the value of y is found to be 95-85. Therefore, as x increases from
— 3-1 to —3 and thence to —2-9, y has the values 95'85, 96, and
95-85 respectively. Thus the value of y must , be a maximum at
x = — 3, since its values on either side are both less than its value
when x = — 3. In like manner it can be shown that when x — -\-2,
y has a minimum value.

The arithmetical work necessary in this method can, however,

be dispensed with by the use of a more mathematical process,
now to be described.
Referring to the first derived curve, the equation of which is
y — 6#2+ 6#— 36, we note that as x increases from —4 to —3
the ordinate of the derived curve decreases from 36 to o; from
x = — 3 to x = — .5 the ordinate is negative but increasing
numerically, i. e., in the neighbourhood of x = — 3 the slope of
the second derived curve, which is the slope curve of the first
derived curve, is negative (for the ordinate decreases as the
abscissa or the I.V. increases). But the slope of the first derived
92 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
curve, and thus the ordinate of the second derived curve, must
d2v
be expressed by -y-^, so that we conclude that in the neighbourhood
dsC

of a maximum value of the original function the second derivative

of it is a negative quantity.
In the same way we see that in the neighbourhood of a
minimum value of the function, its second derivative is a positive
quantity. Hence a more direct method of discrimination between
the turning values presents itself : Having found the values of the
I.V. causing turning values of the original function, substitute these
values in turn in the expression for the second derivative of the function ;
if the result is a negative, then the particular value of the I.V. considered
is that giving a maximum value of the function and vice-versa.
This rule may be expressed in the following brief fashion : —
Let y = f(x) and let the values of x that make -j~(x) orf'(x) = o
be #! and xz. d2y

Find the value of -~^ or f"(x), as it may be written, and in

this expression substitute in turn the values x^ and xz in place of
x: the values thus obtained are those of f"(x-^} and /"(#2) respec-
tively. Then if f"(x^), say, is negative, y has a maximum value
when x — x^; and if f"(xj) is positive, y has a minimum value
when x = xv

Applying to our present example :—

y =

When x — —3 the value of -~2 is I2( — 3) +6, i. e., /"(— 3) = —30;

and since /"( — 3) is a negative quantity, y is a maximum when
x == —3.
Similarly, /"( + 2) = 12(2) +6 = +30
and hence y is a minimum when x — +2.

Referring to the second derived curve, i. e., the curve y = I2X+6,

we note that its ordinate is negative for all values of x less than
— •5 and positive for all values of x greater than —-5, the curve
crossing the axis of x when x = —-5. This indicates that when
x = — -5 the first divided curve has a turning value ; but the first
 APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION 93
derived curve is the curve of the gradients of the primitive curve,
and hence when x — — 5 the gradient of the primitive must have
a turning value, which may be either a maximum or a minimum.
In other words, if we had placed a straight edge to be tangential
in all positions to the primitive curve, it would rotate in a right-
handed direction until x = — -5 was reached, after which the
rotation would be in the reverse direction. A point on the curve
at which the gradient ceases to rotate in the one direction and
commences to rotate in the opposite direction is called a -point of
inflexion of the curve. Thus points of inflexion or contra-flexure
d*y = o.
occur when -=-4
u
A useful illustration of the necessity for determining points of
contra-flexure dx2
is furnished by cases of fixed beams. We have
of Confraf lexure.

[—• filll— 1 /^ ^\ I— -21 ll— !

FIG. 23.

already seen that the bending

d2v moment at any section is propor-
tional to the value of -j-z there; hence there must be points of
CLX*
contra-flexure when the bending moment is zero.
Example 2. — Find the positions of the points of contra-flexure of
a beam fixed at its ends and uniformly loaded with w units per foot;
the deflected form having the equation —
i fwlx3 wl2xz_wx*\
= El\ 12 24 24 ')'
We may regard this question' from either the graphic aspect or the
physical. According to the former we see that it is necessary to
determine the points of inflexion, and therefore to find values of x
for wh^ich^d*y
, 2 is. zero.
Reasoning from the physical basis we arrive at the same result,
by way of the following
dzy argument : the bending moment, which is
expressed by EI-—OLX
, changes sign, as is indicated by the change in
the curvature of the beam (see Fig. 23), and therefore at two points
the bending moment must be zero, since the variation in it is uniform
94 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS

and continuous; but the bending moment is zero when -~2 is zero,
v
since M = El j-^.
AT
Now w fix3 I2x2 x*\V
y = =pp
dx2 El (\i2-----------
24 24/
dy w T( I ,\ / /2 \ 4^
hence ^
a* = -ey
El ( — X3*2 /)— (\24
— X2# /)— *-
w LA 1 2
__
24

d2y w r/1 \~~ 6i lz \ 3^2-i

and -,- -2 = ,-,f ( xzx12 )— ( XII — V
^2 El L\4 / \I2 / 6 J
— (**— l* _^2\
2"]'
. El Va i2~ /72V ./v 72 «;2\
Now the bending moment M = EI.^=a;[-—
«*" \ 2
-- -2 /)
12

and M = o if /^------
2 12 2 , i. e., 6lx—l2—6xz = o,
/2 AT2

6l±
i. e., if 6xz— 6lx+lz = o
12
or

= -789? or -2 1 iL
Hence the points of inflexion occur at points distant -211 of the
length from the ends.

Example 3. — A line, 5 ins. long, is to be divided into two parts

such that the square of the length of one part together with four
times the cube of the length of the other is a minimum. Find the
position of the point of section.

Let x ins. = the length of one part, then 5— x = length of the

other part.
Then (5— #)2+4#3 is to be a minimum. *
Let y = (5-*)2+4*3

Then

Hence dx
~- — o if x — o^ or — i (the latter root implying external
cutting) .
 APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION 95
— 10
To test for the nature of the turning value —
d*y
dx

an g£ = 24*4-2.
d
When x = 6J

-5-^ = ( -2— —5 J_|_2 = a positive quantity.

Therefore y is a minimum when x = £ and the required point of
section is % in. from one end.

Example 4. — If 5 — detrimental surface of an aeroplane

S = area of planes
K = lifting efficiency
KS
then/, the " fineness," is obtained from the formula /2 = — ~-.
Also the thrust required for sustentation = C (••I'acX where C is
a constant and i is the angle of incidence of the plane (expressed in
radians).
Taking S = 255 and K = -4, find the angle of incidence for the
case in which the least thrust is required.

.4X 25 =
Jp = J£S
-o8s -08 5'
The thrust T = C (*4-js:.) and since i is the only variable in this
\ J *%/
expression, we must differentiate with regard to it.
Thus -
dT .,
and = 0 if 1- =

i. e., if i2 = 1 = — .
/2 125
Thus i = -0895
or the thrust required is either a maximum or minimum when the
angle of incidence is -0895 radian.
^- value is a maximum or a minimum,
To test whether this turning
let us find the second derivative —

^T _ / 2_
&-« - u V +/2z3/'

When i — -0895, ^2-p

-^ must be positive, and hence T has its minimum
value when i = -0895. dT=
96 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
Example 5. — Find the dimensions of the greatest cylinder that
can be inscribed in a right circular cone of height 6 ins. and base
10 ins. diameter.

FIG. 24.

Assume that the radius of the base of the cylinder = x ins. (Fig. 24)
and the height of the cylinder — y ins.
Then the volume — V — •nx^y.
We must, then, obtain an expression for y in terms of x before
differentiating with regard to x.
From the figure, by similar triangles, taking the triangles ADC
and EFC — 6 _ y

or
5
2 6 . . 67T , g 3,
Hence V
— it* X-(5 • ~~ ~c '*•* , •
and dV
5
Thus = o if x(io — 3^) = o volume)
i. e.t
if x = o (giving the cylinder of zero
or if 10 — 3*, i. e., x — $\ ins.
Then
y = d\'
(5-3*) = 2 ins-

and the volume of the greatest cylinder = wX ( — ) X2 = 69-8 cu. ins.

Example 6. — The total running ^cost

2100 in pounds sterling per hour
of a certain ship being given by — +—
. 5
C =4
where v = speed in knots, find for what speed the total cost for a
journey is a minimum.

The total cost for the journey depends on —

(a) The cost per hour; and
(6) The number of hours taken over the journey.
v3
 APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION 97
Item (b) depends inversely on the speed, so that if the journey
j t
were 2000 nautical miles the time taken would be hours; or.
K
in general, the number of hours =
Then the total cost for a journey of K nautical miles
K / v3 \
= Q = xU-5+-
V V* ' ' 2IOO/

5V i -\, UM )•
2IOO/
Differentiating with
dCt regard to the variable v
"4-5

.,

Then 1050

* a -
v • (s . . IX

1050 -
v ' *J

or v3 = 4-5 X 1050 = 4725

hence *v = 16-78 knots.

Example 7. — A water main is supplied by water under a head of

60 ft. The loss of head due to pipe friction, for a given length, is
proportional to the velocity squared. Find the head lost in friction
when the horse-power transmitted by the main is a maximum.
If v = velocity of flow, then —
Head lost = Kv2, where K is some constant,
i. e., the effective head = 60 — Kv2 = He.
TT -r, , Quantity (in Ibs. per min.) x effective head (in feet)'
H.P. transmitted = J v * <- v
_ area (in sq. ft.) x velocity (ft. per min.) x 62-4 x Hg
33000
= CvHe, where C is some constant
= Gv{6o-Kv*) 33000
= C(6ov-Kv3)
Then /
Ctl) (H.P.) = C(6o-3Kz;2)
= C(6o — i8o + 3He)
or T— (H.P.) = o when 3HC = 120
i. e., He = 40.
In general, then, the maximum horse-power is transmitted when
the head lost is one-third of the head supplied, i. e., the maximum
2
efficiency is - or 66-7%.
 98 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
Example 8. — The stiffness of a beam is proportional to the breadth
and the cube of the depth of the section. Find the dimensions of
the stiffest beam that can be cut from a cylindrical log 4 ins. in
diameter.

From hypothesis
or
S = Kbd3.
Both breadth and depth will vary, but they depend on each
other; and from Fig. 25 we see that b2 = i6 — d2. Hence we can
substitute for b its value in terms of d and then differentiate with
regard to d\ according!}? —

As it stands thisS =would be a rather cumbersome

expression to differentiate, and we therefore employ
a method which is often of great assistance. Since
we are dealing with positive quantities throughout,
S2 will be a maximum when S is a maximum,* and
hence we square both sides before differentiating. FIG. 25.
Thus— S2 = K2d6(i6-d2) =
and -, ~ '>-8d'>) = 8d5(i2-d2)
<fS2
Hence — ,-r
Ct.(t = o if d5 — o, i. e., d = o (giving zero stiffness)
d2 = 12
i.ore.,if — d = 3-464 ins.
Hence b — V 16—12 = 2 ins.

* If we were dealing with negative quantities it would be incorrect

to say that the quantity itself had a maximum value when its square
was a maximum, for suppose the values of the quantity y in the
neighbourhood of its maximum value were —13, — 12, — u, — 10,
— ii, —12, etc., corresponding values of y2 would be +169, +144,
+ 121, +100, +121, +144, so that if y = — 10 (its maximum value)
when x = 4, say, then y2 — TOO when x = 4, and therefore a minimum
value of y2 occurs when x — 4, and not a maximum.

Example g. — Find the shape of the rectangular channel of given

sectional area A which will permit the greatest flow of water ; being given

that Q = Av, v — c Vmi, m = hydraulic mean depth = wetted

— . . f^rea.
perimeter
and i is the hydraulic gradient ; Q being the quantity flowing.
 APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION 99
Let the breadth of the section be b and the depth d; then, by
hypothesis —
bd = A. whence b = -j.
a

w = wetted
— . . , perimeter
— -.— — = o+2a
,— — j and therefore v = c Vi\/ ;
= cVAl .

Hence — Q = Av = Ac VAi . ~ /, ,
= K . -^Jsas
Vb+2d where K =
Q will be a maximum when Q2 is a maximum, hence we shall find
the value of b for which Q2 is a maximum.

b+2d~ '6+?A'
Also Q2 is a maximum when the denominator of this fraction is
a minimum.
Let this denominator be denoted by D —
dD d I, , 2A\ 2A
then -jjj- = ^1°+ r / = I~~^F
and rfD
-n- = o if.,i = 2A
T-», «.. /— »—
e., if o = V2A.

Now d = O= -= = \
\/2A 2

/. the dimensions would be —

depth == V - and breadth = \/2A.

Example 10. — For a certain steam engine /A the expression for W,

the brake energy per cu. ft. of steam, was found in terms of r, the
ratio of expansion, as follows —
/i+log r\
I2o00833
(- _JJr—- , _S-)-27
.J-. - _03
0009
\V =

Find the value of r that makes W a maximum.

Before proceeding to differentiate, we can put the expression in a

somewhat simpler form. •00833 +
Thus- W = "O

and W is a quotient = - where u = i2o(i+log r}—2jr

ioo MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
du 1 20
so that -y— = ----
dr r 27
and v — -00833 + -000903?
dv
so that -f- — -000903.
du dv
TT dW J\* T VJdr-- MJ~dv
Hence -y = — ,—
dr vz
(•00833 + •000903*') ( — — 27^ — [iao(i+log r)— 27/1-000903
(-00833 +-000903*-)2
Now - = o if the numerator of the right-hand side = o

i . e., if ( -—22 — L°\_ (27 x -00833) + (120 x -000903) — (27 x -0009037)

— (120 x -000903) — (120 x -000903 log r) + (27 x -ooogo^r) = o
i.e., if. —-225 — -1084 log r = o.
This equation must be solved by plotting, the intersection of the
curves y± = -1084 log r and yz = --- 225 being found; the value of r
here being 2-93.
Hence — r = 2-93.

Example n. — The value of a secondary electric current was given

by the formula — _- _
y = - e L+M— e L-M
where L = inductance of primary circuit
R = resistance of primary circuit
M = coefficient of mutual inductance
I = steady current.
Find for what value of /, y has a maximum value.
T/ iu m
y = -(e~L+M— g~L— M

dv R — ?L R -
and -£ = o if ^^r.e
rf/ L— M L-M — L+M
__
Transposing the factors —
L— M

BI(L-M-L-M) T _

L+M

e -TM,
L-M. = ~

or eLM. L— M
 APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION 101
In order to find an expression for t, this equation must be changed
to a log form, thus —
/L+M\ _ 2MRf
°g \L— M/ ~ L8-M2
L2-M2 , /
*= - log

If three variables are concerned, say x, y and z, the relation

between them being expressed by the equation z=f(x, y), then
in order to find the values of x and y for turning values of z, it
is necessary to determine where the plane tangential to the surface
is horizontal.
The algebraic problem is to find the values of x and y that

satisfy simultaneously the equations (-T-)

\(4'Z /= o and f-^-J
\dZ / = o, these
derivatives being partial.

Example 12. — The electric time constant of a cylindrical coil of

wire (i. e., the time in which the current through the coil falls from
its full value to a value equal to -632 of this) can be expressed
approximately by K = — . y — where z is the axial length of the
coil, y is the difference between the external and internal radii and x
is the mean radius ; a, b and c representing constants. If the volume
of the coil is fixed, find the values of x and y which•2-nxmake
y
the time
constant as great as possible.

The volume V of the coil = cross section x length

V
*. e., V = 2Tc#xy Xz and z = -
K = m \(ax+by+cz)
— r<--- I and is a maximum

ax+by+cz -- or —a -\
when - ,---b ,— c '.is a minimum.
xyz vz
yz xz xy xv
f , —a.
a. ..---bb ,,— cc
Let p = yz
—z --- xz —xxy
xz
. c
+
yV
__'' zivcya xV x~y
~ mxyb +"c

Now (^ (i. e., with y constant) = 2yU+(- X -

2TOI C
102 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS

c- -11 (dp\ 27T& C

Similarly \f) = -~- 2.
\dy)x V xyz
Both \j) an<^ vft mus^ ke equated to zero,

so that —^jr-
V — x2y
—

i. e., x*y = — (i)

, 2TI& C

V ' xy2
i. 6. xyz = 2TT& .... (2)
To solve for x and y —
From (2) — x = —cVj-~2.
Substituting in (i) —
cV

cVa
whence y3 = — r,

or
27T02
also

U62
__2T Minimum Values.
Exercises 10. — On Maximum and
1. If M = 15*— -oix*, find the value of x that makes M a maximum.
2. Find the value of x that makes M a maximum if M = 3-42* — -ix2.
3. M is a bending moment and x is & length ; find x in terms of /
so that M shall be a maximum, and find also the maximum value of M.
,, wx ,,
M = — (l—
4. As for No. 3, but taking —
M = <
2 V
5. The work done by a series motor in time t is given by —
R
where e = back E.M.F.
E = supply pressure
R = resistance of armature.
a

The electrical efficiency is ^. Find the efficiency when the motor

so runs that the greatest rate of doing useful work is reached.
In Nos. 6 to 8 find values of x which give turning values to y,
stating the nature of these turning values.
 APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION

6. y = 4*2+i8*-4i. 7. y = 5^-
8. y = x3 + 6x2— 15^+51 (find also the value of x at the point of
inflexion).
9. Sixteen electric cells, each of internal resistance i ohm and
giving each I volt, are connected up in mixed circuit through a
resistance of 4 ohms. Find the arrangement for the greatest current
[say —x rows with x cells in each row].
10. If 40 sq. ft. of sheet metal are to be used in the construction
of an open tank with square base, find the dimensions so that the
capacity of the tank is a maximum.
11. Given that W = 4C2+',7, find a value of C that gives a turning
value of W, and state the nature of this turning value.
fj A
// _ x\
12. M (a bending moment) = W v . ; (x+y] — Wy. For what value
of x is M a maximum ? {W, / and y are constants.}
13. The cost C (in pounds sterling per mile) of an electric cable
can be expressed by —
C - ^+636*
x
where x is the cross section in sq. ins.
Find the cross section for which the cost is the minimum, and
find also the minimum cost.
14. A window has the form of a rectangle together with a semi-
circle on one of its sides as diameter, and the perimeter is 30 ft. Find
the dimensions so that the greatest amount of light may be admitted.
15. C, the cost per hour of a ship, in pounds, is given by —
C = 3-2 + 2200
-
where s = speed in knots.
Find the value of s which makes c3the cost of a journey of 3000
nautical miles a minimum.
At speed 10% greater and less than this compare the total cost
with its minimum value.
16. An isolated load W rolls over a suspension bridge stiffened
with pin-jointed girders. When the load is at A, distant\V# x from the
centre, the bending moment at this section — MA = —» (I2— 4#2). For
what value of x is MA a maximum ?
17. A riveted steel tank of circular section open at the top has to
be constructed to contain 5000 gals, of water. Find the dimensions
so that the least possible amount of steel plate is required.
18. A canister having a square base is cut out of 128 sq. ins. of
tin, the depth of the lid being i in. Find the dimensions in order
that the contents of the canister may be as large as possible.
19. The stiffness of a beam of rectangular section is proportional
to the breadth and the cube of the depth. Find the ratio of the
sides of the stiffest beam of rectangular section with a given perimeter.
104 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
20. A load uniformly distributed over a length r rolls across a
beam of length I, and the bending moment M due to this loading at
a point is given by —
-„. wry f, r} wxz
M=-j* {/-?+*--,- — .
For what value of x is M a maximum ?
21. Find the value of V (a velocity) that makes R (a resistance)
a maximum when —
= yi 3(V-i2)
V+I2 '
22. If L = Vrz— xz— *(rz— 54x*), find the value of x that makes L a
maximum.
23. A jet of water, moving with velocity v, impinges on a plate
moving in the direction of the jet with velocity u. The efficiency
TJ = --—3 — - • Find values of u for maximum and minimum efficiency,
and find also the maximum efficiency. .
^2.tt(l} _ /vC\
yv
24. If v — — *-= — ', find the value of u for maximum value of i?.
25. Given that O = K//T! (cos 6— sin 6), find values of 6 between
o° and 360° that make Q a maximum, treating K, p. and Tx as
constants.
26. A cylinder of a petrol engine is of diameter d and length /.
„. , , vz d area of exposed surface
Find the value of the ratio -, which makes
/ capacity
a minimum. The volume must be treated as a constant.
27. If the exposed surface of a petrol engine cylinder is given by —
S — 27W2+2:rr/+-2y2, I being the length and r the radius,
that makes the ratio
find the value of the ratio -r exPosed surface
capacity
a minimum. The volume must be treated as a constant.
»

28. Given that ? = — K2 - , find values of K for turning

values of y.
z#R2/ 1 \ / /3\
29. IfM = ^|^ -sin20)--934wR2^cos0- /s/|j, for what values
of 0 is M a maximum ? [M is the bending moment at a section of a
circular arched rib loaded with a uniform load w per foot of span, and
R is the radius of the arch.]
30. An open channel with side slopes at 45° is to have a cross
section of 120 sq. ft. Determine the dimensions for the best section
(i. e., the section having the smallest perimeter for a given area).
_

31. If M = -^TTZ
O ( I -— .-ni\
t ) * find the value of x which makes M, a
bending moment, a maximum. The final equation should be solved
by plotting, a value being assumed for /.
 APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION 105
32. In connection with retaining walls the following equation
occurs —

72 _ i—
p _ ph2 M tan 6 cot 6.
i — M*+2/*
Find an expression, giving the value of 6 (in terms of tan 6), that
makes P a maximum. {M, p and h are constants.}
33. Assuming that the H.P. of an engine can be expressed by the
relation —
H = C(fnl3-Kpn3l*)
where C is a constant, / = stroke, p = pressure in piston rod due to
the pressure on the piston, p — average density of the material of the
engine, K = constant depending upon the mode of distribution of
the mass of the engine parts, n = R.P.M., and / = safe stress in the
material, find an expression for I giving the maximum H.P. for
engines of different sizes.
34. Find the turning point of the probability curve —
T *»

and also the points of inflexion.

35. In a two-stage compressor, neglecting clearances, if Px and Vx
are the initial pressure and volume of the L.P. cylinder, P2 the pressure
in the intercooler, and P3 the discharge pressure of the H.P. cylinder,
the total work for the two cylinders is given by —

For what value of P2 is W a minimum, P^ V^, P3 and n being

regarded as constants ?
36. Find the height A of a Warren girder to give the maximum
stiffness, the stiffness being given by the expression —

2EA tlnr ,• Id4 { W\

d being the length of one bay and I the span, whilst fc, ft and E are
constants for the material.
37. The efficiency of a reaction wheel may be expressed by —
2(«— i)

For what value of n has •>> its maximum value ?

38. The weight W of steam passing *i through an orifice, from
pressure P! to pressure Pg, is given by —

If n — 1-135, nn(i the value of ^ for which W n+Pj"

is a maximum.
39. Find the height of the greatest cylinder that can be inscribed
in the frustum of a paraboloid of revolution cut off by a plane
perpendicular to the axis and distant 6 units from the origin. The
paraboloid is generated by the revolution about the axis of x of the
parabola yz = yc.
106 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS

40. If M = \V j#
f
— -1%— _!_1*-\
y\ ~\
where y and I are constants, find the
value of x that makes M a maximum.
41. If T, / and T/ are the tight, slack and centrifugal tensions
respectively in a belt passing round a pulley, and v = speed of the
belt in feet per sec., then —
H.P. transmitted - ^1=3.

Being given that T/ = — , the maximum permissible tension in

the belt — Tm = T+T/, ^ = coefficient of friction between belt and
TJOV^ T
pulley, 0 = angle of lap of belt in radians, and550 %. — eve, find the value
of T/ in terms of 1m so that the maximum H.P. is transmitted.
42. If y — 3X*-\-2x3 — j8x2—24OX-\-54, find the values of x which
give turning values to y, stating the nature of these turning values ;
and find also the values of x at the points of inflexion.
43. The radial stress in a rotating disc

in which expression x is the only variable.

Find the value of x which gives to px its maximum value, and
state this value of px.
44. A pipe of length / and diameter D has at one end a nozzle of
diameter d through which water is discharged from a reservoir, the
level of the water in which is maintained at a constant head h above
the centre of the nozzle. Find the diameter of the nozzle so that
the kinetic energy of the jet may be a maximum ; the kinetic energy
being expressed by —
7T V_2gD'A \t

[Hint. — If K = kinetic energy, writ

=

and find the value of d for the maximum value of K*.]

_ P7T
45. Prove that the cuboid of greatest volume which can be inscribed
in a sphere of radius a is a cube of side
46. The velocity of the piston of a reciprocating engine can be
expressed by —
/sin 20 .. Q\
2nnr\ — -- hsm 0 )
\ •zm I
where 0 is the inclination of the crank to the line of stroke.
T ,. connecting-rod length 0 _ , .
If m = - lengthTxrSof ----
crank1 - — = 8, find the values of 0 between
o° and 360° that make the velocity a maximum.
 APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION

Calculation of Small Corrections. — Differentiation finds

another application in the calculation of small corrections.
Thus an experiment might' be carried out, certain readings
being taken, and results deduced from these readings; then if
there is a possibility of some slight error in the readings and it
is required to find the consequent error in the calculated result,
we may proceed to find that error in the manner now to be
explained.
Suppose we have two quantities A and B connected with one
another by a formula A = KB ; then if the value of B is slightly
inaccurate the error in A will depend on this error in B, and also
on the rate at which A changes with regard to B. E. g., if A
changes three times as fast as B and the error in B is •!%, then
the consequent error in A must be 3X-I or -3%.
We might also look upon this question
from a different point of view. Suppose
that a reading, instead of being x, as it
should have been, was slightly larger,
say x-}-8x, i. e., the measured value of x
would be represented by OB and not
OA (Fig. 26), then the error is Sx or
8x
—X XIOO%. This error causes an error
in the value of y, so that the calculated
value of y is BQ and not AP, i. e., the
error is Sy.
To compare these errors we proceed as follows : -- — the slope
of the chord PQ, and if Sx is very small (as it should be, for
otherwise the experiment would be repeated), then this would also
be the slope of the tangent at both P and Q, or, approximately —
Sy dy
• 8x dx
^. e.,
dx

or, error in y = rate at which y changes with regard to x

X error in x.

Example 13. — In the measurement of the diameter of a shaft, of

which the actual diameter was 4 ins., an error of 2% was made;
what was the consequent error in the weight ?
 io8 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS

Here — W = 4~d2lp, where p is the density

- Kd2, where K = %.
4

Now the error in the diameter = Sd = too

--'- X4 = -08 in.

also
CLLJ\J
d.d-i i -
-d.d
7 i
- 2Kd
- £• J.Vli-

or the percentage error = ^ x 100 = - ^9g^- X 100

Example 14. — If some torsion experiments are being made on

shafts varying in diameter from i in. to 5 ins. ; then, allowing a maximum
error of -5% in the measurement of the diameters, what is the range
of the errors in the stress ? Given that T = f-fd3.

The stress / = — x -^
df TC
i6T a3
hence 13- —
Now the error in the diameter — 8.d is -5%

i. g., 8d = —100
5 X rf.

Hence the "error in / = d.d

/-. X 8d = — 4-7r
-jzd* X —
100
i. e.t the percentage error in / —
= loo X 8f
Jf- = loo X — 48T
—r, X ~-5d X
/ = -3- IT a4 zoo

Thus the smallest error = '03 x smallest stress \

and the largest error = -03 x largest stress /'
If the error in the measurement of the diameter is on the high
side, then the stress, as calculated, will be too low.

Expansion of Functions in Series. Theorems of Taylor

andMaclaurin. — Many of the simpler functions, suchaslog« (i-f-#),
sin x, cos x, etc., can be expressed as the sums of series. These
functions can be expressed in terms of these series by the use of
a theorem known as Maclaurin's.
 APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION 109
Let f(x) stand for the function of x considered, and let
f(x) — a+bx+cx^+dx3-^ . . ., to be true for all values of x,
i.e., /(o) = «

We assume that the differentiation of the right-hand side term

by term gives the derivative of /(#).
Differentiate both sides with regard to x.

Then— ^or/'(*) = b+2cx+idx*+ . . .

This must be true for all values of x ; thus, let x = o
then — f'(x) when x = o dr/'(o) = b

/'(o) implying that f'(x) or •£*-*•

flwv is first found and then the
value o substituted for x d*f(x)
throughout.

Differentiating again, -4V orf"(x) = 2c-}-6dx-{- . . .

and /"(°) = /"(o)
zc
t. e., c=J—±J.2

Similarly, /'"(*) = 6^+ terms containing x and higher

* powers of x,
whence /'"(°) = 6W or 1.2.3.^.
1.2.or3 |JL
Accordingly we may write the expansions —

This is Maclaurin's Theorem. By a similar investigation we

might obtain Taylor's Theorem, which may be regarded as a more
general expression of the foregoing.
Taylor's Theorem. In this the expansion is of f(x-\-h] and not
/(*); thus—

\A
or, as it is sometimes written, to give an expansion for/(*) —
no MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS

If in either of these two expansions we make h = o, then

Maclaurin's series results.
We may now utilise these theorems to obtain series of great
importance.
Example 15. — To find a series for cos x.
Let f(x] = cos x
then /(o) — cos o = i.
A i rn \ • d COS X
Also / (x), i. e., — ctx
-, -- = —sin x
so that /'(°) = —sin o — o.
Again /"(•*) = ^~(~s^n x) ~ —cos x
so that /"(°) = —cos o = — i
and /"'(#) = -3- (—cos x) — sin x
so that /'"(°) = sin o = o.
Now f(x] = /(o

Therefore cos x — i ---

12. 1 [4
~
i
Example 16. — To find a series for loge
Let = loge(i+#)
then /(*) = log 1=0.
/(°)
Now rflog(l+#) I
/'(o)
so that

/"(o)
so that
i
f"'lv\
and d/ -i \ 2
J/'"((*/
o) ^\(l+^)2/
= 2- — 2.
(l+^)3
so that
Hence loge (i+#) ^r2 Ar3
(Compare with the series found by an entirely different method in
Part I, p. 470.)

Example 17. — Prove that &>* = cos #+_;' sin ^, where /= V— I.

This equation is of great importance, since it links up the exponential
and the trigonometric functions.
 APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION in
To find a series for sin x.
Let . f(x) = sin x then /(o) = sin 0 = 0
f'(x] = cos x /'(o) = cos o — i
f"(x) = —sin x /"(°) — —sin o = — o
f"'(x) = —cos x f "'(o) = —cos o = — i.
Hence sin # = x 1 . . .
LI LL
and jsinx = i(x
v Li |--jU . . .)

To find a series for eix.

Let f(x) = eix /(o) = e° = i

f"(x) = jzeix /"(o) = jze° = jz = — i

-7 2 A • 2 ^ ^X^

Hence eix — i+jx+- \-J-—

11 11 . . .
Now cos x+j sin # (the series for cos x having been found in
Example 15).

= eix. Ivllj|+ " {Fory: : -_\^ \

( i*= +i, etc. J

Use might be made of Taylor's Theorem to determine a more

correct solution to an equation when an approximate solution is
known ; for, taking the first two terms of the expansion only —

/(*+*)=/(*)+*/'(*)
or interchanging x and h, as a matter of convenience, then —

/(*+*)=/(*)+¥'(*)•
If A is small compared with x, the assumption that two terms
of the series may be taken to represent the expansion is very
nearly true.
Suppose that a rough approximation for the root has been
found (by trial and error) ; denote this by x. Let the true solution
be x-\-h; then by substitution in the above equation the value of
h can be found, and thence that of x-}-h.
H2 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS

As an illustration, consider the following case : A rough test

gives 2-4 as a solution of the equation x*— i -5^+3 -7% = 21-554.
It is required to find a solution more correct.
Here x = 2-4 and f(x) = #4— 1-5#3+37#— 21-554
so that 7(2-4) = 33-17— 20-73+8-88— 21-554 = -'234-
If the correct value of h is found, thenf(x-\-h) must = o.
Hence— f(x+h) =f(x)+hf'(x)
i. £., o = — 234+A/'(2-4).
[Now— /(*) = *4—i-5*3+37*— 21-554

so that 7' (2-4) = 55-30-25-92+3-7 = 33-o8.]

Hence o = — 234+^x33-08)
or h= — -^o = -0071.

Hence a more correct approximation

33-o8 is 2-4+ -0071
*. e.t x = 2-407 is the solution of the equation.
This method may thus be usefully employed in lieu of the
graphic method when extremely accurate results are desired.
The following example illustrates the process of interpolation
necessary in many cases where the tables of values supplied are
not sufficiently detailed for the purpose in hand; and in view of
the importance of the method, every step in the argument should
be thoroughly understood.

Example 18.' — It is desired to use some steam tables giving the

d'p
pressures for each 10° difference of temperature, to obtain the accurate
d-b d*P line commencing
dp C. The d*pfigures in the
value of •£. when t = 132°
with i = 130° C. (the nearest to 132°) are as follows :—
1 •0002738
• : V •026392
ip
130 1-47051
2025-7I7 60-5995

Calculate, very exactly, the value of -^ when t = 132° C.

Taylor's theorem may here be usefully employed, usingdp"the form —

dt*
 APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION 113

Let f(x) = -£- when t — 130

andf(x + h) = - when t = 132, so that h = 2

Then /'(*) = = and /"(*) = , etc., / having the

value 130.
Thus the expansion may be re-written as —
_fdp

and substituting the values from the table —

= 60. 5995 + (2 x.i-4705i) + (2 X -026392) + (4

'133 V3
x -0002738)
= 63-59367-

Exercises 11. — On the Calculation of Small Corrections and Expansion in

Series.

1. If R = R0(i+a/+6*2) when R0 (the resistance of a conductor at

o° C.) is 1-6, a (the temperature-resistance coefficient of the material)
= -00388 and b = -000000587, find the error in R (the resistance at
temperature t° C.) if t is measured as 101 instead of 100.
2. The quantity Q of water flowing over a notch
o -
is given by
Q = — X-64X V^g.H*, where H is the head at the notch. What
is the percentage error in Q caused by measuring H as -198 instead
Of -2 ?

3. If y = 4*1'76, y = 17-3 when x = 2-3. What will be the change

in y consequent on a change of x to 2-302 ?
4. A rough
2j approximation gives x = —2-44 as a solution of the
equation 10 3 = 16+4^— xz. Find a more correct root.
5. Determine the value of x to satisfy the equation x1'5— 3 sin x =• 3,
having given that it is in the neighbourhood of 2-67.
6. The height A of a Porter governor is expressed by —

where n is the number of revolutions w per minute.

' n* If W = 100, w = 2
and / = 10, find the change in the height due to a change in the
speed from 200 to 197 r.p.m.
7. In calculating the co-ordinates of a station in a survey it was
thought that there was a possibility of an error of 3 minutes (*. e., i£
either way) in the reading of the bearing. If the bearing of a line
was read
I as 7° 12' and the length of the line was 2 chains 74 links,
n4 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
find the possible errors in the co-ordinates of the distant end of the
line. [Co-ordinates are length X cos (bearing) and length x sine (bearing) .]
8. Find by the methods of this chapter a series for ax.
9. Using the figures given in Example 18, p. 112, calculate very
exactly the pressure p at 133° C.
10. The equation d3+-6$d— -5 = o occurred when finding the sag
of a cable. A rough plotting gives the solution to be in the neigh-
bourhood of -5 : find a more exact root.
 CHAPTER V
INTEGRATION
HAVING discussed the section of the Calculus which treats of
differentiation, we can now proceed to the study of the process
of integration, this having a far more extensive application, and
being, without doubt, far more difficult to comprehend.
As with the differentiation, it is impossible fully to appreciate
this branch of the subject unless much careful thought is given
to the fundamental principles; and accordingly the introduction
to the Integral Calculus is here treated at great length, but in a
manner which, it is hoped, will commend itself.
Meaning of Integration. — The terms integer and integral
convey the idea of totality; an integer being, as we know, a
whole number, and thus the sum of its constituent parts or
fractions. The process of integration in the same way implies a
summation or a totalling, whereas that of differentiation is the
determination of rates of change or the comparison of small
differences. Differentiation suggests subtraction or differencing,
whilst integration suggests addition ; differentiation deals with rates
of change, integration with the results of the total change ; differen-
tiation involves the determination of slopes of curves, and integra-
tion the determination of areas of figures. Integration is, in fact,
the converse to differentiation, and being therefore a converse
operation is essentially more difficult to perform. [As instances
of this statement contrast the squaring a quantity with the
extraction of a square root, or the removal of brackets with
factorisation.]
A converse operation is rather more vague as concerns the
results than a direct; for when performing a direct operation one
result only is obtainable, but the results of a converse operation
may be many, as we shall find, for example, when dealing with
indefinite integrals. "5
To illustrate the connection between differentiation and integra-
tion, consider the familiar case of velocity and acceleration. Suppose
values of v and t are given, as in the table :—
 •15
•I
•20
•8 •05
n6 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
•05
297
t •05 •25 -30
i'3 •05 2-9
V
28-4
33'4 36-5
30-5
Then 8v

8t

a = wBv 26
16 62 'i
3

The accelerations are here found by comparing differences of

velocity with differences of time.
Regard the question from the other point of view : assume
that these accelerations are given and we wish to determine the
total change in the velocity in the given period 58
of time. The
total change must be given by the sum of the changes in the small
periods of time; in the first period of -05 sec. the average
acceleration was 26, i, e., the velocity was being increased at the
rate of 26 units per sec. each sec. ; and therefore the change in the
velocity in -05 sec. = 26 x -05 units per sec.
= 1-3 units per sec.
In the successive periods the changes in velocity are -8, 2-9
and 3-1 respectively.
Hence the total change in the velocity over the period -2 sec.
= i-3-f--8+2-9+3'i == 8-1 units per sec., or if the initial velocity
ot
was 28-4, the final velocity was 28-4+8-1 = 36-5. Note that the
acceleration is given by the fraction ^, whilst a small change in
the velocity is of the nature aU, or the total change of velocity
«= sum of all small changes = ^aSt.
We can thus find integrals by working through the processes
of differentiation, but in the reverse order. If a function, expressed
in terms of symbols, has to be integrated, it is an advantage to
transform the rules for differentiation into forms more readily
applicable; the method, however, being entirely algebraic.
If numerical values alone are given, the integration resolves
itself into a determination of an area.
Hence —
Considered from an algebraic standpoint —
Differentiation implies the calculation of rates of change ;
Integration implies the summation of small quantities.
 INTEGRATION

From the graphic standpoint—

Differentiation is concerned with the measurement of slopes of
curves ;
Integration is concerned with the measurement of areas under
curves.
Just as special symbols are used to denote the processes of
differentiation, so also there are special symbols for expressing the
processes of integrations.
Regarding an integral as an area, it must be of two dimensions,
a length and a breadth; and we have seen in an earlier chapter
(Part I, Chap. VII) that in order to ascertain an area correctly
its base must be divided up into small elements, the smaller the
better, these elements
not necessarily being of
the same length, but all
being small. Thus, to
find the area ABCD-
(Fig. 27) we can suppose
it divided up into small
strips, as EFGH, then
find the area of each of 6JG
I
these and add the results.
The portion EH of the
curve is very nearly
straight, so that EFGH
is a trapezoid, and hence F G
its area = mean height FIG. 27.
X width. Now its mean
height FE and GH are practically the same, so that any one of
them can be denoted by y; also the width FG of the strip is a
small element of the base, *'. e., is 8x.
Hence, the area of the strip EFGH — y x 8x, and the total
area between the curve, the bounding ordinates and the axis of x
must equal the sum of all products like y8x, or, as it might be
expressed —
Area = 2yS# (approximately).
However small the width of the strips are made, this sum only
gives the area approximately, but as 8x is diminished the result
approaches the true more and more closely.
Therefore, bearing in mind our previous work on limits, we
can say that the limiting value of 2ySx must give the area exactly.
To this limiting value of the sum different forms of symbols are
n8 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS

attached, the 2 and S being replaced by the English forms /

and d respectively, so that the area between the curve and the
axis of x = fydx. There is no limit placed to this area in any
horizontal direction, so that the area is not denned by the given
formula.
Hence fydx is spoken of as an indefinite integral.
The x is again the I.V., and the size of the area will depend
on the values given to it. Suppose that when y = AB, x = a,
and when y = CD, x = b ; then the range of x is from a to & if
it is the area ABCD that is considered. Accordingly we can state
that the area ABCD =fydx, the value of this integral being
found between x = a and x = b, or, as it is written for brevity,
fx=b fb
I ydx, or, more shortly still, I ydx, it being clearly understood
J x=a Ja
that the limits a and b apply to the I.V., i. e., that quantity
directly associated with the " d."
It is evident that ABCD is a definite area, having one value
only, and thus I ydx is termed a definite integral.
The most convenient
J a
method for determining areas (provided
that a planimeter is not handy) is undoubtedly the " sum curve "
method treated in Part I, Chap. VII ; the great virtue of it being
fb
that the growth of the area is seen, and that either any portion
or the whole of the area of the figure can be readily found by
reading a particular ordinate.
In view of the great usefulness of the process of integration
by graphic means, the method is here explained in detail, following
exactly the plan adopted in Part I, Chap. VII.
Graphic Integration is a means of summing an area with the
aid of tee and set square, by a combination of the principles of
the "addition of strips" and "similar figures." An area in
Fig. 28 is bounded by a curve a'b'z', a base line az and two vertical
ordinates aa' and zz'. The base is first divided in such a way
that the widths of the strips are taken to suit the changes of
curvature between a' and z'', and are therefore not necessarily equal ;
and mid-ordinates (shown dotted) are erected for every division.
Next the tops of the mid-ordinates are projected horizontally on
to a vertical line, as BB'. A pole P is now chosen to the left of that
vertical; its distance from it, called the polar distance p, being a
round number of horizontal units. The pole is next joined to
each of the projections in turn and parallels are drawn across the
 INTEGRATION

corresponding strips so that a continuous curve results, known as

the Sum Curve. Thus am parallel to PB' is drawn from a across
the first strip; mn parallel to PC' is drawn from m across the
second strip, and so on.
The ordinate to the sum curve through any point in the base
gives the area under the original or primitive curve from a up to
the point considered.
Referring to Fig. 28 —
Area of strip abb' a' = ab x AB

Pole
FIG. 28. — Graphic Integration,

but, by similar figures — B'a or BA

bin
ab
whence AB x ab = p X bm
, area of strip , , . , ,
i. e., bm = - P or area of strip = px bm
i. e., bm measures the area of the first strip to a particular scale,
which depends entirely on the value of p.
, area of second strip
In the same way nm = - P
120 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS

and by the construction nm' and bm are added, so that —

area of ist and 2nd strips
en — P
or — area of ist and 2nd strips — p x en
Thus, summing for the whole area —
Area of aa'z'z = p x zL
Thus the scale of area is the old vertical scale multiplied by the polar
distance ; and accordingly the polar distance should be selected
in terms of a number convenient for multiplication.
E. g., if the original scales are —
i" = 40 units vertically
and i" = 25 units horizontally
and the polar distance is taken as 2", i. e., 50 horizontal units;
then the new vertical scale —
= old vertical scale x polar distance
=« 40x50 = 2000 units per inch.
If the original scales are given and a -particular scale is desired
for the sum curve, then the polar distance must be calculated as
follows —
new vertical scale
Polar distance in horizontal units = old
, , vertical
,-. — , scale,

E. g., if the primitive curve is a " velocity-time" curve plotted

to the scales, i" — 5 ft. per sec. (vertically) and i" = -i sec. (hori-
zontally), and the scale of the sum curve, which is a " displacement-
time " curve, is required to be i" = 2-5 ft., then —
2*S
Polar distance (in horizontal units) = — = -5

and since i" = -i unit along the horizontal, the polar distance
must be made 5".
Integration is not limited to the determination of areas only;
true, an integral may be regarded as an area, but if the ordinate
does not represent a mere length, but, say, an area of cross section,
the value of the integral will in such cases measure the volume of
the solid.
Our standard form throughout will be for the area of the figure
as plotted on the paper, viz., Jydx, where y is an ordinate and
8x an element of the base, but y and x may represent many
different quantities.
Thus, suppose a curve is plotted to represent the expansion of
 121
INTEGRATION

a gas; if, as is usual, pressures are plotted vertically and

volumes horizontally, the ordinate is p and an element of the

base is Sv; hence the area under the curve = \zpdv (if the
Jn
initial and final volumes are vt and v2 respectively), and since this
/6s
is of the nature pressure X volume, i. e., 7^3 X (ft)3 or ft. Ibs., the
area must represent the work done in the \7*J expansion.
To illustrate such a case :—

Work
106560

8 10 la 14- 16 18 SO 2£ 24 26
FIG. 29. — Expansion of Steam. 15

Example i. — It is required to find the work done in the expansion

of i Ib. of dry saturated steam from pressure 100 Ibs. per sq. in. to
pressure 15 Ibs. per sq. in.
From the steam tables the following corresponding values 26-4
of p
and v are found :— s
4.44 10-50
v (cu. ft. per Ib.) I3-72 20
2O
5-48
p (Ibs. per sq. in.) IOO 80 60
7-16

By plotting these values, p vertically, the expansion curve is

obtained (Fig. 29) ; this being the primitive curve.
Selecting a polar distance equivalent to 10 horizontal units, we
proceed to construct the sum curve, the last ordinate of which
measures to a certain scale the work done in the expansion. Now
the new vertical scale = old vertical X 10, since the polar40 distance
0
= 10 ;
and also we must multiply by 144, since the pressures are 3expressed
122 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS

in Ibs. per sq. in. and must be converted to Ibs. per sq. ft., so that
the work done may be measured in ft. Ibs.
According to this modified scale the last ordinate is read off as
106560 ; thus the work done = 106560 ft. Ibs.
or, as it would be written in more mathematical language —
f pdv — 106560.
T26-4

Example 2. — The diameters

J4 of a tapering stone column, 20 ft. long,
at 6 equidistant places were measured as 2-52, 2-06, 1-54, i'i5, '80
and -58 ft. respectively.
Find its weight at 140 Ibs. per cu. ft.

29\5
6 8 (O 12 14- IG IQ 20
FIG. 30. — Problem on Stone Column.
The volume will be obtained by plotting the areas against the
length and summing. Now the area of any section = -dz, and the
total volume will be the sum of the volumes of the small elements
supposed
into which the solid may be /" to be divided.
20 pO^

Thus the volume = J 0 Adi

J o 4 = J Q ~d*.dl.
and the weight = 140 I -d2.dl.
Since - is a constant multiplier, it can be omitted until the end,
1097;jhence a constant factor
for its effect is simply to alter the final = scale
before integration remains so after. d*.dl.
Hence the weight-
 •64
INTEGRATION

The integral will be of the standard form if for dz we write y and

if for / we write x, so that we see that ordinates must represent d2 and
abscissae lengths, and hence the table for plotting reads :—
12 16 •336
I 6o-34 4 8 1-32
2-36 20
4-24
y or d2
Plotting these values and thence constructing the sum curve (see
Fig.f2030), we find the last ordinate to be 47-15, and this is the value
of J Q d*.dl.
Weight = 109-7 1 dz.dl = 109-7x47-15 = 5180 Ibs.

Application of Integration0 to " Beam " Problems. — At an

[2 been demonstrated that the shear
earlier stage (see p. 38) it has
at any point in the length of a beam loaded in any way whatever
is given by the rate of change of the bending moment in the
neighbourhood considered, this being the space rate of change.
Conversely, then, the bending moment must be found by summating
the shearing force ; and hence, if the shear curve is given, its sum
curve is the curve of bending moment.
In the majority of problems the system of loading is given,
from which the curve of loads can be drawn. Then, since the
shear at any section is the sum of all the forces to the right or
left of that section, the sum curve of the load curve must be the
shear curve; continuing the process, the sum curve of the shear
curve, i. e., the second sum curve from the load curve as primitive,
is the curve of bending moment and the fourth sum curve is the
deflected form.
Expressing these results or statements in the notation of the
calculus ; L, S and M being the respective abbreviations for loading,
shear and bending moment —
S =fLdx
M =f$dx =f(fLdx)dx = ffL(dx)z
[ff~L(dx)z being termed a double integral]
and the deflection y = ff M.(dx)2 or ffff L(dx)*.
If the loading is not uniform, but continuous, the summation
must be performed graphically. [The link polygon method largely
used obviates half these curves, e. g., the link polygon for the loads
gives at once the curve of bending moment.]
 J4 17

124
MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS

Example 3. — The loading on a beam, 24 ft. long, simply •supported

86
•44
at its ends varies continuously, as shown in the table. Draw diagrams
•58
of shearing force and bending moment, •stating
86 clearly the maximum
values of the shearing force and the•58 bending moment.
10 12

Distance from one end (ft.) o 4 7 20

1-06
i -06
Load in tons per ft. I-I

The curve of loads is first plotted, as in Fig. 31.

By sum-curving this curve, we obtain the curve of shearing force,
although no measurements can be made to it until account has been
taken of the support reactions.

4 68 1C 12' ' 14 >6 <8

FIG. 31. — Problem on Loaded Beam.

To find the reactions at the ends : We know that these must be
equal, since the loading is symmetrical, each reaction being one-half
of the total load. Now the last ordinate AB of the sum curve of the
load curve is 19; thus the reactions are each 9-5. Bisecting AB, or,
in other words, marking off a length AC to represent the reaction
at A, we draw a horizontal, and this is the true base line for the curve
of shear; any ordinate to the curve of shear from this base giving
the shear at the point in the length of the beam through which the
ordinate is drawn.
We observe that the shear changes sign and is zero at the centre
of the beam; we can conclude from this that the bending moment
must have its maximum value at the centre, since shear — rate of
change of bending moment, and if the shear is zero, the bending
moment must have a turning value.
By sum-curving the shear curve from CD as base, the resulting
curve is that of bending moment.
 INTEGRATION

It is well carefully to consider the scales, for it is with these that

difficulties often arise.
The scales given here apply to the original drawing, of which
Fig. 31 is a reproduction somewhat under half full size.
For the length i in. = 2-5 ft.
For loads i in. = -4 ton per ft.
Polar distance for the first sum curve, i. e., the curve of shear —
= 4 ins. = 4X2-5, or 10 horizontal units.
Hence the scale of shear = -4 x 10, or 4 tons to i in.

FIG. 32. — Shearing Force and Bending Moment on Ship's Hull.

Polar distance for the second sum curve = 4 ins. = 10 horizontal

units.
Hence the scale of bending moment = 4 X 10 = 40
or i in. (vertically) = 40 tons. ft.
Reading according to these scales —
The maximum shear = 9-5 tons ^
and the maximum bending moment = 68 tons, ft. J

Example 4. — In Fig. 32 AAA is the curve of weights or load

distribution, and BBB the curve of buoyancy or upward water thrust
126 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
for a ship whose length is 350 ft., the scale of loads being indicated
on the diagram.
Draw diagrams of shearing force and bending moment on the hull
of the vessel and measure the maximum values of these quantities.
It is first necessary to construct the curve of loads to a straight
line base, and to do this the differences between the curves AAA and
BBB are set off from a horizontal, taken in our case below the original
base line.
In this way the curve of loads LLL is obtained, the scale being
shown to the left of the diagram.
By sum-curving this curve, the curve of shear SSS is obtained ;
the polar distance (not shown on the diagram) being taken as 50 horizontal
units, so that the scale for the shear is 50 times the scale for the loads.
Sum-curving the curve SSS, the curve MMM, that of bending
moment, is obtained (again the polar distance is 50 horizontal units).
Sectio'ns such as K, where the upward thrust of the water balances
the downward force due to the weights, are spoken of as water-borne.
Reading our maximum values according to the proper scales, we
find them to be —
Maximum shear = 246 tons ~\
Maximum bending moment = 14,300 tons ft. /
It should be noted that the last ordinate of both the shear curve
and the curve of bending moment is zero ; these results we should
expect since the areas under the curves AAA and BBB must be
equal, so that the shear at the end must be zero, and also the moments
of these areas must be alike.
[In practice the maximum bending moment is found by such a
formula as—-
Weight Xlength
Maximum bending moment = 7?—
Constant
the constant for small boats being between 30 and 40, and for larger
between 25 and 30.]

The Coradi Integraph. — A brief description of the Integraph,

an instrument devised to draw mechanically the sum curve, can
usefully be inserted at this stage.
It consists essentially of a carriage running on four milled
wheels A (Fig. 33), a slotted arm C carrying the tracer B which
is moved along the primitive curve, and the arm D which carries
the pencil E which draws the sum curve.
As B is moved along the primitive curve, the slotted arm C
slides about the pins G and P, thus altering its inclination to the
horizontal. A parallel link motion ensures the movement of E
parallel to the instantaneous position of C, the sharp-edged wheel F
assisting in guiding the tracer bracket.
 INTEGRATION

The principle of the instrument is not difficult to understand,

and can be explained in a very few words.
The pole is at P, and the tops of the mid-ordinates are pro-
jected to the vertical through G by the horizontals like BG;
parallels are then drawn to PG by the pencil E, the motion being
continuous.
The polar distance can be varied as desired, by altering the
position of the bracket carrying the pin P along the horizontal

arm; and if an extremely small polar distance is found to be

advisable, the pin H may be utilised instead of G.
Rules for Integration of Simpler Functions. — Since
integration is the reverse of differentiation, many functions can be
integrated by reversing the order of the steps in differentiation.
Integration of powers of x.— The first rule given in the
work on differentiation of functions was —
d
dx
— xn = nxn~v.
128 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS

To change into the integration form, we transpose -5- : the " d"
on the one side becomes f on the other side, to indicate the change
differencing to summing, and the " dx " occurs on the top line of the
other side of the equation.

Thus — xn = fnxn~1dx
or fxn~1 dx = - xn-\-C
%

the reason for the presence of the constant term C being explained
later.
It is a trifle simpler to write n in place of n—i, and therefore
«+i in place of n, so that —

Whereas, when differentiating a power of the I.V., the power

was reduced by i in the process of differentiation ; when integrating,
the power is increased by i.
fa — <y-5 — tiv^
-g" dxx

whereas fx5dx = ^ x6-\-C.

A special case occurs for which the above rule does not apply :
for, let n = — i, then fx~ldx should, according to the rule just
given, be - x°, but to this fraction no definite meaning can be
assigned.

We know that -3- log x = x- = x~*

dx
fx-1 dx = log x+C
or, as it is sometimes written —
dx ,

A constant multiplier before integration remains as such after;

thus faxndx = — T— %W+1+C.

Also an expression composed of terms can be integrated term
by term, and the results added.
 INTEGRATION 129

Thus, f (axn-\-b) dx can be written —

faxndx -\-fbdx
i. e., fax*dx-\-fbx?dx f or x° = i
its value being -—xn+l -\-bx+C.

Note. — Differentiation of a constant term gives zero, but the

integration gives that constant multiplied by the I.V.
The reason for this will be apparent if we consider the state-
ments from the graphical standpoint. The curve representing the
equation y = b is a horizontal straight line, and therefore the

slope is zero (i.e., -v- = o) ; but the area under the curve = the
area of a rectangle = base x height = xxb (i. e.,fbdx = bx).
Exponential Functions. — We have already proved that
x
dxde — e* (See p. 47) ; then by
—- transposition of d and dx to the

other side of the equation we obtain the statement ex = j

and since -, corresponds to f we may write this as fexdx = ex-\-C.

Thus if we either differentiate ex or integrate it we arrive at the
same result ; and ex is the only function for which the differential
coefficient and also the integral are the same as the function itself.
Carrying this work a step further, let us consider the integration
of ebx, and hence ax :—

Now f-aebx = abebx

dx .*. faebxdx = ?J*+C.
b
To avoid confusion as to the placing of a and b we must reason
in the following manner : The a is a constant multiplier of the
whole function, and therefore remains so after integration; the b
multiplies the I.V. only; and thus differentiation would cause it
to multiply the result, whereas after integration it becomes a
divisor. Great attention should be paid to the application of this
rule, for unless care is exercised mistakes are very apt to creep in.

Example 5. — Find the value of -^(15**— 7*'9+83) and also of

130 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
Differentiating the first d.
expression —

Integrating the second given expression —

4 --i + i
= i5t*-7f»+C.
Notice that although a function has been differentiated and the
derivative integrated, the final expression is not exactly the same as
the original, the constant term being represented only by C, where C
may have any value. Further reference will be made to this point
on p. 137.

Example 6. — If pv1'32 = C, find the value oi/pdv.

To express p in terms of v —

•32
-1-3v2+1
fpdv = fCir-1-** . dv = Cfv~l-3Zd
= CX- — u-l-38+1
(K being any constant)
•3
= — 2—
This result can be written in a slightly different form, if for C we
write its value pv1'32; then —
F.,
ipdv = — pvl'**xir-**
— — .\-K
v

— — = — 3*
•32 — a
Exa'.-nple 7.— Find fpdv when pv = C.
pv
In this case — p = Cv~*

fpdv = fav - C/^ = C log v + K

= pv log v

Example 8. — Find the value of

Note that 17 is a constant multiplier throughout; 2 multiplies the

I.V. and therefore appears as a divisor after integration ; also the
power of e remains exactly the same.
 -e
INTEGRATION 131

Example 9. — Find the value of f(^oe&v+v5-*)dv.

f(4oe'*>+vs-*)dv = f^oe&vdv+fu5-*dv (separating the terms)

5

Example 10. — Find an expression for faxdx, and apply the result
to determine the value of /i2 x

From our previous work we know that —

d
ax = ax . log a.
dx
*
faxdx = log
.— a-.*

Hence fiz x 5txdx = (i2X- X .— ^— X 54*)+C

loge 5 = 1-609
= 1-864 X54g+C.
Afofe. — It would be quite incorrect to multiply 1-864 by 5 and
express the result as g-^2*x.
Alternatively, the result might have been arrived at in the following
manner —

= 12 x, H— X(54)*+C
log 625 VJ '
= g;— X54ar+C (log 625 = 6-44)
= 1-864 X54*+C.
•04 83
4 •06

Exercises 12. — On Graphic Integration. •048

1. The acceleration of a slider •at 02 various times is given in the
•036
table. By graphic integration obtain the •028velocity and displacement •12
curves to a time base, indicating
•0 16 clearly your scales. 83
•008
j Time . o •084 •10
! Acceleration o 87-5 87-5 •87-5
072
85 87-5 87-5 •108 O
75 •068

87-5 87-5 O
132 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS

2. An acceleration diagram on a time base has an area of 4-7

sq. ins. The base of the diagram is 2-5 ins. and represents 25 sees.
The acceleration scale is i in. =3 ft. per sec.2. If the velocity at the 84
beginning is n ft. per sec., find the velocity in ft. per sec. at the end
of the 25 sees.
3. A rectangular barge is loaded symmetrically in still water.

•3
The curve of loading is a triangle with apex at the centre, and the
curve of buoyancy is a rectangle. Draw diagrams of shearing force
and bending moment on the barge.
4. The curves of loads for a ship 350 ft. long is as given in the
table. Plot this, and by graphic integration obtain the -2curves
-3 of
shearing force and bending moment.
-2-6
35
Distance from one end (ft.) 7
237
0 102
10 -3-i
load (tons per foot) . 0 o O
133 -4-5 -4-95
2-3 161 24
112
196 210
260 280 315
3-15 57
1-6 0 o 0

5. The table gives the values of the pressure and volume56 for the
complete theoretical diagram for a triple expansion engine.
5'2 10 330 350
V o I 2 4 6 8 12

p 240 240 I2O 60 20

Find the initial pressure in each cylinder in order that the work
done per cycle may be the same for each.
(Hint. — Divide the last ordinate of the sum curve into three equal
parts, draw horizontals through these points of section to meet the
sum curve, and from these points of contact erect perpendiculars to
cut the expansion line.) 65

40 by30 a rope, there

6. A body weighing 3000 Ibs. was lifted vertically
being a damped spring balance to indicate the pulling force F Ibs. of
the rope. When the body had been lifted x ft. from its position of
rest, the pulling force was automatically registered as follows :—
95
X 0 20 no
140
F 8000 75 6800
7850 6400
7950
Find the work done on the body when it has risen 80 ft. How
0
much of this is potential energy and750how much is kinetic energy ?
Find, also the work done when it 7400 140 ft.
40 has risen 4000
 2?
24

INTEGRATION 29

7. The current from a battery was measured at various times,

with the following results :—
Time (hours) . 0 I
3 6 9 10 12
37 25-3
Current (amperes) 25 28
39'5 find the capacity in ampere
If its capacity is measured by fCdt,
hours.
8. The following are the approximate speeds of a locomotive
16.35 on a
run over a not very level road. Draw
6.15 a curve showing the distance
run up to any time. 2- 15
32 20.52
Time (mins. and sees.) 0 I 11-45 14.26 i7 8-7
14
Speed (miles per hr.) 0 6 10 9.22 25-5 28
18-2 22-8 28-6
9. The load curve at a large central 6-station
4 can be 29-2
constructed
from the following data :—
Time (hours) . . , 0 I 2 3 4 5 6 7 7-5 8 9 10
ii'3 ii
Load (1000 amperes) 3'5 i I 2 I 17-8 16-4
8-2
12 I 2
3J4 6 12-4
7 8 9 10 II j 12
10-5
ii
8 5 i 5'5 21
8-7 12-5
19 23-3
9 ! 6
Find the total
- 8 number
- 6 of ampere hours supplied in the 24 hours.
|7 7
10. The velocity of a three-phase electric train, with rheostatic
control, at various times, was found as in the table :— 9-6
Time (sees.) . . . | o 99
26-6 80- 1
Velocity (ft. per sec.) . o 66-6 0

37-3
Draw the space-time curve and find the total distance covered in
the 99 seconds.

On the Integration of the Powers of x and of the Exponential Functions.

11. What is the significance of the symbols 40 f and dx in the
expression fxzdx ? 40
Integrate, with respect to x, the functions in Examples 12 to 27

12. 4*1-". 13. 70-15. 14. 15.

17. *»-—x +14. 18. 19. 16. e'™.

134 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS

20. i2*~. 21. -g^. 22. -i7e". 23.

24. 2.54*--i«-8.2*-i++i-i3. 25.

26. ^.«*_*--«3+ 27. -94*'18 cos «-

Find the values of the following —

2B.fv5dv. 29. /"-". 30. /35^. 31. /g"-«<fc

32. //xfo when ^y1'17 = C. 33. /i4 X 2*^5.
-8)d*. 35. /3- 1'««. 36. 17 /^g.
J 0 r
38. $-z-2(dt)z. 39. 2-ix~5dx
40. Solve the equation -/-
rfy = — w y-.
41. In connection with the flow of air through a nozzle, if x is the
distance outwards from the nozzle and v is the velocity there, v oc -1 .
Also the
for SA (an element
small of area
element of flow) == SM
considered ~K8x =Vx.v8A. TheShow
addedthat
momentum
M the
D
total increment to the momentum, can be written C— —7= where C
and D are constants. vx

Trigonometric Functions. — We have previously seen that

the derived curve of either the sine curve or the cosine curve is the
primitive curve itself transferred back a horizontal distance of
one-quarter of the period. Conversely, then, we may state that
the sum curve of either the sine or the cosine curve is the curve
itself moved forward for a distance corresponding to one-quarter
of the period. In other words, integration does not alter the form
of the curve. Taking the case of the sine curve as the primitive,
we see, on reference to Fig. 34, that if this curve is shifted forward
for one-quarter period the resulting curve is the cosine curve
inverted ; or expressing in algebraic language, whilst the equation
of the primitive curve is y = sin x, that of the sum or integral
curve is y = —cos x. Thus, fsmxdx = — cos x. In like manner
it could be shown that feosxdx = sin*. For emphasis, the dif-
ferentiation and the integration of sine x and cosine x are repeated
here —
-T- sin x = cos x /sin* dx = — cos #4-C
dx
-T-COS x — —sin x J/cos* dx = sin x-\- C.
dx
 INTEGRATION

Note. — When differentiating the cosine the minus sign appears in

the result ; when integrating the sine the minus sign appears ; it is
important to get a good grip of these statements, and the con-
sideration ofthem from the graphic aspect is a great help in this
respect.
To extend the foregoing rules —

fcosxdx = sin x-\-C

/cos (ax+b)dx = sin (ax+b)+C

fsinxdx = —cos x-\-C

/sin (ax+b)dx = — cos (ax+b)+C.

/
•75 •
1 5 . //-si
^ \/
N
/
\
A J? \
n..
rr

I/ \\ /
•25

Y\ /
JG

-y -a %r\ 1\ /*
•5
•O25

\ / /
\ V s yA V s /
24\
/
•75 is.<
\ /
1
FIG. 34.

Thus the angle remains the same after integration just as it

would after differentiation, but the constant multiplier a of the
I.V. becomes a divisor.
To integrate sec2 -AC with regard to x we call to mind the
differentiation of tan x, viz., , tan x = sec2 x. Accordingly
/sec2 xdx = tan x+C.
Extending this to apply to the more general case —

/sec2 (ax+b)dx - -1 tan (ax+6)+C

In like manner —
/cosec2 (ax+b)dx = — - cot (ax+6)-{-C.
I36 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
Other two standard integrals are added here, the derivation of
which will be considered in the next chapter.
/tan* dx — — log cos x+C
fcotx dx = log sin x+C.
To verify these we might work from the right-hand side and
differentiate. Dealing with the former —
d , , . _ _ d , if u = cos %
dx^ ° dx ° whence
— _d log _u vdu du — — Qin v
-
du1
dx
S\ 7
dx 7 ' Oil! Jv

i
*

= — x— sin x
u V4
sin x
= - = tan x
cos*
/tan* dx = —log cos x+C.

Example n. — Find the value of f(5~ sin^t)dt.

— f$dt— fsin^tdt
= ^— ~X —cos

= 5'+-4 cos 4*+C.

Example 12. — Evaluate /sin (5— ^t)dt.

/sin (5—4t)dt = --x

4 -cos (5— 4/)+C = ]4 cos (5— 40 + C.

Example 13. — If a force P is given by P = 36-4 sin (1005— -62),

find the value oifPds.

fPds =/36'4 sin (loos— -62)^5 = — ^X —cos (1005— -62) + C

= —-364 cos (1005 — 62) + C.

Example 14. — Find the value of

12 cos (4-

The expression E = 7-25*— 3s~1+i5s-8+ 12 cos (4 — 35)

= (7-2X^)-3logs+i;|si-8+(i2X-^sin (4-35))+C
= I-44S5— 3 Jog 5 + 8-33S1-8— 4 sin (4— 3
 INTEGRATION 137

Example 15. — If R = n sec2 (3—4-71;), find /Rdv.

fRdv =/n sec2 (3 — 4-?v)dv = - — tan (3— 4-7t>)+C

= —2-343 tan (3—4-

Exercises 13. — On Integration of Trigonometric Functions.

Integrate, with respect to x, the functions in Nos. i to 10.

1. 3 sin 4*. 2. —5-18 cos (3 — 3^). 3. 7 sec2 (^3— x).

4. x— °12— -14 cos (-05— -117*). 5. 05-4*4-5 sjn ^b+ax).
6. 9-45 sin 8^. 7. —3-08 sin 2(2-16*— 4-5).

8. 9^^+^-1-83 tan x.

9. 4-27 sin (--- — J + -2 cos gx— 4#1-74+32*+5.

10. 2 sin2 #—2-91 sin (— 3'7#)+2 cos2 #—14-2 cosec2 ----- .

11. The acceleration of a moving body is given by the equation

-«
—
a = —49 sin (jt— -26).
Find expressions for the velocity and the space, the latter being
in terms of the acceleration.
.«« Tf dzx o o/ , cos 20\ _ , ,, , dx
12. If T-4 = 47c2wV^cos 0-i J, find the values of , and x.
(x is a displacement of the piston in a steam-engine mechanism.)
13. Find the value of /b^+cos (y7—7"2p)}dp.
14. If v — 117 sin 6^—29-4 cos 6t, find the value offvdt.

Indefinite and Definite Integrals. — The integrals already

given, although correct, are not complete. If "an integral is to
denote an area some boundaries must be known ; and nothing was
said about the limits to be ascribed to x (or s, as the case might
be) in the foregoing, so that we were in reality dealing with
indefinite areas or integrals. To indicate that a portion of the
area may be dispensed with in certain cases (when the boundaries
are stated) a constant C is introduced on the R.H.S. of the equation,

i. e.,fx3dx would be written +C.

As soon as the integral, and therefore the area, is made definite
it will be observed that C vanishes.

x*
138 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS

If fx3dx is to equal -x*+C, -, (-#4+Cj should equal x3 ; and

this is the case for —
d
^A 4 c\ ^ -=-
dx
dx\4 J dx £
(C being independent of x).
Cf. Example 5, p. 129 ; the constant in that case being 83.
It is therefore advisable to add the constant in all examples
on integration; in many practical examples the determination of
the value of the constant is an important feature, and therefore
its omission would invalidate the results obtained.
In the list of a few of the simpler standard integrals collected
together here for purposes of reference and by way of revision
the constant is denoted by C.

a
f(axn+b)dx

= bx+C
faxndx
= log x+C
Jbdx
J x
J ax+b = ^ log («*+&) +C
[ dx
[dx
- ab^+c
faebxdx = e*+C

fe*dx
faFdx
/sin (ax-{-b)dx = ro- gcos *+c
*x«(ax+b)-\-C
= —cos x-\-C
f sin xdx
/cos (ax-\-b}dx = - sin (ax-}-b)-{-C
&

f cos xdx sin x-\-C

- tan (a^
/sec2 (ax-\-b}dx = tan
f sec2 xdx
-- cot (ax+b)+C
/cosec2 (ax-\-b}dx d
 INTEGRATION 139

/ cosec2 xdx = —cot x-\-C

/tan (ax+b)dx = — 8 log cos (ax-}-b)-\-C
/ tan xdx = —log (cos #)+C
/cot (ax+b)dx = log sin (ax+b)-{-C
f cot xdx = log (sin A;) +C.

Method of Determining the Values of Definite Integrals.

— We may regard the area of a closed figure as the difference
between two areas, viz., all the area to the left, say, of one boundary,
minus all the area to the left of the other parallel boundary.
Hence to find the value of a definite integral, the value of the
integral must be found when the I.V. has its higher limiting value,
and from this must be subtracted its value when the lower limiting
value is substituted for the I.V.

fx2dx = -x3-\-C is an indefinite integral, but if to C we give

a definite value,
/•4 it becomes definite and unique.
Thus I x2dx is a definite integral, because the limits to be
J 2
applied to x are indicated.
To evaluate it—
We know that fxzdx = -x3-\-C.

The value of this integral when x = 4 is — -f-C

o

and the value of this integral when x = 2 is — |-C

the constant being the same in the two cases.

The difference = -^+C - -+C = ^

V3 / \3 / 3

meaning that if the curve y = xz were plotted, and the area between
the curve, the x axis and the ordinates through x = 2 and x = 4
found, its value would be i8| sq. units.
It will be noticed that C vanishes, and hence when dealing
with definite integrals it is usual to omit it altogether.
 ) MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS

/"4 /#3\4
For brevity, I x2dx is written I — ) , which on expansion
.'2 \3/2 r
reads —

__ e 56 * -i
3 3/'* '3'
Example 16. — Find the value of the definite integral I

V**d'
Jf., * = \3 /-i = 34
f^ g3*Y4

)
-3499
20 1-1
= 2-62
| ( <). 3-3
=

Example 17. — Evaluate the definite integral

V

/ (50034^+7) rf^
3v
5
sn
•>I o
(50054^+7) dx = (-
H si
f2

.'
= '— or ii.
2

Example 18. — Find the value of

J
/ o
7?r

The expression

= n-2

4
 INTEGRATION
141
Notice that no cancelling takes place, beyond that concerning the
constant multiplier 5, until the values (4 and 2) have been substituted
in place of x. In other words, it would be quite wrong to say —

c4/i
Example ig. — The total range of an aeroplane in miles can be
C Wt
obtained from the expression — / dq where m = pound-miles
loading at any time
per Ib. of petrol, and q = initial loading

Taking q = -6 and m = 4000, find the total range.

== —— mm log
(log q.q— log i)

Now if q = -6, log q = 1-4892 = —-5108.

Hence the range = 4000 x -5108 = 2043 miles.

— c-
A F B O L
FIG. 35. — Proof of Simpson's Rule.
Proof of Simpson's Rule for the Determination of Areas
of Irregular Curved Figures. — This rule, given on p. 310 of
Part I, states that—
length of one division of the base ffirst + last „ ordinate +
= — — —\42 even ordmates -f-
[22 odd ordinates.
142 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
It is now possible to give the proof of this rule.
Let us deal with a portion of the full area to be measured,
such as ABCD in Fig. 35. Let the base AB = 2c.
Let the equation of the curve DEC be y = A4-B#+C#2, so
that DEC is a portion of some parabola.
We can assume that the origin is at F, and therefore the abscissae
of D, E and C are — c, o and +c respectively.
Hence AD = yx = A+B(-c)+C(-c)2 = A-Bc+Cc2
FE = y2 = A+B(o)+C(o)2 = A
BC = y3 = A+B(c)+C(c)2 = A+Bc+Cc2.

Now the area ABCD = JI -c ydx

/ -
f+e

= i+
—. . . Be2 , Cc3 _L, A. r _ Be2 , Cc3
A /»_!_

- 2AA C+"^
,
3~+ "2 3"

= -{6A+2Cc2}

= -{A-Bc+Cc2+4A+A+Bc+Cc2}

Imagine now another strip of total width 2c added to the right

of BC; the double width being chosen, since there must be an
even number of divisions of the base.
Then if GH = y4 and LK = y6

Area of BLKC = O-

or area of ALKD == -{
O~{

If a strip of width = 2c is added to the right

Area = Z
 INTEGRATION 143

Or, in general —
Area = -{first+last+42
o even+22 odd}.

Exercises 14. — On the Evaluation of Definite Integrals.

Find the values of the definite integrals in Nos. i to 7.

i. rw
./ 1-02
.
2. /•"*
J 1-7 W 3.
^
1 -- .
4. P5-i sin -26d».' 5.
«• *
2
-
6. I s 7.
I x-"dx
p.7 f775
8. The change in entropy of a gas as dr
the absolute temperature
changes from 643 to 775 is given by -85—.T
* I 643 Find this change.
IT

9. If H = ^ 12 sin 6d6, find the value of H.

pJ o
10. The average useful flux density (for a 3-phase motor)

itJ _ s -
= B = - 12 Bmar sin 6d6. Find B in term of ~Bmax

fis*'bt as the sum of two terms and integrate

11. Express sin at icos
with regard to /. If a is -=? and b is 30, what is the value of the
integral between the limits o and T ?

12. If h = • find h.
g J RI r3
13. Given that EI^
a^r2 = ^-^-P*.
22 Also that d#
^ = o when
x = I, and y = o when .# = o and also when .*• = /; find the value
of P and an expression for y.

14. If M = wx2
-2 , MI d'ty dy
T = ET~-,, ~-=
dx2 dx o and also y — o when x = I,
find an expression for y.

15. Given that M - -(--*2)-K, ^ = f? Also ^ = o when

I 2 \4 I/ IE dx2 dx
x = -, and y = o when x = ±- ; find an expression for y. (The case
of a fixed beam uniformly loaded.)

16. Find the value of J 0(/# -**)***.

144 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS

17. Evaluate 3 J I "2*

jX(lz— zlx-\-xz)dx, an » integral occurring in a beam
problem.
18. If Q = J/«^qdx and q = —i+sin
;— ;— <t>
-wx, find Q, the total horizontal
thrust on a retaining wall of height h, w being the weight of i cu. ft.
of earth, and <J> the angle of repose of the earth.
19. Find the area between the positive portion of the curve
y = 3#— 4#2+n and the axis of x, and compare with the area of the
surrounding rectangle.
en 37
v 1- 4.
4*6 pd wh pv = 59

d i/ ^ d'V
21. If ~z
Q/X= 6*1'4 — X \ : dsG
-,- — 10-5 when x = i, and y = 14 when
x = 2, find an expression for y in terms of x.
-8
•— —- —$X fiXf /15
22. Evaluate J/ 1-47 13

23. Find the value of n, given by the relation n = JI n - — t-.— .

24. The total centrifugal force on a ring = /r 1 -,'r '-— ^ — ; find

an expression for the force. J E2 -t^i

25. The area of a bending moment diagram in a certain case was

f'/i «3\
given by — J [-at -- -,)da', find the value of this area.
26. H, the horizontal thrust on a parabolic arch,
i

Find an expression for H.

27. The work done by an engine working on the Rankine cycle
with steam kept saturated = | l— dr.
Find the work done if the temperature limits are 620°
j\T F. and
800° F. (both absolute), and L = 1437—71-.
T2.4
28. Evaluate
J [>-5*— sin (25—
29. Find the value of n, the frequency of transverse vibrations of
a beam simply supported at its ends and uniformly loaded with w
tons per foot run, when the equation of the deflected form is —

and Ci ,

ydx.
y=
 INTEGRATION 145

30. From Dieterici's experiments we have the following relations —

If s — specific volume of liquid ammonia
and c = specific heat of liquid ammonia
then for temperatures above 32° F. —
c — i-n8 + -ooii56(£— 32)
and s = / cdt.
J o
Find s when * = 45° F.
WJ
»J o
31. If p = ^-j\s2-xz}dx, Q being the leakage of fluid past a
well-fitting plug, find its value.
32. The total ampere conductors per pole due to the three windings
/- / A • J
in a railway motor — CV2 / — Ai sin -rdx.
2 Jo* I
Evaluate this integral.
33. For a viscous fluid flowing through a narrow cylindrical tube
of radius v, the quantity Q is given by the formula —

c/fo22/*
1*pr
where /* is the coefficient Oof —viscosity.
Find the value of Q.
 CHAPTER VI
FURTHER METHODS OF INTEGRATION
BY the use of the rules enumerated in the previous chapter it
is possible to perform any integration by a graphic method and
the integration of the simpler functions by algebraic processes.
Whilst the graphic integration is of universal application, it at
times involves much preliminary arithmetical work, which it is
tedious to perform, so that it is very frequently the better plan to
resort to a somewhat more difficult, though shorter, algebraic
method. For the more complex functions, then, a choice has to
be made between the two methods of attack ; the fact being borne
in mind that only in cases where definite integrals are concerned
does the graphic method of integration compare favourably with
the algebraic.
It is therefore advisable to introduce new processes and artifices
to be employed for the algebraic integration of difficult functions;
and whilst it is not absolutely essential that all these forms should
be remembered, it is well that the various types should be
considered, so that they may be recognised when they occur.
It is impossible to deal here with every kind of integral likely
to be encountered ; all that can be done is to develop the standard
forms which cover a wide range, and to leave them to suggest
forms for particular cases.
Integration by the Aid of Partial Fractions. — Many com-
plex fractions can be split up into simpler or partial fractions,
Q/£ OQ to
which the simple rules of integration may be applied. Thus if we
are asked to integrate, with respect to x, the fraction — 2_ ~ ,
we soon discover that we are unable to perform this operation
with only the knowledge of integration acquired from the previous
chapter.
If, however, we break the fraction up, in the manner explained
in Part I, Chap. XII, we find that the integration resolves itself
into that of two simple fractions.
146
 FURTHER METHODS OF INTEGRATION 147

Thus— 2—
,8*~3? o = x—
- —4 h-4-
2x— 7 (see Part I, p. 453).
2#— 7
Hence- Jf**^?**
2x2— 15^+28 = Jf-2-
x— 4 d*+ Jl
= 2 log (*— 4) +4 log (2*— 7) + log C
= log (*-4)2+log (2*-7)2+log C
= log {C(*-4)2(2*-7)2}.
[Note that log C may be written to represent the constant in
place of C alone ; and it can then be combined with the other logs.]
~i 2

a2
xz—
i A B
*2_a*- (*_a) +

Equating numerators — x
/d
Let ^ = a, then i = A(2a)+o
and A = —20 .
Let x = —a, then I = o + B( — 2a)

and B = -2J«
i =JL(_J_. _i_l
x*—az 2a\x—a x-\-a'
_,
Hence — /"-= dx„ = —i if /f— dx f dx 1
J x2—az 2.a\-' x—a J x+a)

= ^{log (^— «)— log (#+a)+log C}

= ^;log
This is a standard form.
A rather more general result may be deduced from it.

Example 2. — To find J ,
Explanation.
Let (x+a) = X
x+a = X
- f
A Ilcll""
-—T=
r / . \A v a^—
-. «" /
!•*-.-»
g
•• A , i** ~r~ fc* i j

rf^r

(X+6)
C(^+a— &) and thus for dx we may
write rfX.
148 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
Integration by the Resolution of a Product into a
Sum. — A product cannot be integrated directly; but when the
functions are trigonometric the product can be broken up into a
sum or difference and the terms of this integrated.
Before proceeding with the work of this paragraph the reader
would do well to study again pp. 273 to 286, Part I.

Example 3. — Find the value of /4 sin 5^.3 cos2ldt.

4 sin 5^.3 cos 2t = 12 sin 5^ cos 2t
= 6 X 2 sin 5* cos 2t
= 6{sin 7/+sin 3*} (cf. p. 286, Part I).
Hence —
/4 sin 5^.3 cos 2tdt = 6[f sin jtdt+fsin $tdi\.
= 6J — cos jt — cos 3/+C J
= 6C — cos 7^—2 cos

Example 4. — Find /sin2 xdx.

cos 2.x = i — 2 sin2 x, so that —
sin2 x = i -cos 2* (cf> p 2g

= -5* — -25 sin2*+'5C.

Example 5. — Find f ta,n2xdx.

We know that sec2 x = i + tan2 x.
.'. fta,n2xdx =f(secz x—i) dx —fseczxdx—fi dx.
= tan x—x-\-C.

Integration by Substitution. — At times a substitution aids

the integration, but the cases in which this happens can only be
distinguished after one has become perfectly familiar with the
different types.

y- is a type to which this method applies.

In this fraction it will be observed that the numerator is exactly
the differential of the denominator. Hence if u be written for the
 FURTHER METHODS OF INTEGRATION
denominator, the numerator may be replaced by du, so that the
integral reduces to the simple form I — , i. e., log w+log C.
For if J u
u = axz+bx-\-c
du
-j- = 2ax-\-b
dx
or du = (2ax-\-b)dx .
Hence -X
J((^x+b^x
axz-}-bx-\-c = Jfdu
u
= log w+k>g C
= log Cu
= log C(ax*+bx+c).

In many cases integration may be effected

by substitution of trigonometric for the algebraic
functions ; and Examples 6 to 10 illustrate this
method of procedure.
FIG. 36.
Example 6. — To findyVa2—
Let x — a sinw, as illustrated by Fig. 36
then
a2— x2 = a2 — a2 sin2u = a2(i — sin2w) = a2 cos2u
and Va2— x* = a costt, as will be seen from the figure.
A, dx d(a sinw)
Also -,- — -*—sdu- = a cosu
du
i. e., dx = a cosw . du.

J'-\/a2—x2 dx — fa cosu . a COSM du

= a2f cos2 u du
a?
= —f(i + cos2ii)du, since cos 2A = 2 cos2 A— i

= — ( u-\ — sin 2M + CJ.

Although this result is not expressed in terms of x, it is left in

form convenient for many purposes.
To express the result in terms of x —
x x
sin u = a
-, so that u = sin-1 a-
/a2 _ x%
and also cos u = \f» - n&= — .
150 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS

Hence - sin aw — sinw cosu = a- x a- Va2— x2

•z

az-x*dx = —X sin-1 - +(TX^2 Va2-*2 +K

V 2 •/ \2

= -2sin-1 -+-
a 2 Va^^+K.

Example 7.— To find J ^^

^

Let AT = a sinw i. e., u = sin-1 a-

rf# ^(a sin u)
then -j—
du = -- duT - - = a cosw
also Vaz—x2 = a cosw, as before.
/" dx fa cosu.du =__ u+C
.
J Va*=^~ J~a~^r-Jldu
= sin-1 -+C.
a

Example 8.— To find /"-

X
In this case let AT = a sinh u, i. e., u = sinh"1 a-
dx d , . . .
then j- = j- (a sinhw) = a coshM.
du du ^
Now cosh2 u— sinh2 u = i (cf. p. 291, Part I)
and thus cosh2 w = i +sinh2 w

or a2+Ar2 = a2 cosh2^
and Va2+#2 = a coshw.
[ dx fg coshu.du _ r -, ,r
•• J Va*+^~* ~ •' a coshtT ~ Ju
= sinh-1 *-+C.
Referring to p. 298, Part I, we see that —
cosh"1
, . xa- = logi
. &l - Vx*~d*}
(x+ a J

and also sinh- * = I

2 a
~ - sinh-1 *+C or
 r flx
FURTHER METHODS OF INTEGRATION 151

Example 9. — Find the value of •'I -vx2—

._ a2 and thence the value of
f dx
J

Dealing with the first of these—

X

let x = a coshw, i. e., u = cosh"1 a-

dx . ,
j— = a sinhw
du
or dx = a sinhw du
and x2— a2 = a2 cosh2w— a2 = a2 (cosh2w— i) = a2 sinh2**
f dx f dx fasinhudu
fasin
sinhw
J Vx2—az ~ J a sinhw = fduJ a si
— u+C

— cosh"1 -+C

To evaluate the second integral, let x-\-a = X

then dx = ^X and J = f

Example 10. — Find the value of JI Ct 0-77

~j X~a

The substitution in this case is —

a tanw for x
x
i. e., x — a tanw or w = tan-1 -
dx d . . 2
then j- = j- (a tanw) = a sec^w
du dx ^
and A-2+a2 = a2tan2w + a2 = a2 (i+tan%) = a2 sec2^
sec2w rfw = i- /aw
r,
/" ^ /"a s _
'' J a?+x* ~ J a2 sec2w ~
= -M + C
a
= £ tan-1 - + C.
152 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
f dx
By an extension of this result such an integral as JI
may be evaluated; for let x-\-a = X
dX d(x+a)
then dx= v dx
-s— ,r ;- = i
i. e., rfX = dx

hence ( dx - f **X - ' tan-1 X4-C

J x + az + b* ~ J X^+F2 ~ b tc F^
b b
i. e., I tan-1 ^~+C.
The following examples are illustrative of algebraic substitution or
transformation.
r
Example n. — To find the value of I

Our plan in this case is so to arrange the integral that the method
of a previous example may be applied.
•—z — z—z—

Hence ( dx - f - -** __ = [ d*
J V2ax-xz J Va*-(x-a)2 J V«2-X2

the change from dx to rfX being legitimate, since , =

ctx -,dx— ' = i
and by Example 7, p. 150, the value of this integral is seen to be —

f• dx . x — a
J xz a
= sin-1
dx
Example 12. — To find J

In this case the substitution is entirely algebraic.

i ,, du i
Let u — then , = „
x dx x2
or dx = —x2du.

Then a*+x*S
= ~r,
dx f —xzdu f du
!\4 J I „•!,.•! I T\T vx ~3 J ^

[ udu
 FURTHER METHODS OF INTEGRATION 153
To evaluate this integral we must introduce another substitution.
Let y = «2«2+i
then -^ = 2a2u
au

or udu = — -9dy.

Hence the integral - ~ = ~~^ +C

zaz '
__ I -4-0 = _ - __ I-C
~ 2 ~

+ C
dz At L+c.
Example 13. — The equation dt
-,. — \/ .
j2 — j occurs in the statement
of the mathematical
connection theory"
with aeroplane of fluid
design. Solvemotion, which for
the equation is of
z. value in

To obtain z from -^
ctt we must integrate with regard to t; and to

effect the integration let u — t2— i, so that -^ = , . — - = zt

or • dt — du
—r.
21
, Atdt fAtdu [Adu
I hen z =

or AVt2—2U* i + C.

Many difficult integrals of the form / can be evaluated

J x(a+bxn)
by the substitution z — x~n.
For if z = x~n log z = — n log x
d log z _ d log x
dz
j ^ dz
3 '

i _—
—z — J.
^ log
dxjj x ^^ dx
dz
~3~

i i dx
154 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS

The integral f x(a+bx^ thus reduces to -!j(_, the value

of which is — log (az-\-b) or — log / , , A
na ' na ° \a-\-bxnJ

For x* write z~l, so that in comparison with the standard form

n = 7.

x
/d

_i

~ 28 I0g
Example 15. — Find the value of / r.
J (i — 2x)*
It will be observed that the denominator is a surd quantity; and
in many such cases it is advisable to choose a substitution that
rationalises the denominator. Thus in this case let u* — i — 2X.
,_, QA& Ct/14/ GLIfi Ctr'VC
~dx = ~du X dx = 2UJ»
and -, (i — 2x) = — 2

so that du
2Mj-
dx = —2 or dx — —
i—uz (i — uz\*
Also i — 2X = u-, whence — - =
2 x and x* — (--
\ 2 /j .

Expanding by the Binomial Theorem —

x* — ~ (i — 4«2+6M4— 4«6 + w8).
/" A;*^
Hence
J (l-2^)i

~- i6J
_L /"(i — 4M2+6M4 — 4M6+M8)X — udu
u
6u5 ^u1 . u*
= ~^(u
i(
- 4U3
T+T 7+
4tf,^_
3 5
i-7
16
which result could be further simplified if desired.
 FURTHER METHODS OF INTEGRATION

The next example introduces the substitution of an algebraic

for a trigonometric function.

sm x
-. —
*7
~
Since sin 2 A = 2 sin A cos A, then sin x = 2 sin 2- cos -2 ~. 2
dx
f dx if dx i sm. x
Hence — —: = -
/ sm x 2 / .. X XI
sin 2- cos -2 X2 x
J J Cl
.1 -'•2
— dX COS2 -
/
, 2
9 #J

COS
sec2- a*
I 2
X

Now let u = tan

2 tan -
du
-— = i sec2„ x
then dx 2 2

or

2
sn x 2 x
sec2
sec2 - .

= J|' = log «+C

= log tan -+C.

Integration by Parts. — When differentiating a product, use

is made of the rule —
d i x du . dv
dx(u^=Vdx+Udx {Refer p. 70.!
If this equation be integrated throughout, with respect to x —
uv = fvdu+fudv
or, transposing —
fudv = uv—fvdu.
Many products may be integrated by the use of this rule.
156 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
Example 17. — To find f^x.exdx.
Let « = 4#, i- e-, du = ^dx
and let dv = exdx, i. e., v = ex.
Then f^x.exdx = fudv
— uv—fvdu

Example 18.— Find f^.e^dx.

Let u = 5#2, i. e., du = loxdx
and dv — e*xdx, i. e., v — 4-e4*.

Then f$x2.e*xdx = fudv

= uv—fvdu

= sx* . 4Te*x— Mr
= ^x2.e*x—5 Ixeixdx

^-r
Now r A-TJ
fxe*xdx 4i n
= x.-etx— f1 in
-2.1e*xdx rwhere u = x -i
4 J4 [ and v - VJ
= ^.e4a;-4e4a:
4 16

+ C
Example 19. — To find Te0* sin (bx+c)dx and also —
fe^ cos (&Ar+c)^Ar.
[The two integrals must be worked together.]

Dealing with the first, which we shall denote by M —

Let u = sin (bx-\-c), then du — b cos (bx-\-c}dx
and dv — e^dx, so that v — fe^dx = e0*.

Then M = flS
- e™ sin (6Ar+c) — ^
- eax b cos (&#+c)d*
&

= - e^sin (6^+c) — fe™ cos (bx+c}dx

(I (t
N ......... (i)

where N stands for the second integral whose value we are finding.
 FURTHER METHODS OF INTEGRATION 157
By developing this second integral along similar lines we arrive at
the value —
N = -ea:rcos (bx+c) + -M. ...... (2)
We have thus a pair of simultaneous equations to solve.
Multiplying (i) by b and (2) by a and transposing —
6M = b- eax sin (bx+c) --bz N
a 'a
feM = — eax cos (&#-|-c)+aN.

Subtracting o = eax \__Qt

f~- sin (bx+c) -\-cos (bx+c) — J
\— N(-4-a)
\ fl£ '
t, -NT nrrb sm \ (&#+c)+a
- — z ' ,a cos
—
whence N == eax
•u jit. .• HT /r^R* sin (&#+c)— 6 cos (fof+c)~i
and, by substitution, M = eax\ a8+68 —
y^ao; sin (bx-{-c)dx = 2 ,3 [a sin (bx-\-c)— b cos
~
and ye^ cos (bx+c)dx = 2 a [6 sin (6^+c)+a cos

Example 20. — An electric current i whose value at any time t is

given by the relation i = I sin pt is passed through the two coils of
a wattmeter; the resistances of the two coils being Rx and R2
respectively, and their respective inductances Lx and L2. Then to
find the separate currents in the two branches it is necessary to
evaluate the integral —
fQe*'dt where P =

and Q = J-^TT~ sin pt+-. — —^ cos

**
Evaluate this integral.
j j
Q = f rT~(Ri sm pt + pLi COS pt) = = —

where c = tan-1 ^~ (see Part I, p. 276)

or Q = M sin (^>^+c), where M = T-^

Then fQe™dt = fe^M sin (pt+c)dt = Mfe™ sin (pt+c)dt

and this integral is of the type just discussed; its value being —

[P sin (pt+c}—p cos

and in this form it is convenient to leave it, since in any numerical
application it would be an easy matter to evaluate P, M and c before
substituting into this result.
158 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS

Some miscellaneous examples now follow, involving the use of

the methods of this chapter.

Example 21. — Find the value of

x+5
Let

». e., 5 = ^_o._B *+3).

Let x = — 5, then 5 = o — 2B
B = -2-5.
Let # — — 3, then 5 =
A = 2-5, i. e.,
*2+8*+i5 = x+3
2-5 x+5
2-5
p = ft 2-5 dx f* 2-5 dx
5 ^#
Jjx
= 2-5. flog (^+3)— log
= 2-5 [log 5— log 7— log 4+log 6]
= 2-5 [1-6094 — 1-9459— 1-3863 + 17918]
= 2-5 X -069 = '1724.

As an alternative method of solution, the graphic process of

integration possesses certain advantages in a case such as this.
It might even be advisable, in all cases of definite integrals
where the algebraic integration involves rather difficult rules, to
treat the question both algebraically and graphically, the latter
method serving as a very good check on the accuracy of the
former.
e
s mpl
In thi exa / 5 x- / =51 ydx

where Ji

hence it is necessary to plot the curve y = -.(X~r3)(x~r5)

.. . and find the
area between it, the axis of x andf2 the1-4 ordinates through x = i and
x = 2.
V = •02857
The table for the plotting reads —•
0355
•03294 •03064
X i 1-2
2
•04167 •03841
1-6 1-8
y
and from these values the curve AB is plotted in Fig. 37.
 FURTHER METHODS OF INTEGRATION
The sum curve for AB is the curve CD, the last ordinate of which,
measured according to the scale of area, is -0095. This figure is the
area between the curve AB, the ordinates through x = i and x = 2,
and the base line through y = -025; and hence the full area under
or -0345. dx = '°345
the curve AB = -oo95 + area of a rectangle -025 by I, i. e., -0095 + -025
Thus

= 5 X -0345 - -1725.
•010

040 •008
•OO95

y D
•OO6

035

•002

03O Sum Curve OO4

polar distance— '8

0£5 o

FIG. 37. — Graphic Integration of Ex. 21.

dx
Example 22. — Find the value of I — 2 .

XT
Now f dx
I -5
/ #2— a2
i . _ (x— a)
, = — log C 7— — (
20 (x-\-a)
, „
(see Example i, p. 147)
'
cM)
rf* ir ^ i i , V • 2/

T r^r a^
A i *-^l *"& *1 /
= — log V

12 & (ix+3)
or
160 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS

Example 23. — Find the value of JI 4 gx2—

—4 -----#+i2
,— dx.

In this case the numerator is of the first degree in x, whilst the

denominator is of the second degree. Also we notice that the
derivative of the denominator is i8# — 5, and the numerator is
4(18^—5). Thus the derivative of the denominator and the numerator
are alike except as regards the constant factor 4. Hence the substitution
will be u for gx2— gx

If u = 9#2— 5*4-12, -r-

(IX = i8#— 5 or du = (i8x—$)dx

so that (j2X—2o)dx = 4(i8x—5)dx = ^du

:=4 U

J tx2 — -20
72*
f

= 4 (loge 418— loge 136)

= 4 (loge 4-18— loge 1-36)
== 4 (I-4303 — 3075)
4-49-

dx
Example 24. — To find the value of I

dx
This is evidently of the type I
for (^4

so that a = 3 and b = V&.

r dx i.i x-\-a _ . , _
— = r tan-1 — ± — \-C (cf. Example 10. p. 151)
J xz+6x+i$ b b

Example 25. — For a single straight wire at a potential different

from that of the earth, if v — radius of wire in cms., / = length of
wire in cms., a — surface density of charge in electrostatic units per
sq. cm., then the potential P at any point on the axis of the wire due
to the charge on a length 8x is given by —

so that the potential at the middle point = mrffj ft l , dx z-

Evaluate this integral.
 , „
FURTHER METHODS OF INTEGRATION 161

+#2
Va2

;. f^== = log(*+ V*2+r*\ (cf. Example 8, p. 150)

Pm = 27WO-
x
/d
r (' + J*:.
i — ir-

= 27Wo- log-

\/5+*-;
or TT^O- log- * where d is the diam. of wire.

The following example involves the use of three of the methods

of this chapter.
Example 26. — Find the value of /Vs— \~^--'ZX
I (x
L— ;— i-
~\~ 1 1 \X~\~ ^ )

The fraction under the integral sign should first be resolved into
partial fractions.

t. e.,
Let x = — 3, then —
— ii = C(9— 6+7) = loC
i. e..
££

Values of A and B can be found by equating coefficients of x and

also those of x2.
By equating coefficients of xz o = A+C and hence A = -

10*
162 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERSoo 22

By equating coefficients of x 5 = 3A + B+2C = _-

10 + B— —10 .

10
II *+3

Hence the fraction-

i f n*+39 i

We can make the numerator of the first of these fractions into

some multiple of the derivative of the denominator; thus —
The derivative of the denominator —

and the numerator =

and if u —
then du = 2(x+i)dx
and

= du-\-28dx

frr.
(xi-
J
loJ xz+2x+j x+3)
iidx
i / [(iix+3Q)dx fi
IO\J Xz + 2X+7 f X
i_(fii, f 28dx
~~ 1O\J 2U J
=^2+2^+i + 6
28
/ ^4-1^ rx2+2X+?
\\ rx2X? -,
V6 } L^^I22j

- g log (x* + 2x + 7) + 6 tan- -~ log

or log (*!±?*±7).** .14

V6
.
*dx

/-co
Example 27. — An integral required in the discussion of probability
e~x

Jo
is / e~x*dx. Find a value for this.

Replace x by ax and thus dx by adx.

Jo
Then I = I e-^&adx.
 FURTHER METHODS OF INTEGRATION 163

Multiply all through by e~at.

f
Then Ie~at = I e-**()-+&').adx and integrate throughout with
regard to a; thus —
ra=<x>
/< *>
le-a'da =rx=x> e-a^+x^adadx.
0 J x=~Q J o=0
i~<*> rco r«> r

But / Ie-a'da = 1 ^0
J 0
1 er^da = 1x1 since / e~&dx and
J 0
/
•'
have the same value,
(i)
hence I2 = .'/*"
x=Q ' J ¥*™*
o=0 e-+
The value of the double integral on the right-hand side will be
found by integrating first with regard to a and then with regard to x.
Dealing with the " inner " integral —
0
a=

let A = a2, then dA. = zada, and let M represent

Then JP~™
0= e-<Kl+'
0 V . ada = Jf0 o
oo
j=
i / _AM\°° since the limits for A are
/<
2M
2M\ /•
/o o and oo also

_ _
~2M."> ~ 2M-
Referring to equation (i) and substituting this value therein —

= -1 /tan"1
/ x \°°
) (cf. Example 10, p. 151)

= - (tan-1 oo —tan-1
—t o)
I/7T \ 7C
2\2
= -I -- O)} = 4
-.

2v
As an extension of this result it could be proved that-

Reduction Formulae. — Many of the exceedingly difficult

integrals which arise in advanced problems of thermodynamics,
164 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS

theory of stresses, and electricity may be made by suitable sub-

stitutions todepend upon standard results obtained by a process
of reduction. To grasp thoroughly the underlying principles on
which the process is based, it is well to commence with a study
of the simpler types.
7T 7T

We desire to evaluate the integrals -'I[z

o I/"a cos"0 dQ
sin"0 dQ, -'o

J n
and I 0 sinm0 cosn0 dQ, where m and n have any positive integral
values.
Taking the case in which n = m = o, we have the results
ng
IT

uci h
dQ, the value of whic we know to
red to the form J/ i
. 7T

2
be -
If m = n = i
ir w
/"2 / \ 2 fz
I sin 0^0 = — (cos0)/o = —(cos 90°— cos o°) = I .
Jo . (2)
IT If

JIZo /o = (sin 90°— sin o°) = i

cos 0 dQ = (sin 0Y ... (3)
from which pair of results we may say —
7T 7T 7T

/
/2 sin 0 dQ = /
r cos 0 dQ = / \ ?r—
] sin ( 2 /
0)^9
or more generally —

jaf(x)dx = j*f(a-X)dX (4)

result of great usefulness.
7T W If

Also \ sin 0 cos 0 ^0 = -2./o

./o \ sin 20^0 = — I cos 20 /o)
2X2\
i , ,
= (COS 7T— COS O)
4

=J .... (5)
By the process of reduction of powers we may express the
integral to be evaluated in such a way that it depends on results
(i). (2), (3) or (5).
 FURTHER METHODS OF INTEGRATION 165

Thus—
77 tr «; 77

Jf2
o sin26 dQ=*2 JI*o
(i-cos 20)^0 = 2- I\_J(\dQ-
0 f* cos 20 do]
y0
I/IP N
= 2- (\2 O/

and from equation (4) — J o

;
77

f 0
o cos28 rf0 = Jo
2 sin20 rf0 = 4-.
ft
Now let n = 3, i. e., we wish to evaluate I sin30•'o dQ.
It 77 77
IT

Then J] o
sin30 dQ = Jo
\ sin20 . sin 0^0 = Jo
] (i— cos20) sin 0 dQ

= — I 2 (I— M2) rf«

(o and ^ being the limits for 0 J

u being written for cos 0 and — du for sin 0 dQ, since — -^ — = —sin 0

and thus -^ = — sin 0.

77 17 „.

,T
Now If "~ ^
(i— w2) aw = I/ M- — W3\ ~ 2= /
cos 0 COS30 \2
)
Jo = o v V 3/e = o \ 3/0

Thus ^o
f2 sin30 dQ = — /»-o
I * (i— u2) du = +-3
and if n be written for 3 we note that the result may be expressed
77 77

in the form
JI o
sinM0 ^0 = n and also I cosw0 dQ = -
Jo
n being an odd integer. J o
77

Let n = 4, then I sin40 ^0 is required.

Now sin40 dQ = sin30 . sin QdQ = udv, where u = sin30,
and dv = sin 0 dQ or v = —cos 0.
fz
166 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
7T 7T 7T

Hence ] sin40 dQ = —(cos 6 sin30Y—

J 0 /0 J102— cos 0 . <Z sin30
7T 77

Jo
/ \ 2 /*2
= — (\
cos 0 sin30 /o) + JI o cos 8 . 3 sin20 cos 0 dQ
7T

'o
77
= 0+3 1 sin20 cos20 dQ
/ \2

since ( cos 0 sin30 ) = (o X i) — (i X o) = o.

7T 7T

Now I sin20 cos20 ^0 = J] o sin20(i— sin20)^0

Jo

= o (sin20-sin40)<f0

It 77 IT

Hence— J\ o
sin40 dQ = 3 J] o
sin20 dQ—3 J(2sin40
o dQ
[I [I
or 4Jo
sin40 ^0 = 3 Jo
1 sin20 dQ
7T 7T

and If 2
sin40 dQ = ^q /"§ sin20 dQ.
Jo 4J o
We have thus reduced the power by 2, and knowing the result
7T If

for Jo
/ sin20 dQ, we can finally state the value for Jo
/ sin40 dQ.
7T

TVinc
lllUo cin^fl
oill U /7A
Ct-U —
^— _ V/\ _ —-^ ^ x- /^r-
Ul — x\V — /\
S/ _
J0 4 4 16 422
fi (n— i) («— ^ «•
or I sin 0 ^0 = '- X, *» - , n being an even integer.
J Q W (W — 2j 2
In like manner it could be shown that —
7T 77

/•<j tf T /•§

sin50 ^0 = °—5 - J/ o sin30 dQ.

Jo

Thus sin50^0 = ^x" or ~

5 5-2 5-3
 FURTHER METHODS OF INTEGRATION
IT

which is of the form J0

f2 sin"0^6 = ^^
n .^
n—2
n being an odd integer.
Similarly —
JT It

• «0 JO 6 — lfZ . 6—1 6 — 3 6 — 5 TT
sm66 dQ = —£- I sin4^ = — ^— X z — - X £ — - X -
6 ;0 6 6—2 6—4 2
or 5.3.1
B-^ — x TT-2
6.4.2
which is of the form —

OBfl A V H* V . . y .

o n(n— 2)(n— 4) 2
w being an «;<?« integer.
Summarising our results —

sn = cos =
^o n
if « is an evew integer.

P sinw0 ^6 = Jo
70 P coS*0 dQ = etza^K- nSj^^a
n(n—2)(n—4) . . . I
if « is an o^ integer.
JT
^</^.
sin9
odd.

o
case
this

and

/••
In

.
is
=
9
w

Hence — ssin90
u d9 = 8.6.4.2 _ 128
/2

J o 9.7-5-3 315
w

Example 29.— Evaluate J/ o cos100 dd.

Here n = 10 and is even.

Hence fz . .
10 .8.6. 4. 2 2 512
Jo

4-' °° 7C-|~
Example 30. — The expression — I ^3* — dt gives the theo-
retical thrust on a plane moving through air. Evaluate this.

V/«=i = *tzi-~ = tVi-sin2u = t

if sin u is written in place of -.

168 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS

i d sin u dtr-1 dt~l dt

Then since sm u = - — t~l — ^ = -3— = -rr X T-
t2 du
or cos u = —-5 j-
du cos u
whence dt = =— ^— .

Again, when t = x> - = o

t i. e., sin u = o or u = o

and when t = i 7=1

t i- &•> sin u = i or u = 2-.

Hence —
TT It

f1 —
Vt2—!,,
is — <# = — If2 cos u sin'u
= cos
r- = udu
— = — /f2 cos2waw
, = TT .
J ao t3 Jo sinttsm2w Jo 4

Thus -^ / '-^— -«8 = -^F- X -- = -^-.

r\
^ ~r~4
We can now direct our attention to the 4 determination of the
'o
value of I sinm0 cos"0 dft, where m and n are positive integers.
•' o
It is convenient to discuss a simple case first, viz. —
TT

sin20 cos 0 dQ.

T , . on ,, du d sin20 d sin 0
Let u = sm20[z so that -^
^0 = rf5—^-5
sin 0 X — <?0
^~
= 2 sin 0 cos 0
and du = 2 sin 0 cos 0 ^0
also let dv = cos 0 <£0 so that v = sin 0.

Then, by integrating by parts —

•n

7T IT 7T

Jfo \ 0V—
2 sin20 cos 0 ^0 = (sin3 /o Jfo2 2 sin20 cos 0 ^0

/2
sin20 cos 0 ^0 = (/
o sin30 /o
) = i
\2

or sin20 cos 0 ^0 = 3-
[

^o
j .,,, ...
2

and might be written as .

m+n
 V*
FURTHER METHODS OF INTEGRATION

Example 31. — H, the horizontal thrust on a circular arched rib

carrying a uniformly distributed load w per foot run of the arch, is
obtained from —

(X-si
sin2 e (cos 0--S66) dQ
Jo
2R3 I6 (cos 0 — 866) dQ
if the span is equal to the radius of curvature (see Fig. 38).
If w = -5 ton per foot, and the span = 60 ft., find the value of H.
Here w = -5, R = span = 60.
IT

-5X60
Hence [8 (J-sin2 6) (cos 6- -866) dQ

(cos 0- -866) <Z0.

FIG. 38. — Circular Arched Rib.

Dealing with the numerator separately, as this alone presents any

difficulty —

(^—
\4 sin20) (cos 0— -866) = 4- cos 0— -2165— sin20 cos0+-866 sin20.

Then [(-— sin20] (cos 0 - -866) dQ

= l~ cos 0d0 -f-2 165 d0-/sin20 cos 0 dQ+f-866 sin20 dQ

but, as proved on p. 148, /sin20 dQ = ~fidQ—-fcos2Q dQ

2 4
= sin 20

and as proved on p. i68ysin20 cos 0 dQ — - sin30

170 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
w

thus Jro (i-sin20)

H (cos 0--S66) dQ
ff TT n- TT

= (-sin 0)°~- (-21650)°-* (sin30)V433 («-^ sin 28)*

-o)-f (<.S).-o)+.433 (Hx -866-0+0)
= -125— -1134— -04I7+-2267— -1875 == -0091.
Dealing now with the denominator —
IT n

J(*o
(cos 8— -866) dQ = (sin 0- -8660Y'• = -5- -866 X ~ = -5 — 4534 = -0466.

Hence TT 15 -X -0091
H = -* ^— = 2-93 tons.
•0466 yj
Carrying the investigation a step further, let us discuss the

case of Jo.
I sin20 cos20 dQ.
»T It IT IT

Jo
f2 sin20 cos20 dQ = JIo
* (i— cos20) cos20 dQ = Jo
f2 cos20 dQ— J1o2cos40 dQ

and from the previous result this value = ™— ^— -

_ I 7T 4 4.22
I I 7T

~82 4*2'' 2
This result might be regarded as obtained by first reducing the
power m by 2, and next that of cos20 by 2.
Thus for the first step —
7T 7T

cos20 ^0
Jo 4 70
f2 sin20 cos20 rf0 = ^^ f2

and for the second step —

IT

idQ
f2 cos20 ^0 = ^^
Jo f2
2 J0
2—1 TT
- -,-r. _ /"\T*
n—i TT
• \JL
2 '2 W+w 2
m, for the second integral being zero.
 •' o

FURTHER METHODS OF INTEGRATION 171

rr
ft
In a similar fashion we might reduce I sin40cos30^0 as
follo :—
ws
First reduce m by 2, then —
Jo
1C IT

!* sin46 cos30 ^0 = 4-^

4+3 J(*o sin20 cos30 dQ.
Next reduce the power of sin20 again by 2.
7T T

cos30 dQ.
Thus P sin40 cos30 dQ = 4+3
Jo I*
*^ J0
£f* . 2+3
Now reduce the power of cos30 by 2, and remember that m
is now = o. Then —
*o
.
sin'e cos'erfe _ 4+3
o 3=1 f*
?=I . 3+o^o
1=5 . 2+3 7-5-3

In the evaluation of the integral I sui"'0cosn0^0 we thus

proceed by reducing by 2 the powers of m and n in turn until they
become i or o. The various cases that arise are —
(a) m and n both even : in which case the final integral is

/2
;0f* rf0 = ?2
(6) w and w both odd : in which case the final integral is
IT

[2 !
sin 0 cos 0 dQ = -.
Jo 2
(c) m even and n odd or vice-versa : in which case the final
•a it
fz [2
integral is either / cos 0^0 or I sin0^0, the value of either
Jo Jo
being i.
The results for the three cases can be thus stated —
(a) m and n both even —
Psisinm0
J0
o
(n-i)(«-3)x . . . i *
n(n— 2)x ... 2 2
I72 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS

(b) m and n both odd — •

. (m_I)x(w— 3)x ... 2
smw8 cosn6 <ft = (m+»)
/ — , v . X (m—
. '— *— : •:'
2+n) X ... — (»+3)
?— ;— r
(tt-i) x(n-3) ... 2 i
X(«+I)X(«-I)X . . . 4X2
since, after reducing the power of sinm0 by 2 at a time, we must
be left with sin 0 cosn0, so that the value of m to be used in the
reduction of cosM0 must be taken as i.
(c) m even and n odd
fl l«
I smw0 cosre0 ^0 =
.' n
(m+n) X (m—2+ri) X ... (w+2)
»-ix«-3)X . . . 2
X
7T

ft
Example 32. — Evaluate /I 0 sin?0 cos100 rf0.

This is case (a), i. e., with both m and w even.

/0
7T

--' -- ---- --'^- X

Hence sin»0 cos"0 dQ = - .10.14.12
f22 si 10.0.6.4.2 2

ple .
7T

e 1179648'
0 0d0
Exam 33. — Find the valu of I sin3 cos5
J 0

This is case (6), i. e., with both m and n odd.

7T

Hence /2 sin30 cos50 dQ = 8\ X J—

Jo 6.4 X 2- = 24- .
[z
IT

Example 34. — Find the value of /2 sin70 cos*0 ^0.

/ 0

This is case (c), but with m odd and n even.

it
' 0

Hence T sin70 cos40 d0 = .^' j'^ X 5-3

n-9-7 ^ X i = ii55_
l6

The value of the foregoing formulae is found in their employ-

 FURTHER METHODS OF INTEGRATION 173
ment in the evaluation of difficult algebraic functions, which may
often be transformed by suitable trigonometric substitution.
Thus to evaluate J/o ^-^(i—x^^dx, known as the First Eu-
lerian Integral and usually denoted by the form B(m, n), we may
substitute sin20 for x. Then, since when x = o sin20 must = o
and thus 0 = o, and when x = i sin2 0 must = i and thus

-'o
/
xm-1(i—x)n-1dx = sin2n*-20(i— si
~dx d sin2 6 ir
= ] sin2*-2 0 cos2n~2 0 x 2 sin 0 cos 0^0
_ d sin2 6 d sin 6
~ d sin 6 ' ^0
_ = 2 sin 0 cos 0
and this can readily be evaluated.n m
J

Example 35. — Evaluate J/o x*(i— xz)?dx.

Let x = sin 0 then i— xz = i— sin20 = cos20
and, dx d sin 0 ft
fz

Also when x = o sin 0 = o and thus 0 = o

and when x = i sin 0 = i „ „ 0 = -.
Then —
v 5

-'I0
*4(i-xz)*dx = Jf0
2 sin40 cos50 dQ cos 0 = .'f02 sin40 cos60 dQ

10. 86. 4. 22
Another important result obtained by the process of reduction
is the value of JI o e~xxndx. This is termed a Gamftia Function;
this particular integral being the («+i) Gamma Function denoted
*
r
Thus
/-co
Jfo e~*x»dx =

and JI o e-t&^-dx = Y(n)

the latter integral being also called the Second Eulerian Integral.
 174 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS

To evaluate r(w+i) let u = xn and dv = e~xdx

so that v = —e~x and du = nxn~ldx.
,00 XOO /•»

Then I e~xxndx = (\
Jo —e~xxn)/o —I J o —e~x.nxn~ldx
xoo /•«.

= (\
— erxxn /o) 4-n\ J o e~xxn~ldx.

Now when # = oo e"^" = — £

^— , which can • be proved = o
I X O
and when x = o e~xxn = - e - = o.
/•oo /•»

Hence / e~xxndx = n Jo
Jo I e~xxn~1dx
or r(«-{-i) = nT(n).
In like manner it could be shown that —
T(n) = (n—i)T(n—i), and so on.
If n is an integer it will be seen that we finally reduce to r(i),
ch
,

ue
dx

°)
y>

—
i
val

is—
the
e.,

e~x

(o
(e~
wh

—e

i)
of
i.

i.
=
=
—
I

Hence r(«-fi) = n(n—i)(n—2) . . . i = |_«.

f°

This last relation will not hold, however, if n is not an integer,

but the general method of attack holds good; and tables have
been compiled giving the values of T(n) for many values of n,
whether n be an integer or fractional. Thus if an integral can be
reduced to a Gamma function or a combination of Gamma func-
tions, its complete evaluation may be effected by reference to the
tables.
x
e~h'd by the

aid of the Gamma function.

Let X - ^«2then a#
^ a# = ±*
= -f- h2
, ,Y _ 2^^r
a^
/oo. _
A2 rfX A2 dK. hdX.
or dx =~ "P~ = — ;— 7=^ =
2 x 2 h\/x. 2\/X'

Then f.TW,
^0 = /"e-xx^|-
•/ 0 2 VX = 2-'
*r.-*X-ta
0 = *xr(?)
2 \2J

and the value of T( \ *s VTT^

 FURTHER METHODS OF INTEGRATION
r «> _a* fr _
Hence I „ e h*dx
JO = 2- Vie.

On comparing with Example 27, p. 162, where a rather simpler

form of the integral is evaluated, we see the great saving effected
by the use of the Gamma function.

LIST OF INTEGRALS LIKELY TO BE OF SERVICE

f(ax»+b) to

fae^dx
— — .
fba^dx n log a

fa cos (bx+d) dx = sin (bx+d)+C.

fa sin (bx+d) dx = — ~ cos (bx+d)+C.

fa tan (bx-\-d) dx = —, log cos (bx-\-d)-{-C.

fa cot (bx+d) dx = ^ log sin (bx+d)+C.

fa sec2 (bx+d) dx = | tan (6*+<Q+C.

/a cosec2 (6*-H) = — cot (bx+d)+C.

fa cosh (6^+^) to = T sinh

/a sinh (bx+d) dx = ~ cosh (bx+d)+C

fa sech2 (6^+^) to = | tanh

/a cosech2 (bx+d) dx = — | coth (bx+d)+C. — cos

* sin (6^+^) to = - sn

f"c0s (bx+d) dx *= sn cos

176 -MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
r dx i ( bx+d\ . n
I •~~'/i~ ~r~j\ == i 1°S ( tan +C.
J sin (bx+d) b ° \ 2 /
f dx i

]0x+b =-log(**+fc)+C.
/tan (bx-}-d) dx = — -? log cos (bx+d)+C.

/cot (bx-{-d) dx = r log sin (bx+d)+C.

r dx i , ,x .r
I -o-j — « = - tan * -+C.
J «2+A;2 « a
dx 1,1 ^+« , /-
= *tan T+c-
Jr-r ^i
a2— xz = 2aX log^+C.
f dx i_ ,
Jf (x-\-a)z
dx — bz
ax ~ 2b °
J\ +/~2
V U X'
dx
= sm~
(-T
JVx dx

J1-7===,
v x a = log ^~rv-* -•* j+c.
r dx

r (ax-\-b)ax i. ,
}'•

~ 2 °g (a
J ^tf^bx+d)
Tcosec (ax-\-b)
** dx = d
- log (tan
\ ' 2 -)+C.
/

/ sec (a^+&) <fo = - log ta

, x .„
. — = -i sec"1 -+C.
x\xz —^
/ uz & a
f dx , x .r ,x r
I . = vers"1 -+C or i— cos x -+C.
J V2ax—xz « a

l—xzdx = -y«2— xz+2 sm

__ x ez
jVxz-az dx = ~Vxz-az- •
 FURTHER METHODS OF INTEGRATION 177

fV(x+a)*-Pdx = I(x+a)V(x+a)*-b*-~ cosh-1 *±^

-a? dx = ~Vx24-a24-—
2 2sinbr1 a-

/V/(*+a)M-6* <& = ^ -5
*2
2 4
/" sin2 ;*; <fa = sin 2^+C.
. 2
A; 4I
/ cos2 x dx = -4— sin 2x-\-C.

/* sinm x cosn A; ^
J = m-\-nJ
— /" sinm~2 x . cos" ^ dx
sinm-l ^ , cOSn+1 # r
m-\-n f-L/.
[ dx
J (aTI^ji
*I o ^-*i^
/•oo «*

I e^w dx

-7
Jo
tr
2
T

sin20 ^0IT = J|o

2 cos20^ 0 = 4"".

sin«6 & = 0
cos«6 <*0 = ~ »(»— 2)(»— 4) ... 2 2
if w is an even integer.
.
sin«6 ^0 = cos«0 ^0 = *n7- • . .2
o »(«— 2)(»— 4) . . . I
if w is an odd integer.

Jo («-l)(»-3) . . . I X 7T
i
fs
if w and w are both even.
IT

r1 •
sinw0
I SI
J A
cosw0 dQ= y\ /^
0 (w+w)(w+w— 2) . . . (w+3) (w+i)(w— i) ... 4 2
if w and n are both odd.
178
It
MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS

'o
I sin'" e cos»e rfe = -= x = »(»— 2) .' '. '.
—2) . . . (n-\-2)
(* if m is even and n is odd.

Pdv (where pvn = C) = (v^~n — v^

I pdv (where pv = C) = C loge -2.

= a log p

sin"1 a#*fo = x sin~1a#+;_ Vi — a2xz-\-C.

i—
tan-1 ax dx = x tan"1 ax log
§3 - sn
f (a2-^2)1 ^
J = 4-(a2-*2) §+ 20, b

Exercises 15. — On Further Integration.

Evaluate the integrals in Nos. i to 18.

dx_ 9 f dx f (x-i)dx
*—*' J *x*+6x+2i' 'Jc>x2-i8;

4. - | VJ 3 , which occurred when finding stresses in a crane

hook.

5. t — 95-5 1 (6—h}*dh, referring to the time for emptying a tank.

7T

6. ^3~ W2dy. 7- sin 5^ cos '

2 /"2
ft^^«^
9. — . 4A
10> //"sWR/i
-Frrl --- i sin
. 6rtN-, _ ,ft
R2cos6d6.
sin2 5^ -' o El \TT 2
11. /4 tan 5/ <tt. 12. /sin-1 ^r dx. 13. 7T

14. /5e3:c sin 2Ar rf^r. 15. J ,^. *2.2. 16. J 5^ sin ^r ^.

17. /cos 6 sin2 6rf0. 18. h = Jfo[-*-&*

2gn2 (d+kx)5
,j~,rr&, relating to the
flow of water through a pipe of uniformly varying diameter; the
diameter at distance x from the small end being = small end diam.
-f-**.
 FURTHER METHODS OF INTEGRATION 179
19. The time taken (t sees.) to lower the level of the liquid in a
certain vessel having two orifices in one side can be found from
nodh
•12 + Vh
at =
Find this time if the limits of h are o and 10.
20. Express e~l* as a series, and thence find the value of —
2 (* »
VrcJ o
21. The maximum intensity of shearing stress over a circular
F rr i
section of radius r = S = — j. / 2(r2— yz)*ydy.
If I = — , find a simple expression for S.

22. Evaluate the integral JI t—

- vr—_____4 [Hint. — Rationalise the
denominator.] Jo

-' o
23. Write down the value of |2 cos8J QdQ.
o
24. If the value
ra> of log r(i-85) is given in the tables as 1-9757,
find the value of I e~xxl'**dx.
w

25. Write down the value of 1 2 sin2 6 cos7 0^0. «•

26. When finding the forces in a circular arched rib it was found
necessary to find the
ir
value of —

2j6R3(cos2 6— Vs cos 6+^)^0. Evaluate this integral.

27. Evaluate the indefinite integral fVzi — y(— xz dx.
28. The attraction F of a thin circular disc of radius r on a body
on the axis of the disc, and distant z from the centre, is given by —
rdr
-

where a is the density of the disc, and k is a constant.

Find the value of F for this case.
 CHAPTER VII
MEAN VALUES: ROOT MEAN SQUARE VALUES:
VOLUMES : LENGTH OF ARC : AREA OF SURFACE
OF SOLID OF REVOLUTION : CENTROID : MOMENT
OF INERTIA

Determination of Mean Values. — It is frequently necessary

to calculate the mean value of a varying quantity : thus if a
variable force acts against a resistance, the work done will be
dependent on the mean value of the force; or to take an illustra-
tion from electrical theory, if we can find the values of the current
and electro-motive force at various instants during the passage of
the current, then the mean rate of working is the mean value of
their product.
The mean value of a series of values is found by adding the
values together and then dividing by the number of values taken.
If, however, a curve is drawn to give by its ordinate the magnitude
of the quantity at any instant, the mean value of the quantity is
determined by the mean height of the diagram, which is the area
divided by the length of the base. This really amounts to the
taking of an exceedingly large number of ordinates and then
calculating their average.
The area may be measured by the planimeter, in which case
the instrument may be set to record the mean height directly, or
by any of the methods enumerated in Part I, Chap. VII.
A clear conception of the idea of mean values can be gained
by consideration of the examples that follow; the first25 example
being merely of an arithmetical nature.
Example i. — The corresponding
25 values of an electric current and
the E.M.F. producing it are as in the table :—
c o 1-8 3'5 5 6-1 6-8 5
6-1 3'5 1-8
34 17-5
E 0 9 17-5 9
30'5 30-5
1 80
 MEAN VALUES 181
Find the mean value of the power over the period during which
these values were measured.

The power is measured by the product current 61-25

x E.M.F., and
thus the values of the power are —
o 16-2 61-25 125 186-05 231-2 186-05 I25
the sum = 1008-2 the number of values = 10
16-2
hence the average or mean value = 1008-2 = 100-8.
A better result would probably be obtained if the values of the
power were plotted and the area of the diagram found.
Thus in Fig, 39 the base is taken as 10 units (merely for con-
venience), and the area is found to be 1013 sq. units. Then the mean
height of the diagram, which is = 101-3, is also the mean value
of the power; and a line drawn at a height of 101-3 units divides the
figure in such a way that the area B is equal to the areas A+A.

eoo
Rawer

-•""Mean hcighf

Ol E3456789IO

FIG. 39.

Let it next be required to find the mean value of a function —

say, the mean value of y when y = 4xz-\-jx—$, the range of x
being i to 6. We have seen that it is really necessary first to
find the area under the curve y = 4#2+7#— 5 within the proper
boundaries and then to divide by the length of the base; and
since the relation between y and x is stated, it is possible to
dispense with the graph and work entirely by algebraic integra-
tion; thus also ensuring the true result, for in reality the mean
is automatically taken of an infinite number of ordinates.
In the case taken as an illustration, the base is the axis of x,
or, more strictly, the portion of it between x = i and x = 6, so
that the length of the base = 6—1 = 5 units, and the area
between the curve, the axis of x and the ordinates through x = i
f6 f6
and x = 6 is given by the value of I y dx, i. e., I (4xz-\-jx— 5) dx,
182 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS

so that the mean value (for which we shall write m.v.) is—
*2+*_ dx
m.v. =

5
_[3+ 2J "~ 5*]'i

It is instructive to compare this result with the results obtained

'i
by the use of the mid-ordinate rule :—
(a) Taking 5 ordinates2* only, we have the values —

X
4#2+7*- 5 y
685
14-5
9+10-5 — 5
3t 25 + I7-5-5
4i 49+24-5-5
107-5
81+31-5-5
5i 121 + 38-5-5 37-5
154-5
Their sum = 382-5
and the average = 76-5.
(b) Taking 10 ordinates, viz., those at x = ij, if, 2|, etc.,
the values of y are 10, 19-5, 31, 44-5, 60, 77-5, 97, 118-5, 142
and 167-5
their sum = 767-5
and the average = 76-75.
Therefore, by increasing the number of ordinates measured, a
better approximation is found.
The curve is a parabola with axis vertical, and hence Simpson's
rule should give the result accurately if 3 ordinates only are taken,
viz., at x = i, 3-5 and 6.
Thus, A = 6, M = 68-5, B = 181.
-.. 6+(4x68-5)+i8i
Hence the mean height = -

= = 76-83.
 MEAN VALUES 183
If, then, the law connecting the two variables is known, the
mean value of the one over any range of the other can be found
by integrating the former with regard to the latter between the
proper limits and then dividing by the range; or to express in
symbols, if y = f(x), the mean value of y, as x ranges from a to b,
is given by — fb ,
f•a
b-a
y dx
Example 2. — Find the mean value
J" of e5x between x = -2 and x =

m.v. = 7-'2 '5 t-5

.
/•? g
2

-2 72}
= ^{33'*-12
5
= ~12-16
i. e., if the curve y = e5x were plotted between x = -2 and x = 7 its
mean ordinate would be 12-16 units.

Example 3. — If C = 5 sin 3^, find the m.v. of C, when —

, > , . , 27C .
(a) t vanes from o to —3

(b) t varies from o to -.

Whenever dealing with the integration of trigonometric functions

it is advisable first to determine the period of the function, since
much numerical work may often be saved in this way. The sine and
cosine curves are curves symmetrical about the axis of the I.V.
(i, e., x or t, as the case may be) ; hence there is as much area above
this axis as below it, if a full period or a multiple of periods be
considered. Therefore, regarding the area above the x axis as positive
and the area below this axis as negative, the net area over the full
period is zero, so that the mean height of the curve,* and therefore
the m.v. of the function, must be zero.
For the case of C = 5 sin 3/, the period = coeff^ <•.—of^ / = —3

and hence if the m.v. is required for t ranging fiom o to — '•

o to —3 , etc.
the result is zero. . 4^
184 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
Hence, whenever the analysis shows that the full period is involved,
there is no need to go through the process of integration. In this
case, however, the integration is performed for purposes of verification.
27T 27T

(a) m.v. of, C.

_ = /fa 5* sin -$tdt
3 = -3 —x -5 (/ — icos 3/,\-
J o 271 27T \ 3 -/ 1
-3 -o 3

— — - (COS 27C — COS O)

= — — ('-I)

V '
27U

27T V
/i.\ tr fissinitdt =
(b) m.v. of C. = / IT-
Jo n
3
= — - (COS 7T — COS O)

5 (—
= *-*7T / r — i)\ = —I07T .
V

Comparing this with the amplitude, which is the maximum ordinate

of the curve and has the value 5 sin = 5, we note that —
Mean ordinate for ^ period 10 _ 2 7_T V
Maximum ordinate for \ period ~~ TT X 5 ~~ n ~ ''
The average height of a sine curve is always -637 x the maximum
height.
Example 4. — If an alternating electric current is given by the
relation —
C = -5 sin i207T/+-o6 sin 6007^
find the mean value of C.

The graph is of great assistance in this evaluation ; and

consequently the curves cx — -5 sin 1207^, c2 = -06 sin GOOTT/, and
C = ct + c2 = -5 sin i2O7t/+-o6 sin 6007^ are plotted in Fig. 40. The
period of c, = -5 sin I2O7T/ is or
I2O7C >-,
6O and of c» = -06 sin 6007^ is

- 01 30O
60O7T
- -, so that the period of the compound curve must be 6O
^-.
From the pievious reasoning it is seen that the mean height of the
curve ct = -5 sin i207r/ must be -637 x amplitude = -637 X -5 = -3185;
and the mean height of the curve c2 = -06 sin 6007^ considered over
the same period, viz., o to 120 , must be the mean height of the wave A,
since the positive and negative areas are otherwise balanced, but this
 MEAN VALUES

must be spread over five times its usual base ; now the mean height
of the wave A is '637 X -06, so that the mean height of the curve
12is
•0—-637
— 5x -06 or -0076.
c2 — -06 sin 6oo7c/ over the period o to

Then the mean value of C = -3185 + -0076 = -3261.

The nature of the average should be clearly understood ; for it
is possible that the same quantity may have two different averages
according to the way those averages are considered. Suppose a
piston is pushed by a variable force; then the average value of
that force might be found by taking readings of it at every foot
of the stroke and dividing by the number of readings taken, in

£40 X^ £ I£O

i- -Oesin gOOTTf

FIG. 40. — Problem on Alternating Current.

which case the average would be termed a space average ; or the

force might be measured at equal intervals of time, whence the
time average of the force would result.
To take another instance :— Suppose a bullet penetrates a
target to a depth of s ft. ; the average value of the force calculated
from the formula Ps = where P is the force, would be a
mv
mv* from the formula Pt= —6 , i. e., the
space average, but P calculated
force causing change of momentum in a definite time, would be a
time average.
To illustrate further : A body starts from rest and its speed
increases at the uniform rate of 4 ft. per sec.2. Find the time and
space averages of the velocity if the motion is considered to take
186 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS

place for 6 sees. {Use the relations s = - atz, v = at and v2 = 2as.

s = -2atz = -2 x 4 X 62 = 72
and if the limits of t are o and 6
then the limits of s are o and 72.
To find the time average of the velocity — •
8
I/•e
vdt re atdt
c
•f 0 __. * 0 J 0
"6^0 ~

= 12 f.p.S.

To find the space average of the velocity — •

V2 = 20S = 8s
or v= V&Vs
and the mean value of v = mean value of V8

/ V»SarfS i ,-(2 sV2

Hence the space average = /T/T_rt — ~^x^^\^sl?j

= =

Example 5. — The electrical resistance R« of a rheostat at temperature

t° C. is given by — 72
RJ = 38(1 + -004^).
Find its average resistance as t varies from 10° to 40° C.
(This will be a temperature average.)

m.v. =

38x33

41-8.
30
 MEAN VALUES 187
Example 6. — If V = V0 sin qt and C = C0 sin (qt—c), find the
average value oi the power, i. e., the average value of VC.
VC = V0 sin qt . C0 (sin qt—c)
= ° °{2 sin qt . sin (qt— c)}
V C
= — °— °{COS C — COS (20* — C)}

also the period = — .

Hence the m.v. of VC
r

[cos c— cos (zqt—c)}dt

ex/-- sin (zqt-c]\q

20 '\
cos c-— sin (4TC-c)-o+— sin (-c) j
275 2 0 20 20
20 20 V 'J

_ VoCo?— A 27c
- COS C , •
|~for / \ sin
• *(4*—
/ e)\ = sin (— e)~|
47T q Land — sin (— c)+sin (— c) = o
= ~V0C0 cos c

i. e., the mean value of the power = one-half the products of the
maximum values or amplitudes with the cosine of the lag.
This is a most important result.

If c = 90°, i. e., if the lag is -, then cos c — o and the mean value

of the watts = - V0C0 X o = o ; this being spoken of as the case of

wattless current.

Exercises 16. — On Mean Values.

1. If a gas expands so as to follow the law pv — 120, find the
average pressure between the volumes 2 and 4.
2. Find the mean value of e2'5v as y varies from o to -4.
3. The mean height of the curve y = 3*3+5#— 7 is required
between the limits x — — 2 and x — +3; find this height.
4. Find the mean value of 2-i8sin](3/— 1-6) as / ranges from
•14 to 1-6.
5. What is the mean value of 4-5 +2 sin 6o/, t ranging from
o to — ? Discuss this question from its graphic aspect.
i88 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS

6. Find the mean value of p, when pv1'37 = 550, for the range of
v from 4 to 22. .
7. The illumination I (foot candles) of a single arc placed 22 ft.
above the ground, at d ft. from the foot of the lamp is given by
I = i -4 — -oid. Find the mean illumination as d varies from J ft.
to 10 ft.
8. An alternating current is given by C = -2 sin IOOTT/+-OI sin 300^.
Find the mean value of C for the range of t, o to -02 sec.
9. Taking the figures in Question 8, find the mean value of C when
t ranges from o to -01 sec.
10. Find the mean value of 5 sin 6t X 220 sin ^t, t ranging from
7C

o to -.3
11. The table gives the values of the side thrust on the piston of
a 160 H.P. Mercedes aero engine for different positions of the crank;
the positive values being the thrust on the right-hand
-0
wall, and 3the
negative values being the thrust on the left-hand wall of the piston.
-175 -
I85

Angle of crank froml -170

IOO 120 140 160 1 80
top dead centre |
O 80 — IOO 20O 240
280
Total side thrust) o +95
O 0 o o
(Ibs.) /
+ 210 +240
+ IOO

-*• 1 2040 -1
10 —210
345 80 16070 2 2O 260 280 290 300
1 80
360
—600 —720 -580 2OO
240 320 330
o 0 0 0
+20 + 170
+ 150
40 + QO
+160
Plot these values (treating them all as positive)
+50 and thence
determine the mean side thrust throughout the cycle. 360
320

Root Mean Square Values. — A direct electric current maybe

measured by its three effects— chemical decomposition, magnetic
effect or heating effect. An alternating current (A.C.), however,
flowing first in one direction and then in the reverse, cannot be
measured by either the first or the second of these effects, because
the effect due to the flow in one direction would be neutralised by
that due to the opposite flow ; hence an A.C. must be measured
by its heating effect.
The heating effect of a current expressed by the heat units H
may be measured by —
where C is the current,
H =
so that it will be seen that H oc C2.
The measuring instruments are graduated to give the root of
the mean value of this heating effect, i. e., the square root of the
 ROOT MEAN SQUARE VALUES
mean value of the squares (called the root mean square value and
written R.M.S.) ; in other words, the instrument records what are
termed virtual amperes, a virtual ampere being the current that
produces the same heat in a resistance as a steady or direct current
of i ampere in the same time.
In place of the measurement of the current by its heating
effect, the ammeter might be of the electro-dynamometer type,
and in such the instrument records the mean value of C2, and the
square root of this value is called the effective current.
Similar remarks apply also to the measurement of alternating
E.M.F.
It is therefore necessary to determine R.M.S. values of functions
likely to be encountered, and to compare the virtual with the
steady.

While the determination of R.M.S. values is of greatest import-

ance from the application to electrical problems, it is also occasion-
ally of use in problems of mechanics ; thus the calculation of what
is known as a swing radius (see p. 240) is in reality a determination •
of a R.M.S. value. 09
•07
In order to convey the full interpretation of the term R.M.S.
value, we shall discuss first a simple arithmetical •05 example, then
•04
some algebraic examples, leading up finally to the trigonometric
•08
functions. •03 •06

Example j. — The values

•02 of an alternating electric current at various
times are given in •0the
1 table —
t 0

C o 1-8 3'5 5 6-1 5 3'5 1-8 o

6-1 6-8
Find the mean value and also the R.M.S. value of the current,
and compare the two values.
The mean value, as before explained, is the average of the given
values and is 3-96.
We must now tabulate the values of the squares; thus —
o 3-24 12-25 25 37-21 46-24 37-21 25 12-25 3'24 and o.
The sum of the squares = 201-64
the mean of the squares or M.S. =
for we must only reckon the end values as half-values when adding
IQO MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
up the ordinates, since the end values belong equally to the sequences
on either side.
Thus — M.S. = 20-16
and the square root of the result = R.M.S. = V2o-i6 = 4-5.
This question might have been worked entirely by graphic methods,
according to the following plan —
Plot the values of C to a base of /, giving the curve ABD in Fig. 41 ;
find the area under the curve and divide by the base, thus obtaining
the mean height; plot also the values of C2 against those of t, giving
the curve EFG. By graphic summation determine the area under
the curve EFG and draw the line MM at the mean height of the
diagram. Make MN = i unit on the scale of C2 and on PN describe
a semicircle ; produce MM to cut the semicircle in R. Then MR = 4-5
is the R.M.S. value.
Thus the mean value = 3-96 and the R.M.S. value = 4-5, and the
,. -
ratio R.M.S. —value 4-5 = 1-1
-- = -2-i this ratio being termed the
., form
/•
mean value 3-96 —
factor.

a _

FIG. 41. — R.M.S. Value of an Alternating Current.

Example 8. — Find the R.M.S. value of the function 2X1'5— 3* as x

ranges from 2 to 5. •6990
No. Log.
The square = (2xl'5—^x)2 = 4
dx
Explanation.
~
3 •5353
5
and the M.S. = •3010
34950
3'5
3-43 2-44650
20970
2-9818
3 5-2 959

-959)-(i6+24-38-8)] 2
•5353

= 13- 3-43 15050

v27
3'5
1-05350
He the R. —
nc M. _ ali-ue 9030
e S=. Vi3'27 = 3-64-
V5883

38-8
 ROOT MEAN SQUARE VALUES 191
Example 9. — Suppose that an alternating electric current at any
time follows the sine law, i. e. —
C = C0 sin qt
where C is the instantaneous value of the current at any time t, and
C0 is the maximum value of the current.
Find the R.M.S. value of the current.
As we have already seen, the determination of the R.M.S. value
implies that first the square of the function at various times must
be calculated, then the mean value of these squares found, and
finally the square root of this average extracted.
To assist in the study of this important problem, the curve
y — sin x, the simple sine curve, is shown in Fig. 42, and also the

FIG. 42. — R.M.S. Value of an Alternating Current.

curve y — sin2 x, which is obtained from the former curve by squaring
its ordinates. It will be observed that whilst for the curve y = sin x
there are both positive and negative ordinates, in the case of the
curve of squares all the ordinates 'are positive. Also the period of
the curve of squares is noted to be one-half that of the simple curve;
and therefore when calculating the mean height of this curve, it is
immaterial whether the full or the half period of the simple sine curve
is taken as the range.
In the case with which we are here particularly concerned the
C 2 2Tc
square = C2 = C02 sin2 qt = — (i — cos 2qt), and the period = — , so
that the integration may be performed either over the range o to -
or o to -.
192 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
Taking the latter range — 2q

Mean of the squares = M.S. = —Iq C02 sin2 qt dt

q
= &7C Jo
fq (i -cos 2qt) dt*

= oC02
*— - TTC--- Isin 27c— o-{ .in
— sin o
27T \_ 2 2q J

•707

or R.M.S. value = -707 x maximum value

i. e., virtual value of current or E.M.F. = -707 x maximum value of
current or E.M.F.

Hence if a meter registers 10 amps., the maximum current is - ,

i. e., 14-14 amps., or there is a variation between + 14-14 and —14-14.

* In the evaluation of the integral tq (i — cos iqf) dt, it should be

it ir

noted that it can be written Jo q dt— Jo

I9 cos -zqtdt, and the value of
the second term is zero, because it is the area under a cosine curve

taken over its full period. Hence the integral reduces to / 9 dt, and
there is no need to say anything further about the second term.

Example 10. — Find the R.M.S. value of a-\-b sin 4*.

For this function the peiiod = — — -,

Then 4
S = (a-\-b sin 4/)2 = «2+62 2 sin2 4^ + 2^6 2sinab 4^
+— s ) -\-
= « 2 i o
( — c 8 t sin 4^.
7 dt
Hence M.S. = 2- Ifa 6a 62 cos 8t+zab sin 4*)
(az-\ ----
7T J 0 22
_ TT n
2 F T2 / fc2\ T2 fe2
cos tt + 2a sn
= ~ I \aZ+2) dt—J -£

52
 VOLUMES 193

2 2 2

R.M.S.=

Exercises 17.— On Root Mean Square Values.

Find the R.M.S. values of the functions in Nos. i to 7.
1. #3+2 (x ranging from i to 3).
2. e~"x (x ranging from — -i to +-65).
3. 3-4 sin 5*i/. 4. -165 cos (-07— 2/).
5. 1-4 tan 2t (t ranging from o to -43).
6. i -14 +-5 cos -8t.
7. -72 sin (3— 4/) ; compare with the mean value.
o -c- A .LI. t * /R.M.S. value\ , ,,
8. Find the form factor — -,— /) of the wave —
\ mean value
e = Ex sin pt+~Ea sin 3pt.
9. Compare the " effective " values of two currents, one whose
wave form is sinusoidal, having a maximum of 100 amperes, and another
of triangular shape with a maximum of 150 amperes.
10. An A.C. has the following values at equal intervals of time :
3.
Find4. the
4'5, R.M.S.
5'5. 8, value
io- 6, ofo, this
—3, current.
—4, —4-5, —5-5, —8, — 10, —6, p.

11. A number of equal masses are attached to the ends of rods

rotating about one axis. If the lengths of these rods are 10, 9, 5,
8, 4, 13 and 15 ins. respectively, find the effective radius (called the
swing radius) of the system. (This is the R.M.S. value of the respective
radii.)
12. Find the R.M.S. value of the function sin2 0 cos3 6 over the
period o to -. (Refer to p. 178.)
13. The value of the primary current through a transformer at
equal time intervals was —
•20 -05 -07 -ii -14 -19 -2i -04 -08 '12 -15 -18 -2i -08 -04
Find the R.M.S. value of this current.

Volumes. — If a curve be drawn, the ordinates being the values

of the cross sections of a solid at the various points along its
length, then the area under the curve will represent, to some
scale, the volume of the solid. For, considering a small element
of the length, 81, if the mean area over that element is A, the
o
194 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
volume SV of the small portion of the solid is A.U, and the
total volume of the solid is the sum of all such small volumes,
i. e., 2AS£. If the length 81 is diminished until infinitely small,
2AS/ becomes fAdl, and hence —
Volume of solid = J/o Adi.
Comparing this with the formula giving the area of a closed
figure, viz.,fydx, it is seen to be of the same form, and it is made
identical if A is written in place of y (i. e., areas must be plotted
vertically) and / in place of x (i. e., lengths must be plotted
horizontally) .
When values of A and / are given the curve should be drawn
and integrated by any of the given methods ; and if it is preferred
to find the actual area of the figure in sq. ins. first, the number
of units of volume represented will be deduced from a consideration
of the scales used in the plotting. Thus if i" (horizontally) repre-
sents xft. of length, and i" (vertically) represents y sq. ft. of area,
then i sq. in. of area represents xy cu. ft. of volume. To take
a numerical example : If i" = 15" of length, and i" = 5 sq. ft. of
12
area, then i sq. in. of area = — x 5 = 6J cu. ft. of volume.
If the area is found by the sum curve this conversion is
unnecessary, as the scales are settled in the course of the drawing.
The Example on p. 122 is an illustration of the determination of
volumes by graphic integration; in that case the actual areas of
sections are not plotted directly, but values of d2, the multiplication
by the constant factor being left until the end. Had the solid not
been of circular section the actual areas would have been plotted
as ordinates and the work carried on as there detailed.
We thus see that the determination of the volume of any
irregular solid can be effected, if the cross sections at various
distances from the ends can be found, by a process of graphic
integration.
If, however, the law governing the variation in section is known,
it may be more direct to perform the integration by algebraic
methods.
To take a very simple illustration :—

Example n. — The cross section of a certain body is always equal

to (5#3 + 8) sq. ft., where x ft. is the distance of the section from one
end. If the length of the body is 5 ft., find its volume.
 VOLUMES 195

The body might have an elevation like Fig. 43, and its cross section
might be of any shape ; the only condition to be satisfied being that
the area of a cross section such as that at BB must = 5*3+8. Thus
the area at AA must = (5 X o) + 8 = 8 and area at CC = (5 X 53) + 8 = 633.
f5 C5
Then the volume = J QAdx = ] Q(5x3+8)dx

4 ~"~^^ cu. ft.

+40 = 821-25

Volumes of Solids of Revolution. — A solid of revolution is

generated by the revolution of some closed figure round an axis
which does not cut the figure. Thus, dealing with familiar solids,
the right circular cone, the cylinder and the sphere are solids of
revolution, being generated respectively by the revolution of a
right-angled triangle about one of the sides
including the right angle, a rectangle about
one of its sides, and a semicircle about its
diameter ; and of the less well-known solids
of revolution the most important to the
engineer is the hyperboloid of revolution
which is generated by the revolution of a FIG
hyperbola about one of its axes and occurs
in the design of skew wheels. The axis about which the revolution
is made in all these examples lies along a boundary of the re-
volving figure; whereas an anchor ring is generated by the
revolution of a circle about an axis parallel to a diameter but
some distance from it.
The revolving figure may have any shape whatever, the only
conditions being, for the following rule to hold, that the axis about
which the revolution is made does not cut the figure and that the
cross section perpendicular to this axis is always circular.
Imagine the revolving cross section to be of the character
shown in the sketch (ABCD in Fig. 44) ; and let the revolution
be about the axis of x. It is required to find the volume of the
solid of revolution generated.
Working entirely from first principles, i, e., reverting to our
idea of dealing with a small element and then summing : if the
strip MN of height y and thickness 8x revolves about OX it will
generate a cylinder.
The radius of this cylinder will be y and its height or length Sx ;
and hence its volume = iry2Sx.
Accordingly the volume swept out by the revolution of ABCD
ig6 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS

will be ^nyzSx (the proper limits being assigned to x) approximately,

or fny2dx accurately.
Again, it will be seen that such a volume can be measured by
the area of a figure, for, writing Y in place of Try2, the volume
= fYdx, which is the standard form for an area. Hence, if
values of y are given, corresponding values of Try2 must be cal-
culated and plotted as ordinates, and the area of the resulting
figure found.
It should be noted that fny2dx might be written as itfy*dxt
thus saving labour by reserving the multiplication by TC until the

M B X

X!
FIG. 44. — Volume of Solid of Revolution.

area has been found, i. e., the values of y2 and not those of Try2
are plotted as ordinates.
The following example will illustrate :—

Example 12. — The curve given by the figures in the table revolves
about the axis of x; find the volume of the solid generated, the
bounding planes being those through x = 2 and x = j, perpendicular
to the axis of revolution.

X 2 3 4 5 6 7

y 44 44 45
 VOLUMES 197
n
Values of y2 must first be calculated, since the volume = / jtyzdx
=
Hence the table for plotting reads —
1444
20625
X 2 3 4 5
1764
1936 1936 2116

*
and the valuesy of y2 are plotted vertically, the curve ABC (Fig. 45)
resulting.
This curve is next integrated from the axis of x as base, the curve
DEF resulting; the polar distance being taken as 3, so that the new 7 •

O 6 /

FIG. 45. — Volume of Solid of Revolution.

vertical scale = 3 X old vertical scale. It must be remembered, how-
ever, that the base from which the summation has been made in the
figure is not the true base, since the first value of the ordinate is 1400
and not o; thus a rectangle 1400X5 has been omitted. Hence we
must nstartg to number our scale at 7000 ; and according to this
i te
ber t ina ds 0, ce dx 0,
num the las ord rea 958 hen / zyz = 958 or —
um e
Vol = TC I y zdx
= TT x 9580
= 30,100 cu. ins.

In cases in which y and x are connected by a law the integra-

/•? f7
198 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
tion may be performed in accordance with the rules for the
integration of functions.
B Example 13. — Find the volume of a
Y paraboloid of revolution and compare it
with the volume of the circumscribing
cylinder.
A paraboloid of revolution is generated
o by the revolution of a parabola about
its axis. Suppose the parabola is placed
as shown in Fig. 46; the revolution is
therefore about OX.
The equation to the curve OB is
y2 = $ax (see Part I, p. 106), i. e., if
OA = h, (AB)2 = 4ah.
Hence the volume of the solid swept
FIG. 46. out by the revolution of OBA —
[h [h
= JTtyzdx = TU JI 0 qax dx

_ 4a7L><Aa _ 7,2

Now the volume of the circumscribing cylinder —

= TC X 4ah X h

and hence the volume of the paraboloid —

= - X vol. of circumscribing cylinder.

Example 14.— The curve y2 = 64 — zx2 revolves about the axis of y.

Find the volume of the solid generated, the limits to be applied to x
being o and 5.
This differs from the cases previously treated in that the revolution
is to be about the y axis and not about the x axis.
Hence the volume = fnx2dy and not Jwy*dx, the y replacing x
and vice versa. Also another point must be noted : the limits given
are those for x, whereas the limits in the integral fiix2dy must apply
to the I.V., which is now y. Therefore a preliminary calculation
must be made to determine the corresponding limits of y —
y2x == o,
64-y
2 = 64, y = ±8
x = 5,
= 14- y = ±374-
 VOLUMES

The double signs occurring here may possibly confuse, but actually
the equation given is that of an ellipse, symmetrical about the axes
of x and y, and the volume required is the volume generated by the
revolution of the two shaded portions (Fig. 47), which will be twice
that generated by one of these; hence, taking the upper shaded
portion, we use the positive limits, viz., 3-74 and 8.
f8 f8 / v2\
Then the volume = I r:xzdy'— niJ 3-ll\J
J 3-74
(32— 2- /}dy'
f y3\8
= m say— if )
6 /3-74

= 7c(256— 85-3-H9-5 + 8-7)

= 59 '9^.
The solid due to the revolution of the lower portion will be also 59-97^,
and hence the total volume generated = 119-871; = 376 cu. units.

FIG. 47.

If the limits for y were —8 and +8, the volume of the whole solid
would be required ; then —
[8 f8/ y2\ r y3-|3
Volume = / -KXzdy — 2:rJ \^)^ — — ]dy = 2TC[_32)'— z~J
- 27^(256-85-3)
= 341-471 = 1070 cu. units.
The solid generated by the revolution of an ellipse about its
major axis is known as a prolate spheroid; while if the revolution
is about the minor axis the solid is an oblate spheroid.
The volumes of these may be necessary, so that they are given
in a general form.
200 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS

The general equation of an ellipse is —2-\-jp = i (cf.

P- 344)-
Let a >£>, i. e., the major axis is horizontal.
For a prolate spheroid the revolution is about the major axis,
nyzdx = 2rr/ fa ~-2(az—xz)dx
J2
o
/ a J o a„
27C&V

FIG. 48.

In like manner, the volume of an oblate spheroid = - na?b ;

and it should be noted that if b = a, the spheroid becomes a
sphere and its volume = 3~KO.S.

Example 15. — Find the volume of a zone of a sphere of radius r,

the bounding planes being those through x = a and x = b.
The equation of the circle is xz+yz = r2 (Fig. 48)
whence y2 = rz—xz.
:. Volume of a zone = Jfbny2dx
a = TTJfb(rz—x2)dx
a

= 7r[»-2(6-a)--(63-a3)]
 LENGTH OF ARC 20 1

This can be put in the form given on p. 120, Part I, if for (b—a)
we write h, and for BE and DF their respective values r: and r2.
Thus az = rz-r]z, bz = rz—rzz
hz = (b-a)z = bz+az—2ab = rz—r1z+rz-r2z-2ab
and hence ab, = — hz+2rz—r1z—r2z
— 2 -
So that the volume of the zone —

Length of [Arc. — Consider a small portion of a curve, PQ in

Fig. 49, P and Q being points near to one another.

FIG. 49.

The small length of arc PQ is denoted by 8s, so that a complete

arc would be denoted by s.
Let PM = 8*, and QM = Sy.
Then the arc PQ = the chord PQ very nearly, so that we may
say —
(Ss)2 = (chord PQ)2 = (S#)2+(8y)2.

•• y =i /Ss\2
dy
*• £•> v~ =

Hence when 8x becomes infinitelyJsmall, 8x

, - becomes dx
,-, etc.
dsJ- =
and A/I ds
dx
dx \ or - =
202 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS

Integrating — •
dx °r
z be found if the value of the integral
The length of arc can dthus
on the R.H.S. can be evaluated.
In only a few cases is the evaluation of the integral simple;
and for most curves an approximation is taken, e. g., to find the
perimeter of an ellipse by this method one would become involved
in a most difficult integral known as an elliptic integral, this being
treated later in the chapter; and hence the approximate rules are
nearly always used in practice.
To deal with a case of a very simple character :—
Example 16. — If y — ax-j-b, find the length of arc between x — m
and x = n.

In this case it is really a matter of determining the length of the

line AB (Fig. 50) ; the slope of the line being a.
Then if y = ax+b, = a and i + = i+«2.
2dx
n Vi+a =
= Vi + a2 (m — ri).
On reference to the figure it will be seen that this is a true result,
since AB = \/(AC)2+(CB)2
.__
= V(m-w)2+a2(w-w)2
/m
= Vi+a2 (m — n).

Example 17. — Use this method to determine the approximate

length of a cable hanging in a parabola, when the droop is D and
the span is 2L.
For convenience, put the figure in the form of Fig. 51.
e
Then
e nc L2 = 4«D
t t y e.
w h a = -~, so tha a mus be ver larg
 LENGTH OF ARC 203

The equation of the curve is in reality —

y being written in placedy of L, and x in place of D.

^L^
men
dx dy d x— = -5ay— A dx
JC
~r~

= 4<z
so that -/-• 2V
dx dy
~ AO,
zy ~ 2ay u
or dx

whence
dx - Z.
Ti
FIG. 51.
Thus

'
20,
V
O#

= 1 + 5-2 approximately,
since all the subsequent terms contain a4 and higher powers of a in
the denominator, so that all these terms must be very small.

Hence s = 2 1+ . dy

.
3 Span
Example 18. — Find the length of the circumference of a circle of
radius r.

The equation of the circle is y2+#2 = y2.

Thus y2 = rz-x2

and ay 4 ctx
-^- = — a# {differentiating with regard to x}

or ^ = -- - ^
204 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS

Hence i + (;,— ) = i+~i s= -

Length of circumference — 4 X length of J circumference

fa r
= 4 J o "V^F2 **
To evaluate this integral, let x = r sin u (cf. Example 7, p. 150).
Then r2— x2 = r2—r2 sin2 u = r2(i — sin2 «)
= r* cos* u
dx— = r cos u
and also
du
dx = r cos u . du.

y c

FIG. 52.

To find the limits to be assigned to u —

sin u = r- ; and when x = o, u = o

and when x = i, u = 90° or

dx
Thus the circumference = *r JraoVi*=x
dx

r cos u du

o r cos
7T

Example 19. — Find an expression for the length of the perimeter

of the ellipse whose major and minor axes are 2a and 26 respectively.
 LENGTH OF ARC 205
Let BPA (Fig. 52) be the ellipse, CQA the quadrant of a circle
on the major axis as diameter, and BTD the quadrant of a circle on
the minor axis as diameter. Selecting P as any point on the ellipse,
draw the lines QPN, PT, TS, QR and OTQ as shown.
The point P has the co-ordinates x and y, viz., ON and PN, which
are respectively equal to QR and TS.
Now QR = OQ sin <j> or x — a sin <f>
and TS = OT cos <p or y = b cos <p.
Thus — = a cos* and ~- = —

or 5 = Va2cos2<f>+&2sin2<f> d<f>.
Now the equation to the ellipse is x* v2
d~^+hz
0 = i, and the eccentricity,
which we shall denote by K, is given by —
T,
K — distance
- — .between
.— foci— — -A/a2—
----axis b2 OF .
major a — = OA
~--i-, F being a focus.

Hence K2 = °^- and K2a2-a2 = -62

or Z>2 = a2(i-K2)
so that a*cosaf +Msin8f = a^os^+a^in2^— a2K2sin2f
= a2(i-K2sin2$>).
Thus our integral reduces to the form —

and for the quarter of the ellipse the perimeter = JIo a Vl— K^in2^ d$,
since the limits for $ are obviously o and .
it

Also the » full perimeter of the ellipse = 4 Jo

Ip a vi _
— K^in2^ d<t>.

This integral, called an " elliptic integral of the second kind," is

extremely difficult to evaluate; but in view of the importance of the
perimeter of the ellipse it is well that we should carry the work a
little further.
Knowing the values of a and K for any particular ellipse, recourse
may be made to tables of values of elliptic integrals, but if these are
not available, a graphic method presents itself which is not at all
difficult to use. According to this plan, various values of $ are
jT ._ -
chosen between o and , and the calculated values of vi — K2sin2<?>
are plotted as ordinates to a base of <f>. Then the area under the
resulting curve when multiplied by ^a gives the perimeter of the
ellipse.
206 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS

o. ees

0 ur

FIG. 53.: — Perimeter of Ellipse.

1-6 — ^ Xs
—
—
^
1-5
—
=
\
\

\
—
\
1-4. \

\
—
—
1-3. P ^ri meter or Ellipse 1-294

1 c

\
\
=
1-2 2 x major axis x orainct

i \
\
— t* '
= 1 \
i
1-0
—
II MM MM II III II
i
1 II
\
A
0 •/ -2 3 -4- -S -6 -7 -8 -9 /

FIG. 54.
e.cce.n/~ric.tfuK
 LENGTH OF ARC

Example 20. — A barrier before a ticket office in a works was

constructed out of sheet metal, which was bent to the form of an
ellipse of major axis 21 ins. and minor axis 5 ins. Find the area of
sheet metal required if the height of the barrier is 5 ft.
= '9714
10-5 •99
TIn j-u-
this case a = 10-5 and j tr
K = —VlO'52 — C
so that K2 = -944.
The table for the plotting reads — •9•58597

sin <f> sin1 <p l-K»sin*£ Vl-K*sin»^

•0245
•5
•62
•o157 •1564
O 0 I I
•821
4> •0•95 i --0232
•314
•309
'454 •2063415 = -977 •279
•9

— 0898 = -91 •235

•471 — 195 •726
•628
•785 •5878
•809 ••675923 -•32 6 == -805
-674
•7071
•501
•942
1-099
•891 —— -616
472 == -384
-528
•388
•9877 -976 —-•85749 == -251
1-256 •9511 -15
i-4J3 — 922 = -078
1-570 i I — •944 = -056

and the values in the extreme columns are plotted in Fig. 53.
The area under this curve = 1-0663 SCL- umt
and thus the perimeter = 40 x i — 4 X 10-5 x 1-0663
ft = 44-78 ins.
12
Hence the area required = ^

It is well to compare this value of the perimeter with those

obtained by the approximate rules given in Part I, p. 105 —
(a) Perimeter — TU(«+&) = 71(10-5+2-5) = 40-7 ins.
(b) Perimeter = 4-443 V«2+62 = 4-443x10-8 = 47-8 ins.
(c) Perimeter = 7u{i-5(a+&) — Vab} = TTX 14-38 = 45-1 ins.
and the perimeter, correct to two places of decimals, is given in
the tables * as 44-79 ins.
* The tables of complete elliptic integrals give the values of

0 Vi — K^sin2^ d<p for various values of 0, 0 being the angle whose

sine is K, the eccentricity of the ellipse. Thus to use the tables for
this particular case we put sin 0 — K = -9714, whence 0 = 76° 16';
we then read the values of the integral for 75°, 76° and 77°, and by
plotting these values and interpolation we find that for the required
208 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS

Thus the errors in the results found by the different rules are —
(a) 9-13 % too small (b) 6-69 % too large (c) -67 % too large
showing that the rule of Boussinesq gives an extremely good result
in this case of a very flat ellipse, whilst the other approximate
methods are practically worthless.
Area of Surface of a Solid of Revolution. — When a solid
of revolution is generated, the boundary of the revolving figure
sweeps out the surface of that solid. The volume of the solid
depends upon the area of the revolving figure, whilst the surface
depends upon the perimeter of the revolving figure.
To find the surface generated by the revolution of the curve CD
about OX (Fig. 55) we must find the sum of the surfaces swept out
by small portions of the curve, such as PQ. Let PQ = a small
element of arc = 8s. Then the outside surface of the solid generated
by the revolution of the strip PQMN about OX will be equal to
the circumference of the base X slant height, i.e., 2ny8s. Hence
the total surface will be the sum of all similar elements, i. e.,
\r\x = b
>
^L_— J iC — tt 2Tcy8s, approximately, or if 8x becomes smaller and smaller —
Surface = I 2nyds.
J x = a *
= b
For ds we may substitute its fxvalue, viz. —
y
2n

2nyJ !--} .dx.

(J

angle, viz., 1-0664. Multiplication by 40, i.e., 42, gives the result
44-79. For the convenience of readers interested in this question,
and who desire a result more exact than that given by »rthe approximate
b
/

rules, a curve is here given (Fig. 54) with values of I v i — K^in2^ d$

J fio _
plotted against values of K; and for the full perimeter of the ellipse
the ordinates of this curve must be multiplied by twice the length
of the major axis.
E. g., if the major axis = 16 and the minor axis = 10

K = - g-^ = -7807.
Erecting an ordinate at K = -7807 to meet the curve, we read
the value 1-294; multiplying this by 32, we arrive at the figure 41-41,
which is thus the required perimeter.
 AREA OF SURFACE

Example 21. — Find the area of the surface of a lune of a sphere

of radius a, the thickness or height of the lune being b.
The surface will be that generated by the revolution of the arc CD
of the circle about its diameter OX (Fig. 56).
From the figure y2 = a2—x2
whence 2V.-r
dx — — 2X
or dx
dy= — yx .
—-
„_
Thus fds\2 ) =i+l/)
(j- ,(dy\2
= i-f. x2- - = y2+x2
Z—Zy- = a2
\dxJ \dx' y2 y2 a2—x2

fd a
Hence the surface =- I 27uVa2— x2— — -
J2Tc
iaj Va2-
p dx
= 2r:a(d—c) =
but 2TOZ& is the area of a portion of the lateral surface of the cylinder
circumscribing the sphere.
Thus the surface of a lune of a sphere = the lateral surface of the
portion of the cylinder circumscribing the sphere (the heights being
the same). 134
103
Exercises 18. — On Volumes, Areas of Surfaces and 2Length of Arc.
44 154
1. The cross sections at various points along a 2cutting
05 are as follows —
Distance from one end (ft.) o 82 1 66 200
192
Area of cross section (sq. ft.) o 210 296 o

Find the volume of earth removed in making the cutting.

40
2IO MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
2. Find the weight of the stone pillar shown in Fig. 57. The
flanges are cylindrical, whilst the radius of the body at any section
2
is determined by the rule, radius = — ;=, where x is the distance of
vx
the section from the fixed point O. (Weight of stone = 140 Ibs. per
cu. ft.)
3. The curve y = 2x2—$x revolves about the axis of x. Find
the volume of the solid thus generated, the bounding planes being
those for which x — — 2 and x = +4.
4. Find, by integration, the surface of a hemisphere of radius r.
5. The curve y = aebx passes through the points x — i, y = 3-5,
and x = 10, y = 12-6; find a and b. This curve rotates about the
axis of x, describing a surface of revolution. Find the volume between
the cross sections at x — i and x — 10.
6. Find the weight of a cylinder of length / and diameter D, the
density of the material varying as the distance from the base. (Let
the density of a layer distant x from base = K#.)

•5
•^r-o1
•4
FIG. 57. — Weight of Stone Pillar.
7. The rectangular hyperbola having the equation x2— yz = 25
revolves about the axis of x. Find the volume of a segment of
height 5 measured from the vertex. i'3
1-85
8. The line 4y— 5* — 12 revolves about•37the 5 axis of x. Find the
surface of the frustum of the cone thus generated, the limits •« of
•c x
being i and 5. •42
9. The radius of a spindle weight at various points along its length
•78
is given in the table —
o i-o 1-6
Distance from one end (ins.) 1-61
1-61

Find its weight at -283 Ib. per cu. in., the end portions being
cylindrical.
10. Determine by the method indicated in Example 19, p. 204,
the perimeter of an ellipse whose major axis is 30 ins. and whose
minor axis is 18 ins. Compare your result with those obtained by
the use of the approximate rules (a), (b) and (c) on p. 207.
11. The curve taken by a freely hanging cable weighing 3 Ibs.
per foot and strained by a horizontal pull of 300 Ibs. weight conforms
to the equation —
y = c cosh
where c — •= —3 . , x
300
Find the total length of the cable if the span is 60 ft., i. e.. x
ranges from —30 to -{-30.
 CENTROIDS 211

Centre of Gravity and Centroid. — The Centre of Gravity

(C. of G.) of a body is that point at which the resultant of all the
forces acting on the body may be supposed to act, »'. e., it is the
balancing point. The term Centroid has been applied in place of
C. of G. when dealing with areas ; and as our work here is more con-
cerned with areas it will be convenient to adopt the term centroid.
From the definition it will be seen that the whole weight of
a body may be supposed to act at its C. of G. ; and in problems in
Mechanics this property is most useful. Thus, movements of a
complex system of weights may be reduced to the movement of
the C. of G. of these. Or to take another instance : in structural
work, in connection with fixed beams unsymmetrically loaded, it
is necessary to find the position of the centroid of the bending-
moment diagram. It is thus
extremely important that rules
should be found for fixation of
B
the position of the centroid in „ '
all cases ; and the methods Jt »J JL jt »&
t i , ,..,,. Tnt ff/2 "?3 III A. iffS
adopted may be divided into
.
two classes : (a) algebraic (in- "IG" 5 8. -Centre of Gravity or Centroid
eluding purely algebraic, and partly algebraic and partly graphic),
(b) graphic.
The rules will best be approached by way of a simple example
on moments. In place of areas or solids, afterwards to be dealt with,
let us consider the case of a uniform bar loaded as shown in Fig. 58.
For equilibrium the two conditions to be satisfied are —
(1) The upward forces balance the downward forces.
(2) The right-hand moments about any point balance the left-
hand moments about the same point; or, in other words, the
algebraic sum of the moments about any point is zero.
If C is the balancing point or fulcrum, the upward reaction of
the fulcrum = M = fni-^-m2-}-m3-{-mt-\-m5 from condition (i).
Taking moments about A, let x (x bar) be the distance AC.
Then, by condition (2) —

or

The product of a force into its distance from a fixed point or

axis is called its first moment about that point or axis ; whilst the
212 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
product of a force into the square of its distance from a fixed
point is called its second moment about that point.
Hence our statement concerning the distance AC can be
written — •
1st moments
masses

To extend this rule xto= meet the case of a number of scattered

masses arranged as in Fig. 59, the co-ordinates of the centroid
must be found, viz., x and y.

FIG. 59. — Centroid.

Thus 2mx 2 1st moments about OY

2m 2 masses
and _ ^my _ ^ 1s* moments about OX
^ "" 2m 2 masses
If the masses are not all in one plane, their C. of G. must be
found by marking their positions in a plan and elevation drawing
and determining the C. of G. of the elevations and also that
of their plan. Thus the C. of G. is located by its plan and
elevation.
It will be observed that some form of summation is necessary
for the determination of the positions of centroids or centres of
gravity; and this summation may be called by a different name,
viz., integration, all the rules of which may be utilised; the
integration in some cases being graphic, in some cases algebraic,
and in others a combination of the two.
 CENTROIDS
Rules for the Determination of the Centroid of an
Area. — Let it be required to find the centroid of the area ABCD
in Fig. 60.
The area may be considered to be composed of an infinite
number of small elements or masses, each being the mass of some
thin strip like PQMN ; the co-ordinates of the centre of gravity of
which may be determined in the manner already explained.

._.b
N M
B
FIG. 60. — Centroid of an Area.

To find x, i. e., the distance of the centroid from OY —

Mass of strip PQMN = area x density (considering the strip as of
unit thickness)
= y8xxp

ist moment of strip about OY = mass X distance = pySx x x

= pxySx.
ist moments about OY
Hence masses
x =
= _/ %.
_5 pyox the limits being a and b

and if the strips are made extremely narrow—

pxydx
a JI a xydx
fb
/&
X = a x' JIa ydx
/pyd
p cancelling from both numerator and denominator.
214 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
Thus a vertical is found on which the centroid of the area
must lie; and this line is known as the centroid vertical.
To fix the actual position of the centroid some other line must
be drawn, say a horizontal line, the intersection of which with
the centroid vertical is the centroid.
Thus the height of the centroid above OX must be found;
this being denoted by y.
To find y. — The whole mass of the strip PQMN may be supposed
to act at R, its mid-point, because the strip is of uniform density ;
and hence the moment of the strip PQMN about OX
y
= mass X distance = py 8xx-2

2b ist moments about OX

Hence y = - 2, , masses

b 2 fb
py dx
a. JI a y dx

As in previous cases, the integration may be algebraic, this

being so when y is stated in terms of x, or graphic, when a curve
or values of y and x are given.
Suppose the latter is the case, and we desire to find x —
T~ fxydx
Then x =JTZT-
and the values of the numerator and denominator must be found
separately. Each of these gives the area of a figure, for if Y is
Jydx
written in place of xy, the numerator becomes fYdx, which is
the standard expression for the area under the curve in which Y
is plotted against x; and the denominator is already in the
required form.
Thus a new set of values must be calculated, viz., those of Y,
these being obtained by multiplication together of corresponding
values of x and y; and these values of Y are plotted to a base
of x. Then the area under the curve so obtained is the value of
the numerator, and the denominator is the area under the curve
with y plotted against x; and, finally, division of the one by the
other fixes the value of x.
 CENTROIDS

Example 22. — Find the 2centroid

5 of the area bounded by the curve
given by the table, the axis of x and the 6ordinates
-4 through x — 10
and x = 60.
X IO
45 60
y 4
5'3 6-2 6-6 6-8

We thus wish to find the centroid of the area ABCD (Fig.

To find x :—
40

5«

xy

30Q C e ntroid Horn ntal.

'
toa
JS
JG D
ZO 3O 4O
25
FIG. 61. — Centroid of an Area.
The table for the plotting of Y against x reads —
.
X IO
45 60
Y or xy 288
132-4 248
From this we get the curve AEF.
The area of the figure
40
ABCD— The method
40
33of integration
ydx

289

0 not
is shown,
10

and the area of the figure AEFD — 408

to avoid
50 con-
fusion of
50
x

curves.
xyd

106
10

/G
=

289
dx

10650
10
xy

= 36-9.
/G
r60

/ ydx
O
/G

J 10
2l6 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
Thus the centroid vertical, or the line PG is fixed.
We need now to find the centroid horizontal, i. e., y must be
determined.

Now f° 25
rf = 2i J10Y^
r60
/where Y in this case\
areaofABCD \ stands for y2 J
y = J 10 table must be compiled —
so that the following
0
10
X

16 60
Y or y2 . 45
28 38-4

43-5
40
46-1
4i 5«

FIG. 62. — C. of G. of Thin Plate.

Plotting from this table, the curve RQ results, and the area of
the figure ARQD is 1689.
_ I area of ARQD &xi68Q
y ": areaofABCD : 289 ~ ^22i
The intersection of the centroid vertical and the centroid horizontal
at G fixes the centroid of ABCD.

A modification of this method is necessary when the actual

area is given in place of the tabulated list of values, the procedure
being outlined in the following example.
Example 23. — It is required to find the C. of G. of a thin plate
having the shape shown in Fig. 62. Show how this may be done.
Draw two convenient axes at right angles and divide up the area
into thin strips by lines drawn parallel to OY. Draw in, also, the
mid-ordinates of these strips. The area of any strip can be assumed
 CENTROIDS

to be "mean height X thickness "; and therefore measure ordinates

such as MN and multiply by the thickness or width of the strip.
Repeat for each strip, and the sum of all these will be the area of the
figure.
To find x. — OAX = the distance of the centre of ist strip from OY
so that the area of strip X OAV = ist moment of strip about OY.
Hence, multiply the area of each strip by the distance of its mid-
ordinate from OY and add the results ; then the sum will be the
ist moment of the area about OY.
T,,
Then x- = Sum of Area
ist
r — moments = 2nd total
—ist. total
. . ..
To find y. — Fix R, the mid-point of MN, and do the same for
all the strips. The area of the strip has already been found ; multiply
this by AjR and repeat for all strips. The sum of all such will be
the ist moment about OX; dividing this by the area of the figure, •19
the distance, y, of the centroid from OX is found.
[Note that R is the mid-point of MN and not of NAX, because
OX is a purely arbitrary axis.]
•
For this example the calculation •5 would25 be set out thus ist —
•75 1-55
•5 Distance of 1-0
Width Area
Strip •5 centre from Distance of 2 ist 5
-79 moment
Length of centre from moment OY
Strip mid-ordinate of
Strip of 2
about-05
(like MN) •775 •5 (likeOYOAj) OX
(like RAi)
about
OX
•5
i-55 1-395 •5 1i--25 2-27
75 3-75
I 2-79 2-3
•5 22--275
•5

2
3'44 1-925 5 2-0
2-O
2-18 4*37
1-720
3 2-005 •5 2-04
2-32 4-64i
4 3-85 -43
5-85
•5

5 1 - 9 5
6 1-960 3-36
4-01 3-75
3-25 2-18 6-II
3-92 i1-630•735
-800
7 2'*O2 3*49
5-65
4-50
8 3-60 i-33o 4-5i
2-68 5-40
1 -
2-66
3-26 4 7 4-25
4-75 3-92
9
10
3-32

I5-275
Totals

32-96 37-65
= 6

and y = - -— — 2-16.
32-96
15-28
Thus the position of G is fixed by15- the intersection of a horizontal
at a height of 2-16 with a vertical 2-46 units distance from OY.
If the centroid of an arc was required, the lengths of small
elements of arc would be dealt with in place of the small areas,
but otherwise the procedure would be the same.
2l8 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS

"Double Sum Curve " Method of Finding the Centroid

Vertical. — This method is convenient when only the centroid
vertical is required ; for although entirely graphic, it is rather too
long to be used for fixing the centroid definitely.
Method of Procedure. — To find the centroid vertical for the area
APQH (Fig. 63).
Sum curve the curve PQ in the ordinary way, thus obtaining
the curve AegE; for this construction the pole is at O, and the
polar distance is p.
Produce PA to Ol7 making the polar distance pt = HE = last
ordinate of the sum curve of the original curve (viz., PQ).
Sum curve the curve AegE from AP as base and with Ot as

FIG. 63. — CentroidiVertical~of~an Area.

pole ; then the last ordinate of this curve, viz., CM, is of length x,
so that the vertical through C is the centroid vertical.
Proof. — Consider the strip abed, a portion of the original area.
Then Or and eg are parallel (by construction) —
and thus -*-
P = fg
Ar -ef
/ = ab
-f
fg
or
i.e., hnxab =
2hn xab = 2p xfg = pSfg = p . HE.
Again, the ist moment of the strip about AP = area X distance
= hn x ab X Ah
m = hnxabxml
= pXfgXml
 CENTROIDS

and hence ist moment of area APQH about AP

= plfgxtnl

but ist moment of area APQH about AP —

= area x distance of centroid from A

and x = MC.

14

•34
fee/.
FIG. 64. — Problem on Loaded Beam. • •29
25
Example 24. — A beam, 16 ft. long, simply
•17 supported at its ends
is loaded with a continuously varying load, the loading• being as•38
3*
expressed in the table. •21 •28
•12 16
Distance from left-hand) o 2 4 6 8 10 12
support (feet) /
Load in tons per foot run

Find the centroid vertical of the load curve, and hence determine
the reactions of the supports and the point at which the maximum
bending moment occurs.

We first plot the load curve from the figures given in the table
(Fig. 64) ; and next we sum curve this curve, taking a polar distance
of 10 horizontal units ; the last ordinate of this sum curve reads 4-27,
so that the total load is 4-27 tons. We now set off AD equal in
length to BC, and with this as polar distance we sum curve the curve
AEC fiom the vertical axis as base. This sum curve finishes at the
point G on the horizontal through C, and a vertical through G is the
centroid vertical, distant 9-2 ft. from the end A.
For purposes of calculation, the whole load may be supposed to
220 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS

act in this line; the total load is 4-27 tons, and taking moments
round A —
4-27X9-2 = RBx 16
whence RB = 2-46 tons
and RA = 4-27—2-46 = 1-81 tons.
We now set up AH, a distance to represent RA, to the new vertical
scale, and then a horizontal through H is the true base line of shear.
At the point P the shear is zero; but the shear is measured by
the rate of change of bending moment, so that zero shear corresponds
to maximum bending moment; and hence, grouping our results — •
Reaction at left-hand support = i 81 tons
Reaction at right-hand support = 2-46 tons
and the maximum bending moment occurs at a distance of 8-4 ft.
from the left-hand end.
Centroids of Sections by Calculation (for a graphic method

••*
especially applicable to these, see p. 251). — Special cases arise in
-NT
L \(
N, Lr N2 r IfcHJ |S|I

N-
T T

i.
•*I^N-
FlG. 65.

the form of sections of beams, joists, rails, etc., for which a

modification of the previous methods is sufficient.
If the section is composed of a combination of simple figures,
such as rectangles or circles, as in the great majority of cases it is,
its centroid can be found by loading each of its portions, into
which for purposes of calculation it may be divided, with a weight
proportional to its area, and treating the question as one for the
determination of the C. of G. of a number of isolated weights.
Example 25. — Find the position of the centroid of the Tee section
shown in Fig. 65.
We may consider the section to be made up of two rectangles;
then —
f a 5 SO 24O
Area of flange = 6 X o
£ = Q sq.
o ins. = -r—
^4 sq. ins.
and the centroid of the flange is at Gj.
 CENTROIDS
221

o 04
Area of web = 3$ x ~ = -~ sq. ins.
and the centroid of the web is at G2.
From considerations of symmetry we see that the centroid 64 of the
section must lie on the line G^G^, at the point G, say.
Treat G
(of length I O> + ID
, i. e., 2") as a bar loaded with -~-
04

units at Gj and ~ units at G2.

joe

Let GjG = x', then the upward force at G = 7^ + ~^

= =^ units.

,,G,

B
'22

847 —
Q G>•344-4'5l6
I G
I __ i J\ r\f\ /»"
t11^— -* I

FIG. 66. — Centroid of Bridge Rail.

(In the further calculation we may disregard the denominators, since
they are alike.)
Taking moments about
375 X^ = 135X2
whence x = ^^ = -72.
Hence the distance of the centroid from the
' outside of the flange —
375 '
Example 26. — Determine the position of the centroid of the bridge
rail section shown at (a), Fig. 66.
This example presents rather more difficulty than the one imme-
diately preceding it. The plan of procedure is, for cases such as this,
 222 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
that adopted in the work on the calculation of weights, viz., we first
treat the section as " solid " and then subtract the part cut away.
Neglecting the small radii at the corners, and treating the section
as " solid," the section has the form shown at (b), Fig. 66.
103 4*7
The area of AB = 2-i-X- = 2-52 sq. ins., and its centroid is at G2,
the intersection of its diagonals
•3 tj

Similarly the area of CD = |x- = 1-313 sq. ins., and its centroid
is at Gj.
For the part cut away (see (c), Fig. 66)
The area of EHM = -Xy!) = -221 sq. in.; and we know from
Part I, p. 130, that its centroid G8 is distant -424 X radius, i.e.,
•424 X -375 or *I59* from EM.
Io 4
Again, the area of EF = — >X- = -516 sq. in., and its centroid is
at G4.
Our problem is thus reduced to that of determining the C. of G.
of four isolated weights, two of which act in the direction opposed to
that of the others, placed as shown at (d), Fig. 66.
Let the centroid of the whole section be at G, distant x from O.
Now the upward forces = the downward forces
and thus RG+'5i6+-22i = 2-52 + 1-313
whence RG = 3-096.
Also, by taking moments about O —
(3-096 X *) + (-516 X -344) + (-221 X -847) = (1-313 X-i88) + (2-52X1-094)
whence x = -855 in.
or the centroid of the section is '855" distant from the outside of the
flange.

Centroids found by Algebraic Integration. — Suppose that

the equation of the bounding curve is given, then the centroid of
the area between the curve, the axis and the bounding ordinates
may be determined by algebraic integration.
We have already seen that —

Ixydx ~lyzdx
x = -. and y = ^—, —
lydx lydx

so that if y is stated as a function of x, xy and y2 may be expressed

in terms of x, and the integration performed according to the
rules given.
The examples here given should be carefully studied, for there
 CENTROIDS

are many possibilities of error arising due to the incorrect

substitution of limits.
Example 27. — Find the centroid of the area between the curve
y = 2X1'5. the axis of x and the ordinates through x = 2 and x = 5.
The curve is plotted in Fig. 67, and it is seen that the position of
the centroid o^E the area ABCD is required.
Now y= 2x1'5, and thus xy = 2x*xx = 2x*
and 2 = x3.
To find x —
1 xy dx
-f — J * — \\£dX 20y
f5 f 2X*dX

(F):
f'ydx
\7* )t 15
/ CenTpoid

/ Vcr»hcal

?X5|5*_2A ,0

{5*-,*}
—
JS
'/'***'
/ ^Cenrnoiol
I
L
Ccn^poid
5 Hopizonrai
5^68
7 50-25
or the centroid ve rtical is distant ° A | | | | B
i -8 1 units from the left-hand 23 4 5 J2
boundary. FIG. 67.
To find y —
- 1 y*dx
y — i ,5T5
2 J/ 2 y' dx

-X4
2 ^ 7/ 2 ^3^
/5^-^ 3 /2 6\5
(V)^

i,,5 (54~2«)
8^
5 506oQ
-25 -,

Hence the co-ordinates of the centroid are 3-81, 7-57.

Example 28. — The bending moment curve for a beam fixed at one
end and loaded uniformly over its whole length is a parabola, as
224 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
shown in Fig. 68. The vertex is at A and the ordinate at B, viz.,
BC is — ; the loading being w units per foot and I being the span.
We wish to determine the position of the centroid of the figure
ABC so that we may find the moment of the area ABC about AD,
and finally the deflection at A.
From the equation to a parabola, y2 = ^ax, we see that —
Wl2 , 22
lz = ^2
4« . — , whence 40, = —wor y2 = —w x

i. e., (ND)2 = w- AD.

The distance of the centroid from AD = yr xydy
°

j x&y
/

FIG. 68.

Area of ABCD = - of surrounding rectangle = X/X —

All this area may be supposed to be concentrated at its centroid,

and hence the moment of ABC about AD = — ^ x - I — -c
04 o
wl3
Now the deflection at A = ^ x moment of the_ bending moment
diagram about the vertical through A
~ El X IP
i wl*
oJil = 3^=^, where W = total load.
Hence the deflection at A = ^^

Example 29. — Find the position of the centroid of a quadrant of

a circle of radius Y. W/3

The equation of the circle is xz-\-y2 = r2

hence y —= 2— *
so that
xy = xVrz—x2.
 CENTRE OF GRAVITY 225
Thus x (and consequently y) —

*-x2 dx

0
r
inato
The value of the denom is —4 , for it is the area of the
quadrant. (This integral would be evaluated as shown on p. 149.)
To evaluate the numerator, let u = rz—xz
then du — — -zxdx
Try2
or xdx = du
2 .

fr X —
r du i
*

Then— I x Vr2-x* dx = I ~— "5

i ,

= ~[o-(+'2)*]
fi/J •

3
i
— y = 3
Z— = 4r
X Qr -424^.

Centre of Gravity of Irregular Solids. — The methods

given for the determination of the centroids of irregular areas
apply equally well when solids are concerned. For if A is the
area of the cross section of a solid at any point along its length,
distant x, say, from one end, and the length is increased by a
small amount 8x (and if this is small there will be no appreciable
change in the value of A), then the increase in the volume == AS*
or the increase in the weight = pA8x, p being the density.
The moment of this element about the end = pAS* x x
ts
m en
ist
mo

_
J

so that x —
Q

2 weights
x

Axdx
pAd

fl
226 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
As before, two cases arise, viz., (a) when values of A andJo x are
given, and (b) when A is denned in terms of x. To deal with these —
In case (a) plot one curve in which A is the ordinate and x is
n
the abscissa and find the area under it ; this is the value of I A.dx.
Plot a second curve whose ordinates are the products of
corresponding values of A and x and find the area; this is the
value of the numerator, and division of the latter area by the
former gives the value of r. Thus the centroid vertical is found,
^>
and if the solid is symmetrical about the axis of x, this is all that
•s. be found, the
is required; otherwise the centroid horizontal must
procedure being exactly that previously ~described
~^~ when dealing
with areas in place of volumes.
•<
An example on the application of this method is here worked.
£4
A •— ^-~
\
\
6 c
•.A» «^*
»*
, -—
\ ^^-» •~-~^ AJC
5 X
4
\ . ^ •*^-^_

5 ^ ^ ii 16
)2
20
2 / „ -*' 8
1 y
x* F 4
0 9
<0 ^ 4 6-8 1O 1£ 14
JG C O
1(
FIG. 69. — Problem on C.I. Column.

Example 30. — The circumference of a tapering cast iron column,

16 ft. long, at 5 equidistant places is 9-43, 7-92, 6-15, 4-74 and 3-16 ft.
respectively. Find its volume and the distance of its C. of G. from
the larger end.
The areas must first be found from the circumferences.
Now the area of a circle =
So that the table for plotting reads —
1-78
x = distance from larger end (ft.) o 4 8 12 16
7-09
A = area of cross section (sq. ft.) 47U

4-98
By plotting these values the curve EF (Fig. 69) is obtained.

3-o
 CENTRE OF GRAVITY

The figure here given is a reproduction of the original drawing to

rather less than half-size, and since the measurements were made on
the original, the results now stated refer to that.
In the original drawing the scales were : i* vertically = 2 sq. ft.,
and i* horizontally = 2 ft., so that i sq. in. of area represented
4 cu. ft. of volume. The area under the curve EF was found, by
means of the planimeter, to be 13-66 sq. ins., and accordingly the
volume = 13-66x4 = 54-64 cu. ft. 24
The curve BCD results from the plotting of values of Ax as
ordinates, the table for which plotting reads —
X o 4 8 12 16
21-4
Ax 0 I9'9
12-6
The area under this curve was found to be 19-06 sq. ins., which

FIG. 70. — C. of G. of Solid of Revolution.

represented I9~o6x 16 units of moment, since for the plotting of BCD

i* vertically = 8 units of Ax, and i* horizontally = 2 units of x.
Hence area BCDG i6x 19-06
area BEFG 54-64
For case (b), when A is stated in terms of x, the integration is
entirely algebraic. Thus if A is a function of x, integrate Ax and
also A with regard to x, and divide the former integral by the
latter to determine the value of ~x.
Example 31. — The area of cross section of a rod of uniform density
varies as the cube root of the distance of the section from one end ;
find the distance of the C. of G. from that end, being given that the
area at a distance x from the end = '^/#.
228 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
Consider a strip distant x from the stated end and of thickness S.v.
Then, from hypothesis, the area of section — 4- $3/ x, and thus the
volume = area X thickness = 4-5^/^xS^.
Also the mass of the strip = volume X density

and the moment of the strip about the end — mass x distance

2 ist moments of small elements

Hence x = - ... masses
2 their

or the C. of G. is distant ^ of the length from the given end.

C. of G. of a Solid of Revolution. — Suppose that the curve
BC in Fig. 70 rotates round OX as =axis 4* ; and we require to find
the position of the C. of G. of the solid so generated.
Consider a small strip of area MN; its mean height is y and
its width is 8x, so that the volume generated by the revolution
*~~^a
of this is Tiy28x, or the mass = p-n:y28x. The ist moment of this
strip about OY = mass X distance = p-n:y28x X x = pnxy28x.
Thus the total ist moment about OY = /, pnxy28x

and the total mass = > pny28x

ib fb

J_I a piixy2dx I xy2dx

J_a
b
/* (b^\
Ja
pny2dx JI a y2dx.
As before, the two cases arise, viz. —
(a) When values of x and y are given. For this case make a
table of values of x x y2 and also one of values of y2.
Plot the values of xy2 against those of x and find the area under
the resulting curve
This area = fxy2dx . .. . . . (i)
 CENTRE. OF GRAVITY

Plot the values of yz against those of x —

(2)
Area of figure so obtained = fyzdx
and

Also we know that y must be zero, for the axis of x is the axis
of rotation; and thus the C. of G. is definitely fixed.
(b) When y is expressed as a function of x. In this case find
both xyz and also yz in terms of x, integrate these functions
algebraically and thence evaluate the quotient. 2)'.
(
25
Example 32. — The curve given by the tabulated values of y and x
revolves about the .ar-axis; find the position of the C. of G. of the
solid thus generated.
X o i 2 3 4
26-4
y 8 10
21

For the first curve, values of xyz are required, and for the second
64
curve, values of y2; these values being — 625

X o i 2 3 4

IOO 696
o IOO 882 2088
2500

y*
441
xy2
The curve AB (Fig. 71) is obtained by plotting the values of xyz
as ordinates; and the area under this curve is 4323; this being thus
the value of J/ o xy2dx.
By plotting the values of y- as ordinates the curve CD is obtained ;
.
yzdx

1699
=

1699
o
dx

Jo
xyz
_o

4323 = 2-55 units

I y*dx
/4

i. e., the C. of G. is at G, the point (2-55, o).

Example 33. — The curve x —T* 5V — 2 Vy revolves about the axis of y.
Find the position of the centre of gravity of the solid generated, the
solid being bounded at its ends by the horizontal planes distant i and
5 units respectively from the axis of x.
230 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
Since the revolution is about the axis of y and not that of x, y must
take the place of x in our formulae and x the place of y; therefore
the limits employed must be those for y.
In Fig. 72 AB is the curve x = $y—2Vy, and we see that it is

2000

5oo_

~S~
FIG. 71.
required to find the height of the centroid above the axis of x of the
solid generated by the curve AB J about
i the axis of y.
x2dy

Then to find y —

/ yx2dy
(•5
i

Now x = 5y—2Vy, and thus x2 = 2

and y#2 — 2$y3— 2oy*-\-4y2.
f5 f5 . 4
y =
Then / y^2ay — I (2^y3—2oy-}-^y2)dy =

= 2454

f5 »j T5
and J/ i
x2dy= Ii dy
j = L
\T25V3
^-~+~
3 , 4V2* --20X2
5^— y |"15
->i\
= 639

/:
2454
639

= 3'
 CENTRE OF GRAVITY 231
Then since the centroid must lie along the axis of y, its position
is definitely fixed at the point G, viz., (o, 3-84).

Example 34. — Find the mass and also the position of the C. of G.
of a bar of uniform cross section a and length I, whose density is
proportional to the cube of the distance from one end.
Let us consider a small length 8x of the bar, distant x from the
end mentioned above; the density of the material here = Kx3, where
K is some constant; hence —

o e 4 6 a o IE • H- 16 IB 20
FIG. 72.

Mass of small element = volume X density = a8x-X K#3 = Kax38x.

Thus the total mass = J[o

' Kax3dx = Ka f—
v4 V
*"

Also the ist moment of the element aboutKa/4the end —

= mass x distance
= Kax38xxx.
Total ist moment Kax*dx =

-71.
and if x = distance of C. of G. from the lighter end —
Ka/5

Ka/5

Example 35. — Find the position of the C. of G. of a triangular

lamina whose density varies as the distance from the apex. (Let the
thickness of the lamina = /.)
232 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS

Consider a small strip of width 8x, distant x from the apex

(Fig- 73)-
The area of the strip = y>8x, and thus its volume = yt8x.
Now the density «r x or density = Kx
and also, by similar triangles,
Bx
H
So that the mass of the strip — ytSx x Kx
BKt „

and the ist moment of the strip about OY

ri
—

r
S.W.S.L.
'\ H ^

_J_
^

u
/ i; '\
A- / --y

pD
FIG. ;
'3-
1 \6
x?

J *J
rE-
1
FIG.
7,-74
jr

f^*
Hence —
_ /
x — -2
ti ?

BK/
T_ x3dx

(f )oE H-,3
x \ 4 rz
(v3\Ji A T~T^ ^U
/o

Centre of Pressure. — If a body !/•

is immersed in a liquid, then
the pressure per sq. in. of surface is not uniform over the solid,
for the pressure is proportional to the depth. The point at
 CENTRE OF PRESSURE 233
which the total pressure may be supposed to act is known as the
centre of pressure (C. of P.).
To find positions of centres of pressure we are, in effect, finding
centres of gravity of solids whose density is proportional to the
distance from some fixed axis.
The C. of G. found in the example last worked is in reality
the C. of P. of a triangular lamina immersed vertically in a liquid,
with OY as the level of the top of the liquid.
Just as, when discussing the stability of solids in air, we have
supposed the whole mass to be concentrated at the C. of G., so
now, when the solid is immersed in a liquid, the total pressure
may be assumed to act at the one point, viz., the C. of P.
To find the positions of the C. of P. for various sections and
solids we must start from first principles, dealing with the pressure
on small elements, and then summing.

Example 36. — Find the whole pressure on one side of a rectangular

sluice gate of depth 5 ft. and breadth 3 ft., if the upper edge is 10 ft.
below the level of the water (which we shall speak of as the still
water surface level or S.W.S.L). Find also the depth of the centre
of pressure.
Consider a strip of the gate Sx deep and x ft. below S.W.S.L.
(Fig. 74)-
Then the area of the strip =3x8*
and the pressure per sq. ft = K x depth.
Now at a depth of x ft. the pressure per sq. ft. = weight of a
column of water x ft. high and i sq. ft. in section, i. e., wt. of x cu. ft.
of water or 62-4^ Ibs.
Also the pressure is the same in all directions;
and thus the pressure on the strip = 38x^x62-4^
and the moment of the pressure on the strip about S.W.S.L. —

Hence the total pressure = I i8j-2xdxlbs.

= J187-2
10 - )
\2/10
= 187-2 XJC25\™ lbs
o (x*
2
f!5
— 11700 lbs. or 5-23 tons.
Again, the total ist moment
ri5
about S.W.S.L./x3\—
= Jio
i8rzx2dx = i87-2(-
\3/ )
= 62-4x2375.
io
234
MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS

'-hus the depth of the C. =of62-4

P. below
X 2375 S.W.S.L.
ft —
11700
= 12-65 ft.
Hence C. of P. is at the point P, at a depth of 12-65 ft- below the
surface of the liquid.
The more general investigation for the position of the C. of P.
is given in Chap. X.

Mi

FIG. 75. — Centroids.

Exercises 19. — On the Determination of the Positions of Centroids and
Centres of Gravity.
1. The density of the material of which a right circular cone is
composed varies as the square of the distance from the vertex. Find
the position of the centre of gravity of the cone.
 CENTROIDS 235

2. The equidistant half-ordinates of the load water plane of a ship

are as follows, commencing from forward : -6, 2-85, 9-1, 15-54, J8, 18-7,
18-45, 17-6, 15-13 and 6-7 ft. respectively. Find the area of the load
water plane and the longitudinal position of its centroid. The length
of the ship on the load water line is 270 ft.
3. A triangular plate of base 5" and height 8" is immersed in water,
its base being along the S.W.S.L. Find the total pressure on the
plate and the depth of the centre of pressure if the plate is vertical.
4. A vertical retaining wall is 8 ft. wide and 15 ft. deep. Find
the depth of the centre of pressure of the earth on the wall.
5. Draw the quadrant of a circle of 4" radius, and by the double
sum curve method determine the position of its centroid.
6. The portion of the parabola y = 2xz—gx below the x axis
revolves about that axis. Find the volume of the paraboloid so
generated, and the distance of its C. of G. from the axis of y.
7. Find the position of the centroid of the area bounded by the
curve y = 1-7 — 2XZ, the axis of x and the ordinates through x = — i
and x = +4.
8. Reproduce (a), Fig. 75, to scale (full size), and find the position
of the centroid of the section represented, employing the method
outlined in Example 23, p. 216.
9. Draw a segment of a circle of diameter = 6* on a base of 5-92",
and find by the method of Example 23, p. 216, the height of the
centroid above the base. (Take the segment that is less than a
semicircle.)
Find the distance of the centroid from the line AB for the sections
in Nos. 10, ii and 12.
10. Channel Section, (&), Fig. 75.
11. Unequal Angle, (c), Fig. 75.
12. Tee Section, (d), Fig. 75.
13. Make a careful drawing of (a) Fig. 76, which represents the half-
section of the standard form of a stream, line strut for an aeroplane,
taking t as 2", and by the method of Example 23, p. 216, determine
the distance of the centroid from the leading edge.
14. Find the position of the centroid of the pillar shown in Fig. 57,
p. 210, of which further explanation is given in Question 2 on p. 210.
[Deal with the flanges and the body as three separate portions.]
15. One end of a horizontal water main 3 ft. in diameter is closed
by a vertical bulkhead, the centre of the main being 35 ft. below the
level of the water. Find the total pressure on the bulkhead.
16. A semicircular plate is immersed vertically in sea water, its
diameter being along the water surface. Find the total pressure on
the plate if its diameter is 12 ft. and the weight of i cu. ft. of sea
water is 64 Ibs. ; find also the depth of the centre of pressure. [Note. —
The reduction formulje given on p. 178 assist in the evaluation of the
integrals.]
17. The parabola y2 = 6x revolves about the axis of x. Find the
distance from the vertex of the C. of G. of the paraboloid thus
generated, if the diameter of the end of the paraboloid is 18.
236 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS

(a)

(b)

FIG. 76.
 •85
•83
MOMENT OF INERTIA
i'5
18. The diameter of a spindle at various distances along its length
was measured with the following results —
i'5
Distance from end (ins.) o i 2 3 4 5 1-786 7 8
1-96
I-I2
1-18
Diameter (ins.) . 2

Find the distance of the C. of G. from the smaller end.

19. Find, by means of the double sum curve method, the distance
from AB of the centroid of the rail section shown at (a), Fig. 75.
20. An aluminium right circular cone is of height 7 ins. and the
diameter of its base is 10 ins. Find (a) its mass, the density of
aluminium being -093 Ib. per cu. in. ; (6) the height of its centroid
above the base.
21. Use the double sum curve method to find the distance from
AB of the centroid of the area shown at (6), Fig. 76.
22. A segment of a parabola is of height h and stands on a base b
Find the height of the centroid above the base.
23. A triangular plate of height h is immersed in water, its vertex
being at the water surface, and its base being horizontal. Find the
depth of the centre of pressure of the plate.

Moment of Inertia. — The product of a mass into the square

of its distance from some fixed point or axis is called its second
moment about that point or axis; and for a number of masses
the sum of their respective second moments becomes the second
moment, or moment of inertia of the system. When the number
of masses is infinite, i. e., when they merge into one mass, the
limiting value of the sum of the second moments is spoken of as
the moment of inertia of the body.
The moment of inertia of a section or body determines to a
large extent the strength of the section or body to resist certain
strains ; the symbol I, which always stands for moment of inertia,
occurs in numerous engineering formulae ; also when dealing with
the formulae of angular movement the mass is replaced by I, and
so on, so that it is extremely important that one should be able
to calculate values of I for various sections or solids.
A few examples will emphasise the frequent recurrence of the
letter I. Consider first the case of a loaded beam :—
Let the figure (Fig. 77) represent the section of a beam loaded
in any way. Then it is customary to make the following
assumptions —
(a) There is to be no resultant stress over the section, i. e., the
sum of the tensions = the sum of the compressions.
238 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS

(b) That the stress varies as the strain, and that the Young's
modulus for the material is the same for tension as for compression.
(c) That the original radius of curvature of the beam is exceed-
ingly great compared with the dimensions of the cross section of
the beam.
The surface of the beam which is neither compressed nor
stretched is spoken of as the neutral surface, and the line in which
this cuts any cross section of the beam is known as the neutral
axis.
Referring to Fig. 77, let NN be the neutral axis, and let o- be

FIG. 77.

the stress at unit distance from NN, i. e., a-y = the stress at a
distance y from NN.
Thus the stress at y on a section of breadth b and depth 8y = a-y,
and the force = stress X area = b8y X <ry.
Now the forces on one side of NN must balance those on the
other (by hypothesis).
rr,
bdya-y = o.

but I 1 a-bdy x y = total ist moment of the forces

and the line about which this is zero must pass through the centroid
of the section ; hence the line NN passes through the centroid.
The tensile and compressive forces form a couple, the moment
of which —
= 2 force x distance = ;x \ b8y<ry x y
 MOMENT OF INERTIA 239
i. e., in the limit the moment of resistance of the internal forces

= o- / bdyxy2, i. e., a- /area x (distance)2

J ~Y2
i. e., a- (2nd moment of section about NN)
= o-I.
If M is the bending moment at the section, i. e., the moment
of the external forces, it must be exactly balanced by the moment
of the internal forces, so that M = oT.
Also if /j = maximum tensile stress and = o-Yj
/2 = maximum compressive stress and = o-Y2
then A = ±f-
o- = ±± ft = TM
*i *2M /L

or, in general, T ^ v~
Hence, in considering the strength of a beam to resist bending,
it is necessary to know the moment of inertia of its section;
knowing this and the bending moment, we can calculate the
maximum skin stress.

As a further illustration of the importance of I in engineering

formulae let us deal with the following case : If a magnet is allowed
to swing in a uniform field, the time T of a complete oscillation is
given by —

where I = moment of inertia of the magnet

M = magnetic moment of the magnet
H = strength of the uniform field in which the
magnet swings.
In this case the I of a cuboid is required; and it will be seen
that no mention of the mass is made in this fortnula. Actually
the I takes account not only of the mass, but also of its disposi-
tion, the latter being a most important factor in all questions of
angular movement. Thus for a mass of i Ib. swinging at the end
of an arm of 10 ft. the energy would be io2, i. e., 100 times that
of the same mass placed at a radius of i ft. only, although the
angular velocities in the two cases were the same.
The reason for the presence of I in formulae concerning the
energy of rotation will be better understood if the next Example
is carefully studied.
240 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS

Example 37. — A disc revolves at n revs, per sec. ; find an expression

for its energy of rotation, or its kinetic energy.
If the total mass = ra, let a small element 8m of mass be considered,
distant r from the axis of rotation (Fig. 78).
Now the linear velocity at the rim = V = 2?rwR
and the angular velocity — &> = number of radians per sec.

then Ra, = 2TCWR = V

V
or
thus co is constant throughout, whilst V depends
on the radius.
Kinetic Energy of mass 8m
_ massx (veloc.)2 _ 8mxv2

FIG. 78. = rz8m.

-r2dm
2£

~6
Hence the total K.E. of the disc =
2£ Jo

massx (distance)2

=_ w coaXlfnfor disc.

Thus the K.E. = — Io>2. Comparing this formula with the cor-

responding one for linear motion, 2gviz., K.E. = — mvz, we see that
when changing from linear to angular movement, I takes the place of
m and <a the place of v.
Suppose that the average velocity — vt = r^
then — my,2 = Io>2
i. e., mr
or

Hence I is of the nature of mass x (distance) 2, so that if the whole

mass were concentrated at the distance rt from the axis, the K.E. of
the system would be unaltered.
Hence the distance rt (which is usually denoted by k) is referred
to as the swing or spin radius, or radius of gyration, i. e., it is the
effective radius as regards all questions of rotation.
 MOMENT OF INERTIA 241
[Note that k is not the arithmetic mean of the various radii, but
the R.M.S. value for—

h = J number ius)*
considered
* (rad J

In general, I can be written as mk2 (if dealing with a mass) or

Ak2 (if concerned with an area).
Method of Determination of the Value of I for any
Section. — Whilst it is found desirable to commit to memory the
values of I for the simpler sections, it is not wise to trust entirely
to this plan. It is a far better policy to understand thoroughly
the meaning of the term "moment of inertia," and to derive its
value for any section or solid by working directly from first
principles.
Thus, knowing that the moment of inertia is obtained by
summing up a series of second moments, we divide the area or
mass into a number of very small elements, find the area or mass
of each of these and multiply each area or mass by the square
of its distance from the axis or point about which moments are
required ; the sum of all such products being the value of I.
If the length of the swing radius is required, it can be deter-
mined from the relation I = Ak2 (for an area) or I = Mk2 (for
a solid) ; the area or mass being obtained by the summation of
the areas or the masses of the separate elements.
T« , /2 second moments of elements
Thus k = \i=
\ 2—areas or masses of, elements
,— — .
Confusion often arises over the units in which I is measured;
and to avoid this it is well to think of I in the form Ak2 or M&2,
when it is observed that I is of the nature area x (length)2, *'. e.,
(inches)2 x (inches)2 or (inches)4 for a section, and massx (length)2
or Ibs. X (inches)2 for a solid.
The moment of inertia must always be expressed with regard
to some particular axis; and it is frequently necessary to change
from one axis to another. To assist in this change of axis the
following rules are necessary :—
The Parallel Axis Theorem. — By means of this theorem, if
I is known about an axis through the C. of G., the I about an
axis parallel to the first can be deduced.
In Fig. 79 NN is the neutral axis of the section; and the
moment of inertia is required about AB, i. e. IAB is required.
R
242 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS

Dealing with the strip indicated—

IAB of the strip = pb8y x y2.

Hence the total IAB = pfbdyxy2
'= Pfbdyx(Y-d)2

= pfbdy X Y2+P/My X d2-2PfbdyYd.

Now fpbdy X Y2 = the total INN
and fpbdy X dz = d2Jpbdy = d2 X total mass = md2
also 2dfpbdyxY — 2d x total ist moment about NN
= 2d X o (for the moments on the strips on
other)
= o. one side' of NN balance those on the

Hence — IAB = INti-{-md2

i. e., to find the moment of inertia about any axis, find the moment of

&/

FIG. 79.

inertia about an axis through the G. of G. parallel to the axis given, and
to this add the product of the mass into the square of the distance
between the axes.
e. g., if INN = 47, mass = 12-4 and d (between AB and NN=2'3)
then IAB=INN+rf=47+(i2-4X2-32)
= 47+657 = II27-
Since IAB = Ij
then w&AB = n
or
k"AB —
and this relation is represented by Fig. 79, which suggests a graphic
method of finding &AB when £NN is known.
 43

MOMENT OF INERTIA

Theorem of Perpendicular Axes. — We require to find I

about an axis perpendicular to the plane of the paper and passing
through 0 ; such being spoken of as a polar second moment.
To distinguish between the moment about an axis perpendicular
to the plane of the paper and that about an axis in the paper,
we shall adopt the notation I0 for the former and Iox or IOY, as the
case may be, for the latter.
To find Io :—
Consider a small element of mass 8m at P (Fig. 80).
Then Iox of this element = 8m x y2, IOY — 8mx x2,
Now r2 = x2+y2 and I0 = 8m xr2.
hence 8m. r2 = 8m.x2+8m.y2
and
fdm . r2 = fdm . x2+fdm . y2
*'. e., total I0 = total IOY+ total Iox
or
I0 = of inertia about two
so that if the moments
perpendicular axes in the area are known,
the sum o! these is the moment of inertia
about an axis perpendicular to the area and
through the point of intersection of these axes. FIG. 80.
In special cases for which Iox = Ioy
then I0 = 2lox
To find the Relation between the Moment of Inertia
about a Point in a Solid Body and the Moments of Inertia
about three mutually Perpendicular Axes meeting in that
Point.
Thus, referring to Fig. 81, it is desired to connect Io with Iox>
IOY and Ioz.
Consider a small element of the mass 8m placed at the point P.
Then if PS = x PT = y PM = z OP = r
(ON)2+(NM)2+(PM)2 = (OP)2, and ON = PS, NM = PT
*. e., x2-\-y2-\-z2 = r2.
Now Iox of the element = Sw(PN)2 = 8m(z2+y2)
and in like manner IOY = 8m(x2+z2) and Ioz = 8m(y2+x2)
also I0 = Sw(QP)2 = 8mr2.
Thus I0 == 8m
Smr2 = Sw(*2+y2+*2)
/
244 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
And for the total mass —

or
total I0 = -(
We may now apply the principles already enunciated to the
determination of the moments of inertia of various sections and

FIG. 81.

solids ; and we take as our first example the case of a rectangular

section.

Example 38. — To find the moments of inertia of a rectangle about

various axes.

(a) To find INN (Fig. 82), NN being the neutral axis.

Dealing with the small strip, of thickness Sx —
INN of strip — bSxh
x x2 i. e., area hX (distance)2
N,
Hence the total INN = JP *
bxzdx = b(-3}°
\3/ ~ h = —I2

A ai D 12
| »
I = area X —
N but
M
IN, where A is the area of the section
-_i AZ_ _ A/fc \2
B c A^12 =
-~82.
.lbFIG. or
 245

MOMENT OF INERTIA

By symmetry it will be seen that = A X — .

(6) To find IAB.

1N1N1 ~: -^
and the distance between AB and 2
_ Ab2
hence IAB =
= A—
bz

IAB is larger than IN^. as would be expected, for the effective

*4
radius must be greater if the plate swings about AB than if it swings
about N^NV = b
I c« !
= A62
rTT" ; b 1 s*1 i ...
NLJ-— ._ P-J&. ^ZJfrpJNi
n I

$if 3'
N •;

LAD
FIG. 83.

In like manner —

Ahz

The rule for the moment of inertia of a rectangle is required very

frequently, since many sections can, be broken up into rectangles.

Example 39. — To find INN of the Tee section shown in Fig. 83.

The neutral axis NN is distant 1-03* from AB (cf. Example 25, p. 220).
Dealing with the flange —
i i /S\3
INiNj = — bh3 = ^x6x(J] : : *122 in>
also the distance GZG = •72".
—- Hence by the parallel axis theorem —
246 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
flange)
INN of the flange = INiNj + [Ax 5,,
(GXG)2] (A being the area of the

2) = -I22+I-94

= 2-06 ins.4

For the web iNrfl> = ^6A» = -L X ^ )*x |-= 2 ins.4

and also G2G = 1-28".
Hence INN of the web = IN2N2+ Ax x (G2G)2 (Ax is area of the web)

= 2 + (fxfxi-282)
= 5'45 ins.4
Hence the total INN of the section = 2-06+5-45 = 7-51 ins.4

Example 40. — Find the polar 2nd moment of a circular disc of

radius R; and also the moment of inertia about a diameter.

Consider a ring of width 8r, distant r from the centre (Fig. 84).
Then Io of the annul us = mass (or area) x (distance)2

Hence
the total I

Now
and
ox

FIG. 84.

To find the respective swing radii — •D

A£Q = T0 = • ~^~

i. e.,
TUR4

(Cf. with the R.M.S.l

or kQ — , i. e., -TofR. -! value of a sine function V
V* ( of amplitude R. J
Also
 MOMENT OF INERTIA

ox 4
= - = -sR.
4X:rR2
To find the swing radius about a tangent —
(distance)2 (oxtoTT) = R2
IYT = Iox+AR2 R2

hence

or

Example 41. — To find the moment of inertia of a right circular

cylinder of length h and radius R, about various axes.

(a) About the axis of the cylinder.

(b) About an axis through the C. of G. perpendicular to the axis
of the cylinder.
(c) About an axis parallel to that in (b), but through one end.
(a) The 2nd moment about the axis of the thin cylinder of
length Sx (Fig. 85)—
= mass X — from Example 40
8x ity f he aterial
=r
g
= pnR2 x — p bein the dens o t m .
•2

Hence the total 2nd moment

R2 about the axis —
J 0

dx =R2
2
.R2
= m -
where m = the mass of the cylinder.

R2
R2
248 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS

(b) The 2nd moment of the strip about AA, which is parallel
to NN— e
s mpl
= mas x - (see Exa 40)

Hence INN of the strip = IAA of the strip + (its massx*2)

since AA is an axis through the C. of G. of the strip.
Thus INvr of the strip = 4 Sx + uTiR2x28x
R2
h h
R2
and thus the total INN = jf2 — dx-\- I/"2 pnR2x2dx
oTtR4
J _h 4 J_h

(c) To find IFF, FF being parallel to AA and NN.

The distance between FF and NN = -2

Also it has just been proved that IN1j = m ( —

Hence
!„„
T = ml /R2 ,— h*
\4 12
/R2 , h2\
= m(- + --).

Example 42. — Find an expression for the moment of inertia of a

large pulley wheel of outside radius R and thickness of rim /. Neglect
the arms or spokes of the wheel. TD4

Let Y — inside radius of wheel, i. e., r = R— t.

Then, using the result of Example 40, p. 246, we know that the
moment of inertia of the wheel as solid = ; from this must
 MOMENT OF INERTIA 249
acted nt a s
be subtr the mome of inerti of a disc of radiu r, viz., — Xpb
(p being the density of the material and b the breadth of the rim
along the face).
, , /T,.
Hence IQ - Pb-~Pb = -~ (R*-y4

= (R2+r>) (R2-* 7W4

. . . „,
where M is the mass of the wheel.
M M
Writing R-/ forn!0 = ^ (R2+R2+/2-2R/) = ™ (2R2-2R*+*2).
From (i) it will be seen that in order to get Io as large as possible,
R and r must be very nearly equal, i. e., t must be very small compared
with R. Thus for an approximation 22 may be neglected in the
M
expression for IQ, so that IQ = -xaR (R— t) = MR(R— t).
/R2+y2\ 2 /R2+y2\
Referring once again to (i), Io = M ( — •*-—)* i- &-, M&o = M ( - !— J

or kQ = - and ko = -jojVRt+r2. As an approximation for

this the rule kQ = - (R-\-r) is often used; kQ being thus taken as the
average radius.

Moment of Inertia of Compound Vibrators. — To find the

modulus of rigidity of a sample of wire by the method of torsional
oscillations, various forms of vibrators may be used. In the
calculations which follow the experiments, the moment of inertia
of the vibrator occurs, so that it is necessary to understand how
to obtain this. To illustrate by an example of one form of
compound vibrator, suppose that the I about an axis through
the C. of G. of the one shown in Fig. 86 is required.
Let m{ = mass of AB, rl be its radius and ^ its length
m2 = mass of C and also of D, rz be its radius and /2 its length.
fr 2 / 2\
Then INN of AB = wa( — +-1 ) (from Example 41, p. 248)
cr irzz , ^22\ rf (f°r tne inner radius\
and IofC^m-1 = ^
 •\4

250 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS

LNN

by the parallel^
- mz\^ -rI2y-rw2t- mz ^
4 \V axis theorem. )
This is also the L of D.
2

total INN =

Maxwell's needle is a very convenient form of compound vibrator,

and is utilised to determine the modulus of rigidity of the sample
of wire by which it is supported. It consists essentially of a tube
along which weights may be moved from one position to another,
the movement being a definite amount.
Referring to Fig. 87 —
m^ = the mass of each of the movable weights
w2 = the mass of each of the fixed weights.

FIG. 87. FIG. 88.

Then the time of torsional oscillations is measured when the
movable weights are placed as shown, and again when they are
moved to the centre; and it can be proved that the modulus of
rigidity depends upon the difference between the moments of
inertia under the two sets of conditions.
)
Thus, since a mass mt is shifted from the position AB a2to the
position NA, the only difference in the moments of inertia is that
due to the changing of the C. of G. of a mass (m^— m2) from a
distance fa from the axis of oscillation to Ja; for INN of m.2 is
unaltered.
Hence the change of I \ , T q
i6r
considering one mass onlyJ " l 2 ~~ ^•mi~i"'^\-L^r ^

= (wx— m2)a2.
Example 43. — Find the moment of inertia of a sphere of radius R
about its diameter.
 MOMENT OF INERTIA 251
Consider the thin disc (Fig. 88) of radius y, and thickness 8x.
I of the strip about a diameter parallel to OY —
— y*p8x (cf. Example 40, p. 246).
Hence I of the strip about OY (distant x from the diameter
considered)

Now = T5"1
y* = R2— x*.

Thus ""^
IOY of disc = TTPr JI ~^v"4"^ ^ ' /18*

and hence TOY of sphere = — I (R4— ;

= 27rp[R(R* -
4 J o
= R^ I
L 5 i
— 4- X —i6R5 — = 8
= 27uo
4 15 !

5
- 2
7/fr /\ ~ JLV (\m being
tii the i mass\
5 \ of the sphere. /
and

Determination of 1st and 2nd Moments of Sections

by means of a Graphic Construction and the Use of a
Planimeter.
The graphic construction now to be described is extremely
simple to understand, and has the additional merit of being
utilised to give 3rd, 4th and higher moments if desired.
It being required to find the ist and 2nd moments about MM
of the rail section shown in Fig. 89, and also the position of the
neutral axis, the procedure is as follows : —
Construction. — Divide the half -area into a number of strips by
means of horizontal lines; the half-area only being treated, since
the section is symmetrical.
At a convenient distance h from MM draw MXMX parallel to
MM. From P, the end of one of the horizontals, draw PR per-
pendicular toMM, and from P1, the other end of the same horizontal,
drop PKR1 perpendicular to MXMX ; join RXR and note Q, its point
of intersection with P1?. Repeat the process for all the other
horizontals (of which only three are shown in the diagram) and
252 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS

join up all the points like Q, thus obtaining the curve CQLS, which
is termed the ist moment curve.
To obtain the 2nd moment curve treat the area CPKXSLQ
in the same way as the original area was treated, i. e., drop QR"
perpendicular to M.1M.l and join RR"; join up all points like Q1
and the 2nd moment curve is obtained.
Calculation. — Find by the planimeter the areas of the original
M M

I^Momenf
Curve

M,

FIG. 89. — Moments of Sections by Graphic Construction.

half-section, CPKXSLQ and CPKXTWQ1 ; call these AC, Ax and

A 2 respectively.
Then ist moment of the section about MM = 2Xhh.^
(for Aj is for the half-section only).
Distance of the centroid of the section from MM = -r~
2nd moment of section about MM =

i. e., (swing radius MM)2 = -^ -

and by the theorem of parallel axes, I can be found about NN.
 MOMENT OF INERTIA 253
In this case the actual results are as follows : —
h = 3 ins. A0 = i-n sq. ins. Ax = -573 sq. in. A2 = -39 sq. in.

Hence h = i 3 X^73 = 1.55 ins.

ist moment of section about MM = 2 X 3 X -573 = 3-44 ins.3.
2nd moment of section about MM = 2X32X -39 = 7-02 ins.4.

Swing radius about MM = \ — — = 1-78 ins.

\ 2-22 — '-
N.B. — To distinguish which area is to be read off by the
planimeter the following rule should be observed : Read the area
between the ist or 2nd moment curve, as the case may be, and the
side of the original contour from which we dropped perpendiculars
on the line about which we required moments.
Proof. — Consider P1? as the centre line of a thin strip (such
as the one indicated). Then the area of the strip = P^xS*, and
ist moment about MM = PXP x 8x X RP.
From the similar triangles RPQ and RJR1
RP_ J*l h
JR1 ~~ PP1
whence QPRP ~x PP1 = h X QP
and RPxPPxxS* = AxQPxS*
i. e., ist moment of the strip about MM —
= h x the area of which QP is the centre line.
Then, by summing —
Total ist moment of the half-area about MM —
= h X the area between ist moment curve and right-hand
boundary of section
= h\1.
Again, the 2nd moment of the strip about MM = area x (distance)2
= PP1xS*x(RP)2
1
and RJ ~~ JR" ~ PQ
• RP _ PQ1
- .
_ or>
^_ hPO1
» a T?P - _ S—

h ' ~ PQ PQ '
Hence the 2nd moment of the strip about MM —
= P1PxRPxRPx8*

^PO1 Sx = h*xPQlx8x
= h2 X area of which PQ1 is the centre line.
254 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
And the total 2nd moment of the half-area about MM —
= A2 x area between the 2nd moment curve and the right-
hand boundary of the section.

Exercise 20.— On Moment of Inertia.

1. Find the swing radius about the lighter end of a rectangular
rod of uniform section and breadth and length I, for which the density
is proportional to the square root of the distance from that end.
2. The swing radius of a connecting rod about its centre of suspen-
sion was found to be 35-8 ins., and the distance of the C. of G. from
the point of axis.
the neutral suspension was 31-43 ins. Find the swing radius about
If the
about the connecting
neutral axis.rod weighed 86-5 Ibs., find its moment of inertia

FIG. 91.

3. A circular disc, 7" diameter, has a circular hole through it, of

diameter 3", the centre of the hole being \" distant from the centre
of the disc. Find the swing radius of the disc about an axis through
its centre of gravity, perpendicular to the face of the disc.
4. Find the moment of inertia of a rectangle (5" by 3") about a
diagonal as axis.
5. Find the swing radius of a triangular plate (of height h)—
(a) When swinging about its base.
(b) When swinging about an axis through the vertex, parallel to
the base.
6. By dividing into strips, by lines parallel to AB, find the moment
of inertia, about AB, and also the swing radius, of the section shown
at (a), Fig. 75, p. 234.
7. Find the radius of gyration about the axis of rotation, of the
 MOMENT OF INERTIA 255

rim of a flywheel, of outside diameter 5' 2", the radial thickness of

the rim being 4".
Find the moment of inertia about the neutral axis of the sections
in Nos. 8, 9 and 10.
8. Channel Section, (&), Fig. 75.
9. Unequal Angle, (c), Fig. 75.
10. Tee Section, (d), Fig. 75.
11. Find the swing radius, about the axis, of a paraboloid, the
diameter of the bounding plane, which is perpendicular to the axis,
being d.
12. The flexural rigidity of a beam is measured by the product of
the Young's Modulus E for the material into the moment of inertia
of the section. Compare the flexural rigidity of a beam of square
section with that of one of the same material but of circular section,
the span and weight of the two beams being alike.
13. A cylinder 6" long and of i \" diameter is suspended horizontally
by means of a long wire attached to a hook, and the wire is then
twisted to give an oscillatory movement to the cylinder. Find the
moment of inertia of the cylinder about the hook.
14. Determine the moment of inertia and also the swing radius
about AB of the rectangular section shown at (a). Fig. 90.
15. Calculate the moment of inertia and also the swing radius of
the box section shown at (b), Fig. 90, both about NN and about AB.
16. Find the position of the neutral axis of the section shown at
(c), Fig. 91, and then calculate the moment of inertia and also the
swing radius about this axis.
17. Determine the swing radius of the -section shown at (d), Fig. 91,
about the axis NN.
18. The moment of inertia of the pair of driving wheels of a
locomotive connected by a crank axle was found by calculation to
be 34133 Ibo. ft.2. If the total weight of the two wheels and the axle
was 8473 Ibs., and the diameter of the driving wheels was 6 ft. i in.,
ng adius f he heel nd lso he atio ^, here
find the swi r o t w a a t r - w r is
the radius of the wheel.
19. Find the swing radius about the axis of a right circular cone
of uniform density, the radius of the base being 5 ins.
20. Employing the method explained on p. 251, determine (a) the
ist moment about AB, (b) the 2nd moment about AB, (c) the
distance of the centroid from AB, and (d) the swing radius about AB,
of the area shown at (b) Fig. 76, p. 236.
21. A steel wire, -15 in. in diameter, hangs vertically; its upper
end is clamped, and its lower end is secured to the centre of a
horizontal disc of steel, which is 6 in. in diameter and g in. thick. A2
If the length of the wire is 3 ft., and if C, the modulus of transverse
elasticity of the steel, has the value 12,540,000 Ibs. per sq. in., find
the time of a torsional oscillation of the wire, from the formula —

* = 402-5
256 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
where I = moment of inertia of the disc about the axis of suspension
in Ibs. ins.2, / = length of wire in feet, d = diameter of wire in inches.
22. An anchor ring is generated by the revolution of a circle of
radius r about an axis distant R from the centre of the circle. Find
the moment of inertia of the ring about this axis. (Hint.— Commence
with the polar moment, i. e., the moment about the given axis, of an
annulus made by a section at right angles to this axis, finding an
expression for the inner and outer radii of the annulus in terms of
the distance from the central annulus, and then sum up.)
23. Find the swing radius about the major axis of the ellipse
whose equation is —
 CHAPTER VIII
POLAR CO-ORDINATES

Polar Co-ordinates. — A point on a plane may be fixed by

its distances from two fixed axes, or by its distance along a line
which makes a definite angle with some fixed axis. In the former
case we are concerned with rectangular co-ordinates and the point
is written as the point (x, y) ; whilst in the latter case the co-
ordinates are polar and the point is denoted by (r, ff), r being the
length along the ray inclined at an angle 6 to the fixed axis.
It is really immaterial as to what line is taken as the fixed axis :
in many cases the horizontal axis is taken, but in order to agree
with the convention adopted for the measurement of angles (see
Part I, Chapter VI) we shah1 here
consider the N. and S. line, i. e., a
vertical line, as the starting axis and
regard all angles as positive when
measured in a right-handed direction
from that axis. A point is next fixed
on that line from which all the rays
or radii vectors originate, and this
point is spoken of as the pole for the
system : thus the reason for the term
polar is seen.
To illustrate this -method of plot-
ting, let us refer to Fig. 92. Taking
OY as the starting axis and O as the
FIG. 92.
pole, the point (2, 35°) is obtained by
drawing a line making 35° with OY
and then stepping off a distance OP along it to represent 2 units,
i. e., r=2 and 0=35°. In like manner Q is the point (17, 289°) ;
whilst R is the point (2-4, —20°).
One advantage of this method of plotting is that it is not
necessary to classify into quadrants and to remember the arrange-
s 257
258 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS

ment of the algebraic signs ; all lengths measured outwards from

the pole being reckoned as positive.

Example i . — The following table gives the candle power of an arc

lamp for various positions below the lamp : plot the polar diagram.
Angle below horizontal . . o

1800 800 600

In reality we have to plot a number of polar co-ordinates, the

lengths representing the values of the candle 10
°power ; but since the
20°
horizontal axis is specified, we shall take that as the main axis. Draw480

rays making 10°, 20°, 30°, etc. (Fig. 93), with the horizontal axis, and
3°°
along these lines set off distances to represent the respective candle
0°
powers, always measuring outwards from the centre. Join 4the ends
60°
5°°
of the rays and the polar diagram is completed.

The Archimedean spiral and the logarithmic or equiangular

spiral, important in connection
-IOOO ^ with the forms of cams and gear
wheels respectively, may be easily
plotted from their polar equations.
Thus the equation to the Ar-
chimedean spiral is r=aO, and the
equation to the equiangular spiral
FIG. 93. — Candle Lamp. Power of Arc is r=aebe; indicating that in the
former case the rays, for equal
angular intervals, are the con-
secutive terms in an arithmetic progression, whilst in the latter case
the rays are in geometric progression.
To illustrate the forms of these curves by taking numerical
examples :—

Example 2. — Plot the Archimedean spiral ^=-573^, showing one

convolution.

In the equation d must be in radians, but to simplify the plotting we

can transform the equation so that values of a (in degrees) may
replace 6 (radians).
Thus — r = -5736 = . (degrees) = -oia.
O / O
 2-7
POLAR
•
CO-ORDINATES 2-4
6

Then the table for the plotting reads :—

120 270
240
a o 60 150 180 210

'
3*3
3°
and the plotting is shown in Fig. 94.
9° 300
33°
360

3'°
3-6

aro

24O

FIG. 94.
izo"
Example 3. — Plot one convolution•25aof the equiangular
1.50*
spiral
eio°

•625
In the log form log r = log -5 + -004360 log e
= T-6990+ (-00436 X -4343 X a)
= 1-6990-!- -ooi894a •324

and thus the table of values reads

•22 :— •6818
'3977 •511 73 •3409 210 •2
4
60 270 104
a. . . o •1705
120
150
•2841 1 80•0399 •0967
•4546
240 •2672
•5682
•1136 •1536 1-85
•0568 2-109 2-403
•00189401 0
f-8695 1-249
•3808
•84391-9831
1-9263 1-424
1-624
•5

3•°6
1-6990 7-7558 1-8126
495
log r .
•5699 •7407 90
1-096
•9618 3°°
33°
r . . . 36o
26o MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
The curve is drawn in Fig. 95.
It will be seen that the ratio of
second ray _ -5699 _
first ray -5
third ray = -6495 _ ^
second ray -5699
so that this spiral might alternatively have been defined as one for
which the rays at equiangular intervals of 30° form a geometric pro-
gres ion inwhich the common ratio is 1-14, the first ray being '5".
Comparing the given equation r — '$e'259 with that connecting
the tensions at the ends of a belt passing round a pulley, viz.,
T = te*8, we observe that the forms
are identical, or in other words the
equiangular spiral might be used to
demonstrate the growth of the ten-
sion as the belt continuously em-
braces more of the pulley.
Selecting any point P on the
spiral, and drawing the tangent PT
there and also the ray OP which
makes an angle <£ with the tangent,
it is found that cot <£ = -25 = co-
ef icient of6 in the original equation.
FIG. 95. This relation would hold wherever
the point P was taken on the spiral,
so that the angle between
180° the ray and the curve is constant : and
thus the spiral is called " equiangular."
If cot <£ = i, <£ = 45° and r = ae6, or taking a = i, r = e6 and
loger = 6. Thus a spiral could be constructed in which the angles
(in radians) would be the values of the logs of the rays : this
spiral, however, is extremely tedious to draw, and its value consists
merely in its geometric demonstration of the relationship between
the natural logarithms and their numbers.

Connection between Rectangular and Polar Co-

ordinates.— Let P be a given point, with rectangular co-ordinates
x and y and with polar co-ordinates r and 0.
Then referring to Fig. 96 —
ON y
OP ,
so that
y = r cos 0
 POLAR CO-ORDINATES 26l
OM x
and
so that x = r sin
x r sin 0 = tan 0.
and also
y r cos 0

Use of Polar Co-ordinates for the Determination of

Areas. — Polar co-ordinates may be usefully employed to find areas
of certain figures.
It is stated in the previous work on mensuration that —
Area of sector of circle =
where 0 = angle of the sector in radians.

N P

X
FIG. 97.
FIG. 96.

Let P and Q (Fig. 97) be the two points (r, 6} and (r+8r, 0+ SO)
and close to one another.
Then, since r and r+&r differ veryre? slightly
Area POQ =
and the total area AOB = J el ±rzd0 approximately
exactly.
or
For the evaluation of this integral the working may be either
graphic or algebraic, according to the manner in which the relation
between r and 0 is stated.
As a simple illustration we may take the case of a circle of
radius a. The area of the circle was found at an earlier stage
(see p. 225) by evaluating fydx, i. e., by expressing the integral in
terms of the rectangular co-ordinates. To evaluate the integral,
however, it was found necessary to make the substitution x = a sin 6,
the change thus being from rectangular to polar co-ordinates.
262 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS

Evidently the rotating ray is constant in length and equal to a,

the radius of the circle, and the limits to 6 are o and 2ir, if the full
area is required ; hence —
fZir [2*
Area of circle = Jo
I \d*d6 = Ja2 Jo
1 d& == Aa2
TO?. . 2ir

Example 4. — Find the area of the cardioid given by the equation

Y = a (i+cos &], 6 ranging from.o to ZTT.
In this case r is of variable length, but there is a definite connection
between r and 6, so that the integration is algebraic.
and r2 = a2 (i-f-cos <9)2

= a2 (i + J cos 2(9+J+2 cos 0)

= a2 (1-5 + \ cos 20+2 cos 0).
Hence area = j \vz d6
j'Zn- COS 20 + 2 COS0) dd
2 / \ £TT

= — ( i'50+J sin 20+2 sin 0 j

2 2

The Rousseau Diagram. — The use of the Rousseau diagram

simplifies the determination of the mean spherical candle power of
a lamp.
The candle power of the lamp varies according to the direction
in which the illumination is directed (cf . Fig. 93) ; in the case there
discussed, however, we considered the illumination in one plane
only. If we imagine the polar curve to revolve round the vertical
axis we see that a surface is obtained by means of which the
illumination in any direction can be measured. The mean of all
these candle powers is spoken of as the mean spherical candle
power of the lamp. If the arc is placed at the centre of a spheri-
cal enclosure, of radius R, then, if IM is the mean spherical candle
power (M.S.C.P.) of the lamp, the total illumination is expressed
by 47rR2lM : this total might be arrived at, however, by summing
the products of the candle power in any direction into the area of
the zone over which this intensity is spread; and putting this
statement into the form of an equation,
47rR2IM = 2IA,
where I is the intensity on a zone of surface area A.
 POLAR CO-ORDINATES

To find the M.S.C.P. proceed as follows: — Suppose that the

lamp is at O (Fig. 98). With centre O and any convenient radius
R describe a semicircle ; also let the polar diagram be as shown
(the curve OPQMC) . The greatest candle power is that given by
OC ; draw a horizontal through N, the point in which the line OC
meets the circumference of the semicircle, and make ab = OC.
Through a and b draw verticals and through A and B draw
horizontals, thus obtaining the rectangle DE ; draw a number of
rays, OP, OQ, OS, etc., and also horizontals through the points
p, q, s, etc., marking along these lines distances equal to OP, OQ,
OS, etc., working from DF as base. By joining up the points so
obtained the curve FL6D is obtained, known as the Rousseau

FIG.

curve ; then the mean height of this curve (which can readily be
obtained by means of a planimeter) gives the M.S.C.P. of the lamp.
Proof of this Construction. — Let IM = M.S.C.P. of the lamp
2 area of zonexC.P.
then

Consider the zone generated by the revolution of TN ( = 8s)

about AB ; its area is of the 4iform rR*. 27rySs and the intensity of
illumination is OC, say. The length y is the projection on the
horizontal axis through O of either the line OT, the line ON, or the
line midway between these (for these differ in length but slightly
if 8s is taken as very small), i. e., y = OT cos 6
or y .= Rcos0.
264 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
Hence, for this zone, the illumination
= candle power x area
= OCX27rRcos0Ss

= a&X27rRxfl«'ifor-r-
v OS= cosflf) •
Hence the total illumination

= 27rR X area under the curve FL&D

and thus ~^zKT
Total illumination 2?rR X area under the curve FL&D
M = 47rR2 47rR2
_ area under the curve FL&D

= mean height of the curve FL&D

since 2R is the base of the curve.

Dr. Fleming's Graphic Method for the Determination of

R.M.S. Values. — The determination of R.M.S. values is of some
importance to electrical engineers,
and the subject, previously dis-
cussed in Chapter VII, is here
treated from a different aspect.
Instead of squaring the given
values of the current and then
-3
extracting the square root of the
mean of these squares, we may,
•007
by a simple graphic construction,
• 0 0
obtain the•0 mean of the squares very
5
readily. 04
•0
• 003 -6 •006 08
Let the values of an alternating
current at various •0times •002
be as in the table :— -8-3
01

time t . . o

Current C 5 8 12 7 0 5

then, to find the R.M.S. value of C we proceed as follows :—

Treat the given values as polar co-ordinates, taking t for the
angles and C for the rays. Select some convenient scale for t, say
20° — -ooi sec., and a scale for C, say i"=4 units, these being the
scales chosen for the original drawing of which Fig. 99 is a copy to
 POLAR CO-ORDINATES
about one-half scale; and set out a polar diagram as indicated,
making OA = +5, Oa = —6, etc. Join the extremities of the rays,
so obtaining, with the first and last rays, the closed figure ABCDaE.
Measure the area of this figure by means of a planimeter — in this
case the area was found to be 4-23 sq. ins.
Now the area of the figure = %frzd& = %fC2dt, or

so that if we divide twice the area by the range in t, the mean

value of the squares is determined.
In this case the range of t = 160° = 2-79 radians, and also
J"C2dt = 2 Xi6x 4-23 = 135-5, f°r
279I"=4 units, and thus i sq. in.
= 16 sq. units.
Then = 48-65,
M.S. =
= 6-98.
and hence R.M.S. =

The ruleto for

employed findthetheareaheight
of a of
figure,
the viz., %J"r2dO,
centroid of anmayareabe above
usefullya
certain base.

Example 5. — Find the height above the base OX of the centroid of

the irregular area OABX [(a) Fig. 100].

fir

B
10

r
(O

a
8 12 16 EO

FIG. 100. — Centroid of Irregular Area by Polar Diagram.

266 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
To do this, first divide the base into a number of equal divisions
and erect mid-ordinates in the usual way. Measure these mid-ordinates
and set off lengths to represent them as radii vectors from A in (b)
Fig. 100, the angles at which the rays are drawn representing the
values of x, i. e., the lengths of the divisions of the base. Join the ends
of these rays and measure the area of the polar diagram thus obtained ;
divide this area by the area of the original figure and the result is the
height y required.
For the area of the polar diagram = %fr2 dd = \fyz dx, since rays
represent values of y and the angles represent values of x. Also the
area of the original figure =fy dx, so that
area of polar diagram _ \fyz dx _ _
area of original
For the particular figure
case illustrated fydx ~ referring to the original
(the scales
drawing) :—
For (a) Fig. 100 i" = 5 units vertically
i* = 4 units horizontally
so that i sq. in. represents 20 units of area. The area was found by
the planimeter to be 16-82 sq. ins., so that the actual area is 336-4
sq. units, i. e., fy dx = 336-4.
For (b) Fig. 100 i" = 5 units radially
and each angular interval = 20°, so that the total range = 180° or 3-14
radians. Hence 3-14 radians represent 20 units, the length of the base
in (a) Fig. 100,
3-14
or i radian = — 6-36 units.
Now the area is of the nature r2X0, i. e., (length) 2x angle, hence
i sq. in. of area = 52X 6-36 or 159 units. Area of the polar figure
(found by the use of the planimeter)
= 18-34 scl- ms- = J8'34 X 159 units = 2920.
Hence y = ^|£. = 8-68,
i. e., the centroid horizontal is found.
-4
336

Theory of the Amsler Planimeter. — The principle upon

which the planimeter is based may be explained quite simply, in
the following way.
In Fig. 101 let PP" be a portion of the outline of the figure
whose area is to be measured, and let the fixed centre of the
instrument be at O. Then in the movement of the tracing point
P from P to P" along the curve, the tracing arm changes from the
position AP to A'P". This movement may be regarded as made
up of two distinct parts : firstly, a sliding or translational move-
ment from AP to A'P', and next, a rotation round A' as centre,
 POLAR CO-ORDINATES
from A'P' to A'P". In the former of these movements the record-
ing wheel moves from W to W, but part of this movement only,
viz., that perpendicular to the axis of the wheel, is actually
recorded, so that the wheel records the distance p.
The area swept out by the tracing arm AP during the small
change from P to P" = APP'P"A' = APP'A'+P'P'A'
Hence for the whole area,
area swept out = 2APx/>+2£(AP)2S<9

Now the net angular movement is zero, so that 280 = o .

Hence area swept out = AP2/>,
or if / = length of the tracing arm,
area = / X travel of wheel
and hence the reading of the wheel
_ area of figure

Thus the length of the tracing arm determines the scale to

which the area is measured. Hence by suitable adjustment of this
length of arm the area of a figure may be
read in sq. ins. or sq. cms. as may be neces-
sary. If the average height of the figure is
required, the length of the tracing arm must
be made exactly equal to the length of the
figure. This is done by using the points LL
(Part I, Fig. 301), and not troubling about
the adjustment at A. The difference between
the first and last readings gives, when multi-
plied or divided by a constant, the actual
mean height of the figure. If the ordinary
Amsler is used, then the mean height in
inches is obtained by dividing the difference
between the readings by 400 ; thus if the first
reading was 7243 and the last 7967, the mean
height would be the difference, viz., 724,
divided by 400, i.e., 1-81 ins. FIG. 101. — Theory of
The area of the figure = average height X Amsler Planimeter.
length, but the area of the figure = length of
tracing arm X wheel reading, hence if the length of the tracing
arm = the length of the diagram, the wheel reading must be the
average height of the diagram.
268 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS

[It should be noticed that the area recorded by the instrument

is really the difference between the areas swept out by, the ends
A and P of the arm AP, but as A moves along an arc of circle,
coming back finally to its original position, no area is swept165out.]
»*5
15 i35
105
Exercises 21. — On Polar Co-ordinates.
1. Plot a- polar curve of crank
6-4 effort for the following case, the
connecting rod being infinitely long.
2-4 1 80
o 45 1 20 165
i'S
3-915
60 75 7'3 '35 4'9 . 150
o i°5 6-1 3'3
Crank Effort (Ibs.) . . 7 0
e°

2. As for Question i,2<4 but taking the connecting rod = 5 cranks.

5
3° '5°
0 5'i 60 75 1 20 i So
45 7-1 172-5
6-6
C.E.flbs.) .... 0
4'4 7'4 90 4'4 0
6-1 7'4
TO
e°

3. An A.C. is given by C = 7-4 sin ^oirt. Draw the polar curve to

represent the variation in C and3° hence find its R.M.S. value.
4. What is the polar equation of a circle, the extremity of a
diameter being taken as the centre from which905-8 the various rays are to
be measured ? 3'°
Of what curve (to Cartesian ordinates, i.e., rectangular axes) is the
circle the polar curve ?
5. Plot the polar diagram for the arc lamp, from the table.
TO

Angle (degrees) . . . o 2O 60
(vertical)

80
Candle Power .... 800 T2OO l6<X) 2OOO 2200 2200 1800
2300
2300 2500

6. Plot the Rousseau diagram for the arc lamp in Question 5 and
from it calculate the M.S.C.P. of the lamp. 15
7. An A.C. has the following values at equal
3° intervals of time : 3, 4, 50
4'5> 5'5> 8, 10, 6, o, —3, —4, — 4-5, —5-5, —8, — 10, — 6, o. Find by 40

Dr. Fleming's method (cf. p. 264) the R.M.S. value of this current.
70
8. Eiffel's experiments on the position of the centre of pressure for
a flat plane moved through air at various inclinations gave the follow-
ing results :—
Inclination
T>p
to horizontal .... •263
0 5 10 75

45 60
Ratio (see Fig. 102) .....

Plot a polar diagram to represent the variation of this ratio.

3°
 POLAR CO-ORDINATES
9. Draw the polar curve to represent the illuminating power of a
U.S. standard searchlight from the following figures :—
10
o
Angle (degrees) 20 60
(vertical)
80
Candle Power . 10000
20500
3000 41500 24000
33000 4*5°o
10 30000
20 43000
60 43000 80
horizontal)
(above
3° 40
6000 2OOO 5° 1500 I50O
9000 1500
5000 5000 3000
70
30
40 50 9

70
C 15 centre of pressure
90
FIG. 102.
 CHAPTER IX

SIMPLE DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

dy =
Differential Equations. — An equation containing one or more
derived functions is called a " differential equation."
Thus a very simple form of differential equation is

dx ?
dv
— 5 = o
and 4 dx2-;- + 7/
dxx — 5

and +2x-=°
, dy

are more complex forms.

Differential equations are classified according to " order " or
" degree " ; the order being fixed by£/Vthat of the highest differential
dsy in it. Thus ~ is a differential coefficient of
coefficient occurring

the first order. -—• is of the third order, and so on.

dv
Hence 4-2d*y
-\-y-jr = 5 '34 is an equation of the first order
w%

dx3
and 8-^j+.y = 7-I6 is an equation of the fourth order.
wsv

The "degree" of an equation is fixed by that of the highest

derivative occurring when the equation is free from radicals and
fractions.
d2y
Thus T-TJ = c is of the second order and of the first degree

2+(-r"o)2 = 7 is °f the second

whilst 4(3-^) order and of the
second degree.
Much has been written concerning the solution of the many
types of differential equations, but it is only possible here to treat
270
 SIMPLE DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 271
the forms that are likely to arise in the derivation of the proofs of
engineering formulae ; the plan being to discuss the solution accord-
ing to the types of equation.

Type : — ~ given as a function of x. — With the solution

of such simple forms we have already become familiar, for the
equations connecting the bending moment at various sections of a
beam with the distances of those sections from some fixed point are
of this character.
Thus taking the case of a simply supported beam carrying a
load W at the centre

dfy ~= El
dx* \V
whence dy
-£- = Wx
dx ^F
El +C
which is of the type under consideration.
Evidently this equation can be solved by integration through-
out, attention being paid to the constants which are necessarily
introduced. Expressing in algebraical symbols,

!=/<*> ;
then by integrating throughout with regard to x
*v

or y = \f(x}dx-\-C.

Example i. — If -~
a% = ^xz+rjx— 2 and y = 5 when x=i, find an
expression for y in terms of x.

This equation is of the type with which we are now dealing, since
— 2 =/(*)

Integrating y = —r - + * -- 2X+C.
The value of C must now be found : thus y = 5 when x = i
so that 5 = A_(_i_ 2+C
or C = 2-iy.
Hence y= i-33#3+3-5#2— 2^+2-17.
272 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS

Type :— f- given as a function

ax dy of y. i. e., dx
-^ — f(v).
This type of equation differs somewhat from the preceding in
that a certain amount of transposition of terms has to be effected
before the integration can be performed.
The equat m be writt
on ay
i en 7— = dx
the transposition being spoken of as " separating the variables,"
dy
and thence by integration I -,-,--. — J\dx-\-C = x-\-C.
jj(y)
Example 2. — If ~ax = y3, find an expression for y.

Separating the variables — ^ = dx.

Integrating / -^ = / dx-\-C
or —\y-* = x+C
whence x-\ — y -_
+ C = o.

The two foUowing examples aredyreally particular cases of the

type discussed generally on p. 275, but they may also be included
here as illustrations of this method of solution.
dy
(tX
Examp 3. — Solve the equat -j- + ay = b.
le ion

dy ,
Here -g
b— =ay b— ay
J = dx
T

b—ay
^-
so that —^- = Jtdx+C

i. e., loge (b—ay) = x+C

or loge (b—ay) — — (ax-}-aC)

whence e~ax-aC = (b-ay).
Now let A = e~aC: then e-«*-«c = e~ax x e~aC = Ae~<
and Ae~aa:—b &A= _ —ay
or ^"V = a a £ •
 dy
SIMPLE DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 273

Example 4. — Solve the equation 4-^- = u-f-7y.

Separating the variables

i.e.,
or loge (u+jy) = lx+

whence e*x+*C = (11+77)

1C
and if A be written in place of e

7 = Ae*z
11+7A \x ii
or *y = —1e ---7

Example 5. — The difference in the tensions at the ends of a belt

subtending an angle of dd at the centre of a pulley = dT = Tpdd, where
/* is 'the coefficient of friction between the belt and pulley. If the
greatest and least tensions on the belt are T and t respectively, whilst
T
the lap is 6, find an expression for the ratio — .
The equation dT = Tfjdd is of the type dealt with in this section ; to
solve it we must separate the variables, thus : —

Integrate both sides of the equation, applying the limits t and T to

T and o and 6 for the angle.
/"T dT re
Then J t —i =M/ Jo 06.
/ \T / \fl

Mr T <•(').•
But loge- = loge T - loge /•
T
Hence *O£' x ^

or

A word further might be added about Example 3, or a modifi-

cation of it.
T 2
Let -f- = ay.
T dx *
274 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS

If a = i, then ctoc
-~ =y, i. e., the rate of change of y with regard to
x, for any value of x, is equal to the value of y for that particular
value of x. Now we have seen (Part I, p. 353) that this is the
case only when y = ex.
If a has some value other than i, y must still be some power of
e, for the rate of change of y is proportional to y ; actually, if
-V = 6°*, dx
-¥- = aeax = ay, so that y = e0* would be one solution of

the equation -¥.

d% = ay, but to make more general we should write

the solution in the form y = eax-\-C or y = Aeax, whichever form is

the more convenient. Whenever, therefore, one meets with a
differential equation expressing the Compound Interest law (*'. e.,
when the rate of change is proportional to the variable quantity)
one can write down the solution according to the method here
indicated.
Jd
Example 6. — Find the equation to the x curve whose sub-normal is
constant and equal to •za.
dv
The sub-normal =)>-/-•
dx (See p. 43.)
e
dv
Thus c y~- = ia,
n g)
in
or, separating the variables, fydy =fzadx. r at
e C eg
x+ nt
H — = 2a (I
or -y2
This is the equation of a parabola ; if y = o when x = o, then K = o
and y2 = ^ax, i. e., the vertex is at the origin.

Example 7. — Find an expression giving the relation between the

height above the ground and the atmospheric pressure ; assuming that
the average temperature decrease is about 3-5° F. per 1000 feet rise, and
the ground temperature is 50° F. V2

Let T be the absolute temperature at a height h,

then, from hypothesis
r = 460+ 50 — 1000
=-£• h
= 510 — 0035/1 (i)
Now we know that pv = CT (2)
and also that if a small rise 8h be considered, the diminution in the
 SIMPLE DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 275
pressure, viz., 8p, is due to a layer of air 8h feet high and i sq. ft. in
section, and thus

From equations (i) and (2)

pv = €(510— -0035^)
and substituting for v its value from equation (3)

or, in the limit

dp i
pdh ~ €(510 — 0035/1)
Separating the variables
dp _ dh
p "€(510 — 0035/1)
Integrating, the limits to p being p0 and p, and those to h being
o and h,
(-logpY
\ /p0 = £x
C ——-00351-
-[log (510— 0035 A) -log 5IO|J

whence log p— log p0 = ~ [log (510 — 0035/1) -6-234J

or log p = log Po+^ [_log (5IO-'°°35A)— 6-234J

which may be further simplified by substituting the values for p0 and C.

General Linear Equations of the First Order, i. e.,

equations of the type

where a and b may be either constants or functions of x.

The solution of this equation may be written as

The proof of this rule depends upon the rule used for differen-
d(uv) ddu
y , u~r-
dv
tiatmg a product, viz., ~-±dx = =v,--\-
dx &x ; the reasoning being as
follows :— y
Let us first consider the simplest case in which this type of
equation occurs, viz., the case of the solution of the equation

whe a is a con
re sta
nt.
276 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
Multiplying through by dy , equation becomes
£«* the
dx
e^~--\- aye** = o,

dy dv
which can be written as v^-
dx + v—dx = o (where v = e°* an(j thus

*--•»•
But v-r 4- V-T- = ~r(yv)» s° that -4-- (vv) = o ; hence w must be
dx dx dx^ Wfw
a constant, since the result of its differentiation
dy is to be zero.
Accordingly yv = C,
or y = Ctr1 = Ce~ax.
Extending to the case in which 6 is not zero, whilst a remains a
constant, i. e., the equation is

»+«"*
we find that after multiplying through by &** the result arrived at is
d

Integrating both sides with regard to x,

ye** = fbe^dx+C
or y=e-flJC{fbeaxdx-\-C}.
This may be evaluated if the. product of b and e** can be
integrated.
For the general case, that in which a and b are functions of x,
the multiplier or integrating factor is e^adx, for after multiplication
by this the equation reads dv

efadx y J^.aejadxy = fefadx

and this may be written

whence by integration we find that

or y ==
yefadx
 SIMPLE DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 277
dv
Example 8. — Solve the equation j^+izy = e*x.
The equation may be written
dy 12 i
j-H — 7*y = -e**
** 7
so that in comparison with the standard form

a = —7and b = -e**.
7

Hence y = «-/JT***{ fie**. es'

-7 47

—
47

Example g. — If -j-— y = 2x+i, find an expression ior y.

dv
so that a= — i, 6 =

Hence y = e+f<'*{f(2x+i)e-J<**dx+C}

* The value of the integral f(2x+i)e~*dx is found by integrating

by parts.

Thus, let (2x+i)e~x = udv where dv = e~x, i. e., v = — e~x and

. du
U=2X+I, t. e.,-j- = 2,

then fudv = uv—fvdu

= [(2x+i)x(-e-*)]-f-e-*2dx

/FT
Example 10. — Solve for T the equation -3 — |-PT = P(t—cx) (referring
to the transmission of heat through cylindrical tubes) ; P, t and c being
constants.
278 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS

The equation -^ — [-PT — P(t—cx) is of the type -/--{-ay = b, where

(A/X dX

a = P and b = P(t—cx).
Hence the solution may be written
T = e-SPd*(fP(t-cx)efpdxdx+K},
the integrating factor being e^7dx, i. e., e^x.
Hence T = e -Vx{fP(t-cx)ePx dx+K} ;
and to express this in a simple form the integral fP(t— cx)ePx dx must
first be evaluated.
Let fP(t—cx}epxdx=fudv where u=P(t—cx) and dv = ePx dx so
that v — ^f?x ', and also du = —Pc dx,
then fP(t—cx)epxdx =fudv = uv—fvdu
= P(t-cx) x *Pa:+i x e**.Pcdx

r rp -,
T = e-px\(t-cx)e**+^- +M+K I

since e~fxxePx — e° = i and L — M+K.

Example 1 1 .— When finding the currents x and y in the two coils of
a wattmeter we arrive at the following differential equation :
dy , R,+R2

where Rx and Lj are respectively the resistance and inductance of the

one coil and R2 and L2 are the resistance and inductance of the other
coil ; I being the amplitude of the main current. /2
Solve this equation for y.
/1<\)

Comparing with the standard form of equation, viz., -^--{-ay — b, we

ii . -"-^-l I JLVrt . . J-/l A' •*- , t i -LV1 * • , i

see that a — x * and o = ~_, cos ^>^+T _^T sin />^-

Hence
/Rl~f~R2j. /• r / T J^T TI> T
T +, jjj
l/l T — at -(
I I//
I -Lipl
ii , . .
r.O«V5<-l -tC,!
i—

•-
\J VLi+L,
/• T J,T

JIJ / Lf-f-1/
/y_- cospt.e (Ri+R2X
r Tj r i2 -,

+ J/ L,i-\-L,2
* sinpt . e Li+L2 dt+C \

=e~Atl fB cospt . eAtdt+ /D sin^ . eAtdt+C\.

 SIMPLE DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 279
Now, as proved on p. 157,

I B0A« cos pt dt = * (p sin pt-\- A cos pt) -f Cx

and
Hence j ~De A* sin pt dt = A>1 *,(A sin £* — £ cos £*) + C2
- At x e At ( _
sin ^i+ AB cos pt+DA sin pt—Dp cos
A2. .a
= * ]
R,+R2 lL.pl R.I

Exact Differential Equations. — An exact differential equation

is one that is formed by equating an exact differential to zero ; thus
Pdx-}-Qdy = o is the type, Pdx-{-Qdy being an exact differential.
The term exact differential must first be explained.
Pdx -\-Qdy is said to be an exact differential if — = ^S, the
3y notation,
derivatives being partial, or, to use the more familiar dx

dy / \dx.
To solve such an equation proceed as follows : If the equation is
exact, integrate Pdx as though y were constant, integrate the terms
in Qdy that do not contain x, and put the sum of the results equal
to a constant.
[For, let Pdx+Qdy = du.
Now, du is the total differential, ( -=- }dx and ( -j- }dy
\dxJ \dyJ '
being the partial differentials (see p. 82) ;
(du\ (du\
i. e., du = ( -=- MX+ I -j- )dy.
\dx/ \dy/ "
TU -t
Then if
^ (du\j i (du\j
du = o, ( — ]dx4-\ -3- jay = o,
\dx' \ay/ '
and this is exactly the same as the original equation
., (du\ idu\ „
if (\dx/
-j- } = P and (\dy/
-=- } = Q,

^y/ \iy/\dx/ \dy.dx

I(d\(d
-=— )\ -.— I (dQ
dx.dyJ \ \dx/ ii\
\dy / \dx
28o MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS

Our equation thus reduces to du = o, or, by integrating, to u — C,

but u= I Pd% (y being constant) + I Qdy (x being constant), and
hence we have the rule as given.]

Example 12. — Solve the equation

(x2— 4%y— 2y2) dx+(y2—4xy—2x2) dy = o.

Here P = xz-^xy-2y2 \dy 1 = -^x-^y

(^P)

Q = y*-4xy-2x*
and thus the equation is exact.

I P dx (as though y were a constant)

(x2—4xy—2yz) dx = 2--i— 2y*#.

I Qdy (as though x were a constant) 4X2V
/X^

= {(y*—4xy—2xz) dy = ^*— ^ — 2Ar2y ;

but of this only ^3 must be taken, since the other terms have been
obtained by the integration of terms containing x.
Hence \x*— 2x2y— zxyz+$ys = C
or x3— 6x*y—6xy*+y* = K.

Example 13. — Solve the equation v du— u dv = o.

If this equation is multiplied through by - 2 we have a form on the

left-hand side with which we are familiar, viz.,
v du—u dv _

for the left-hand side is d (- V

v2 ~~°'
It ••
Then by integrating, - = C
or u = Cv.
I This equation might have been regarded as one made exact

through multiplication by the integrating factor — 2.

 SIMPLE DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 281
Equations Homogeneous (/. e.. of the same power
throughout) in x and y.

Rule. — Make the substitution y — vx and separate the variables.

Example 14. — Solve the equation (xz+yz) dx = 2xy dy.

Let y = vx,
dy dx , dv . dv
then -f- = V-J-+X-T-
dx dx dx = v-\-x-rdx ..... -. . (i)
Now (xz+yz) dx = 2xy dy
SO dy, ~~"
_ xz+yz _ x*+xzvz
~~" --
« _ i+vz
- -

dx 2xy 2xzv
Substituting for -- from (i)

dx -2V
or dv ijrvz—2v2 i
3-
dx
— -2V
- ---
2V

Separating the variables, and integrating,

fzv dv _ i~dx
J i—vz~J x
i. e., — log (i— vz) — log#+log C rthe substitution being
or log#(i— vz) = — logC = log K I u = i— v2
du=—2vdv
i.e., x(i—vz) = K
or

and xz—y* =

Linear Equations of the Second Order.

Let v - «**, then - Ae^ and -

«X ^2
so that XV^+aAe^+fce** = o
or X2+«X+6 = o for jy = o would be a special case.
There are three possible solutions to this quadratic.
282 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS

The general solution is : X = =—

and let X, = ^ i v az — 46

We shall now discuss the three cases.

Case (i). — If #2>4&, then Xj and X2 are real quantities and
unequal.
Now if v = A, 1 e^x. -r4
dxz + a-r-
dx + by will equal o, as would be the
d V tt"V

case also if y = A2e^, so that to complete the solution the two

must be included (for the equation is true if either or both are
included).
Thus y = Ajtf*!* -\- A%e^2X
the constants Aj and A2 being fixed by the conditions.
Case (2).— If A2 = 46, then X1 = X2.
According to the preceding case we might suppose that the
solution was y = Ae^.
This, however, is not the complete solution,
which is y — (A+B*)^.
Case (3). — If az<4b. This means that Va2— 46 is the square
root of a negative quantity, i. e., it is an imaginary.
Now, a2— 4& = —1(46— a2), (46— a2} being positive ;
hence Va2— 46 = V^i Vtf—a2

and —a+j\/4b—az

— a— A—

Use might be made of the solution to C<zs0 (i), adopting these

values of Xa and X2, but this does not give the most convenient
form in which to write the solution.

Let c=V4&— az then Xj = — rtx — ;c

and X, = i-
 SIMPLE DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 283
Then y = A^i^-f- A2e*& from Case (i)
(-a+jc)x (-a-jc)x

Developing one of these only, viz., the first, and neglecting

for the time being,
-ax+jcx _ax jcx

e 2 =e~ 2"x«~2".
Now ei* = cos x -\-j sin x (see p. no),
and by writing — for x
& cx, . cx
e2 = cos —2\-ism —2
Hence
"" ' cos —cx +7, sm. cx\
—2 /+, A.2e -¥/2 /\ cos cx2 j.sin. cx\
—2 /)
< 2

where

A = V(A1+Aa)a+y*(A1— A2)2 = 2 VA^AZ . (see Part I, p. 277)

and

Taking as the standard equation

and grouping our results, we have the following

(i) If a2>4&: the solution is
y == Al6
(2) If a2 = 46 : the solution is

Bx)e ~*.is
(A+solution
(3) If az<4b:y= the
_ax
284 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
The last of these forms occurs so frequently that very careful
consideration should be given to it, and to the equation of which
it gives the solution.

Example 15. — Solve the equation

dzy , dy
^- — 2V = O.

dx f
This can be written (after dividing through by 5)
dzy , dy
-3-4+2-4-^
dx2 dx — 4V = o,
so that a — 2-4 and b — — -4 (in comparison with the standard form).
-2-4+v/5776+l:6,|. -2'4-v/6-76+l-6.
y = AlS

It is really easier to work a question of this kind from first principles

rather than to try to remember the rule in the form given ; thus the
values of X will be the roots of the equation
5\2+ I2X— 2=0.
Then, calling these roots Xj and X2 respectively

If the values of At and A2 were required, two values of y with the

corresponding values of x would be necessary.

Example 16. — A body is moving away from a fixed point in such a

way that its acceleration is directed towards that point, and is given in
magnitude by 64 times the distance of the body from that point. Find
the equation of the motion and state of what kind the motion is.

The motion is Simple Harmonic. (See p. 60.)

If s = displacement at time t from the start

= acceleration and = — 645

(the reason for the minus sign being obvious).
dzs dzy dy
Thus ^+645=0, which is of the type -^-}-a~-\-b=o, where a=o
and 6=64.
If s = e*
X2 + 64 = o
so that X = ± V— 64= ± 8j.
 SIMPLE DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 285
Hence the solution (according to Case (3)) is
_??
y — Ae 2 sinf -- \-p\
where a = o and c — V^b—a* — 16
so that s = A sin (8t+p) .
The general equation of S.H.M. is
s = A sin (o>t-}-p)
&> being the angular velocity, so that the angular velocity in this case
is 8 and the amplitude is A.
Example 17. — Solve the equation

Let y = e**
then X2+8X+i6 = o
i.e., (X+4)2 = o
i. e., the roots are equal.
Hence y = (A+~Bx)e>&, (Cf. Case (2), p. 282)
where X = — 4.
hence y = (A-\-~Bx)e~*x.
Example 18. — Solve the equation
dzv dy

This differs from the preceding examples in the substitution of a

constant in place of o.
The equation can be written
dzy , dy .

Let 5^+7i+io(y--5)=°.
(y—~5) = e*x

then (Q. = \ete and ^

dx dxz
and X2-|-7X-j-io = o
whence X = — 5 or — 2
then y- -5 = A^ - fa+ Aze
or = Ag-
//y /-y
In other words, the solution is that of -=^j + 7 -— + ioy = o plus
tt# i**V

5 . the constant dy j ^
— , t. e., - ^^ -- T-. This is correct because, if v = -5, -^ and -v4
10 coefficient of y dx dx2
each equals o, and thus one solution is y — -5. The complete solution
is the sum of the two solutions.
286 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS

The Operator D. — The differential coefficient of y with

respect to x may be expressed in a variety of forms : thus either

—-, -j , f'(x) or Dy might be used to denote the process of

differentiation. The last of these forms, which must only be used
when there is no ambiguity about the independent variable, proves
to be of great advantage when concerned with the solution of
certain types of differential equations. It is found that the symbol
D has many important algebraic dproperties,*y which lend them-
selves to the employment of D as an " operator."
The first derivative of y with regard to x = Dy, and the second
derivati o y with regard to x — -j^, which is written as D2y ; D2
ve f
indicating that the operation represented by D must be performed
twice. This is in accordance with the ordinary rules of indices, so
the fact suggests itself that the operator D may be dealt with
according to algebraic rules. Thus D3 must equal D.D.D (this
implying not multiplication, but the performance of the operation
three times) ; for
..
dx* dx\dx2/ dx dx dx
Our rule then holds, at any rate, so long as the index is positive,
or the operation is direct ; and for complete establishment we must
test for the case when the index is negative.

If Dy = dj? D = f:let^ = m, i. *., Dy = m.

Then by integration y = I mdx,

but if Dy = m and the rules of algebra can be applied to D

m i
y must = ^r or =- . m.

Hence -^m— Imdx

)W~ \i
or =- indicates the operation of integration.

Again, if the rules of indices are to hold,

D.D"1^ must = D°y or y,
hence D-1 must represent the process of integration; since if we
 SIMPLE DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 287
differentiate a function we must integrate the result to arrive at
the original function once again.

Hence D'1 = ^.
Having satisfied ourselves that the ordinary rules of indices may
be applied to D, we may now prove that the rules of factorisation
apply also.
Taking the expression D2 — 120+32, we can easily show that it
can be written in the factor form (D— 4)(D— 8) :
for let y = jx2—5x, then Dy = 14*— 5 and D2jy = 14.
Also (D2— 120+32)? = D^y— i2Vy+32y
= 14— i68#-f 6o+224#2— 160*

and

— 5— 56*2+40*)— 4(14*— 5—
= 14 — II2#+40 — 56#+20+224#2 — I6OX

so that
(D2-I2D+32) = (D-4)(D-8).
These properties make D of great usefulness in the solution of
certain types of differential equations : e. g.,

Suppose 5^+7^ + ioy = M ..... . (i)

then this equation may be re-written as

M5D2+7D+io)=M
M
5D2+7D+io
and the solution of equation (i) may be found by this artifice.
Many differential equations occurring in electrical theory may be
y=
solved in a very simple manner by the treatment of D as a " quasi-
algebraic" quantity: before proceeding to these, however, we
must enunciate the following theorems.
288 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS

Useful Theorems, involving the Operator D : —

(1) (p+qD) operating on the function a sin (bt+c)
gives the result aVp2+b2q2 sin f^+c+tan"1^ )
\ p '
(2) r—p. a sin (bt+c) = ——_ - sin (bt+c— tan-1-).
p+qV ^*+b2* P'
Proof of (i).
(p+qD)a sin (bt+c) "1
= ap sin (bt+c)+aqb cos (bt+c}

= aVp*+q*bz sin (bt+c+ia.^^

\ p/ (See Part I, p. 277.)
Proof of (2).
sn
J
J j> sin (U+c)—bq cos

sin

a sin V( 6^+c— tan-1-

As a test of the correctness of the above rules the combination

of the two operations should give the original function.
Thus
p-\-qu
sn
= a sn
A third theorem might thus be added.

D sin (bt+c) = 6 cos

D2 sin (&^+c) = — Z>2 sin
or D2 = -62
hence pz—q2Dz = p2+qzbz.
 SIMPLE DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 289
Application of these Rules to the Solution of Differential
Equations.
d^y dy
Example 19. — Solve the equation -5-^+7^4-12^ = eSx.

This equation might be written

S0that ^
The solution of this equation gives the particular integral, whilst
the complementary function, as it is termed, will be obtained by the
solution of the equation
dx* dx
[The solution of this equation we know from the previous work to be

Now T>e5x = 5eSx, DV5* = 250^, i. e.t D = 5 and D2 =

Hence the particular integral is
~ 25+35+12
~7*'

Hence the general solution is

*
To test this by differentiation of the^g5result : —

2e-*;t+— e&x
= e*x.
dzs ds
Example 20. — Solve the equation at,- +4^7+45
dt = 5 sin 7/. (This type
of equation occurs frequently in electrical problems and in problems on
forced vibrations of a system.)
U
290 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
/72 c /7c

The solution of --2+4-^7+45

(It Cli = 0

is s = (A+Bt)e~zt (See p. 283.)

To find the particular integral :—
(D2+4D-D+M- 5 =+4
4) 4D 5 sin jt.

_5sin jt
D sin jt = j cos jt and D2 sin jt = — 49 sin jt.
(Note that D2 = —49, but D does not = j.)
We must thus eliminate D from the denominator: to do this,
multiply both numerator and denominator by D2+4— 40.

Then _5(P2+4-4P)sin7/
(D2+4)2-i6D2
_ 5(— 49 sin 7^+4 sin jt—28 cos jt)
(-49+4)2-(i6x-49)
2809
_ —5(45 sin 7^+28 cos jt)

2809
_ 45
28

Hence the complete solution is ' in~14-5>

53 A'
53 ~~V ' "dn 45A

The particular integral might have been found in a more direct

fashion by the use of Theorem 2, p. 288.
For sin7* i

(D+2)2-(D+2) •
jt— tan"1-), _,, (4) = 2
_ (72j \
from Theorem 2, J ? =
UI c == 7o
p. 288
sinf jt— tan-1-J

I I / 7 7
= —7= X — 7= sin 1 7i— tan"1 - — tan-1 -
V53 V53 V 2 2
= —53 sin (V
jt— 2 tan"1 -2}Y
 SIMPLE DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 291
The two results do not appear at first sight to be the same, but the
can be reconciled in the following manner :—

tan"1 — = tan"1 -6223 = 31° 54'

tan-1 ? =74° 3'

Thus — sin (7/4-

\ tan-1 45'
— ) = — sin (7/4-31° 54')

also sin (7*— 2tan~1-J = sin (jt— 2x74° 3') = sin (jt— 148° 6')
= — sin (1804-7^— 148° 6')
= - sin (7/4-31° 54')
= — sin (v
7/4- tan"1 45/
— ).

IT Tl, -.-' T^T&y , T- , B/ 1TX

Example 21. — The equation EI-r^4-Fy4--^-
dx ocos-=-I = o occurs in
Mechanics, y being the deflection of a rod of length /, and F being the
end load.
Solve this equation.

,,T dzy , F =— B^F

We may rewrite the equation as -r^+^fV B/ TT*
dxz EF 8EIcos -;/ • • I1)

The solution of +-^y = oisy = Asui/\ j^x+p ... (2)

Reverting to form (i)
B/ nx
B/

or 8EIC<S

B/ irX

8-cos F B/

Hence the complete solution is y = A sin ( *J ~pX-{-p j4- 8 COST

292 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
Example 22. — A pin-jointed column, initially bent to a curve of
cosines, has a vertical load W applied to it. Find an expression for
the deflection at any point.
Given that the equation of the initial bent form is
irX

y being the deflection at distance x from the centre of the column,

which is of length /.
Also

this equation being obtained from a consideration of the bending

moment at distance x from the centre.

, firX\\
and thus +--A cos
W AW nx\
ffnx
(T>
Now, as shown on
d* W
-ETCOSof the
iy= solution
p. 283,iLthe equation
= o
(y J)

To find the particular integral, viz., the solution of the equation

d* . W AW

write the equation as

AW

AW /irX\
— -^-= COS ( — )

so that « = - \l >

AW l-nx

Combining the two results El I*

(r).
 SIMPLE DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 293
The following example combines the methods of solution
employed in Examples 17, 18, 19 and 20.

Example 23. — Solve the equation

d2s ds
= «-«+ sin 607T/+5.

(a) The solution of

-5^— 12-^ + 205 = 0 is s = A.1elot+Azezt.

(b) The particular integral for
d?s ds
d7*-12di
may be thus found :—

D2— I2D+20 D2e~5t = 2$e-

i
25+60+20

(c) To find the particular integral for

d*s ds
-jr.— i2^-+2os
dtz dt = sinooiri.

D2— I2D + 20

I ^ sin6o7r<
D— 10 D— 2~
^ • ~/'=\ ==,; sin [6o7rf— tan"1 (—3071-)] \q = i J-
D-io V4+36007T2 l& = 6o^J
i i
/- -.- , -^ ' -/— ^~z — a sin [607T/— tan"1 (—30^)— tan"1 (— 6rr)l
v4+3ooon-a Vioo+3ooo7ri
sin [6orr<— tan^1 (—3077)— tan"1 (—677)]
2oV(l+9007T2) (I + 367T2)

(d) The particular integral for

dzs ds

is 20 4

Hence the complete solution is the sum of those in (a), (b),-(c)

and (d), viz.,
1 2
|g~5
s = A e"'+A g^ 105 _ 2oV(i+90on2) (I+367T*)
294 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
Equations of the Second Degree. — The treatment of these
equations is very similar, up to a certain point, to that employed
in the solution of ordinary quadratic equations ; particularly the
solution by factorisation.

Example 24. — Solve the equation

^Y- 8^-33=0
dx/ dx

Let Y= dx then Y2-8Y~33=o

or (Y-ii)(Y+3) = o.
Thus Y = 11 or Y = — 3
dy dy
i.e., / = ii
dx or ^-=
dx — 3,
whence y = i ix + Ct or y = — $x + C2
or y — i ix — Cx = o y + 3, — C2 = o,
and the complete solution is the product of these two solutions, since
the equation is of " degree " higher than the first.
Thus the solution is
(y—iix—CJ (y+3x-Cz)=o.

\ax/
Example 25. — Solve the equation 5! -— ) — 8y8=o.
(dv\2
3\ A v I *

Dividing by 5

Factorising \-~^-
\CiX 1-26^ /)(-/-
\CLX — 1-265^)/ = °-

Hence -^-+1-265^^ = 0 or -^-—1-265^ = 0.

Separating the variables and integrating

/^+i'265/^
J yl J
= o or -%— 1-265 JI dx =
J yi

whence the complete solution is,

Two further examples are added to illustrate methods of solu-

tion other than those already indicated.
 SIMPLE DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 295

Example 26. — Solve the equation -j-^

dx3 — -^
dx* — 14-^+2
dx AV = o.

The equation may be written (D3— D2— i.fD-f 24)^ = o

or (D-2)(D-3)(D+4)y = o,
whence y =

Example 27. — The equation j^= m*y occurs in the discussion of

the whirling of shafts. Solve this equation.

i. e., D4 = m*
or (D2— m2) (D2+m2) = o,
whence D= ±m or ±jm.
Hence y = a1emx-^-aze~mx-\-a3ejmx-\-ate-intx.
But e'x = cos x+j sin x, ejnue = cos mx+j sin mx
and ex — cosh AT+ sinh #,
i.e., enix = cosh w# + sinh mx.
y = ^ (cosh w#+ sinh m#) +«a(cosh mx— sinh w#)
+a3(cos w# +y sin ra#) +«4(cos mx—j sin w#)
= (aa+a4) cos wwr-f (a3— a4); sin w#+ («i+^2) cosh mx
+ («!— a2) sinh WAT
= A cos m# -f- B sin mx-\-C cosh m^+D sinh mx.
The constants A, B, C and D are found by consideration of the
conditions; four equations must be formed, these being found by
successive differentiation and by substituting for f- , -^ and ?? their
dx dxz dx3
values for various values of x.

Exercises 22. — On the Solution of Differential Equations.

1. If -p = 5#a— 2-4 and y = 1-68 when x = 2-29, find y in terms of x.

dzs ds
2. Given that —£££ = 16-1 ; -=7
£££ = 4-3 when t = 1-7 and s = 9-8 when
f = -2, find s in terms of t.

3. If ^ = 8y+5, find an expression for y.

296 MATHEMATICS
dv FOR ENGINEERS
G/X
4. Given that 8-76-^- +9* 15^ = 76-4 and also that ^ = 2-17 when
x = o, find an expression for y in terms of x.
5. A beam simply supported at its ends is loaded with a concentrated
load W at the centre. The bending moment M at a section distant x
from the centre is given by
™M = W/ 1 x \}.
—2 4\2-— /

M dzv
If == = -j^, find the equation of the deflected form, y being the
deflection.

6. For the case of a fixed beam uniformly loaded, M, the bending

(w(P
moment, =1-1 x2,\ 1— „)
K I. T, M = —d*y^; -f-
If ==- dy = o when x = -I and also
1 2X4 / El dxz dx 2
when x = o ; and y = o when x = - , find an expression for y.
7. Solve the equation
dx i

the limits to T being Tx and T2, and to x being o and / ; the remaining
letters representing constants.

8. If ax
-j- = 1- and v = o when x — s, find v in terms of x.
4//x

9. If T! = the absolute temperature of the gases entering a tube of

length / and diam. D,
r2 = the absolute temperature of the gases leaving this tube,
6 = temperature of the water,
Q = amount of heat transmitted through the tube per sq. ft. per sec.
per degree difference of temperature on the two sides,
w = weight of gases along the tube per sec., and s = specific heat
of gases,
, dr QnT^dx
then — 0T H— ws — = o.
r—
Find an expression for Q, x being the distance from one end of the
tube.

10. Find Q if Q^-nDdx-^-wsdr = o (the letters having the same

meanings as in No. 9, and the limits being the same).

11. If T-J and r2 are the inside and outside temperatures respectively
of a thick tube of internal radius rt and external radius rz, then
rfr H
dx ~~ 27rK I
I is the length of the tube, H is a quantity of heat, and the limits to
are o and rz—rv Find an expression for H, K being a constant.
 SIMPLE DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 297
12. A compound pendulum swings through small axes. If I =
moment of inertia about the point of suspension, h = the distance of
C. of G. from point of suspension, then
I X angular acceleration f i. e., 1^) = —mhd.
Find an expression for 6.
If p. = couple for unit angle — mh, prove that t, the time of a com-
r O

plete oscillation, = 2/r \/ — (in Engineers' units).

13. To find expressions for the stresses p and q (hoop) in thick
cylinders it is necessary to solve the equation

Solve this equation for p.

14. For a thick spherical shell, Up — radial pressure,

Find an expression for p, a being a constant.

,.15. the
If —~K.ttvdp heat
specific = ~K.ppdv, prove pressure
at constant that pv = .. constant, y KD being the
ratio -rr
the—-specific
— r= — r—
heat at constant volume - of a gas, i. e., ==?•
KB
16. Solve for z in the equation
dx g f
dz H.---
3" w w2
7- zx — °-
17. Solve the equation
dzy dy
^-i7^
and thence the equation
dzy dy
d^-l7Tx
dzs
18. Solve the equation — — 875.
dzsat
19. Solve the equation ^73+875
(tt = o.
20. Find the time that elapses whilst an electric condenser of
capacity K discharges through a constant resistance R, the potential
difference at the start being t^ and at the end vz, being given that
— K x rate of change of potential » = = •
jf*
21. If V = RC+L-r- and V = o, find an expression for C; C0 being
the initial current, i. e., the value of C when t — o.

22. If V = RC-f L— -- , and V = V0 sin qt, find an expression for C.

ctt
J/~*
298 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS

23. If -y- = -Vyz+2ay, find x in terms of y, a being a constant.

dx a •
24. An equation occurring when considering the motion of the
piston of an indicator is
M^ffix + _a^
SM pa.
M

Solve this equation for x ; M, a, S and p being constants.

25. If -Py = Eig.

(an equation referring to the bending of struts), find y; given that
x = o when y — o, and v = Y when x = — •

26. To find the time t of the recoil of a gun, it was necessary to

solve the equation — = n Vxz— a2.
dt
If a = 47-5, n — 3-275 and the limits to x are o and 57-5, find t.

27. Solve the equation (Ait

-^-\-2/~-\-nzx
(Jit — o.
dx
Take w2 = 200, /= 7*485 ; also let x = o and — = 10 when t = o.
Cut
28. The equation ^2"+2/^iQ/v +nzx = a sin qt
(It

expresses the forced vibration of a system. If n2 = 49, / = 3, q = 5, find

an expression for x.
dzV r
29. Solve the equation dx2
-,-=• — V rz
— = o.
30. If H is the amount of heat given to a gas, p is its pressure and
v its volume (of i lb.), then -,~ = 7— -Av^+np). Assuming that
dv (n— i) V dv */
there is no change of heat (i.e., the expansion is adiabatic and -5— = o J,
find a simple equation to express the connection between the pressure
and volume during this expansion.

31. Newton's law of cooling may be expressed by the equation

*<«-«
where k is a constant, and 6a5is"the temperature of the air.
If Q = 0Q when t = o, find an expression for 6.

32. The equation 1-04-^

(It+12-3—Ctt +13^—634=0
occurred in an investigation to find 6, the angle of incidence of the main
planes of an aeroplane.
If t = o when 6 = i and —at = o when t = o, find an expression for 6.
 SIMPLE DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 299
33. A circular shaft weighing p Ibs. per ft. rotates at o> radians per
second, and is subjected to an endlong compressive force F. The
deflection y can be found from the equation
d*y IF dfy _ p u
d^ + mfa* #
Solve this equation for y.
34. An equation relating to the theory of the stability of an aero-
plane is
dv
— = g cos a— kv
Civ

where v is a velocity ; g, a and k being constants. Find an expression

for the velocity, if it is known that v = o when t — o.
 CHAPTER X
APPLICATIONS OF THE CALCULUS

THE idea of this chapter is to illustrate the use of the Calculus

as applied to many Engineering problems ; and the reader is
supposed to be acquainted with the technical principle involved.
The various cases will be dealt with as though examples.

Examples in Thermodynamics.

Example i. — To prove that (V— w) = —T GtfT

=5-, an equation occurring
in Thermodynamics,
where L = latent heat at absolute temperature T,
V = vol. of i Ib. of steam at absolute temperature T,
w = vol. of i Ib. of water = -016 cu. ft.,
P = pressure.

A quantity q of heat taken in at r-f-8r and discharged at r will,

according to the Carnot cycle, give out work = qrT-j-OT

r - or approxi-
mately
4. 1 q —T .
8f

Hence for i Ib. of steam at the boiling temperature,

work = q —SrT= L —87-
T ,

but the work done = volume of steam in the cylinder x change in pressure

Hence (V-w)8P

and thus V— w=— r^,

T oir
or, as Sr becomes infinitely small,
X7.
V—w= —L,dr
T dP
Now -Tp is the slope of the pressure temperature curve (plotted from

300
 APPLICATIONS OF THE CALCULUS
the tables) and can be easily found for any temperature r. Hence V can
also be found.
A numerical example will illustrate further.
It is required to find the volume of i Ib. of dry steam at 228°F.,301
i. e., at 20 Ibs. per sq. in. pressure.

From xtables .. PP== 20,*

1.1 -^/When
the 460+225-3 = 685-3.
225-3, Tr== 688.
19, * = 228,
steam ' .. -
^ „ P = 2i, t= 230-6, T = 690-6.
Plotting these temperatures to a base of pressures, we find that the
portion of the curve dealt with in this range is practically straight.

r /
69O
/
3 f
2-65

689 /
s
688
687 S
s
t i—
H !

686 /
685
7
/9 eo p e»
FIG. 103. — Problem in Thermodynamics.
/*
The slope of this line = 2-65 (Fig. 103), and this is the value of
-==, P being given in Ibs. per sq. in. and the latent heat in thermal
units. To change the formula to agree with these units,

v = 778L dr 65
Also L at 228° F. = 953. 5 3 x2-
9
V = -oi6-f 778x
= 19-82 cu. 144x688
ft.

Example 2. — To prove that the specific heat of saturated steam

(expanding dry) is negative. dP'

Let Q = the quantity of heat added.

H = total heat from 32° F.
I = internal energy of the steam.
 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
302
Then H = internal + external energy
i.e., I = H-PV
or 81 = 8H-8(PV)=SH-(P8V+VSP).
Now
= SH-PSV-V8P+PSV
= 8H-V8P
<\T r -*-* <\
(from. Example i, neglecting^
\ w, which is very small J*
Then
8r
L
and r
L
H =
Now the specific heat = heat to raise the temperature i°

hence dT^ '305

= -305 - -
L.
and since - is greater than -305, 5 is a negative quantity.
E. g., if t = 300° F., i. e., r = 761° F. absol.,
= 1115 — 210 = 905.
9°5
3 J 761
.'. s = '305 — ^-^
= - -882.

Work Done in the Expansion of a Gas.

Example 3. — Find the work done in the expansion of a gas from
volume vl to volume va.
There are two distinct cases, which J must be treated separately; but
Vl
for both cases the work done in the expansion is measured by the area
ABCD = % areas of strips like MN (Fig. 104)
= ^,fp &v or I p dv more exactly.
Case (a), for which the law of the expansion is pv = C.
Work done /'»2
= Jit*
/"»2
/ pdv= JI Vi
/ \"2
Cv~*dv = Cl \ logh v Jvi
}

or C log r

r being the ratio of expansion, and = — .

Thus the work done = pv log r.
 APPLICATIONS OF THE CALCULUS 303
Case (b), for which the law of the expansion is pvn — C, n having any
value other than i .

•1 **• 1
M V
FIG. 104. FIG. 105.
Work Done in the Expansion of a Gas.

Work done = J/t7j

2pdv = • \Dj*Cv~ndv
i— n
i
i—n
i— (p»(
i— n
Pzvzi—n
— Pi

Work Done in a Complete Theoretical Cycle.

Example 4. — Find the work done in the complete cycle represented
by the diagram FGAB in Fig. 105.

The work done = area GABF = ABCD+GADH— FBCH

i—n
304 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS

Note that, if n = ^|
16
work done ==

If the expansion is adiabatic, and n is calculated according to

Zeuner's rule, n =
(q being the initial dryness fraction).
If q = i, then n = i-O35+-i = i-i35, so that the work done

dq
To Find the Entropy of Water at Absolute Temperature r.
Example 5. — When a substance takes in or rejects heat (at tempera-
To
ture T)the change in entropy 8$ = — (8q = heat taken in) .
Let a = specific heat,
then o-Sr = 8q.
Change in entropy from r0 to T = f —

dr
JTT
.

r_ - /i.e., in the change from\

For steam, the heat taken in at T= L { ).
\_ \ the liquid to the gas /
Hence the change of entropy = —

Efficiency of an Engine working on the Rankine Cycle.

Example 6. — Find the efficiency of an engine working on the
Rankine cycle ; using the T(f> diagram for the calculation.

Work done = area of ABCD (Fig. 106.)

= ABCK+ADMN-DKMN
= * x (TJ— T2)+heat taken in from
TI Tjtorj— (rtx'DK).
Now DK = the change in entropy from water at TZ to
water at TX

= loge — as proved above.

 APPLICATIONS OF THE CALCULUS 305

Hence the work done = ^-^ (TI— r2) + (r1— T2) — ra log —

The heat put in being the dryness

fraction at

and thus the efficiency TJ =

r r

FIG. 106. FIG. 107.

Efficiency of an Engine.

Efficiency of an Engine working on the Rankine Cycle, with steam

kept saturated by jacket steam.
Example 7. — Find the efficiency of the engine whose cycle is given
by abcf in Fig. 107.
Work done = area abcf
_ f'aLj /the summation being of\
~~ j TI T \ horizontal strips )
[for L = 1115— -7/1
dr ==1437—
a+br 7r

= alog«-a+6(r2— TJ) . . (i)

Total heat received = L2+r2— rj

total heat rejected = Lj (2)
Hence the work done = (i) — (z).
 Tl

306 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS

from which H,- = a log— +6(r2— TJ} — (L2— Lx) — (r2

= a log -+6(T2— TX) — (a+&T2— a—- 6

Now the total heat received = L8+ra—

= L2+ra—

Hence

where a = 1437 and b = — "j.

Example 8. — To prove that the equation for adiabatic expansion of

air is pvy = C, where
_ specific heat at constant pressure _ Kp
' specific heat at constant volume Kw
Dealing throughout with i Ib. of air, let the air expand under
constant pressure from conditions p1 v1 rx to p^ v r.

Then the heat added = Kp(r— rx) = K/^- — ^~

Now keep the volume constant at v, and subtract as much heat as

was previously added : then the pressure falls to pz and the tem-
perature to ra.
The heat subtracted = K,(i— T,) = Kv(^—-

Now, if the changes are regarded as being very small, we may write
for v— vl and 8p for pi—pz
and thus — Kvv&p = Kpp8v
, (dp Kp rdv
whence / -~ = — ~ /—
/ P KJ i;
log p = — y log w + l°g (constant)
i. e., /> = Cy-v
or v~i = C.
 APPLICATIONS OF THE CALCULUS 307
Examples relating to Loaded Beams.
Example g. — Prove the most important rule

M_E_ d*y
I R~ dxz
applied to a loaded beam ; M, I and E having their usual meanings,
and R being the radius of curvature of the bent beam.

Assuming the beam to be originally straight, take a section of length

/ along the neutral lamina, and let l-\-8l be the strained length at
distance y (Fig. 108).

A -
li\
FIG. 108. — Problem on Loaded Beam.

Then, if R = radius of curvature,

1+81 _
I R

whence 1 + 81
R

or
stress I ~R/ / /R
but 1-4 --
strain
_ — .
3/.
J — •
y
"i. _
y
- — . **_ _

I R

and thus
R
M /
but it has already been proved (see p. 239) that y = — •
Hence M = E

i ~R'
 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
308
The total curvature of an arc of a curve is the angle through which
the tangent turns as its point of contact moves dy from one end of the
arc to the other ; and the mean curvature is given by the total curva-
ture divided by the length of arc.
In Fig.
S</> 108 8$ = total curvature for the arc 65, and the mean curva-
8s
ture = -5--
We know that the slope of the tangent is given by ~
flwv
.-. tand> =
dx
dy
Now ,
tan $ = sec2 $ and
, ,-f- d<b
ds ds

• • SCC 2 sk ^^tis
O as
• ~^ ^ i^y
\a^
~^ ~5~ I ~~5

i d (dy\ X --=
sec2 0 X sR = xas IVa^r/
T^ )

dx\dx) ds

dx* ds
dx

Hence R^ = -^~
dx* X -£
ds x cos2 tan (b = -—•

d*y

dx*
When, as for a beam, -~ is very small, (-*- j may be neglected in
comparison with i, and hence

This result may be arrived at more briefly, but approximately, in

the following manner :— •
80 = 8 tan 0 very nearly (when the angle is very small) .

Hence 8s
~- = -- --8s— — = —8x- tan <6 = rate of change of the tangent (for
PM and PQ are sensibly alike).
 APPLICATIONS OF THE CALCULUS 309

Thus ^^A.^^^y
ds dx dx dx*
and _i = _£.
d2y
R dxz
M=/=E_F^
I y R dx*
In the use of this rule there should be no difficulty in finding
expressions for y in terms of x in
cases in which the beam is simply
supported; for an expression is
found for the bending moment at
distance x from one end, or the
centre, whichever may be more con- pi
venient, and then the relation
M d2y
•=- = E n-n
v& FIG. 109. —T Beam
j j Uniformly
w;t Loaded,
is used ; whence double integration
from the equation so formed gives an expression for the deflected
form.
A few harder cases are here treated, the beam not being simply
supported.

Example 10. — A beam is fixed at one end and supported at the

other ; the loading is uniform, w being the intensity. Find the equation
of the deflected form.

We must first find the force P (part of the couple keeping the end
fixed) and then combine this force with the reaction at B calculated
on the assumption that the beam is simply supported. Referring to
Fig. 109: —
If the beam is simply supported, the bending moment at distance x
from
t B
-n = Wl
—2• x WX2
2

Hence the actual bending moment

= M,, = wlx
2
wx2
2
Px
_

i.e., -~~d2y
El ^-4= wlx wx2 .._.Px
dx* 2 2
whence, by integration,
_T dy = wlx2
EI-j^- wx3 Px2 .hQ
~
dx 4 62
 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
3io
but ax
-f- = o when x = I
for the deflected form is horizontal at this end.
wl3 wl3 PI* ,
o = f-C,
41 62
~~ 2 12

r _Pl2 wl3
Hence -rfrdy _ wlxz wx3 Pxz.Plz wl3
dx 4 6 2 2 12
T , , . „_
Integrating, Ely = — ze>#4 P#3 , Pl2x wl3x .„
12 24 6.2 12— ^-C2.
In this equation there are the two unknowns P and C2, and to
evaluate them we must form two equations from the statements
y = o when x = o and y = o when x = 1.
If y = o when x = o, then it is readily seen that Ca = o.
Also if x = l wl* wl* PI3
o = ----- ? — ,----
P/3 wl*
12 24 6 2 12

whence
1,
P = -5-
T,
o
Wl

Point' of Conhraflexure
/_
Fixed End

FIG. no. — Deflected Form of Beam.

If the beam were simply supported, the upward reaction would be

wl , ,, ,, ,. wl wl 3 .
—2 , and thus the net reaction = 288 5- = ^wl.
Substituting -5-
o in place of P in the expression for y, we arrive at

the equation of the deflected form

dy
the curve for which is shown in Fig. no.
We may now proceed to find where the maximum deflection occurs,
and also the position of the point of contraflexure.
dy w

and dx 48EI '

the solution of which, applicable to the present case, is x — -423^

TX=°«
 APPLICATIONS OF THE CALCULUS 311
The maximum deflection is thus
—•064— -423)

•005 4 wl*
~EI~
wl*
To find C the point of inflexion or contraflexure

and 3-^ = o if x = o or if x = £/.

Example n. — A beam is fixed at one end and supported at the

other, the loading and the section both varying. Find the equation of
the deflected form.

Let m = bending moment at a point distant x from B if the beam were

simply supported, and let P= the force of the fixing couple. (See Fig. 109.)
Then M = m—Px

i. e., Elf^ = W_P*

, . dxz
.~dzy m Px
E^ = I-T
the equation being written indy this form since I is now a variable.

By integrating t*x J[X^dx-P

E^= 0 I JF^dx+Cj.
01 ...... (i)
Now -j£
dx ss o when x = 1.

i. e., Cj can be found, for the two integrals may be evaluated.

By integrating (i),

Ey = Jfo .'f2(rf*)»-pr
o L f \ (d^+c.x+c,.
JoJp1
But j/ = o when x = I and also when x = o, and thus C2 — o
and
J oJ o
i. e., P can be found.
The integrations must be performed graphically and with extreme
care, or otherwise very serious errors arise.

Example 12. — A beam is fixed at both ends and the loading and the
section both vary. Find the equation of the deflected form.
3i2 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
Let Wj and m2 be the end fixing couples ; then to keep the system
in equilibrium it is necessary to introduce equal and opposite forces P
(Fig. in), i. e., P/+w2 = Wj.
Let m = the " simply supported " bending moment at section
distant x from the right-hand end.
Then M = m— mz— Px
dzv
and consequently El-r^ = m—mz—Px
d*m m Px

Integrating,
_ dy
E /- = /cxm,
-=-dx—mtl fxdx ^fxxf
-V-— P/
dx ,4. o I *J 0 I J 0I

-I —
FIG. in.

Now -jL*mQ
dx when x = o or
hence Cx = o (taking ^ = o)
and also, taking x = I,

Integrating again,

Ey = /• r^w-m. r r jw-p r ff w
J QJ 0 *• J OJ 0 i J 0-' 0 X

Now y = o when # = o and also when x = I.

Then taking x = o, C2 = o,
and taking # = /,

From equations (i) and (2) the values of wa and P (and hence Wj)
may be found, the integration being graphical (except in a few special
cases) ; and again it must be emphasised that the integration must be
performed most accurately.
 APPLICATIONS OF THE CALCULUS 313
Example 13. — A uniform rectangular beam, fixed at its ends, is
20 ft. long, and has a load of 10 tons at its centre and one of 7 tons
at 5 ft. from one end. Find the fixing couples and the true B.M.
diagram.

This is a special case of Example 12 since the section, and therefore

I, is constant.
The B.M. diagram for the beam if simply supported would be as
ABCD (Fig. 112).
The bending moment diagram, due to the fixing couples only, would
have the form of a trapezoid, as APQD.
Unless the integration, explained in the previous example, is done
extremely carefully, there will be serious errors in the results ; and
since there are only the two loads to consider, it is rather easier to

FIG. 112. — Fixing Couples and B.M. Diagram of Loaded Beam.

work according to the Goodman scheme. [See Mechanics applied to

Engineering, by Goodman.]
According to this plan : (i) the opposing areas (i. e., of the free and
fixing bending moment diagrams) must be equal ; and (2) the centroids
of the opposing areas must be on the same vertical, i. e., their centroid
verticals must coincide.
To satisfy condition (i),

Area of ABCD =(^X5X5i-25)+(5I'25+67'5X5)+(^Xiox67-5)

= 762-5.

Area of APQD = - x 20 x (w1+m2) where m^ = AP\

-> 10
and w = D

Equating these areas, m1-{-mt — 76-25

(i)
314 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
To satisfy condition (2), taking moments about AP,
r £
= 427
Moment of ABG = -X5I-25X-X5

Moment of BGH = -X5i-25X/5H — X5) = 854

r / 2 \

Moment of BHC = -x 67-5x1 5H — X5j =1405

Moment of DCH = —2X 67-5 x (V io-| — 3 x 10 /)= 4500

i. e., total moment of ABCD about AP = 7186
, . _._ 20 20 200
Moment of APD = —23 x w, X — = 3 n.

Moment of DPQ = — x mz X — = — m
200 .400
Hence (2)
— ^1 + — m2~

The solution of equations (i) and (2) for m^ and w2 gives the results
mi = 44-71 and m2 = 31-54.
Thus PQ is the true base of the complete bending moment diagram,
AP being made equal to 44-71, and DQ equal to 31-54.

Shearing Stress in Beams.

Example 14. — To find an expression for the maximum intensity of
shearing stress over a beam section.

The shearing stress at any point in a vertical section of a beam is

always accompanied by shearing stress of equal intensity in a hori-
zontal plane through that point.

FIG. 114.
FIG. 113. — Shearing Stress in Beams.
We require to know the tangential or shearing stress / at E on the
plane CEC' (Fig. 113) ; this must be equal to the tangential stress in
the direction EF on the plane EF at right angles to the paper.
Suppose that the bending moment at CC'=M and that at DD'=M+SM.
Then the total pushing forces on DF > total pushing forces on CE, the
difference being the tangential forces on EFE/.
 APPLICATIONS OF THE CALCULUS 315
Let P = the total pushing force on ECE'
then P = /,R
(stress) x area
C 1(stress
y = MIV"j
J RE I area = bdyj

RE J-
M /"RC M
= vI. 'RE
/ by dy = •=- x ist moment of area ECE'.
Now the tangential force on EFE' = stress x area
=/xEE'x8*
and this must equal the difference in the total pushing forces on DF
and CE, i. e., 8P.
Hence 8P = /x EE' x bx
i. e., -=r- x ist moment of area ECE'=/ x EE' ;

but ~F
— = rate of change of B.M.=shear=F (say).
T
~ bl
Hence the maximum intensity of shearing stress/

= ist moment of area ECE'x ? X:

or, as it is usually written, I "BE*

where S = an area such as CEE' and y = distance of its centroid from

the neutral axis.

Example 15. — Find the maximum intensity of shearing stress, when

the section is circular, of radius r (see Fig. 114).
For this section
I = V.
4
Applying the rule proved above :—
F ,-r since zr corresponds to EE'
the maximum intensity = -^ J by dy in Example ^

du ('where u = r*—yz

= - X mean intensity.
316 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
Example 16. — A uniformly tapered cantilever of circular cross
section is built in at one end and is loaded at the other. The diam.
at the loaded end is D ins. and the taper is t ins. per in. of length.
Find an expression for the distance of the most highly stressed section
from the free end of the beam due to bending moment only. Neglect
the weight of the cantilever.

Let / be the length in ins. and W the load at the free end. Consider
a section distant x ins. from the free end ; then the diam. here is
D— tx, and the bending moment W#.
Also the value of I for the section considered is

. _
My /D— tx\ 64
Hence the skin stress f = -^- = Vfx( - IX -7-^-—-.
I V 2 / 7r(D— tx)

K _ 32W
D3- F' ~
x (a constant),
and / is a maximum when the denominator is a minimum.
Let N = denominator

then =_
dx
dN
and -j—
d 'X
= o when 2t3x3—^Dt2x2-\-D3 — o
i. e., when 2t3x3— zl)t*x2— D/a^2+D8= o
2t*xz(tx-~D)-I)(t2.v2-~Dz) = o
(te-D)(2^«-Dte-D») = o
D(tx—T>)(2tx+T>)(tx—'D)
D = o
t. e., when x — —tor ---it .

Thus the stress is maximum at a section distant —t ins. from the

free end.

Example 17. — To find the deflection of the muzzle of a gun.

This is an instructive example on the determination of the deflection

of a cantilever whose section varies.
The muzzle is divided into a number of elementary discs, the
volumes of these found (and hence the weights) so that the curve of
loads can be plotted. Integration of this curve gives the curve of
shear, and integration of the curve of shear gives the B.M. diagram.
 317
APPLICATIONS OF THE CALCULUS
The values of I must next be calculated for each disc, and a new
curve plotted with ordinates equal to • : then double integration of
this gives the deflected form.
It is necessary to use the ordinates of this curve to find, first the
time of the fundamental oscillation and thence the upward velocity
due to the deflection.
Call the deflection at any section y, and the load or weight of the
small disc w.
Find the sum of all products like wy? and also find the sum of all
products like wy.
(Suitable tabulation will facilitate matters.)
Then T (time of oscillation)

If Y = maximum deflection, assuming the motion to be S.H.M.

then the upward velocity v is obtained from
vT = 27rY
27rY
or

v =
. Examples on Applied Electricity.

Example 18. — Arrange n electric cells partly in series and partly in

parallel to obtain the maximum current
from them through an external resistance R. •I-!' I'l
(Let the internal resistance of each cell = r,
and let the E.M.F. of each cell = v.)
Suppose the mixed circuit is as shown in
Fig. 115, i. e., with x cells per row and there-
7t
fore x- rows.
Then the total E.M.F. of i row = ;n;
and total internal resistance of i row = xr,
¥1
but as there are —x rows, the total internal
H
resistance is -x that of i row, i. e., the total
FIG. 115.
rent —from Maximum Cur-
Electric Cells.
internal resistance = —n ; but the E.M.F. is
unaltered : in reality the effect being that of one large cell, the area
rx* resistance less.
being greater and thus the
3i8 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
total E.M.F. xv
Hence the current C = total resistance rx
n
v

n x
and C is maximum when the denominator is a minimum.
Let D = the denominator, then ** , R"
dD r R , dD rx*
-=— = --- „ and -r- — o when R = — .
ax n xz dx n
i. e., external = internal resistance.

Example 19. — To find an expression for the time of discharge of an

electric condenser of capacity K, discharging through a constant
resistance R.

Let v = potential difference between the coatings at any time t.

v
Then, by Ohm's law, the current C = = .
But the current is given by the rate of diminution of the quantity
q and q = Kv.
dq dKv dv
Hence C = -^ = -^-= -K-
v Tjrdv
and thus ^K= — K-j-
at •

If Vx = the difference of potential at the start, i. e., at / = o,

and V2 = the difference of potential at the end of T sees,
Separating the variables and integrating,
*2

whence log =

or =J
Vt = e i
KR

V2 _i
«. e., ^~ = e KR
or the time taken to lower the voltage from
Vjto V2 =

Example 20. — If R = the electric resistance of a circuit, L = its

self -inductance, C = the current flowing and V = the voltage, then

V = RC+L-
 APPLICATIONS OF THE CALCULUS 319
Solve this equation for the cases when V = o, C = C0 sin qt and

For the case of a steady current V = RC since L is zero, and this

corresponds to the equation of uniform motion in mechanics, whilst
•j/-\
the equation V = RC+L-j- may be compared with that for accelerated
dt
motion, V being the force. Thus the second term of the equation may
be regarded as one expressing the " inertia " or " reluctance to change,"
and since the current may vary according to various laws, the rate of
change —Clt can have a variety of values.
Dealing with the cases suggested :—
(i) V = o, then
RCo == ~RC+L^-
Lf
dt

and this equation is solved by separating the variables and integrating.

Thus
Th •p j ldC

whence —
JLrf = loge C+loge A = loge AC

and AC — e L, A being a constant.

(2) If C = C0 sin 9*
then —j/-* = qC0 cos qt.
dt
V = RC0 sin ^+L^C0cos qt
_Rt

= C0VR2+L V sin U/+tan -1 -

then V0 sin qt = RC+L —dl

i. e., V0sin qt = (R+LD)C
where' D= — .
at
Hence c V^ingf
and, using Theorem 2 of p. 288,
C = . V° = s
VR2+LV /
To this must be added the solution of o = RC+L—dC
at , viz., C= Ke - —L ;
hence the complete solution is
V
320 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
Example 21. — To find expressions for the potential and the current
at any points along a long uniform conductor.

At a distance x from the " home " end let the steady potential to
the ground = E and the steady current be i.
Let the resistance of i unit of length of the conductor — r and
let the leakage of i unit of length of the insulation = /.
Consider a small length of conductor 8x.
Its resistance = r8x and the leakage = I8x.
Hence the drop in potential —ixr8x (i)
and the drop in the current = E x I8x (2)
i. e., from (i) 8E = — ir8x

'
—oi =- —- El8x
and from (2)

or -^ = -El (4)
Writing (3) and (4) in their limiting forms
dE _ _ . di _
dx dx
„.,- d2E d . .. di , .
Differentiating, TT= d%
ct,\ j~\tri ~ ~y^Tdx ~ r ^ '5'

and -^r- r= -7-(— E/) = — /-j— = ril (6)

dxz dx* dx

To solve these equations, let D — ax,

then D2E = rlE
i. e., D2 = rl
D = ± Vrl.

dx dx
Separating the variables,
dE .- dE , -
— = Vrldx or — = — Vrldx.
Integrating,
log E = Vrlx+Ci or log E = — X/y/tf+Cg

or, if the constants are suitably chosen,

E = A cosh Vrlx+'B sinh Vrlx.
 APPLICATIONS OF THE CALCULUS

In like manner,i = C cosh Vrl x+~D sinh Vrl x.

When x = L
E = A cosh Vr/L+B sinh Vr/L.
When x = o
E = A 321
and hence the constants can be found.

Examples on Strengths of Materials.

Example 22. — To find the shape assumed by a chain loaded with its
own weight only ; the weight per foot being w. To find also expres-
sions for the length of arc and the tension at any point.

Let s = the length of the arc AB (Fig. 116) : then the weight of
this portion = ws.

\IVS

7
FIG. 116. FIG. 117.

Draw the triangle of forces for the three forces T, T0 and ws

(Fig. 117).
Let it be assumed that T0 (the horizontal tension) — we, where c is
some constant. dy _
Then, from Figs. 116 and 117
.. ws ws s
, = tan 6 = TO
ax =- = —we = c-•
Now, as proved on p. 201,
ds

dx =
sds dx*
322 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
To integrate the left-hand side, let u = c2+s2
du
ds
then r = 2s
( sds rsdu
and / -7= = = / 1 = u* = V c2 -1- s2
./ Vc2 + S2 J 2SU$
Thus, by integration of equation (i),

Now at the point A (Fig. 116) 5 = 0 and y = o

hence Vcz = Cj or Cx = c.
Thus Vc2+s2 = y + c.
Squaring c2+s2 = y*-\-cz+2yc
or sz = yz+2yc and s — Vyz+2yc
s dy dy
but as proved above -=c ax-f- or s — c^-dx

hence dv V /—yz= -\-2yc.

c-^-=
Separating the variables
dy dx

_ __ ^_
e" —c2 ~ c
r dy [
Integrating / /. , .., =± = /
J V+c2— c2 J c
V(y+c)— c
and this integral is of the type discussed on p. 151 ; the result being

c J c
Now x — o when y = o, x being measured from the vertical axis
through A, and thus logf- j = C2 or C2 = o.
Thus f=
or in the exponential form
X

cec = y-\-c-\- Vyz+ zyc.

Isolating the surd

2x
cec — (y+c) = Vy*+2yc.
x

Squaring cze c +y2+c2+2yc—

2x x_ 2(y-\-c) ce* = y*+2yc
or czec —-2.ee* (y+c)+c2 = o.
 APPLICATIONS OF THE CALCULUS 323

Dividing through by cec

cec +ce c — 2 (y-\-c),

i.e., (y+c)=C-(e°+e~°).
If now the axis of x be shifted downwards a distance c, then the
c I X' — ~\ x
new ordinate Y = y-\-c and Y — - \ec+e c ) — c cosh -•

v: Scale
FIG. 1 1 8. — Catenary Form of a Cable.

Again, since Y = y +c =
dx dx
and also d ,x c . , x dx. .x
^-c
ax cosh - =
cec - sinh - = smh -•c
Then •—•
dy = sinh.X-
dx c
but it has already been proved that
dy_
dx sc

henee s . , x
-=smh- c or
c s=
324 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
To find the tension T at any point
T2 == wzsz+wzcz from Fig. 117
= wz(sz+cz)
= wz (c+y)z = wzY2
or T = wY.
Thus the form taken by the chain is that for which the equation is
fx\
._^ Y = ccosh(-J, the equation of the catenary: the

length of arc is given by 5 = c sinh c-, and the tension

at any point is measured by the product of the
ordinate at that point and the weight per foot of the
chain.
Fig. 118 shows the catenary for a cable weighing
3-5 Ibs. per foot and strained to a tension of 40 Ibs.
weight, and the method of calculation for the con-
struction ofthis curve is explained on p. 358 of PartT.
The tension at 10 ft. from the centre = 3-5 x 15-9
FIG. 119. = 55-6 Ibs. weight, since the ordinate there is 15-9.

Example 23. — To find the time of oscillation of a compound pendu-

lum swinging through small arcs.

Let I be the moment of inertia of the pendulum about an axis

through the point of suspension O (Fig. 119), and let h = the distance
of the C. of G. from the point of suspension.
Then the couple acting, to produce the angular acceleration,
= moment of inertia x angular acceleration.
[Compare the rule for linear motion, Force = mass x acceleration.]
Now the angular velocity = -j-
dt
and hence the angular acceleration

= <8» '

Thus the couple acting = 1-^

and this couple is opposed by one whose arm is h sin 6, as is seen in
the figure.
dzd
Thus *dt*~= — mhsvn.6 — — mhd
since 6 is supposed to be small, and consequently sin 6 = 6
or dzd _ mh . _ z ., 2 _ mh
dt*~~ ~~T~ " ~T~

and £+••*-«.
 APPLICATIONS OF THE CALCULUS 325
This equation is of the type dealt with in Case (3), p. 283, and the
solution is 6 = A sin (<ef-f B). 2-7T

The period of this function is —co ; also the couple for angular dis-
placement Q = mh6 ; hence the couple for unit angular displacement
(denoted by /*) = mh.
Hence t = —27T
= 2rr \//T~
— r = 2ir \f/I-
co ^ mh v p.
k i*g
or / = 2n A / — if engineers' units are used.
This might be written in the easily remembered form,

If this formula is to be used unit moment

in the of inertia ofpertheunit
determination twist' of
modulus
rigidity of a sample of wire by means of torsional oscillations, h must
be replaced by /, the length of the wire.
If /= skin stress, T «= torque, and C = modulus of rigidity, d — dia.
of wire; then

0=g and T =
whence

A 32T/
but M ~ 6 ~ yl

and t=2w \/ —

hence C = — ==— - and thus /C 32can

/1 be determined.

As regards the units, if / is in feet, I is in Ibs. ft.2, t in sees., and

d in feet,
then C = feet x Ibs. x ft.2 x sec.2
feet x ft.4 x sec.2
Ibs

= ~ffT' **• e-> C *s m Ibs. per sq. foot.

If I is in Ibs. ins.2 and d is in ins., then C will be in Ibs. per sq. in.

Example 24. — To find formulae giving the radial and hoop stresses
in thick cylinders subjected to internal stress.

We may attack this problem by either of two methods :—

Method i. — In (a) Fig. 120 let the outside radius = rt and the inside
radius = r0 ; also let the internal pressure be p, and the crushing stress
at right angles to the radii, or the hoop stress, = q.
 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
326
It is rather easier to consider the stress on the outside to be greater
than that on the inside : thus for an annulus of radius r and thickness
$r, we take the internal stress as p and the external stress as p-\-8p.
Considering the element RS of the annule (subtending an angle of
80 at the centre), and dealing with the radial forces,
Total radial force = (p-\-8p) x outer arc— px inner arc
= (p+8p) X (r+8r)86-pr86
= (pr+p8r+r8p+8p.8r-pr)86 .
= (p8r+r8p+8p.8r) 86
(for a unit length of the cylinder) .
This is balanced by two forces each q 8r . 86, for

2 . 86 86
— — = sin - = — nearly
q8r 2 2 [(6) Fig. 120]
i. e., x = q8r.86
x being the radial force.

FIG. 1 20. — Stresses in Thick Cylinders.

Thus (p8r+r8p+8p.8r)86 = q8r.8d

or, when 8r is very small,
p dr-\-r dp = q dr.
Assume each longitudinal fibre to lengthen the same amount due to
the secondary strains.
Then if <r = Poisson's ratio and E = Young's modulus for the
material,
the extension due to p will be ^ X -
and the extension due to q will be ^Si,p X (T-i
then, since the total extension is to be constant,
~r^ — constant,
(T-tL
i. e.,
p-\-q = 2A, say, for a and E are constants.
 APPLICATIONS OF THE CALCULUS 327

Hence v dp -\-pdr = qdr

= (2 A— p}dr
i. e., rdp = 2(A—p)dr.
Separating the variables and integrating,
f dp _ fdr
J 2(A-p) J r
-r>
i.e., — | log (A— p) + log C = log r
C
(A-pfl
or r =
C
r

or p = A + -2
but
and hence

The constants A and B are found from the conditions stated in any
example.

Method 2. — According to this scheme q is taken as a tensile stress.

By the thin cylinder theory ;— consider the equilibrium of the half
elementary ring of unit length [(c) Fig. 120].

Then (pX2r) — (p+8p)2(r+8r) = 2q8r

whence qdr = —pdr—rdp.
From this point the work is as before except
that 2 A is written for p — q and not for p-\-q
as in Method, i.

Example 25. — To find expressions for the

stresses in Thick Spherical Shells. FIG. 121.

Let dp
p = the radial pressure, q = the hoop tension.
Take an elementary shell at radius r, the thickness being 8r (Fig. 121).
Then 7rrzp—n(r+8r)2(p+&p) =

When 8r is very small this equation reduces to

— 28r— r8 = 2q8r
and hence -

2q = —
328 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
Assuming the volumetric strain to be the same everywhere,

where lv = the circumferential strain, and thus 2/2,= the superficial

strain, and lx = the radial strain,
then it follows that
^-- P.-C

i. e., 2(I—p — Constant = 3A (say).

<rE o-E"
Now 2<7=— 2*— r~

Separating the variables and integrating,

[-$L
J T
i. e., — log r = - log (A+£) -f log (^

whence

or

i _ _ 2B_A

Also zq •
3 . 2B

Euler's Formulae Bfor Loaded Struts.

_
Example 26. — To obtain a formula giving the buckling load for a
strut of length L and moment of inertia I.

Applying the ordinary rule

M =Ed*y
 329
APPLICATIONS OF THE CALCULUS

Bending moment at Q = M = — Py [(a] Fig. 122]

i. e.,

Let IE

then dx2
' Case (3), p. 283,
and the solution of this equation is, accordingIE/to
y — A sin (

fW (c)
FIG. 122.

The various conditions of end fixing give rise to the following

solutions :—
Case of ends rounded. — When x — o, y = o
then o = A sin (o+B) and A is not zero
so that B = o.
When x = — , y= Y [(a) Fig. 122]
i. e., xr . wL
Y = A sin —2
Obviously Y is the amplitude, i. e., A = Y
or i — sin 0)L
2
(- being the simplest angle
7T . 0)1

Thus we may write 2 2

\2 \
7~P having its sine = i )
whence 0>L = _ 7T

and

V fEXL =
7T2IE

'
, L2
 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
330
Case of both ends fixed. — -The form taken by the column is as at
(&) Fig. 122. The half-period of the curve is evidently — in this ease.
27T

But the period = —

27T

IE
whence

Case of one end fixed. — The form taken by the column is as at

47T2IE

(c) Fig. 122. The half-period in this case is f L, but, as before proved,
. , . 27T
the period is given by —O)

Hence -L — —

L2
" V IE
2co
Now

L2 =
Q7T2IE

97T2IE
P =
Tension in Belt passing round a Pulley.
/*
Example 27. — To compare the tensions 4PTx and T2 at the ends of a
belt passing round a pulley ; the coefficient of friction between the belt
and pulley being p., and the angle of lap being 6 radians.
'
4L2

T+ST

FIG. 123. FIG. 124.

Consider a small element of belt subtending an angle of dd at the

centre of the pulley (see Fig. 123) : then the tensions at the ends are
respectively T-f-oT and T.
 APPLICATIONS OF THE CALCULUS 331
Resolving the forces horizontally
s»a s/i
/T> I »T\ "" T> ™" T-»
(T+8T) cos --
2 Tcos 2 — uP

i.e., 8T cos —2 = uP

or in the limit dT = /J? ......... (i)

80
for cos --
2
> f.cos
/\ o, z. 0., i.

Resolving the forces vertically,

P=(T+8T+T)sin~
' . 80 , ._ . 80
= 2T sin --
2 f-8T sin —2
_, Sj/1 .
= 2T --
22 h8T— (for sin —22
= —
when the angle is small)
In the limit P = TdO .......... (2)
Then, combining equations (i) and *-2(2),
dT = pTdS
*i
Separating the variables, / -=- = p. / dd
J T2 i Jo
T
Integrating, log«-f^ = \iB

or T,
=*=• trn8

Friction in a Footstep Bearing.

Example 28. — To find the moment of the friction force in a footstep

bearing; the coefficient of friction being p., R = radius of journal and
W= total load.

(a) Assume that the pressure is uniform over the bottom surface,
i. e., W = 7rR2^>, where p is the intensity of the pressure.
Take an annulus at radius r, and of thickness 8r (Fig. 124).
Area of the annulus = 2nr8r
Pressure on the annulus = 2-nrdrp
Friction force on the annulus — -z-nrbrpp
and hence the moment of the friction force on the annulus
= 2irr 8r pp x r
332 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS

dr
2nrz
T

Up
W

i. e., the moment is the same as it would be if= the

- whole load were

supposed concentrated at a distance of two-thirds of the radius from

the centre.
R »
(&) Assume that the intensity of pressure varies inversely as the
velocity,
i. e., p= K X -v
the velocity at radius r — vr =
so that p = K x— = - (say).
Then the pressure intensity on an annulus distant r from the centre

and the total pressure on the annulus

=v rv
also the friction force = p X this pressure.
Hence the moment of the friction force on the annulus

and the total moment of the friction force

Jo
=r
Now the total load W = J/o intensity x area
•/*
= I p X 2nrdr

Jo
 APPLICATIONS OF THE CALCULUS 333
Hence the moment of the friction force

= 27rwR X —2
-••Wxf

i.e., the effective radius is now £ and not f, as in Case (a).

Example 29. — To find an expression for the moment of the friction

force for a Schiele Pivot.

Assume that the pressure is the same all over the rubbing surface,
that the wear is uniform and that the normal wear is proportional to
the pressure p and to the speed v.

Referring to Fig. 125, = normal wear oc pv, i. e.,

and thus 8n oc pr or &n = Kpr.
Let the tangent at the point P make the angle 6 with the axis, then
if t = length of tangent, t sin 6 = r.
Now 8h — vertical drop = sintf
-— ^

Also 8n = Kpr = Kpt sin 6

whence bh = Kpt.
Now 8h is constant, p and K are constant ;
hence t must be constant and the curve is that
known as a tractrix (i. e., the length of the FIG. 125.
tangent from the axis to any point on the
curve is a constant).
To find the moment of the friction force :—
On a small element of surface, the friction force
= lirr 8s X p X p.
and the moment of the friction force
= 2nr8s fip x r.
Now 87 = 8s sin 6.
Hence the total moment of the friction force
dr
tsinti
sin 6
X

W
but

Hence the total moment of the friction force = /*\V/.

334 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS

Examples on Hydraulics.

Example 30. — To find the time to empty a tank, of area A sq. ft.,
through an orifice of area a sq. ft., the coefficient of discharge being Cd.

If the height of the water above the orifice at any time is h, then
the velocity of discharge = v = V^gh.
Hence the quantity per sec. = Cd av
and the quantity in time 8t — Cd av8t.
This flow will result in a lowering of the level in the tank by an
amount &h, so that the volume taken from the tank in time 8t = A 8h.
Hence A8h = Cd aV^ghSt.
Here we have a simple differential equation to solve, and separating
the variables and integrating
Adh where hz = initial height
Ax = final height

o A

FIG. 126. — Triangular Notch.

If A1 = o, then the time to completely empty the tank

Example 31. — To gauge the flow of water by measurements with a

triangular notch.

Let the height at the notch be H, and consider a small element of

width b, thickness 8h, and height above the apex of the notch (H— A).
b G
From Fig. 126, - = (H— h) tan - where 6 = the angle of the notch,
whence 6 =2(H— h) tan-.
 APPLICATIONS OF THE CALCULUS 335
Now the area of the element = b 8h
and the velocity of water at that height = VzgX height =
A

Hence the actual quantity flowing = CdX2(H— h) tan -

and the total quantity flowing for the height H
• fi
= FzVzgCa tan-(H
Jo /) /~n
-J ^H
tan

1 /— i •
J5 2
a

~Li 6 = 90° (a common case), tan-

Q = i,

and then the discharge = — V2gCdH* = 2-66 H? if Cd= -62.

Example 32. — To estimate the friction on a wheel disc revolving in

a fluid.

Let the friction per sq. ft. —fvx and let the disc (of inside radius R2
and outside radius Rx) revolve at n revs, per sec.
The velocity of an annulus at radius r = 2nnr
and thus the friction force per sq. ft. on this annulus
= (2nnr)xf.
Hence the moment of the friction force on the Rgannulus

= /(2 nnr)x X -Zirrbr X r

and the total moment of the friction force on one side of the disc = M

The total moment (i. e., on the two sides) = aM

and H.P. lost in friction = — — .
f
I x = 2

= 49.6/n»{R1»-Rf«}. 550
336 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
Example 33. — To establish a general rule for determining the depth
of the Centre of Pressure of a section below the S.W.S.L. (still water
surface level).

Suppose the plate (representing a section) is placed as shown in

Fig. 127. Consider a small element of area 8a, distant x from OY, the
vertical distance being h.
Let X = distance of the C. of G. from OY,
X = distance of the C. of P. from OY,
and let H and H be the corresponding vertical distances.
Let P = total pressure and A = total area,
k = swing radius about OY,
and p — weight of i cu. ft. of water.
S.W.S.L.

IX

FIG. 127. — Centre of Pressure.

The whole pressure on the element
= intensity of pressure X area = ph X 8a

Whole pressure on surface = 2px sin a8a approx.

or fpx sin a da actually,
i.e., P = psinaxfxda
— p sin aX ist moment of area about OY
= p sin a X AX,
but X sin a = H.

To find the position of the C. of P., take moments about OY.

Then PxX = 2 moments of the pressures on the elements
= Sp sin a x8a X x
= psina2#2Sa approx.
= psinafxzda actually
= p sin a X and moment about OY
= p sin a X A&2.
 APPLICATIONS OF THE CALCULUS 337

Now P = pHA
so that pHAX = psinaAA2,
i. e., HX = sin a . kz
but H = X sin a
hence XX = A2.
Thus if X is known, X can be calculated.
If the body is not symmetrical, then Y (the distance of the C. of P.
from OX) must be found by taking moments about OX.
In a great number of cases a = 90°, so that sin a = i, and thus

Example 34. — A triangular plate is placed with its base along the
S.W.S.L., the plate being vertical. Find the depth of the centre of
pressure below the surface.
For this section I about S.W.S.L. = — bh3

and thus k2 =

also H = -h.
3 '
- k2 A2X3
64 h
Hence H = —H = -^—j^
6x& = -2
Example 35. — A circular plate has its upper edge along the S.W.S.L
Find the depth of its Centre of Pressure below the S.W.S.L.

For a circle, Idiam. = 7- d*

•2.

and thus k2 about diam. =

4
and hence, by the parallel axis theorem,
A2 about S.W.S.L. = — H ~ ) = —
also H = -

= kz 16 ^d
Hence H = — = —5-= "-3-
H d
 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
338
Example 36. — Forced vortex (i. e., water in a tube rotated round a
vertical axis). To find the form taken by the surface of the water.
Let the rotation be at n R.P.S.
Consider an element at P (Fig. 128).
th
tan 6 = the slope of the curve taken = dn
-^

vertical force _ weight *of particle

tan 6 = horizontal force centrifugal force on particle

_mxgr

FIG. 128. — Forced Vortex.

dh 4tr
Separating the variables
4n2n2rdr = gdh.
Integrating

A = ^xr*.
Now
^=gh.
is a constant, and thus

h = constant xr2, this being the equation of a parabola.

Hence the surface of the liquid will be that of a paraboloid of
revolution.
An Example from Surveying.

Example 37. — Prove that a cubic parabola is a suitable " transition "
curve.

In order that the full curvature of a railway curve may be

approached gradually, a curve known ffias y a transition curve is inter-
posed between the straight and the curve. It must be so designed
that the radius of curvature varies inversely as the distance from the
starting point (on the straight, because there the radius is infinite) .
As before proved, i d2y

or more exactly

dx2
dx2
 339
APPLICATIONS OF THE CALCULUS
For the cubic parabola we may assume an equation

y = px3,
where x is the distance from the straight, along a tangent, and y is the
offset there (obviously p must be very small) .

If y = px3, -r- = ipx2, ~ = 6px.

Hence = = -

as a first approximation, or — = 6px nearly (for p3 is very small) .

Hence T
R or
T
K = — X - = —
T K"

6p x x
Roc x-.

Exercises 23.

1. A cylindrical tank is kept full of water by a supply. Show that

the time required to discharge a quantity of water, equal to the capacity
of the tank, through an orifice in the bottom equals half the time
required to empty the tank when the supply is cut off.
A tank 10 ft. high and 6 ft. diam. is filled with water. Find the
theoretical time of discharge through an 8" diam. orifice in the bottom.
2. A tank empties through a long pipe discharging into the air. If
n
the head lost in the pipe is writte hi = - — , show that K can be found
from the expression,
Kv2
where Ax is the level of the water in the tank at the time tt
and hz is the level of the water in the tank at the time t2
measured from the centre of the discharge end of the pipe.
A = area of cross section of the tank.
a = area of cross section of the pipe.
An experiment with a tank 15-6 sq. ft. in cross section and a 4" diam.
pipe gave the following results :

Time, t inins. Level in tank, h.

0 38-35
I
2 32-84

3 23-19
4
I9.O2

Find the value of K for the pipe.

340 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
159
3. Use the following table to obtain -= and thence find the volume
of i Ib. of steam at 160 Ibs. absolute pressure per sq. in.

Absolute press. (Ibs. per sq. in.) 161

1 60

Temperature (F°)
The latent heat of i Ib. of steam at 363-1
160 Ibs. per sq. in. pressure is
858-8 B.Th.U. 363-6 • 364-1
4. Find the " fixing moments " for a beam built in at its ends and
40 feet long, when it carries loads of 8 tons and 12 tons, acting 15 feet
and 30 feet respectively from one end.
5. A tank of constant cross section has two circular orifices, each
2" diani., in one of its vertical sides, one of which is 20 ft. above the
bottom of the tank and the other 8 ft.
Find the time required to lower the water from 30 ft. down to 15 ft.
above the bottom of the tank.
Cross section of the tank =12 sq. ft.
Coefficient of discharge = -62.
6. A hemispherical tank 12 ft. in diam. is emptied through a hole
8" diam. at the bottom. Assuming that the coefficient of discharge is
•6, find the time required to lower the level of the water surface from
6 ft. to 4 ft.
7. A vertical shaft having a conical bearing is g" in diam. and
carries a load of 3^ tons ; the angle of the cone is 120° and the co-
efficient of friction is -025. Find the horse power lost in friction when
the shaft is making 140 revolutions per minute.
Assume that the intensity of pressure is uniform.
8. A circular plate, 5 ft. diam., is immersed in water, its greatest
and least depths below the surface being 6 ft. and 3 ft. respectively ;
find
(a) the total pressure on one face of the plate,
(b) the position of the centre of pressure. •»<
9. An annular plate is submerged in water in such a position that
the minimum depth of immersion is 4 ft. and the maximum depth of
immersion is 8 ft. If the external diam. of the plate is 8 ft. and the
internal diam. 4 ft., determine the total pressure on one face of the
plate and the position of the centre of pressure.
10. One pound of steam at 100 Ibs. per sq. in. absol. (vol. = 4-45
cu. it.) is admitted to a cylinder and is then expanded to a ratio of 5,
according to the law pv1-06 = C ; it is then exhausted at constant
pressure.
Find the net work done on the piston.
11. Find the loss of head h in a length I of pipe the diameter of
which varies uniformly, being given that
„H= 4fLv*
J , , and v = ^~.4Q
•2gd Ti-d2
{Let diam. at distance x from entry end = rfe+K#
where de = diam. at entry}.
 APPLICATIONS OF THE CALCULUS 341
12. Taking the friction of a brass surface in a fluid as -22 Ib. per
sq. ft. for a velocity of 10 f.p.s. and as proportional to w1'9, find the
horse power lo"st in friction on two sides of a brass disc 30" external
and 15* internal diam. running at 500 r.p.m.
13. A rectangular plate 2 ft. wide by 5 ft. deep is immersed in
water at an inclination of 4OC to the vertical. Find the depth of the
centre of pressure, if the top of the plate is 6 ft. below the level of
the water.
 CHAPTER XI
HARMONIC ANALYSIS

Fourier's Theorem relates to periodic functions, ot which

many examples are found in both electrical and mechanical engi-
neering theory and practice : it states that any periodic function
can be expressed as the sum of a number of sine functions, of
different amplitudes, phases and periods. Thus, however irregular
the curve representing the function may be, so long as its ordinales
repeat themselves after the same interval of time or space, it is
possible to resolve it into a number of sine curves, the ordinates of
which when added together give the ordinates of the primitive
curve. This resolution of a curve into its component sine curves is
known as Harmonic Analysis ; and in view of its importance, the
simpler and most direct methods employed for the analysis are
here treated in great detail.
Expressed in mathematical symbols, Fourier's theorem reads

or y =
+Bj cos §tf+B2 cos 2qt+~B3 cos 3qt-\- . . .
the latter form being equivalent to the first, since
Aj sin gtf+Bj cos qt — B sin (qt-\-Cj)
provided that B and c± are suitably chosen.
For the purposes of the analysis the expression may appear
simpler if we write 6 in place of qt.
Thus
y = A0+A1sin^+A2sin2^+A3sin3<9+ . ..-.
+B1cos0+B2cos20+B3cos30-|- . . .
Of the various methods given, three are here selected and
explained, these being easy to understand and to apply.
Dealing with the three processes in turn, viz., (a) by calculation,
(b) by a graphical interpretation of method (a), and (c) by super-
position, we commence with the study of method (a).
 HARMONIC ANALYSIS 343
Method (a): Analysis by Calculation. — Before actually pro-
ceeding to detail the scheme of working, it is well to verify the
following statements.

.'o cos 0 = 0, this being self-evident, since the area under a

ft*
cosine curve is zero, provided that the full period is considered.
/**
.'o
I cos mO cos nOdO — o ............ (i)
for
cos mO cos nO = ^{cos (m-\-n)6— cos (m— n)0}
and hence
/•2ir
/•2ir r2n rZv
I cos m0cosn9d& = ||Jo
Jo cos(m + n)OdO— 1|Jo cos(m—n)6d0
= o— o

(for both are cosine curves over the full period or a multiple of the
full period).
rZv f2jr /-2ir
I cos m6 sin nO dO = | J o
Jo sin (m+n)B dO—% Jo sin (m—n)6dO
= 0 .... ........ (2)
fZir ,fZir rZir
cosz6d6
Jo =4 Jo
cos20dO + % Jo dd

= 0 + £(27r-o)=7r ....... (3)

/•2ir f /-2ir /-2n- ^
sin mO sin M^ ^ = $\ U o
Jo cos (m—n)6 dd— y o
cos (m+ri)0d6 J\

= |{o-o}-o ......... (4)

and
/•2ir /-2ir fZir
I sin2^^
Jo =J Jo
^— | Jo cos20d0

= \\2ir— o} — O
= » ............ (5)
To proceed with the analysis :—
We are told that
y = A0+A1cos0+A2cos20+A3cos30+ ...
+Bj sin 6+B2 sin 20+B3 sin 3^+ • • •
and we wish to find the values of the coefficients A0, Aj . . .,
Bi, B2, etc.
344 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
If we integrate throughout (with the limits o and 2ir), every
term on the right-hand
r2w
side, except the first, will vanish,
f
i.e.,
Jo yd9 = A, J
/•2ir

or 3I o ydO — A0X (2-*— o)

whence A0 = - y dO
—I
IP*
= the mean value of y (Cf . p. 183)
so that A0 is found by averaging the ordinates ; but in the majority
of cases an inspection will show that A0 is zero.
To find A1 :— multiply all through its coefficient, viz., cos0, and
integrate, then
fZir r'2ir rZir rZ
I ycos$dO= I A0cosOdO-\- I A1cos20^+|
Jo ./o Jo ,' o
rZn _ rZir

Jo lC( Jo
Jo
or
I y cos 6 dO = o+TrAj+o+o . . .
+0+0 . . . [from (3), (2) and (i)]
whence
Jo" Ax = / y cos 6 dO
2 f£jr
= f2
twice
the mean value of (y cos 6}
i. e., a certain number of values of y must be taken, each being
multiplied by the cosine of the angle for which y is the ordinate,
the average of these found, and the result multiplied by 2.
The values of A2, A3, etc., may be found in like manner by
multiplying through by cos 26, cos 3$, etc., in order, and performing
the integration as above.
To find B! :— multiply throughout by its coefficient, viz., sin 6,
and integrate, then
/2ir [Z* ,-Zir fZir
ysinBdO = JI o
o A0sm@d@-\- JI o
A,sin0cos0^+ Jo
/ A
,"Zir _ rZir

+JoBlS1 +JoB2
= o+7rBj [from (2), (4) and (5)]
_, = 2 r27r
•'• Bj 1 y sin 0 dQ = 2 X mean value of (y X sin 6}
so that the values of B,. B2, B3, etc., may be found
 HARMONIC ANALYSIS 345
Actually, the values of the coefficients Av A2, Br, B2, etc., are
found by dividing the base into ten or. eight divisions and averaging
the mid-ordinates for these divisions. To determine the absolute
values, an infinite number of ordinates should be taken, but this
would of course be quite out of the question as far as an ordinary
calculation is concerned.
The work is made clearer by suitable tabulation, as will be seen
from the following example.

Example i. — Resolve the curve ABCD (Fig. 129) into its component
curves : it being understood that no higher harmonic than the first
occurs.

e
O -36° 72° K>8 144

FIG. 129. — Harmonic Analysis.

[The term containing 6 is spoken of as the fundamental, and that

containing 26 as the first harmonic.]
Thus y = A0+B sin (6+cJ +C sin
or y= A0-|-A1cos0+A2cos20+B1sm0+B2sin20
will represent the function in this case.

A glance at the figure will show that the curve is symmetrical about
the axis of 6 ; thus we observe that the average ordinate = o, or
Aft = o.
 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
346 •809
Divide the base into 10 equal parts, erect the mid-ordinates and
— I
tabulate the values as follows :—
-•309
(a) (/•) (c) (d) (e) (/)
•95 1 (g) ••8809
••
3800
99
cos•951 - • 3 0 09
Ordinate No. 9 1 sin 0 e sin 26 cos 26 9
•809
1-56 •588
I
-4
•309 -•588
•951 —951
2
3
1-13
375
4
— I
— •309 —588
-•o951 o •95 1
— 309•809
-•
-12-91 —588
-•809 309
4 -13 •588
5
6 — •809 —588 —951
—- 2-91 •588
7 3'75 •951
8 18° 309
o —588
126°
0
-1-56 162°
9
54° -9i\
10
198°
234° 90°
T

I-
Then A0 = 0° y = o.
mean value27of
A! = 2 X mean value6°of (y cos 6} .
30
To obtain the values of y cos 6,° corresponding figures in columns
(6) and (e) must be multiplied. 342

Then = o
10 1 +2-91—3-75) )

Similarly, Bx = — X sum of the products of columns (&) and (d)

i-i3 + i-56) + 1(4+4) \
io 9i + 2-9i+3-75) /
= -2x20-43=4-086
-2xol
A2 = — X sum of products of columns (6) and (g)

= o — 3'75—

B2 = — X sum of products of columns (6) and (/)

_
lol -2-91+3-75)
= -2x2-104 = -421.
Hence
y = (o x cos 6) + (o x cos 26) + (4-09 sin ff) + (-42 sin 20)
or y = 4-09 sin 0+ -42 sin 26 (the cosine terms being absent).
Analysis by Method (6): The Graphical Interpretation of
(a) (due to Professor Harrison). — To employ this method we must
take at least twice as many ordinates as the largest multiple
 347

HARMONIC ANALYSIS

of 0 ', thus if we suppose that the second harmonic is the highest

occurring we might take 6 ordinates as the minimum, although it
would be better if 8 or 10 were taken.
The method can best be illustrated by applying it to an
example.
Example 2. — Resolve the curve ABC [(a) Fig. 130] into its com-

I8O° 24O° 3OO 360*

FIG. 130.

ponent curves (the second being the highest harmonic) ; i. e., find the
values of the constants in the equation
y = AO+AJ cos 6+ A2 cos 20+ A3 cos 30+Bj sin 0+B2 sin 20+ B3 sin 3$.

To arrange that all the ordinates shall be positive, take a base line
DE entirely below the curve. Divide the base into 8 equal divisions
and number the ordinates y0, ylt y2, etc. The angular intervals are thus
^5°, since a full period corresponds to 360°.
348 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
Draw a new figure [(&) Fig. 130], the lines OM and ON making 45°
with the principal axes ; number these lines : — o, i, ..... 8, as
shown in the figure. Along line o set off a distance equal to y0, along
line i set off a distance equal to yt and so on. Drop perpendiculars
from the points o, I, etc., on to the principal axes, calling the projec-
tions on these axes h0 (this particular projection being zero), Ax .....
ha, and v0, vl ...... va respectively.
Then to find Aj and Bj : —
As already proved

A! = f (sy cos 0) = "J{y0-y4+ (y!-y3-y&+y7) cos 45°+ (yt-y,) cos 90°}

= MVO-^VI+V^VS-VS+VJ
and similarly Bt = Jj^+Ag— h5— h7+h2— h6}
i. e., the lengths v0 ...... v7, and ht ....... /»7 can be read off
from the figure and then the values of A1 and Bt are calculated as
above.
Jn this example
"0=13-7 *o= o
vv =14 h1= 14
v2 = o h2 = 20-4
v3— ii ha= ii
vt= 7'3 ht= o
v6 = '5 hs= '5
v6= o A6= 1-5
v,= 5-4 h7= 5-4 •*•
andB1 = X38 = 9-5
By the aid of a strip of paper a great amount of this arithmetical
work might be obviated, the procedure being as follows :—
Mark off along the edge of a strip of paper lengths to represent
the various ordinates of the original curve, viz., y0, yv etc., and
number the points so obtained o, i, 2 .... 8 as shown at (c) Fig. 130.
Thus Po == y0, P4 = yt and so on.
We have seen that in order to find the value of Aa it is necessary
to evaluate y cos 6 for the various angles ; i. e., we must find the values
of yv cos 45°, yz cos 90°, ya cos 135° and so on.
Now ys cos 135° = y3x —cos 45° = — ya cos 45°, so that the one line,
viz., that at 45°, serves also for 135° provided that the ordinate is
stepped off in a negative direction. Thus, for example,
yj. cos 6+y3 cos ^6=y1 cos 45°— ys cos 45° = cos 45°(;y1— ys)
and the value of this expression depends upon the difference between
the lengths on the strip Pi and P3, or the distance 3 to i.
Evidently, then, the work is shortened by grouping the ordinates
in pairs to give differences ; thus
y\—y% = Pi— ?3 — i to 3 on the strip
y7— y& — Py— P5 = 5 to 7 on the strip
and so on for other pairs of ordinates.
 HARMONIC ANALYSIS 349

Having found these differences, we multiply by 00345°, by setting

these lengths along the line Of in (d) Fig. 130 and then projecting to
the horizontal axis OX ; the resultant of these projections being the
value of 4Aj.
Thus in (d) Fig. 130 : — Make Oo = i to 3 (on the strip) and ab — 5 to 7.
Drop be perpendicular to OX. Then Oc = (y^— y3— y^+y^ cos 45°.
Step off cd = o to 4 (i. e., y^—y^, then measure Od ; this is the value of
4AX, since Od = Oc+cd = (yi—y9—yt+y7) cos 45°+(y0-yt).

A!= 3-43
For the value of Bj the strip must be used according to the following
plan. A line is drawn at 45° [(d) Fig. 130] and distances marked off
along it as follows
Oe = i to 7 on the strip, ef= 3 to 5 on the strip.
{for 46! = (yn+yt) sin o°+(y1+y3-y6-yj sin 45°+(>;2-^6) sin 9<>0}
A perpendicular to OY gives the point g. To Og must be added a
distance = 2 to 6 on the strip, but to avoid extending the diagram this
distance is set off from O giving the length Oh.
Thus Og = 19-5, Oh = 18-2, the sum = 37-7.
Then 4BX = 37-7
and B!=: 9-43.
To find the values of A2 and B2: — The terms containing 26, i. e., 90°,
will now occur and so there will be no lines at 45°.
Ag — |{yo cos °°+yi cos go°+y2 cos 180°+ . . . y1 cos 630°}

Similarly B2 = ^{y!-
Hence set off
Ok = o to 2, i. e., (y9—y%) and kl = 4 to 6, i. e., (yt—y6) along OX
and the resultant is O/ = —-8.
-Hence 4A2=— -8
and A2= —-2.
Set oft
Om =*• i to 3, i. e., (yt—ya) and mn = 5 to 7, i. e., (y^—y-j) along OX
and the resultant is On — — 2-6
Hence 4B2 = — 2-6
and B2 = —-65.
To find the values of A3 and B3 : —

A =-(y° COS °+yi COS I35°+>/2 cos 270°-f-y3 cos 4O5°+>'4 cos 540°
3 §1 +^6cos675°+>/6cos8io0+^7cos9450

4-{y9—yt+\y»—yi+yt—y,} cos45°}.
350 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
Set off Op = o to 4 on the strip, along OX,
and Ob = (y>i— ya— y5+y7) (which has already been done when
finding Aj).
Project b to c on OX ; then Oc = — (ya— y-a-^y^—y-i) cos 45°.
Hence cp = 4A3
but cp = — i -3
and thus A3 = — 33.
To find Bs :—
B _ £j>o sin °°+>'i sin I35°+3/2 sin 270° +y 3 sin 405°+^ sin 540
3 4*- +nsin6750+y6sin8io0+;y7sin9450

= -{yr-yt+fa+yt—yv-yi) sin 45°}-

Set off Oh = 6 to 2 along OY.
O/= (^i+^a— y6— y7) (which has already been done when
finding Bj) .
Project / to g on OY,
then gh = 463
but gh = 1-2
Hence B3 = .3
Also 8
==
(using the trapezoidal rule given on p. 307, Part I),
,• * A 6'75 + I9-8+20-4+i6+7-3+-9+i-9+7-6+6-75
•*•*., A0_ -g—
87-4

^=10-93-cos $+9-43 sin 6— -2 cos 26

y= 10-93+3-43
~- -65 sin 20 — 33 cos 3$+ -3 sin 3$.

There should be no difficulty in the understanding of this

method if method (a) is first carefully studied. All that this
method (b) adds is the multiplica-
A tion of lengths by the cosines or
sines of angles by regarding the
products as projections on fixed
axes (i. e., if OA = R (Fig. 131)
and the angle AOB = 30°, then
OB = OA cos 30° = R cos 30°, and
OC = OA sin 30° = R sin 30°) .
FIG. 131. The beauty of the method
consists in the use of the strip of
paper for the grouping together of pairs of ordinates which have to
be multiplied by the same quantity.
 HARMONIC ANALYSIS 351
In the example just discussed, the angular intervals were taken
as 45°, this choice being made as a matter of great convenience,
since cos 45° = sin 45° and projections may thus be made on either
a horizontal or a vertical axis.
For greater accuracy, more ordinates should be taken, and then
care must be observed as to the axis on which the projections are
made. Thus if the angular intervals were taken as 18°, say, the
lines corresponding to OM, ON and Of in (b] and (d) Fig. 130
would be drawn making angles of 18° with the horizontal axis ;
then for the values of Alt A2, etc., the projections along OX would
be measured, whilst the values of B1, B2, etc., would be determined
from the projections on OY.
Method (c): Analysis by Superposition. — This method is
much used in alternating current work, for the problems of which
it is specially suited. It is not difficult to employ, nor to under-
stand, although the proof of the method is long and is in consequence
not treated here.
In order to present the method in as clear a fashion as possible,
the rules of procedure are here set out in place of a detailed
explanation.
The method is as follows ; the case of a curve containing the
second as the highest harmonic being treated, although the process
can readily be extended if necessary :—
(1) Divide the curve into two 'equal parts and superpose the
second part upon the first, using dividers and paying attention to
the signs. If the resultant curve approximates to a sine curve
there is no need to further subdivide. (This gives terms containing
26, 4$, 60, etc., but if this curve is a sine curve, probably only terms
containing 2$ occur.)
Put in a base line for this new curve (by estimation) ;^ then the
height of this from the original base line = 2A0.
(2) Divide the original curve into three equal parts and super-
pose (first, the second on the first, and then to this result add the
third).
(This height
The gives the termsbase
of the containing
line of 3$,
the 60,resulting
'gO, etc.) curve from the
original base line = 3A0. (The two values of A0 may be compared,
and of course they should be alike ; but if not, take the average of
these and draw a new base line distant A0 from the original ; this
line we shall speak of as the true base line.)
(3) Subtract corresponding ordinates of the 20 curve (divided
by^2) and the 36 curve (divided by 3), paying attention to the
 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
352
signs, from the ordinates of the original curve ; the resultant curve
is approximately a sine curve
symmetrical about the true
base line.
To calculate the values of
the constants, if

+A2sin (20+c2)
A0 is already found.
Select two convenient
values of 6 and work from
the ordinates of the 0 curve
to find Aj and cx; proceed
similarly, using the 26 curve
to find A2 and c2.
Note that in alternating
current work only terms of
the order 6, 36, $0, etc., occur,
so that the curve would need
to be divided into 3, 5, etc.,
equal divisions and the parts
superposed. There is thus
no need to divide into 2, 4,
etc., equal parts; also it is
evident that the value of A0
must be zero.

Example 3. — The curve

ABCD, Fig. 132, gives by its
ordinates the displacement of
a valve actuated by a Gooch
Link Motion.
It is required to find the
constants in the equation

etc.
+A2sincurve is divided
The original
into two equal parts, the second
being placed over the first, with
the result that Curve 2 is
obtained.
The estimated base line for
this is B2 ; the height of B2 above the original base line being -29, i. e.,
 •2Q

HARMONIC ANALYSIS 353

the height of the true base line is -- or -145 unit. This base line
can now be put in, and is indicated as the true base line.
By division into 3 and 4 equal parts and superposition the curves
3 and 4 respectively are obtained.
B3, the base line for 3, is at a height of -43 ; this figure divided by
3 gives -143, which agrees well with our former result.
Curve 2 really represents the first harmonic with double amplitude ;
therefore we subtract ordinates of Curve 2 (to half scale, i. e., we use
proportional compasses) from the corresponding ordinates of the
original curve.
Similarly we subtract J of the ordinates of Curve 3 from the
original curve, and since those for Curve 4 are too small to be taken
into account, the net result is Curve i, which represents the funda-
mental, and is a sine curve symmetrical about the true base line.

To find the constants At and c: in the equation

yl = Alsin(6+c1).
When 6 = 0, ;Vi = 2-i75 (measured from the true base line to
Curve i).
At 6 — 90°, y± = o.

c, = 90° or —2
At 180° yt = —2-135,
t. e., Aj = the mean of 2-175*2Q and 2>I35» *• e-> 2'15>
y = 2-15 sin (0+903)
= 2-15 costf.
To find A2 and c2.
The amplitude of Curve 2 is — , ». e., -145.

and since the curve has its maximum ordinate when 6 = 0 we have
again cg = 90, or the curve is a cosine curve.
Hence y^ = -145 cos 20.
Beyond this first harmonic we need not proceed as the amplitudes
of Curves 3 and 4 are exceedingly small.
Hence y = y*+y*
= 2-Ij COS ^+-145 COS 20.

This method of superposition is to be recommended in cases of

A.C. work, as one can so readily tell by its aid which harmonics are
present. If the actual constants in the equation are required it
may be easier to proceed according to method (a) or method (b) .
A A
354 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS

Exercises 24. — On Harmonic Analysis.

1. Show how to analyse approximately the displacement x of a
point in a mechanism on the assumption that it may be represented
by a limited series of sine and cosine terms, and obtain general expres-
sions for the values of the coefficients in the series
x — 2n (An cos «0+Bn sin n0) + A0
where n = 3 and 6 is the angular displacement of an •8 actuating
•67 crank
which revolves uniformly. Apply your results to obtain the values of
the coefficients for the values of x and 6 given in the accompanying
table, where the linear displacement of a point in a mechanism is given
for the corresponding angular displacement of a uniformly revolving •M
crank.
•i
Angular displacement 2-Q3
of crank in degrees . o 120 180 240 •
60 18
I'll •16
. 1-6
x (in ins ) •12
•04 •95 _
•08
•06
2. — A part of a machine has an oscillating-imotion.-33
The- displace-
ments•0yat
2 times t are as in the table. •66
300
•64 i-34 — •92 90
t I-I3
— 1-16
y 0 0

Find the constants in the equation

225
y = A sin (iO7r^+a1) + Bsin (2O7r/+a2).
135
3. Analyse the curve which results when the following values are
plotted.
315
0
1 80 26-5
45 11-25
21-5 270
y x
o
° 31-25 0 9 o
-814
90
4. The values of the primary E.M.F. of a transformer at different
points in the cycle are as follows (6 being written
-1293
in place
-1307 of pt for
360
reasons of simplicity) . -70
-14 814 -886
e o 60
1293 120 150 1 80 2IO 240 - 270
1400
130?
E 886 1400

3 ° 30
If 6 and E are connected by the equation
0
E = A sin 90+B sin 3#+C cos 0+D cos
find the values of the constants A, B, C and D. 300 330
360
 CHAPTER XII
THE SOLUTION OF SPHERICAL TRIANGLES

THE curvature of the earth's surface is not an appreciable factor

in the calculations following a small survey, and is therefore not
regarded, but when the lengths of the boundaries of the survey are
great, as in the case of a " major triangulation," the effect of the
curvature must be allowed for, if precision is desired. It is there-
fore necessary to use Spherical Trigonometry in place of the more
familiar Plane Trigonometry, and accordingly a very brief chapter
is inserted here, dealing mainly with the solution of spherical
triangles.
Definitions of Terms used. — The earth may be considered
as a sphere of radius 20,890,172 feet, this being the mean radius.
A great circle on a sphere is a circle traced by the intersection
of the sphere by a plane passing through its centre ; if the plane
does not pass through the centre of the sphere, its intersection with
the sphere is called a small circle. Thus all meridians are great
circles, whilst parallels of latitude, except for the equator parallel,
are all small circles.
A straight line on the earth's surface is in reality a portion of a
great circle ; hence a parallel of latitude is not a straight line, or, in
other words, a movement due East or West is not a movement
along a straight line.
A triangle set out on the earth's surface with straight sides is what
is termed a "spherical triangle," its sides being arcs of great circles.
The lengths of these sides might be measured according to the
usual rules, viz., in miles, furlongs, etc., but it is more usual to
measure them by the sizes of the angles subtended by them at the
centre of the sphere. In this connection it is convenient to
remember that an arc of one nautical mile (6076 feet) subtends an
angle of i' at the centre of the earth ; hence a length of 80
nautical miles would be spoken of as a side of 80', i. e., i° 20'.
In Fig. 133 is shown the difference between great and small
circles ; and AB, BC and CA being portions of great circles form a
355
 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
356
spherical triangle (shown cross hatched). The length BA would be
expressed by the magnitude of the angle BOA.
A spherical triangle ABC is shown in Fig. 134, O being the
centre of the sphere. The arc AB is proportional to the angle
AOB, and therefore, instead of speaking of AB as a length, it is
quite legitimate to represent it by L AOB.
c would thus stand for /.AOB, b for ^.COA, and a for <iCOB.
As regards the angles of the triangle, the angle between CA and
AB is that between the planes AOC and AOB and is, therefore, the
angle between the tangents AD and AE. Spherical triangles
should be regarded as the most general form of plane triangles ;
for if the radius of the sphere becomes infinite the spherical triangle
becomes a plane triangle.

FIG. 133.
Spherical Triangles.

Many rules with which we are familiar in connection with plane

triangles hold also for spherical triangles, as, for example, "Any
two sides of a triangle are greater than the third," or, again, " If
two triangles have two sides and the included angle of the one
respectively equal to two sides and the included angle of the other,
the triangles are equal in ah1 respects " ; " The greater side of every
triangle is subtended by the greater angle."
There is one important difference between the rule for a plane
triangle and a corresponding rule for a spherical triangle: viz.,
whilst the three angles of a plane triangle add up to 180° the sum
of those in a spherical triangle always exceeds 180°, the sum in fact
lying between 180° and 540° ; and the difference between the sum
of the three angles and 180° is known as the " spherical excess."
 THE SOLUTION OF SPHERICAL TRIANGLES 357
The magnitude of this can be found from the rule
360° X area of triangle
spherical excess = ^~
(27rr2 being the area of the surface of the hemisphere).
This spherical excess is a small quantity for the cases likely to
be considered in connection with surveys. 2irTz
E. g., consider the case of an equilateral triangle of side 68 miles.
r = 20,900,000 ft. approx. = 3960 miles.
The area of the triangle is about 2000 sq. miles.
Then the spherical excess
360x60x2000
= —— — minutes = -437 minute.
27rX 3960x3960 -"^
A good approximation for the spherical excess of a triangle on
the earth's surface is :
area of spherical triangle in sq. miles
spherical excess (seconds) =

Solution of Spherical Triangles. — The most widely used

rule in connection with the solution of plane triangles is the " sine "
rule which states that the sides are proportional to the sines of the
angles opposite. In the case of spherical triangles this becomes
modified and reads — " The sines of the angles are proportional to the
sines of the sides opposite.
Therefore, adopting the notation of Fig. 134, 78
sin a sin b sin c
sin A ~ sin B sin C
it being remembered that sin a is really sin L BOC, etc.
Other rules are
. A /sin (s—. b) sin (s— c)
sin —2 = A/> - v Sln . f)'sln c —i- .... (2)
2 >
A /sin s sin (s— a)
cos —2 = \/
v — sin:— &=—±sin—
c .... (3)

A /sin (s— 6) sin (s— c)

tan—2 =vv — sin
^ s sin
: (s—
, v a). . . . . (4)
T> /-»
and corresponding forms for —2and -2 , obtained by writing
the letters one on in the proper sequence, a b c a.
s in these formulas = — - and is, therefore, an angle

(in plane trigonometry, s = - — , but is a length).

358 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
It is of interest to compare these with the corresponding rules
in connection with plane triangles, which are

• A /(s—b)(s—c)
sin -2 = \/
v be'- '-
's(s —
COS
A A be
'*=V-
8(9 -a)

It will be seen that, as in the previous case, sides occurring in

the formulae of plane trigonometry are replaced by their sines in
the corresponding formulae of spherical trigonometry.
Other rules are :—
cos A+cos B cos C
cos a = . B sin
sin .C (5)
cos a — cos b cos c
cos A — sin:— b=—.sin—c (6)

cot A sin B = cot a sin c — cos B cos c . . . (7)

(a-V)
cos-
tan~lT~ COS~7^R>\COt2 (8)
\ - 2 — /J

(a-b)
. B sin — 2
A— C
tan — — = - — -r- cot —.....-.. (q)
2 . fa-\-o\ 2
sin V - 2 /
Solution of Right Angled Spherical Triangles. — In the
case of a right angled spherical triangle these rules can be put into
somewhat simpler forms.
Assume that the triangle is right angled at C.
€ = 90°, .'. cosC = o, and sinC = i.
„ cose— cos a cos b
From (6) cos C = sin a sin b
but cos C = o,
cos c— cos a cos b = o,
i.e., cos c = cos a cos b (10)
 THE SOLUTION OF SPHERICAL TRIANGLES 359
cos a — cos b cos c
Also cos A = - —sin. 0. sin.—c from (6)
cos c
= f — COS 0 COS C
COS0 — ,
from (10)
sin 0 sin c
—
cos c \s
i _^_, cos 0 w cos c
sin c sin 0 cos 0 sin 0 sin c
if i cos 01
~ tan c\sin b cos b sin 0 J
= cote] T:— cos2 &1 cot ex sin2 0
sin 0 cos 0J sin 0 cos b
sino
= cot c X COS0,
= cot c X tan 0
Isi
or tan ox tan (90— c)
i.e., cos A = tan b tan (90 — c)l , >
also cos B = tan a tan (90— c) J
COStf — COS 0 COS C
Again ;— &^—.sin— c
cos A = - —sin

cos a
cos a — COS2C from
, (10)
. .
sin 0 sin c
cos2 « — cos2 c sin2 c — sin2 a
= cos a —•-»-•
sin 0 sin— c or cos a—sin~ir- 0 sin— c • • (12)
. . sin a
And from (i) sin A = -,sine
— (13)

In plane trigonometry sin A = - .

Napier's Rules of Circular Parts. — The equations (10),

(n) and (13) and their modifications may be easily remembered by
Napier's two rules of circular parts, which may almost be regarded
as a mnemonic.
For the application of these two rules the five parts of the
spherical triangle, other than the right angle at C, are 'regarded as
a, b, (go — A), (90— c), and (90— B) respectively, the complements of
A, c and B being taken instead of the values A, c and B in order
that the two rules may embrace all the cases.
360 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
These five parts are written in the five sectors of a circle in the
order in which they occur in a triangle : thus in Fig. 135, com-
mencing from the side a and making the circuit of the triangle in
the direction indicated, the parts in turn are a b A (for which we
write 90— A), c (for which is written 90— c) and B (for which is
written 90— B). These parts are set out as shown in Fig. 136.
Then Napier's rules state :—
Sine of the middle part = product of tangents of adjacent parts.
Sine of the middle part = product of cosines of opposite parts.
The terms middle, adjacent and opposite have reference to the
mutual position of the parts in Fig. 136. Thus if b is selected as
the middle part, the adjacent parts are those in immediate contact

FIG. 135. FIG. 136.

with b, viz., a and (90— A), whilst (90— c) and (90—6) are the
opposite parts.
Hence sin b = tan a x tan (90— A) = tan a cot A
sin b = cos (90—6) X cos (90— c) = sin B sin c
. „ sin b .„, ,. , .
or smB = -— . (Cf. equation (13), p. 359.)
olll C/

Again if (90—6) is selected as the middle part, the adjacent

parts are (go—c) and«, and the opposite parts are (90— A) and b.
Hence sin (90—6) = tan (90— c) tana
or cos B = tan (90—0) tan a (cf . equation (n), p. 359),
and sin (90— B) = cos (90— A) cos b
or cos B = sin A cos b.
These rules, being composed of products and quotients only,
lend themselves well to logarithmic computation.
The Ambiguous Case in the Solution of Spherical
Triangles. — In the solution of a plane triangle, if two sides and the
angle opposite the shorter of these is given, there is the possibility
 THE SOLUTION OF SPHERICAL TRIANGLES 361
of two solutions of the problem ; the best test for which, as pointed
out in Chap. VI, Part I, being the drawing to scale.
A similar difficulty occurs in the solution of spherical triangles,
when two sides and the angle opposite one of them is given.
E. g., let a b and B be the given parts.
Then from equation (i), p. 357.
sin A sin B
sin a sin b
sin a sin B
or sin A = :— -,— .
sino
Now sin A = sin(i8o— A) and thus the right-hand side of this
last equation may be the value of either a particular angle or its
supplement.
Without going into the proof it may be stated that there will
be one solution only if the side opposite the given angle has a
value between the other given side and its supplement. Thus in
the case in which a b and B are given, there will be one solution
only if b lies between a and (180— a}.
If b is not between a and (180 — a], then the test must be
applied that the greater angle must be opposite the greater side :
thus for the case of a b and B given, if a > b then A must be > B.
The possible cases may be best illustrated by numerical examples,
a b and B being regarded as the given parts throughout.
(a) Given a = 144° 40', b = 87° 37', B = n°g' to find A.
Using equation (i) of p. 357

Sin AA _ sin sm
a sin
:
bf B _ sin 144°sin40'87X 37
; = sin 11° 9'
-.

and log sin A = log sin 144° 4o'-flog sin 11° 9'— log sin 87° 37'
= Ii • 04
7622
90 + 1 • 2864—1" • 9996

so that it is possible that A = either 6° 26' or 173° 34'.

Now a > b and therefore A must be > B, and this condition is
only satisfied if A = 173° 34', since 6° 26' is not > n°9'.
It will be noted that the case chosen is that in which b, viz.,
87° 37', lies between a, i. e., 144° 40', and (180— a), i. e., 35° 20', and
therefore only one solution is expected.
. (b) b = 44° 35', a = 55° 10' and B = 38° 46'.
Here b does not lie between a and (180— a), so that two solutions
are possible.
362 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
As before
log sin A = log sin a + log sin B — log sin b
= log sin 55° io'+ log sin 38° 46'— log sin 44° 35'
= I • 9142+1 • 7966—1 • 8463 = I • 8645
— log sin 47° 3'
so that possible values of A are 47° 3' and 132° 57' and we must
test each of these values.
Now a > b, and hence A must be > B ; but 47° 3' and 132° 57' are
both > 38° 46', so that we have two triangles satisfying the con-
ditions, and for complete solution the two values of A, C and c
must be determined.

Example i. — In a spherical triangle ABC, having given 0 = 30°,

6 = 40°, C = 70°, find A and B.
Given also that

Lsin 5° =8-9402960 L tan 12° 14' 38" = 9-3364779

L sin 35° = 9'75859i3 L tan 60° 4' 3" = 10-2397529
L cos 5° — 9-9983442
L cos 35° = 9-9133645

In this case two sides and the included angle are given ; we there-
fore use equations (8) and (9) .
fa— b\
tan A+B
— — = — DSV 2 — / cot,C
- . . ,
from ,„.
(8)
2 cos f(a+b\
— — j 2

=-5_:cot35.
cos 35° {*»<^f }
\
cos 5° cos 35° _ cos
Taking logs of both sides cos 35° sin 35 °~ sin 35°-
A+B
Ltan — — = L cos 5°— Lsin 35°+io
A+B
(or, alternatively, log tan — — = log cos 5°— log sin 35°)

Ltan — — =
A+B I9-9983442

= L tan 60° 4' 3*

A+B
-^- = 6o°4'3"
A+B = 120° 8' 6" ....... (a)
 THE SOLUTION OF SPHERICAL TRIANGLES 363
From equation (9)
. -_. sin I 1 „
A— B • fa-b\
\ 2 / ,C
tan 2 — — —-j-
. fa+b\ cot 2
sin V - 2 /
tan A— B_ sin 5° 00535°
sin 35" sin 35°
B— A _ sin 5°x cos 35°
taking logs throughout. sin2 35°
B— A
L tan — — = Lsin 5°-fLcos35°— 2Lsin35°+io
18-9402960
9-9I33645
= 28-8536605

19-5171826

=- Ltan 12° 14' 38*

B-A=24°29'i6* ...... . (6)
By adding (a) and (b) 2B = 144° 37' 22*
B = 72° i8'4i*
and A = 120° 8' 6"— 72° 18' 41" = 47° 49'25*.
[Note that A+B+C = 47° 49' 25"+72° i8'4i*+7o°

= 190° 8' 6'

so that the spherical excess = 10° 8' 6".]
Example 2. — Solve the spherical triangle ABC, having given
c = gi°i8', a — 72° 27', and 0 = 90°.

In this case the triangle is right angled, and therefore rules (10) to
(13) may be used.
To find A :—
. . sin a
From equation (13), p. 359, sin A— sin
-: --o
L sin A = L sin a— L sin c-\- 10
= Lsin 72° 27'— Lsin 91° i8'+io
19-97930
9-97941
= L sin 72° 29' 45*.
A = 72° 29' 45'.
364 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
To find b : —
From equation (10), p. 358,
cos c — cos a cos b
cos c
whence cos 6 = -cos a

* cos b — • cosoi°i8/
_ —_ —cos 88° 42'
— _ -- - _
cos 72° 27' cos 72° 27'
or cos (180— b) = — cos 6 = cos
- 88°
— 5-^—
42'>•
cos 72°
Hence we shall work to find the supplement of 6.27'
Taking logs *
log cos (180— 6) — log cos 88° 42'— log cos 72° 27'
2-87644
= 1147934

= log cos 85° 41' 7*.

180—6 = 85° 41' 7"

* It is rather easier to work in terms of the logs in preference

to the logarithmic ratios. One must remember, however, that the
L sine A = log sin A+io, so that if a L sin A reading is 9-97941, then the
reading for log sin A would be 1-97941. If the logarithmic ratios are
used the addition of the 10 must not be overlooked.

To find B :—
From equation (n), p. 359,
cos B = tan a tan (90°— c)
•4990 (c— 90°) = tan 72° 27' x tan i° 18'.
i. e,t cos (180°— B) =tanatan
Iogcos(i8o— B) — log tan 72° 2 7'+ log tan i ° 18'
= 2-3559Q
2-85586

-log cos 85° 53' 6".

180—6 = 85° 53' 6"
B = 94°6'54*.
Hence, grouping our results,
a = 72° 27' A = 72° 29' 45'
6-94°i8'53* B = 94°6'54*

C = 90°
Example 3. — At a point A, in latitude 50° N., a straight line is
ranged out which runs due E. at A. This straight line is prolonged for
 THE SOLUTION OF SPHERICAL TRIANGLES 365
60 nautical miles to B. Find the latitude of B, and if it be desired to
travel due N. from B so as to meet the 50° parallel again at C, find the
angle ABC at which we must set out and also the distance BC.

In Fig. 137 let A be the point on latitude 50° N. and ABD be a

great circle passing through A : thus AB
is a straight line running due E. from A.
Let NB be the meridian through B, and NA
that through A.
The sides NA, AB and BN are straight
lines, because they are parts of great circles
and therefore they together form a spheri-
cal triangle.
In this triangle we know -the side AB
(its value being 60', for i nautical mile
subtends an angle of i' at the centre) ;
the angle at A (90°) ; and the side NA
(90°— latitude, i.e., 40°).
Thus two sides and the included angle are given and we require to
solve the triangle ; hence we use rule (10), p. 358,
from which cos NB — cos NA cos AB

= cos 40° cos 60'

or logcosNB = logcoS4O°-f log cos i°
= 1-88425 +1-99993
= 1-88418

i.e., NB = 4o°o'38'1'
or the latitude of B is
Q0°— 40° o' 38* = 49° 59' 22*.

Now C is at the same latitude as A, so that BC is 38", corresponding

to 60
f- nautical miles ; i. e., BC — -633 nautical mile.
To find the angle ABC, we use rule (13).. p. 359.
. __
SI* L. ABC
sin NA
= ,-== = • .
sin ^-f—Q,
40°
sin NB sin 40 o 38*
log sin L. ABC — log sin 40°— log sin 40° o' 38*
— i -90807 — I -90817
= I -99990
whence L ABC = 88° 45'.

For the surveyor, spherical trigonometry has an important

application in questions relating to spherical astronomy. Thus in
the determination of the latitude of a place by observation to a
star, the calculations necessary involve the solution of a spherical
triangle. This triangle is indicated in Fig. 139, the sides AB, BC
 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
366
and CA representing the co-latitude of the place, i. e., (90°— latitude),
(90° — declination) and (90°— altitude) respectively ; whilst the
angles A, B and C measure respectively the azimuth, the hour
angle and the parallactic angle.
The terms just mentioned are denned as follows:—
Fig. 138 represents a section of the celestial sphere at the
meridian through the point of observation O. RDT is the celestial
equator, CEX is the horizon, Z is the zenith of the point of
observation, i. e., the point on the celestial sphere directly above O,
and S marks the position of the heavenly body to which observa-

FIG. 138. — Determination of Latitude.

tions are made. Also PSD, ZSC, RDT and CEX are portions of
great circles.
The altitude of a heavenly body is the arc of a great circle
passing through the zenith of the point of observation and the
heavenly body ; the arc being that intercepted between the body
and the horizon. We may thus compare the altitude in astro-
nomy with the angle of elevation in surveying. Referring to
Fig. 138, ZSC is the great circle passing through Z and S, and SC
is the altitude. ZS, which is the complement of SC, is called the
zenith distance.
 THE SOLUTION OF SPHERICAL TRIANGLES 367
The azimuth of a heavenly body is the angle between the
meridian plane through the point of observation and the vertical
plane passing through the body. It can be compared with the
'bearing"
the azimuth ofof plane
S. trigonometry. In Fig. 138, the angle PZS is
The hour angle of a heavenly body is the angle at the pole,
between the meridian plane through the point of observation and
the great circle through the pole and the body.
Thus, in the figure, P is the pole, and PSD is the great circle
passing through P and S ; this being known as the " declination
circle." Then ^_ZPS = the hour angle of S, and it is usually
expressed in terms of time rather than in degrees, etc.
The declination of a heavenly body is the arc of the declination

FIG. 139.

circle intercepted between the celestial equator and the heavenly

body : thus DS is the declination of S.
The method of calculation can be best explained by working
through a numerical example ; and in order to ensure a clear
conception of the problem, it is treated both graphically and
analytically.
Example 4. — At a certain time at a place in latitude 52° 13' N. the
altitude of the Sun was found to be 48° 19' and its declination was
15° 44' N. Determine the azimuth.
As explained before, a spherical triangle can be constructed with
sides as follows: a — 90— declination = 74° 16', b = 90— altitude —
41° 41', and c = co-latitude — 37° 47'. Then the angle A is the
a?imuth (Fig. 139).
368 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
Graphic construction. — With any convenient radius OD describe an
arc of a circle DABF. Draw OA, OB and OF, making the angle
DOA = 6 = 4i°4i', LAOB = c = 37° 47', and L BOF = a == 74° 16'.
Draw DCE at right angles to OA, and FGC at right angles to OB,
intersecting at the point C. Note that C lies outside the triangle AOB.
With centre E and radius ED construct the arc of a circle DH : draw
CH perpendicular to DE to meet this arc at H and join EH. Then the
angle REH is the value of the required angle A, and is found to be in
the neighbourhood of 141°. [If C had fallen the other side of OA, the
angle CEH would have been measured.]
The actual spherical triangle ABC is formed by the circular arc
BA and the elliptical arcs AC and BC.
Proof of the construction — The side b is such that it subtends an
angle of 41° 41' at the centre of the sphere. Thus DA measures the
actual length of b, but does not represent it in its true position. In like
manner BF gives the length of a, but again does not give its position
on the sphere.
Let the circular sector OAD be rotated about OA as axis, and the
sector OBF about OB as axis, and let the rotation of both be continued
until they have a common radius OC, i. e., OC is the intersection of the
two revolving planes. Then evidently C is the third angular point of
the spherical triangle ABC, since the given conditions concerning the
lengths of the sides are satisfied by its position.
We observe that in this case the rotation of OBF has to be continued
beyond OA, from which fact we gather that the angle at A must be
obtuse. The line OA is in the plane of the paper, and taking a section
along DE and turning this down to the plane of the paper, we observe
that the actual height of C above the paper is CH. Thus EH is a line
on the plane OAC, also ER is a line in the plane AOB, both lines being
perpendicular to the line of intersection, and the angle REH therefore
measures the inclination of the plane AOC to the plane AOB, this angle
being by definition the angle A of the spherical triangle ABC.
By calculation.— Here we have the three sides given, and we wish to
find an angle which may be done by use of equation (4), p. 357, viz.,

tan
A =
/sin :(s—b)
A / - -
sin (s—r --c)
:- - -
2 N sin s sin (s—a)

Now , = <*+*>+<>
222 _ 74° i6'+4i° 4i'+37° 47' _ 153° 44' ^ 6o ,

so that s— a— 76° 52'— 74° 16' = 2° 36'

s-b = 76°52'-4i04i' = 35° ii'

Hence tan A = /^
2 v sin 76° 52' X sm 2° 36
 THE SOLUTION OF SPHERICAL TRIANGLES 369

A i'
i r(logsin35°Ti/+logsin39°5') ~1
and log tan - = - [_ 7_6°5(log
7\ sin ?6o 52/+iog
sin 2» 3g/)J

I- 56022 /J _ f 2-65670
1-79965
= £x -91503 = H5752

thus — = 70° 46' 30*

and A = 141° 33'.

Exercises 25. — On the Solution of Spherical Triangles.

(4-figufe log tables only have been used in the solution of these
problems.)
In Nos. i to 6, solve the spherical triangle ABC, when
1. « =^50° 0 = 90° & = 32°i7'.
2. 0 = 90° a = 45°43' A = 6i°i5'.
3. a = 72° 14' & — 43° 47' c = 29° 33'. Find also the value of B
by the graphic method explained on p. 368.
4. Z> = 52°5' a = 58° 25' C = 64°.
5. b = 27° 13' c = 5i°i8/ 6 = 85° 9' and the spherical excess is
2° 14'.

6. c = 79°49' b = 28° 5' B=i5°i8'

7. If the sun's altitude is 17° 58', its declination is 28°i6'N., and
its azimuth is N. 65° 43' W., find the latitude of the place of observation.
8. The spherical excess of a triangle on the earth's surface is i° 15':
taking the earth as a sphere of radius 3,960 miles, find the area of the
triangle in square miles.
9. Given that the azimuth of the sun is 10°, and its zenith distance
is 24° 50' when its declination is 22° 15', find the latitude of the place
and also the hour angle.

B B
MATHEMATICAL PROBABILITY AND THEOREM OF
LEAST SQUARES

WHEN extremely accurate results are desired, these results

being derived from a series of observations, the possibility of error
in each or all of the observations must be considered. The correct
result, or what is termed " the most probable result," is usually
found by combining the mean of the observations with " the pro-
bable error of the mean." The work that is to follow is concerned
primarily with the establishment of a rule enabling us to find this
probable error ; and as a preliminary investigation, a few simple
rules of probability will be discussed.
Supposing that an event is likely to happen 5 times and to
fail 7 times, then the probability that it will happen on any
specified occasion is r\, whilst its probability of failing is r7^,
because, considered over a great range, it only happens 5 times
out of 12. It is important to note the significance of the phrase
*' considered over a great range " ; we could not say with truth that
the event was bound to happen 5 times out of the first 12,
10 times out of the first 24, and so on ; it might be doubtful
whether it would happen 50 times out of 120. If, however, say,
12,000 opportunities offered, it would be fairly correct to say that
the happenings would be 5,000 and the failures 7,000, for when a
large number of occasions were considered, all " freaks " would be
eliminated.
To take another illustration :— the probability that a man will
score 90 per cent, of the full score or over on a target is /y
indicates that he is rather more likely to score 90 per cent, than
not (in the proportion 6 to 5) if he fires a great number of shots.
In general terms, if an event may happen in a ways and fail in
b ways, and all these are equally likely to occur, then the pro-
bability ofits happening is -j^-, and of its failing — =- ; and if

37°
 MATHEMATICAL PROBABILITY 371
a = b, then it is as likely to happen as not, i. e., its probability of
either happening or failing is \.
„ Probability of happening _ a a+b _ a
Probability of failing ~ a+b b ~ b'
i. e., the odds are a to b for the event, or b to a against it, the
first form being used if a > b and vice versa.
E.g., if the odds are 10 to i against an event, the probability of
its happening = — — = — ; or it will probably happen once only
out of eleven attempts.
Exclusive Events. — Let us now consider the case of two
exclusive events, viz., the case in which the happenings do not
concur. /»

Suppose the probability of the happening of the first event =-

/
and the probability of the happening of the second event = -T-.
Then for purposes of comparison each of these fractions may be
expressed with the same denominator : if this common denominator
is c, write the fractions as —cand —c respectively.
Now out of c equally likely ways the first event may happen in
a± ways and the second in «2 ways, and since the two events are
exclusive, i. e., the happenings of the one do not coincide with the
happenings of the other, the two events together may happen in
«!-}-«, ways.
Hence the probability that one or the other will happen is
— c -. which may be written in the form —c -f- —c , i. e., as the sum
of the separate probabilities.
E. g., suppose that one event happens once out of 8 times, and
a second event happens three times out of 17, and that there is no
possibility of the two events happening together ; then, the
common denominator of 8 and 17 being 136, the first event happens
17 times out of 136 and the second event happens 24 times out of
136, and hence, either the one or the other happens 41 times out cf
each 136.
Probability of the Happening together of Two Inde-
pendent Events. — Suppose that one event is likely to happen
once out of every 6 times, whilst another is likely to happen twice
out of every 17 times ; then the probability that the two will
happen together must be smaller than the probability of the
372 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
happening of either — in fact, it must be the product of the separate
probabilities ; i. e., the probability of the two events happening
122 I
together = ;rX 6 —17 = 102 or 51— : or out of every 10.200 times the
first will probably happen 1,700 times, the second will probably
happen 1,200 times, whilst the two would happen together 200
times only.
Probability of Error. — Bearing in mind these fundamental
theorems, we can proceed to a study of the question of probability
of error ; with particular reference to its application in precision
surveying.
It will be admitted that, for any well made series of observa-
tions, the following assumptions may be regarded as reasonable :—
(1) That small errors are more likely to occur frequently than
large errors, and hence extremely large errors never occur.
(2) That positive and negative errors are equally likely, i. e., we
are as likely to give a result that is -ooi too high as one that is
•ooi too low.
Hence the probability of the occurrence of an error of a given
magnitude, which is denoted by

the number of errors of that magnitude

total number of errors

depends in some way upon the magnitude of that error. Our first
idea, therefore, might be that the probability of the occurrence
of an error of magnitude x could be expressed as f(x), i. e., as some
linear function of x. It will be seen, however, that this is not in
accordance with assumption (2) ; for assumption (2) demands that
if a curve be plotted, the ordinates showing probabilities and the
abscissae indicating errors, it must be symmetrical about the y axis.
The function must therefore be of an even power of x, and taking
the simplest power we say that the probability of occurrence of an
error of magnitude x =y = f(x2).
Now, from assumption (i) we note that the coefficient of xz
must be negative, because y must decrease as x increases.
The probability of an error of magnitude x being included in the
range x to x +S# must thus depend on xz, and also on the range Bx ;
hence it would be reasonable to say that it =f(xz}8x, because the
greater the range the more is the chance of happening increased.
Therefore, the probability that an error of magnitude x falls
 MATHEMATICAL PROBABILITY 373
between any assigned limits, —a and -\-a, must be the sum of the
probability f(xz) 8x extended over the range — a to -\-a,

i.e., P = ^ f(x*)dx
this being the probability that the error does not exceed a.
Hence the probability that the error may have. any value
whatever (i. e., the probability is i) must be expressed by

for the range is unlimited, so that

/•+«
.' -oo
I f(x2)dx must = i.

It has been proved by Lord Kelvin (see his " Natural Philo-
sophy ")that f(x2) must be such that

and since e?* x 0* =

and e1** X e*v* =
this condition will be satisfied if

n ce ion
the minus sign being inserted in accorda with assumpt i on
*2 ft^ f°r the reason that
or Ae~as
p. 372 ; and the coefficient k being written
is explained later.
A value can now be found for the constant A.
2
_«

It is known that J
Ir+oo
-00
f(x2)dx = i,
/• + » _Z2
hence A / e &dx — i.

Now it has already been proved (see p. 163) that

r -z* ™
'~z~
I Oe: ' *='" h^/ir
/•»_?
and IJo e h*dx = 2
>r2 r2
/•OO _ Z^ ,-flO _ *"

also yI -oo
e h'2dx = 2 J/ o e A2rfA; =
374 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
hence AxWir = I,

or

A =
Thus
y =/(*•) =
the law being known as the Normal Error Law.
The curve representing this equation is called the probability
curve and also Gauss's Error curve. Two such curves are plotted
in Fig. 140, to show the effect of the variation of the parameter h.
In the one case h = -2, and for the second curve h = -5 ; and it
will be noticed on comparing the curves that for the smaller value
of h the probability of the occurrence of small errors is greater,
i. e., the set of observations for which h = -2 would be more nearly
correct than that for which h = -5.

It will be seen that the curve is in agreement with the axioms

stated on p. 372 ; for the probability of error is greatest when the
error is least, the probability of a large error is very small, and
there is as much likelihood of an error of + -2, say, as of —-2.
The probability that the error does not exceed -i is given by
the area ABCD in the one case, and ABEF in the other.
Theorem of Least Squares. — If a number of observations are
made upon a quantity, and the errors in each of these noted, i. e., as
nearly as can be estimated ; then from a knowledge of these errors
it is possible to find the most probable or likely value of the
quantity.
Let n observations be taken and let the errors be x^ xz • • • Xn '.
also suppose that all the measurements are equally good, i. e., the
"fineness" of reading is the same throughout; h in the formulae
above being a measure of the fineness.
The probability of the error x± being within a certain range 8x
 MATHEMATICAL PROBABILITY 375
will be the probability of an error of magnitude xl multiplied by
the range «*, i.e.,

i .
and for error x2 P2 = 8xX — -=.e~ *a and so on.

Now #! x2 etc. are quite independent, so that the probability of

all the errors falling within the range &x will be the product of the
separate probabilities, i.e.,

P = P1XP8X . . .PB
&x -^ x — Sx =e -**
»2 X ..
hVi

We have thus obtained an expression which gives us the prob-

ability of all the errors falling within a certain range. We might
say that this range was -i, for instance, or -05. Evidently if all
the errors were kept within the range —-05 to +-05 the calculated
result would be a nearer approximation to the truth than if the
range were double the amount stated.
Our object then is to find when the probability of a small error
a(8xmaximum.
may be reduced as we please) is greatest, *'. e., to find when P is
_ .. -!(*-) K
Now P = K e h& — -;

and the smaller the denominator is made, the larger will P become.
But the only variable in the denominator is 2#2, and hence, in order
that P may have its maximum value, 2#2 must be the least
possible. Hence the most probable value of the quantity to be
determined is that which makes the sum of the squares of the
errors the least.
The fact can now be established that the arithmetic mean of
the observed values is the most probable value of the quantity.
 376 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
Thus, if n observations are made,
let «! «2 #3 . . . On be the respective observations
a the A.M. of these values
a the value most probably correct
then («! — a) (a2—a) etc. are known as residual errors.
Now the probability of making this system of errors

or P = Ae
T> A ~ h~
ro

tiate
To differen
P with regard to a, put u =
- duA -
then i_ = o+2tfw
fl#

Thus P = A*~^
rfP
_ __ dP
_ \/ _du
da du da
= — F5

and dP --- zSa, = o

-3-=- =o ifA2an—
w
or if « = n-za-,

but n-2#i = a = A.M. of the observations

and hence <z = a
h2
or the most probable value is the A.M. of the observations.
Again, if x is the error of the A.M. and xl xz x3 etc. are the
respective errors of the observations,
ft

X = -
By squaring

= M2Vl2(2V)+i<
I / l nz\
 MATHEMATICAL PROBABILITY 377
then, since it is assumed that all the observations are equally good,
and that positive and negative errors are equally likely to occur,
v 2 — -y 2 — A* 2 — — ,,- QTtin ^? ^ v — {\
»vj — •^'2 — 3 — * " • — r^ ciuA-i ^H-vi-vo "~~— vj

for all the errors are small and their products, two at a time, are
still smaller.
Also —i
x2 = «*(«u2) = —u2
«

or # = ~=
Vn
. . probable error of a single observation
or the probable error of the A.M. = Vn — ,

and thus, other things being equal, the possibility of a large error
in the final result is greatly reduced by taking a great number of
observations. Also in a set of well made observations, if a sufficient
number are made, the arithmetic mean cannot differ from any of
the observations to any very great extent, and accordingly the
residual errors and .the actual errors are very nearly alike.
We are now in a position to summarise the results of the
investigation so far as we have pursued it ; thus
(a) The arithmetic mean of the series of observations, which are
supposed to have been made with equal care, is the most probable
value of the quantity.
(b) The sum of the squares of the residual errors must be the
least.
(c) The probable error of the A.M. is equal to the probable
error of a single observation divided by the square root of the
number of observations.

Example i. — Seven observations of a certain quantity, all made with

equal care, were 12, n, 14, 12, 11-2, 11-7, and 12-1.
Find the most probable value of the quantity.

The most probable value = A.M. = — = 12,

and it can readily be shown, by actual calculation, that this value
7
makes the sum of the squares of the residual —errors the least.
The residual errors are
(12 — 12), (11 — 12), (14—12), (12 — 12), (11-2 — 12), (11-7—12)
and (12-1 — 12) or o, — i, 2, o, —-8, —-3, -i
and 2 squares of residual errors — 0+1+4+0+ -64+ -09+ -01
= 574-
378 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
To test whether this is the least, let us suppose that the most
probable value is 11-5; then the residual errors are: -5, —-5, 2-5, -5,
— •3, -2 and -6 respectively.
2 squares = -25 + -25+6-254- -25+ -09+ -04+ -36 = 7-49.
Similarly, if we assume, say, 12-2 as the most probable value,
Z (residual error)2 = (.2)2+(i-2)?+(i-8)2+(-2)2+(i)2+(-5)2+(-i)2
== 6-02
-04+1-44+3-24+ -04+1+ -25+ -oi

both of which totals exceed 5-74.

To find the Probable Error of the Arithmetic Mean.—
Let r = the probable error of any one of the observations ; then if
this is an "average" error, i. e., if errors greater are as likely to
occur as errors smaller, the probability that the error is less than
r is \.
Now, the probability that an error lies within the range — r to -\-r
T f+r -I 2 ['
is — T =1 f+r e -I2
h*dr = — 2 -=.1[' ee -r-h2dr
hV-n-J -r flVirJ 0
- /r

/for dr=hd( r ) and the limits are now those for T and not those for r\
\ \hj h I
There must be some connection between the amount of error
and the fineness of measurement, i. e., between r and h, and this we
must now find.
If X = £
h

A/V' o x«x V ir-i o

and we see from the above statement that the value of this
integral is to be £.
N ow
XT
e — i — i- jf -i, X 9
2
* ,
u —6 i—
X3 o .

and thus e~X2 — i— X2-| 2 o^-+ .

and if X2 is small we may perform the integration by way of
expansion in series : if X2 is not small the value of the integral
would be read from probability tables which give the values of the
2 /-x _X2
integral — ^ I e ^X : these tables being given in the Transactions
VWo
of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, Vol. xxxix. For the present
 379
MATHEMATICAL PROBABILITY

application of the integral, however, X is a small quantity, and a

sufficiently correct result is obtained by expanding in a series and
calculating from a few terms in this series.
Thus
L _T
o fh -X2 -2 / rh --' —~
-41 « dX = -2(
VTT\J 0 (i

FIG. 141.

Hence

and this equation may be written

v5 = /r_j:L . '
¥

or if for j- we again write X

X3 X5 X7
•44SI = X 1 h terms which are very small.
3 10 42
By selecting values of X and plotting, the solution of this
equation is found, the final plotting being represented in Fig. 141,
where it is seen that the solution is X = -4769.
38o MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
Y
Thus T = '4769 or r = -4769^.
Y
[If solved to a greater degree of accuracy, the value of r is
found to be -47696^, and this figure will be used in the work that
follows.]
Again, if n equally good measurements have been made, each
will have what is termed a weight of unity, i. e., none is better or
worse than any other, and when working towards the result to
be deduced from the measurements, equal consideration must be
paid to each measurement ; also the A.M. is said to have a weight
of n since on the average n observations of equal weight must be
made to give a result as true as the A.M.
r
Knowing that Vn
rm = ~/^
where rm = probable error of the A.M.
and r = probable error of any observation
weight of A.M. n
and also — r-^-r — ?- *r- —r- — = -
weight of one observation i
,., .. v» «
which we can write as —w = -i

we can link up wm and w with rm and r,

for ^!-^i
r* n wm
or the weight varies inversely as the square of the probable error.
Thus the determination of the probable error, whilst a useful
guide to the accuracy of the one set of observations, is more use-
ful in fixing the relative weights that must be given to different
sets of observations.
Thus, if three sets of observations have been made on a certain
length with the results that the probable errors of the A.M. are
•45, -29, and -51 respectively ; then the weights to be given to
these sets are - — ^ -.— -^ - — r^ respectively
(.45)2 (.29)2 (-5i)2
or -494 1-19 -384.
Then in assessing for the final result, by far the most reliance
would be placed on the second set of observations, less on the first,
and least on the third set ; this fact being well illustrated by
 MATHEMATICAL PROBABILITY 381

Fig. 142, the resultant weight being nearer to the weight 1-19 than
to either of the other weights.
1R.2-068

•494 1-19 394

FIG. 142.

To return to the object of this paragraph :— •

If #! #2 *s • • • are the actual errors of observation, then the
probability that each falls within the small range 8* is
i l^2 i -(^Y
P! = hVir
— ^j V*/ 8* P2=— hVir
-7=e ^h) (&) etc.,

and the probability that they all fall within this range at the same
time will be less than either of the separate probabilities ; it will
actually be the product of these.
Thus P = P1xP2X ......
i (
~
hVir hV-jr
-(*,«+*,«+
h

We wish to find for what value of h P has its greatest value

hence differentiate P with respect to h.

P xe-- where K =
= UXV

= and
hn dh

v = g-A2<2a:i2) or if w = TtCZx-,2) v =

and thus ah
~ = (2^2)h? X -2h - 3
dv dv dw
Also — = aw
an -- x -3-
dh
_de-" dw_ ^
: dwXdh~
382 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
Then
dP du . dv
~rr=
dh v-r;
dh+U-T;
dh

=o if
22V

or h== 1-414 \/^

Now it has already been proved that r = -47696/1

so that r = -47696 Vs
- -6745V ^
/(W)
Also we have previously stated that the sum of the squares
of the actual errors differs very little from the sum of the squares
of residual errors ; this being true if a great number of observations
are taken. The difference in the two sums may be expressed rather
more accurately by the relation
Yl
^Xj2 = - - 2 (residual error)2.
w— r
Hence if for 2 (residual error)2 we write

Applying these results to Example I on p. 377,

W = 574
n = 7

then ^

* - '6745^ = -2475
 MATHEMATICAL PROBABILITY 383

/ 2n^rez /2X574 c
also h = v 7 v == v =i '3°
v (n— i)Xn 6
*. e., h has a very high value ; and this would be expected, for the
"fineness " of reading, as judged by the results, is not at all good
(one error being as much as 2 in 12).
Example 2. — In a chain survey four measurements of a base line
gave 867-35, 867-51, 867-28 and 867-62 links respectively. Find the
best length and the probable error in this length.
The best result is the A.M. of these, i. e.,
867-35+867-5I+867-28+867-62
4
— 867-44 links
and whilst this is the best result it contains a probable error.
Probable error in A.M.
= ^=-6745\/^
Yy
= -6745
/(— Q9)2+(-Q7)2+(—
4X3
- -6745 V ^
= -0517

i. e., the base line measurement (867-44) is subject to an error of

•0517 link, and as this result could not be bettered it would be
unnecessary to repeat this portion of the survey.
The probable error in any one observation would be

'='6745 \-- = -io3,

so that there is a decided gain in accuracy obtained by increasing the
number of observations. (Cf. "repetition," when working with the
theodolite.)
It is of interest to find h for this example.
2X-07I _

and as this is a small quantity we are confirmed in our conclusion that

the observations were well made.
-J = '2176
Example 3. — The mean values of the three angles of a spherical
triangle were calculated from the actual observations to be 75° 40' 21 -6",
39° 1 i' 47-3", and 65° 7' 56-2"; and these values were subject to
probable errors 2-9", 3-6*, and 4-3* respectively. From a knowledge
 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
of the area of the triangle, the spherical excess of the triangle was
found to be 3-3*. Make the necessary adjustments to the angles to
satisfy this condition.

The actual spherical excess

= (75040'2i-6"+390ii/47-3"+65°7/56-2")-i8o0

There is thus (5-1 — 3-3) to be divided among the angles, according to

the respective weights ; and these weights are in the proportion

or -119 -077 -054,

the sum of the weights being -250. •IIO *O77
Hence the corrections to be applied are •250 Xi-8, —-250— xi-8. and
—•250
^ xi '8 to the respective angles; all these corrections being sub-
tracted, since the observed angles give a spherical excess greater than
should actually be the case.
These corrections are -857, -555, and -389.
Hence the true angles are (75° 40' 21-6*— -86*), (39° ii'47'3*— -56")
and (65° / 56-2*- -39*),
or 75° 40' 20-74", 39° II/46'74'/ and 65° 7' 55-81*.
Example 4. — Measurements of an angle in a traverse survey were
made by two different observers, with the following results :—
Readings by A. Readings by B.

76° 50' 20* 76° 50' 55"

76° 50' 50* 76° 50' 35*
76° 50' 30"
76° 51' 15"
76° 51' 10* 20*
76° 50' 30* 76° 51'
51'
76° 50'
76° o"
45*
76° 51' o"
76° 50' 40* 76° 50' 25*
76° 50' 30* 76° 50' 40"
Compare the two results from the point of accuracy, and find the
most probable value of the angle.
We must first find the arithmetic mean of each set of observations,
and then, by subtracting this from each reading, we determine the
residual errors.
The A.M. of set A = 76° 50' 4 1-25*
and A.M. of set B = 76° 50' 5 1 -88*.
 MATHEMATICAL PROBABILITY 385
Since the differences are of seconds only, we need not concern
ourselves for the present with the degrees and minutes ; and thus the
table of residual errors and their squares becomes

Residual Error.
(Residual Error)2.
Residual Error.
(Residual Error)*.
9-7
— 21-25 451.4 — 16-88
284-9
—+ 118-75
-25
+ 3-12
+28-75
-1 1-25
126-6
+ 23-I2
+- 28-12
6-88
826-8 -6
76
+- 18-75 .126-6
1-6
-26-88
-H-88
+ 8-12
1-25 790-7
— 11-25 66-0
126-6 6 534-6
722-4
sum o 35 1' o
2087-8 8x7 47-3
141-2

In case A f »» — '"745 <v / 2087-8 2596-8

In case B I »» °745 V
weight of observations by A (4-594) 2 1-244
8x7 "
Thus A's readings can be relied on before(4-119)'
those of B ; the former
being roughly ij times as good as the latter.
The most probable value of the angle, taking into account the two
sets of readings, will be obtained by the calculation of the " weighted
mean," i. e., the mean of the two arithmetic means already found,
determined with due regard to the respective weights to be given to
A's readings and B's readings.
Dealing only with the seconds, the most probable value
(41-25 x i 1-244) + (5 1 -88 x i)
+ 1-244
51-31+51-88— =_ —103-19
- — - = 46 seconds.
2-244 2-244
Hence the most probable value of the angle = 76° 50' 46*

Exercises 26. — On the Calculations of Errors of Measurements.

1. One surveying party measured a certain base line as 6 chains
42-7 links, 6 chains 53-5 links, 6 chains 46-4 links, and 6 chains
41-9 links ; and a second party measured the same line as 6 chains 38-4
links, 6 chains 39-7 links, 6 chains 46-9 links, and 6 chains 43 links.
State which of the two parties is the more dependable, and find the
most probable length of the line.
C C
386 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS

2. Plot the probability curve y = n vi /-TT e -*_?

AZ the value of h being
•1414, and find the probability that an error lies within the limits
— -6 and + -6.
3. The following are the values of the determination of the azimuth
of Allen from Sears, Texas, the results of a U.S. Coast and Geodetic
Survey; the values of the seconds only being stated after the first
reading: 98° 6'4i-5*, 42-8, 43-4, 43-1, 39-7, 42-7, 41-6, 43-3, 40-0, 45-0,
43-3 and 40-7. Find the A.M., the probable error of a single obser-
vation and the probable error of the mean.
4. Find the weighted mean of the following observations : 95-8,
96-9, 97-2, 95-4, 95'7, 97gii 96-5, 96-7 and 97 ; the probable errors in
the measurements being -2, -4, -i, -9, -7, 1-2, -8, -3 and 1-5 respectively.
 ANSWERS TO EXERCISES
Exercises 1
3*7 AC*

3. E = constant x -~
at 4. V == RC + L at
^
5. —11-03 cms. per sec. : 1-07 seel;, from start 6. -336 ton
11. 5.65 12. Middle of May : middle of October
15. Loading is -2 ton per foot run 16. -966 : — uv=^— = cos 6
17. -42 ton per foot 21. 6-3

Exercises 2
1.
18-75 2. -128 3. —2* 4. 27*" 5. — g
•0086 i'ii
4#3
-pl.23
•982
11 19 -fi?*8'3 13 /<car2 /i/i •Si'1-8 4-

14. 0 X2'3 °* /pi -6 347 #v

17. , -84 . 1-29 •52'5 12-48 ._ .-
•073
•JIV3'Si -
20.
21. i - a - §&P~* 22. w(^ + Xjr~j-x
23. •289* w "* d / I
24. V/— : (Arv + nyz — xl) 25. « = 2- \/ i + w-;
/*"f \
26. -2(/> +
9) 27.7-85 28. w(-j--x\ 29.9-6
30. -7333
Exercises 3
1. Sub-normal — 466 ; sub-tangent = i 2. 25-7
3. y = -0256^ ; (# is distance from centre) : -64

+ 142-5 5. M-= — ( -- xy. S = - -: L, — o

2\4
6. M = -(--
7. M = W (l-x) : S = - W : L = o
8. Sub-tangent = — — : sub-normal =

9. 3 10. -~ (wl -wx- aP)

387
388 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
Exercises 4

1. -5*~5* 2. 6-I5**'1* 3. -^=|

& 4. 1-423 (4-15)*
5. 4-33 (8-72)2x 6. ge9* — 35e~7x 7. 5-44*1'718 8. 9-7 (2)*
9. io-25<r25*- 10.

11. i2-6e*'2* 12. - 13. ^— 14.

x 5* — 4
1 O. 4ac^
— r A u. _!.&,-.
ioe 2* i^

17. I 4 --- ? - or*2L-VT- [Use the rule log AB = logA+logB]

* 3*— 47 *(3*— 47)
4
18. —5* ->+--4^3* 19. 303jcX1+ 8 sinh zx — '^~
\-- --2-- \--7-4^
^— *
20. - X - 1-057 (1-8)* 21. o 22. 1-052 23.

24.^43
t25>.2T 26.^,-
-L* 27.^7-
i *ow — 7
28. ^ sinh- :^ cosh y- 29. frE 30. & 31.
44?? ^fc
32. o 33. o 34. -- + C - -,

Exercises 5

1. — 5'3 cos (4 — 5-3*) 2. —16-3 sin 5-1* 3. -48 sec2 (3* -f 9)

5-05sin(-05 — -117*)
4. -QI4COS (-425^— 1-25) 5. — 4ocosec2# 6. cos2 „, — :—
(-05 — -117*)
7. gbc sin (rf — gx) 8. — 20 sin 5^ — 14 cos (zx — 5)
9. 4-40038-8^+ -S cos 1-6^ {Usetherule : 2 sinAcosB = sin(
-(- sin (A — B)} 10. — 6-74 sin 6-2X — 3-04 sin 2-8
11. 4'52 V\O ~^'U
sin (Px — 1X + 2C) + "U.,™T" U sin (px
12. 5 sin 2x. {Use the rule: cos 2A = i — 2 sin2 A} 13. —-195 sin 6x
14. o 15. S-I6A"72 -5-2 -0273 cos (4-31 — -195^) + 24-93
3# —sin4'1(6-1 — -23*) + 7-4 sec2 (4* — -07)
16. -1056 cos -015^ — -0529
17. Velocity = 37-7 sin 31-4* — 56-56 cos 31-4* :
acceleration =1184 cos 31-4/4- J777 sin 3I-4'
18. Acceleration —— -02895 : S.H.M. 19. —1162
20. Sine curve (i.e., second derived curve).
f B/
21. o I Treat as a constant the portion

22. — — 1500^ cos pt + $oop cos $pt + 42^ sin pt — 8^p sin
 ANSWERS TO EXERCISES 389
Exercises 6

1. 2 cos 2.x . <?8in2* 2. v- 3» — 2 sin 2* 4. 24*2. cos x3

5. 3-14 (iox + 7) sec2 (5#2 + 7* — 2) 6. 3 log a . cos 3* . a"in3*

3 ~T" i~j% ~~~~ Q# 5

sec20 ._ sin<9 (dy dy dd\
10. COSCCA- 11. 12. - —. { — = 3^ - X 3
secz cp cos a i + cosy la^r aw a^J
13. \IrflogV
,, ,j. — slope of curve = — rfA
j^— X dV
-=- X rflogV)
— ^— =- ,
15. i -08 ft. per min. : -377 ft. per min. 18. -033215.: •01020'
19. 7 cosec 7* + 45*2 20.=^ 21. 56° 19' 22. 53° 7' 24.

Exercises 7

1. x (2 sin 3* -f $x cos 3*) 2. 2^2'4 (i + 3-4 log

3.

4
Ar5 cos (3-1 — 2-07.*) ( cos (3-1-12-07
Icos —— 2-07^)
2-0^ 5 sin (3-1-
x 2-07*) \ J
5. - {2-575 sin (5-15* + 4) + -625 sin (1-25* - 4)} or
- {3-2 sin 3-2* cos (i-95* + 4) + i'95 cos 3-2^ sin (1-95* + 4)}
6. sec2 2x {2 cos (5 — 3#) + i -5 sin (5 — 3*) sin 4*} or
3 tan 2.x sin (5 — 3*) + 2 sec2 2# cos (5 — 3*)
7. I2-8*'6 (cos (3 + 8x) + 2 — 5* sin (3 + 8*)}
8. 27 (5)3z J4-83 log x + - 9. (i + log AT) exlo«x 10.

12. 3 ^\ /tan x log^

-125^8cos2-i25Ar/ \
11. 3oe— (5* + 4)(5* + 2)
13. o 14. — 5e-lot 15. o 16. 12600 sin (14*— -116)
17. 6t {5 sin (4 — -8t) — 2t cos (4 — -8*)) 18. 4*2'7 (3-7 cos 3^ — 3* sin 3*)

Exercises 8

1.'" 5*2(73~7;y)
e7*-5 2. -
cos (2— 7#)
-. (-^—
\7# — 2 - log (2 - 7*) tan (2 - 7*)}
3 20 4 & 5 5-46 (5)2^
^ S ^ c o s h i-S^
^-
6. TCsin^n- Vd* — or
_ — 21 i—
*2 + 6^ + 15 (i -
Q wb (ab — -zbx + x2 cot B)
~2~(&-*cotB)2
39o MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS

es\n(i-2x + l-7)
12< {loi^^T^Ts)? x
j I -2 COS (l-2X -{- I -7) log (8xz — JX + 3) + -~-
. 6-55 (sin 0 — 0 cos 0)
13. sech2* 14. J3.v
05 (0 — sin 0)^
15.. 66-2 (0 — sin 0)* (20 — 30 cos 0 + sin 0) 4„
lo. yz

17. rw2 cos 0 -1—

L (m2 - sin2 0)*
d(f> a> cos 0 . dz(f> _ a>z sin 0 (i — m2)
'' ~dt ~ \/m2 - sin2 0 ' ^2 (ma-sina0)^
19. ^^a:
(# — ?)sm 2^ ± J*
> w 20.

Exercises 9
2.

*pt + 4e« . log (5p - 3)

4. io(4-w)(9-4w)(3 + 8w)2 6. 8(1-7
7 _ 31 o ?_(*P__t '
°' dr\
' ?_(*__
CrVdt r'dt

Exercises 10

1. 750 2. 17-1 3. ^ : ^- 4. -577/ : -I28W/

5. -5 6. — 2-25 : minimum 7. -278 : maximum
8. maximum at x = —5 : point of inflexion at x = —2
minimum at x = i 9. 2 rows of 8
10. base = 3-652 ft. : height = 1-826 ft. 11. 2-1 : minimum
12. - 13. -496: £631 14. width = height = 8-4'
15. 15-2 knots: £956, £948, £957 16. x = -289;
17. h = 6-34 ft. : d = 12-68 ft. 18. base = 4* : height = 5*
19. depth = 3 x breadth. 20. ^
w 21. 6 22. -866 r

23. v : | : — 24. u = -.51; 25. 135° or 315°

 ANSWERS TO EXERCISES 391
26. d = l 27. I = 2'o6sr 28. 20-15: —-45 29. o or 20° 56'
30. height = 8-1 ft. : base = 6-72 ft. 31. x = -4*

32. tan- (-*±^?±$\

i — fiz 38. / _
34. maximum at x = o : points of inflexion at x —• ± . V2
—j=
K
35. VP 36. /(4/+d 37.
i+ K
/
\ Let r = ^
38. -58 ( P!and find ^]dr J 39. 3 units 40. * = ^^
2
41. T/ = ^Tm 42. maximum at * = — 2
minimum at * = 4 and at * = —2-5
points of inflexion when * = —2-26 and 1-92
43. x = VRjRg : /»« (maximum) = - fam + i) (Rx — R2)2

t ' oj
44. d = \/^j 46. 83° i' or 276° 59'

Exercises 11
1. -006 2. 2«5%toolow 3. -0264 4. —2-45
5. 2-66 6. decrease of -00135 7. -03 link; -237 link
8. i + x log a +, *(#loga)2
! , (#loga)3
- 1.2 1.2.3 :— i- +, . . .
9. 2214-2525 10. -536

Exercises 12
2. 152 5. 240 ; 205 ; 64
6. 621,000 ft. Ibs. : potential energy = 240,000 :
kinetic energy = 381,000 : 987,000 ft. Ibs.
7. 480 9. 238,000 10. 3006 12. i-526#2-68+C
13. 70-15* + C 14. - +C 15.
17. -i*10 — 10 log x + 14* + C 18. 3-32*1'04 — 2-5*2 + C
19. i-o74*3'718 + ie* + C 20. i-33«9*-f + C •
21. 6-54««-*'-1-» + C 22. -689* + C 23. -^ C - + C
24. 3-025*'84 — 8-2 log x — 2-7ie-2>«* + 1-13* + C
25. — -0234*-10'2* + C 26. i-g6e'61x — 1-297*-" + -674*8'04 + C
27. -797 cos 0*1-" — 2-2g-8'-i*+C 28. Ju6 + C 29. -- ^§+C
30. 35< + C 31. ie^-«+C 32. - 5-88^ + C
33. 20-2 (2)» + C 34. - * + 2-5^2 + 4-25** - 8x + C
^T
35. -885(3-i)t + C 36. _ + C
392 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS

37. _ _ z-jiSt + C 38. i6-i*2 + C

x 39. - + C
45
40. Write the equation in the form -f — — w — and then integrate :

pvn — C p v
Exercises 13
1. -Jcos4* + C 2. i -73 sin (3 - 3*) + C
3. — 49 tan (3 — }x) + C 4. i-oix'9** + 1-195 sin (-05 — -117^) + C
5. -I85405'4*— -cos (b + ax) + C
& 6. 9-45* . sin 8t + C
7. -713 cos 2(2-i6x — 4-5) + C
8. i2-85e'7* — ^— r + i -83 log cos # + C
A# — 2-8\
9. —9-95 cos (—\ 7 /) + '022 sin 9^r — i'46^2'74 + -455(3)2x + 6 + C

10. 2* — -787 cos (- — 3-7* /

V4 ] + 7-55 cot. ^5 + C
(i
11. v = 7 cos (7^ — -26) + C ; s =

49
12. -5^
«D = 47r2nV( \
sin ^ + Sin
2m2 /
\ + C; * = — 47r2nV( \
cos ^ + C°S
4m 2 /) + C
13. •3iH58p) - -139 sin (3-7 - 7-2^) + C
14. — 19-5 cos 6t — 4-9 sin 6t + C

Exercises 14.
1. -182 2. -345 3. 1-7 4. -561 5. -0626
2!
6. 1-218 x io7 7. 2-62 8. -1589 9. -P

10. -6i6Bmai 11. - 2- |C—

I a (aJ"^ — ~6 -fW
+ 6 + C^Sa (fl

2 13- -np =
^o

14. » {^4 - 4/3^ + 3,4} 1 -

24EI (
16. 3°
^ 17. .2046/* 18. iI^SiU+ sin ^$ • Wk*
2
19. 26-24 {Limits must first be found} ; f 20. 334
21. y = -736*?'« + 5 log # + 3^ — 3-25 22. i -087.
. . ._

26.H = g 27.240 3 ;8.,9I 29.8

30. 49-82 31. ^f 32. -8596CA.W 33.
 ANSWERS TO EXERCISES 393
Exercises 15

1. -158 log5 (* +1-5

- 83) 2. 3V6
V6
3. log (9*2 - 18* + 17)" -f C 4. -1919
5. 605 {Let u — 6 — h] 6. yV-j$ — y2 + -75 sin"1 1 -154^ + C
7. -106 8. $sini2* + 4/ + C 9. — tcot5#+C
.. WR3/i i\ -0683 WR3
10. -==-
El \ir--- 47 ) or -- £-
El —
11. — -8 log cos 5* + C {Let u = cos 5*}
_ -g&Z
12. # sin"1 # + Vi — ^ • + C
13. — £V (a2 — AT2)3 + C 14. 3 — {3 sin 2* — 2 cos -zx]

15. tan-1 * H -- ~18> + C (Let u - tan-1 AT) 16. -081

i + xz k
17 tsin»<9 18
19. 183 sees. : {Rationalise denominator of right hand side by
multiplying top and bottom by Vh + 12 — Vh ; then integrate, making
the substitution u = A + 12.}
21.
10 42

22. ^
12+ t8 - 12cosh-1 2
1+ C 23. 355
256 24. i -749
25. — 26. -oiR3
315

27. (-5* + 1-25) 2T^5* -x* + 13-63 sin-1 + C

28. F=

V a2
Exercises 16

1.. 41-59 2. 1-718 3. 10-85 4- <688 5- 4'5

6. 23-05 7. 1-348 ft. candles. 8. o 9. -1294
10. 273 11. 205 Ibs.

Exercises 17

1. 14-14 2. -6215 3. 2-4 4. -1165 5. -833 6. 1-194

394 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
Exercises 18
1. 1450 cu. yds. 2. 5977 Ibs. 3. 1070 4. 4nr2
c KTrD2/2 x_ . Kl
5. a — 3-036, b = -1423 ; 1617 6. — ^ — or Vol. x
7. 524 (limits are 5 and 10} 8. 271-6 9. 1-2 Ibs.
10. true == 76-62 : (a) 75-41 : 1-58 % low (b) 77-73 : 1-45 % high
(c) 76-60 : correct. 11. 60-9 ft.
Exercises 19
1. | height from vertex
2. area = 7200 sq. ft. : centroid is 158' from forward end
3. 3-84 Ibs. ; 4" 4. 10 ft. from top
5. x = y = i -7* (taking the centre as origin) 6. 771 ; 2-25
7. (o, -95) 8. 2-35* from AB 9. 1-055* 10. -935"
11. -877* 12. 1-02* 13. 2-68* i. e., 1-34*
14. 5-12 ft. from O 15. 30880 Ibs. 16. 18432 Ibs. : 3-534 ft.
17. 9 units. 18. 5-1 ins. 19. 2-35 ins.
20. (a) 17 Ibs. (b) 1 1* 21. 1-48 ins. * 22. \h 23. |A
Exercises 20
1. -655/ 2. 17-11 ins.: 785 Ibs. ins.2
3. C. of G. is -1125* distant from centre of large circle: 2-68"
4. 16-6 ins.4 5. (a) -408^ ; (6) -707^
6. IAB = 80-7 ins.4 : &AB = 3'O4* 7. 29-1* 8. 377
9. 9-86 10. 7-35
11. -2887^. (Divide into strips by planes perpendicular to the axis
and sum the polar moments of these)
. IE of circular 3
12. T_
IE of, square
- = TT- = -956 13. 33.3 inch units
14. 681-6: 17-1
15. INN = 169-4: £NN = 2-44: IAB = 570 : k^ = 4-47
16. NN is 3-99* from bottom of lower flange : INN = 461 : £NN = 3'77
17. 5-04* 18. 2-023': -444 19. 2-74*
20. (a) 13-9 (6) 31-1 (c) 1-48" (d) 1-82* 21. -28
22. massR* + 23. -56
Exercises 21
3. 5-23 4. £ = 2rsin0: the sine curve 6. 892 7. 5-01
Exercises 22
1. y = i-6jx* — 2-4* — 12-82 2. s = 8-05^ — 23-1* + 14-1
3. y = Ae**
W — £ 4. y = 8-35
fdv — -1490 -i-o*«* I
5. y = - 2— 3— 3 = = = = -
 ANSWERS TO EXERCISES 395
wlz w

7. log = - 8. v = (5« -

9- l°g =ws 10.

11. H = J ,——
7-2) . /
12. 0 = Asm(/ ftnh
-

,0 ,B
13. ^ = A+-2
17. y = A^10-6 + Ajg7' : y = A^10' + A^7* + i
18. 5 = A^9'33' + A^-9'33' 19. 5 = A sin (9-33^ + B)
_
20. KRlog-1 21. C = C0Ae 22. C=

23. ^ = alo or a=

(Separate the variables and use the / -5 - ^ form J

Ysin /y/ ==,

25. =- -

26. Mf = log^+ — -):-i945 27. AT=

28. x = Ae~3t sin (6«32/ + c) + -026 a sin (5^ — tan-1 1-25)

•V
J\ - /5.
29. V - Axe V r* + A2e V r* 30. /w» - C
31. 6 = 6a + e-kt(60-6a} 32. 5= - 53-636-^^+ 5-83e

where
2EI

V
=
2EI
e
or y = B^* + B2«-« -f B3 sin <f>x + B4 cos (f>x — -^

34. « = '
396 MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
Exercises 23
1. 103 sees, if coefficient of discharge is taken as -62 2. 7-37
3. 2-83 cu. ft. 4. 69-5 : 95-5 (Draw in the " simply supported "
bending moment diagram and work on the Goodman plan, see page 313)
5. Find the time to lower to level of upper orifice (183 sees.) with
both orifices open; then the time for the further lowering of 5 ft.,
through the one orifice (180 sees.). Total time = 363 sees. Note that
*
12
6. 57-7 sees. 7. 1-4
8. 5500 Ibs. : 4-71 ft. below S.W.S.L. 9. 14100 Ibs. : 6-65'

below
let u = S.W.S.L.
de+Kx) 10.761
12.1-23 11. '^f® depth
13. Vertical G;.- ,^),)
= 8-07 ft. (Hint.

Exercises 24
1. x = 2-31 — 1-231 cos 5— 1-55 sin 6— -16 cos 20
— -022 sin 20— -004 cos 3#— -04 sin 3$
2. A— 1-29, oj = O, B = -I4, o2 = rr
3. ^ = 16-97+6-49 cos #+ -002 sin x— 12-66 cos 2*
— i -46 sin 2.x— 1-75 cos 3#— -7 sin $x
4. E = 1500 sin 0+too sin 30—42 cos #+28 cos 3$
Exercises 25

1. B = 39°3i/; A = 65°5i'; c = 57° 5'

2. c - 54° 44i' ; * = 34° 14' •' B = 43° 32^'
3. A= 161° 8'; B= 13° 35'; C = 9° 38'
4. A = 76° 36'; B = 64°8'; 0 = 52°
5. B = 35° 43' 40"; A = 6i° 21' 20"; a = 43° 25' 23"
6. C= 33° 29' or 146° 3 1'
a = 103° 28' or 55° 28'
A= 146° 58' or 27° 30' 7. 55° 10' 8. 342,200
9. Latitude = 43° 54' : hour angle = 4° 31-3'

Exercises 26
1. 2nd set better than ist set in the proportion 1-943 to i : 6 elms.
43-4 links. 2. Just under i. 3. 98° 6' 42-26" : ym — -307", v — 1-062"
4. 96-93
 89

MATHEMATICAL TABLES
85
87
TABLE I. — TRIGONOMETRICAL RATIOS 84
83
Angle. 1-414
Chord. Sine. Tangent. Co- tangent. Cosine.
Radians. 1-5533
De- •0175 •9994 1-389 1-5359
grees. 1-377 1-5708
••0017 •0175 •0349
o o 35 •00 349 o •9998
i 1-402
1-364
•0175 ••05026499 1-5184 88
•0349 •0523 ' 7'290O
28-6363
i ° •052 GO
0 •0
524 •070 •0698 •0875 I-4835
2 •9986
•9976
3 •0698 •087 I4-3007 •9945 l'35l 1-5010
4 •0872 I9-08II
1-299 86
•0873 •105 •1045 •9962 1-325
•1051 8-H43
II-43OI •9925 1-338
5 •1219 •9903
•1047 •1405
•1228 9-5I44
1-4661
•122 •1584 •9877 1-4137 82
6 •1222
•157
•I40 •1•139562 7-H54 1-312 1-4486
4
•1396 •174 1-259 1-4312
1-3963
8 •1763 6-3I38
•1571
•1944 1-245
1-286 81
9 •1745 •1736 •9848
5-67I3
•9744 1-272 1-3439
10 79
•209
•192 •2079 1-3614 80
•2•2 •9816 1-3788
•2094
•1920 •244 •1908 1230
•2 693
49 •9703 1-3265
ii13 5-I446 •965 1-231 69
12 •2269 •226 •2250
•2419 •2679 •9781 9
14 •2443 4-7046
4-33I5 74
1-204 1-3090 75
15 •261 •9613 1-218 1-2915
•2618 •2588 •2867 4-OIO8
•9563 1-190 77 64
•2793 •278 •2756
•2924 •3•3°5247 9 •9455 1-176 1-2741 73
65
3-7321
•296
•313 3-4874
1-147 1-2392 67
16
17 •2967 •3443 3-2709 •95" 1-2566
3-0777 •9397
19 •3090 1-133 63
18 •3*42 •330 2-9042 1-161 1-2217
•347 •3256 1-2043
•33i6 2-7475
•3640
•3839 1-1694
•364 1-104
•3491 •3420 •9336 1-089
20 •3584 •9135
•9205
•399 •4 2-6051
2-3559 •9272 1-1519
•3665
•382 •3746 •4042405 2-4751
1-118 1-I-
18I3
6845
21
23
22 •3840 •3907 •9063 1-075 68
24 •4014 •4067 •4452 2-1445 78
2-2460 1-045
•4189 •4•14633 •4663 66
25 •8829 76
•4363 •4226 •4877 2-0503 •8988 1-0996
1-1170
•4384 •5095 1-0647
•45°
•467 •8910 1-015
i -060
1-030
•484 •4695 1-8807 •8746 72
27 •4538 •454° •5317
•5543 1-0821
26
•4712 1-9626 •985 •954
•939
29 •4887 •501 1-8040 62
•4848 •8660 1-0472
67i
28
•5061 I-OOO 1-0297 1
•6009 1-6643 •8572 •9774
•534
•518 •5000 •6249 •8387 59
•5236 •6494 I-732I •970•923 1-0123 70
60
•5299 •5774* 1- •8480
•5150 •6745 1-60
5303
99 •9599
•8290 •9948
30
•54ii •551 •877
•5585
'•5760 •
•556885 •5446 •8192
33 31 •5934 •5592 •892 •8
34
32 1-4826 45
•6109 •601 •5736 •8090 •9425
•7002 •908 •829
•635 •7265 1-3764 57
54
35 •618 1-2799
1-4281 55
•6283 •5878
•6i57 •7536 1-2349 •861 •813 •9250
•8727
•6293
•6018 •7813 1-3270 •7986 •9076
•6458 •651 •8098 •7880 •8901
37 •6632 •668 •7771 •797 53
36 •6807 •684 •8203
•8391 •7547 •8552
39 •8693 •7660 •8029
•8378
38 •6428
•6981 1-1918
1-1504 •7854
•717 •7193 •765
•700
•733 •6561
•6691 •9004 •7314
•7431
•7156 1-0724
40 •749 •6947 •9 5 1-0355
1-1106
•7330 •6820 •932
657 •781
•7505 58
432 41 •7679
•765
4
44 •7071
•7854 •7071 I-OOOO I-OOOO
56
Cosine Co-tangent Chord 47
45° Tangent Sine Radians Degrees
Angle
52
51
397 5°
 MATHEMATICAL TABLES
398
TABLE II.— LOGARITHMS
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 123 456 789
J
10 0043 0128 4 9 13 17 21 26 30 34 38
0000 0086 0170 0294 28 32 37
0212 4 8 12 16 20 24
0253 0334 0374
15 19 23 27 31 35
11 0414 0453 0492 0531 0569 0607 4 8 12 15 19 22 26 30 33
0645 0682 0719 4 7 11
25 28 32
12 0792 0828 0899 0934 0969 0755 3 7 11 14 18 21
0864 1072 24 27 31
1004 1038 3 7 10 14 17 20
1106
13 1139 1173 1206 1239 3 7 10 13 16 20 23
22 26 30
25 29
1271 1303 1399 3 7 10 12 16 19
1335 1367 1430
1553 12 15 18 21 24 28
14 1461 1492 1523 369 20 23 26
1584 1644 1673 1703 1732 369 12 15 17
1614
15 1818 1847 369 11 14 17 20 23 26
1761 1790 1875 1903 1931 1987 19 22 25
1959 2014 368 11 14 16
16 2122 19 22 24
2041 2068 2095 2148 358 11 14 16 18 21 23
2175 2201 2227 2253 2279 358 10 13 15
17 18 20 23
2304 2330 2355 2380 2406 2480 368 10 13 15 17 19 22
2430
2465 2504 2529 267 10 12 15
267 16 19 21
18 2553 2677 2601 2625 2648 2718 9 12 14 16 18 21
2672 2695 2742 2766 257 9 11 14
19 2788 2833 2856 2878 247 9 11 13 16 18 20
2810 2923 2945 2967 15 17 19
2900 2989 246 8 11 13
20 3118 3160 3181 3201 246 8 11 13 15 17 19
3010 3032 3054 3075 3096 3139
3222 3263 3365 3579 3404 246 8 10 12 14 16 18
21 3243 3284
3483 3304 3324
3522 S345
3541 3385 3598 8 10 12 14 15 17
22 3424 3444 3464 3502 3729 3560 3766 246
3617 3711 3747 3784 7 9 11 13 15 17
23 3636 3655 3674 3692 3909 3962 246 12 14 16
21 3802 3820 3838 3856 3874 3892 3945 245 7 9 11
8927
£979 4083 4099 4133 7 9 10
25 3997 4014 4031 4048 4065 4116 235 12 14 16
4232 4249 4265 4281 7 8 10
26 4150 4166 4183 4200 4298 11 13 15
27 4314 4330 4362 4216 4409 4425 4456 235
235 689 11 13 14
4346 4378 4393 4664 4440
4594 689
28 4472 4487 4502 4518 4548 4579 4609 235 11 12 14
4624 4533 4698 4713 679 10 12 13
4639 4654 4669 4683 4728 4757 134
29 4742
30 4771 4786 4800 4814 4829 4843 4867 4871 4886 4900 10 11 13
134
4983 6038 679
678
31 4914 4997 6011
32 4928 4942 4955 4969 6132 6024 134 678 10 11 12
5051 5065 5079 5092 5119 5145 5159 5172 568
S3 5185 6198 6211 5224 5105
6237 5250 5263 5289
6302
134
134 y 11 12
34 5328 5340 5353 5378 6276 6416 6428 568 9 10 12
5315 5366 134
6391 6403 9 10 11
36 5441 5453 6465 5478 5490 6502 6514 5639 6551 567 9 10 11
6527 124
86 5563 5576 5587 5599 6623 5670 667
37 6611 5635 6647 5658 124
5682 5694 5705 6717 6729 6740 6752 6775 5786 123 667 8 10 11
38 5798 5809 5821 6763
6877 8 9 10
5922 5832 6843 5855 5866 5888 5899 123
39 6911 5933 5944 5955 5966 6977 6988 5999 123 457 88 99 10
10
6010
40 6021 6031 6042 6053 6064 6086 123 466
6076 6096 6107 6117
8 9 10
6201 6222 123
6128 6160 6170 6180 6191 6212
41
42 6138 6149 6314 6325 456
6232 6243 6253 6263 6274 6284 6294 6304 123 456 789
789
43 6416
6513 6425
6335 6345 6355 6375
6474 6493
6395 6405 6522 123 456 789
44 6435 6444 6454 6365
6464 6385
6484 6603 123 456 789

45 6532 6542 6551 6561 6671 6580 6590 6599 6609 6618
123 456 789
6628 6637 6646 6656 6665 6675 6693 6702 6712
46 6721 6739 6749 6758 6684
6776 6803
6893 123 4465
5 < 778
678
47 6730
6821 6848 6767 6785 6794
6884 123
48 6812 6830 6839 6857
6902 6911 6920 6928 6937 6946 6866 6875
6964 6972 6981 123 445 678
49 6955 123 678
445
50 6990 6898 7007 7016 7024 7033 7042 1 2 S 678
7060 7059 7067 345
 MATHEMATICAL TABLES
TABLE II. (contd.)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 123 456 789

51 7084 7118 7143 345 678

7076 7093 7101 7110 7126 7135 123 677
52 7160 7168 7177 7202 7210 7218 7226 7152
7235 122 345 667
7251 7259 7185
7267 7193 7292 7308 345
53 7243 7275 7284 7388 122 667
54 7324 7332 7340 7348 7364 7372 7300
7380 7316 122 345
7356 7396
567
55 7404 7412 7419 7459 7466 7474 122 345
7427 7435 7443 7451
7528 567
58 7482 7490 7497 7505 7513 7520 7536 7543 7551 122 345 567
67 7559 7566 7574 7582 7589 7597 7604 7612 7627 122 345 567
7619 112 344
58 7634 7642 7649 7657 7664 7672 7679 7686 7694 7701 567
59 7709 7716 7738 7745 7774 112 344
7723 7731 7752 7760 7767
7832 566
60 7782 7789 7796 7803 7810 7818 7839 112 344
7825 7846
61 7853 7868 7875 7882 7896 7903 7910 7917 112 344 566
7860 7889 7973 7980 334
62 7924 7931 7938 7945 7952 7959 7987 112 566
63 7993 8000 8007 8014 8028 7966 8041 8048 8055 112 334 & 5 6
8021 8035 334
64 8062 8069 8075 8082 8089 8096 8102 8109 8116 8122 112 556

65 556
8129 8136 8142 8149 8156 8162 8169 8182 8189 112 334
8176
66 8195 8202 8209 8228 8248 8254 112 $ 3 4 556
67 8261 8267 8215 8222 8293 8235 8241 8319 112 556
8274 8280 8287 8299 8306 8312 334
68 8325 8331 8338 8344 8357 8363 8370 112 334 456
69 8383 8401 8351 8432 8376
8439 8382
8445 112 234 456
8395 8407 8414 8420 8426
70 8451 8457 8463 8470 8476 8482 8488 8494 8500 1 1 2 234 456
8506
71 8513 8519 8525 8531 8543 8549 8567 112 234 455
8537 8555 8561 455
72 8573 8579 8585 8591 8597 8603 8609 8621 8627 112 234
73 8639 S645 8651 8663 8669 8615
8675 234
8633 8657 8681 868G 112
112 455
455
74 8692 8698 8704 8710 8716 8722 8727 8733 8739 234
8745
75 8751 8756 8762 8779 8791 8797 112 2 3 3 455
8768 8774 8785 8802
8814 2 S 3
76 880S 8820 8831 8837 8842 8848 8859 112 455
77 8865 8871 8876 8825 8887 8893 8854 233 445
78 8927 8882 8899 8904 8910 8915
8971 112 233
8921 8932 8938 8943 8949 8954 8960 8965 112 233 445
79 8976 8982 8987 8993 899S 9004 9009 9020 445
9015 9025 112
80 9031 9036 9042 9047 9058 9063 9069 9074 9079 112 233 446
9053
9133 233 446
81 9085 9090 9096 9101 9106 9113 9117 9122 9128 112
82 9138 9143 9149 9165 9170 9175 9180 9186 112 233 446
9154 9159 233
83 9191 9196 9201 9206 9212 9222 9227 9238 112 446
84 9243 9248 9253 9263 9217
9269 9274 9232
9284 9289 112 233 445
9258 9279
233
65 9294 9299 9304 9309 9315 9320 9325 9335 112 445
9330 9340
86 9360 9390 233
9345 9350 9355 9365 9370 9375 9330 9385 112 445
87 9395 9400 9405 9415 9420 9430 9435 9440 Oil 223
9410
9460 9465 9425 Oil 223
344
88 9445 9450 9455 9469 9474 9479 9484 9489 344
89 9494 9499 9504 9509 9513 9518 9523 9528 9533 9538 Oil 223 344

90 9547 9552 9557 9562 9671 9576 9581 Oil 223 344
9542 9566 9586
9590 9595 9600 9609 9614 9624 9633 344
91 9605 9619 9628
223
92 9638 9643 9647 9(352 9657 9661 9671 Oil 223 344
9694 9703 9666 9717 9675 9680 Oil 223 344
93 9585 9689 9699 9708 9713 9722 9727 Oil
94 9731 9736 9741 9745 9750 9754 9759 9768 9773 Oil 223 344
9763
95 9777 9782 9786 9791 9795 9800 9814 Oil 223
9805 9809 9818 344
96 9823 9827 9832 9836 9841 9845 223
97 9868 9877 9890 9850 9854
9899 9859
9903 9863 Oil 223 344
95 9881 9886
9'J74 9894
9912 9917 9921 9926 9930 9934 9939 9943 9948 9908
9952 Oil 223 344
344
99 995 987-;
9961 9978 9987 9991 9996 Oil 223
99C5 9969 9983 334
400 MATHEMATICAL TABLES
TABLE III. — ANTILOGARITHMS
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 123 456 789
•00

1014 212
•01 1000 1002 1005 1007 1009 1012 1016 1021 001 111
•02 1019
•03 1033 1038 001 222
•04 1023 1028 1030 1040 1042 1045 111
1026 1052 1054 1057 1035
1059 001 111 222
1047 1050 1081 1062 1064 1067
1091 1069 222
1072 1076 1079 1084 1086 1089 1094 001 ill
•05 1074 1107 Oil 112 223
1099 1102 1104 1112 1117 1119
10-J6 1109 1114
1130 1135 1143 112 222
•06 1122 1125 1127 1132 1138 1140 Oil
•07
1146 222
•03 1172 112
•09 1143 1151 1156 1159 1161 1164 1167 1169 Oil
1153 1194 1199 Oil 112
222
1175 1178 1180 1183 1186 1189 1191 1197 223
1219 1227 Oil 112
1202 1205 1208 1211 1213 1216 1222 1225 1256 223
•10 1230 1233 1239 1242 1245 1250 1253 Oil 112
1236 1247
1285
•11 1259 1282 112 223
1262 1265 1268 1271 1274 1276 1279 Oil
•12
•18 122
•14 1288 1291 1297 1337
1306 1309 1315 Oil 223
1321 1294 1327 1300 1303 1340 1312 Oil 122 223
1318 1330 1334 1368 1371 1343 1346
1377 Oil 233
1349 1352 1324 1358 1361 122
•15 1380 1355 1390 1365 1400 1403 1374 Oil 233
1384 1387 1393 1396 1409 122
1406
1422 1435 233
•16 1413 1416 1419 1426 1429 1432 1439 1442 Oil 122
•17
•18 233
1455 1459 1466 1472 0 1 1
•19 1445 1449 1452 1462 1500 1469
1503 1476 122 233
1479 1483 1489 1493 1607 1510 Oil 122
1486 1496 Oil 233
1517 1524 1528 1531 1535 1638
1674 1542 1545
1581 122
•20 1514 1521 1563 1670 Oil 122 333
1549 1552 1556 1560 1567 1578
•21 1611 0 1 1 333
1596 1600 1607
1685 1589 1592 1603 1 2 2
•22 1614 1618
•23 1633 00 11 11
•24 1623 1626 1629 1637 1644 1687
222
222 333
1663 1671 1675 1641
1679 1683 1648 1652 1656 333
1660 1667 Oil 222
•25 1698 1702 1714 1718 1722 1690 222 334
1706 1710 1762 1726 1730 1694
1734 0 1 1
1738 1742 1746 1750 1754 1758 1770
1766 1774 222 334
•26 1791 1799 1803 Oil
•27 1778 1782 1786 1795 1807 1811
1816
334
•28 Oil 223
•29 1820 1828 1841 1849 1854 223
1824 1832 1837 1888 Oil
1862 1879 1884 1845 1892 1858 Oil 223 334
334
1866 1871 1875 1928 1932
•30 1905 1910 1914 1919 1923 1936 1901 Oil 223 344
1954 1963 1968 1897
1941
1950 1959 1972 1977 1982 1986 1945
3 4 i
1991
•31 2018 Oil 223
1995 2000 2009 9028 2032 2031
•82 2004 2014 2023
•33 344
Oil 223
•34 2042 2046 2058 2061 2065 2070 2076 2084 344
2089 2094 2051 2113 2123 2080
2128 Oil 223 344
2099 2104 2109 2118 2173 Oil 223 344
•35 2138 2143 2163 2163 2168 2178 2133
2148 2158 2183 233
2188 2193 2198 2203 2213 2218 2223 112 446
2208 2228 2234
•36 233 446
•37 2239 2244 2254 2265 2270 112
2249 2275 2280 2286
•33 2259
•39 2291 2333
2296 2307 2317 2323 112
2344 2301
2355 2312 2328
2382 2388 2393 112
445
446
2360 2360 2371
2427 2377 2339 233
•40 2399 2404 2366 2438 2443 2449 112 233 446
2410 2415 2421 2483 2432 112 233
2455 2460 2466 2472 2495 2500 2506 455
2477 2489 233
2541 2559 234 455
•42 2512 2518 2523 2529 2535 2547 2553
2564
112
•43 234 455
41•44 2570 2576 2582 2588 2594 2600 2612 2618
2630 2649 2606 2673 2679 2624 112 456
2636 2642 2655 234
•45 2692 2698 2704 2710 2661 2667 2685 112 456
2716 2723 2748 112
334
2754 2761 2767 2786 2729
2793 2735 2742 466
2773 2780 2805 2812 112
334
2799
•46 2818 2825 2831 2838 2851 2871 2877
•47 2844 2858 2864 112 334 656
•48 2897 2931
2904 2911
•49 2884 2891 2972 2979 2917 2924 2938 2944 112 334 566
2951 2958 2966 2985 2992 2999 3013 334
666
666
3020 8027 3034 3041 3048 3069 3006 3083 112 666
3133 344
3090 8097 3105 3119 3055
S126 3062 3076 112
3112 3141 3148 3155 112 344
 MATHEMATICAL TABLES
TABLE III. (contd).
123 456
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 789

•50 322
3214 3221 5 6 t
3162 3170 3177 318 3192 3199 3206 112 344
•5
•5
3236 3243 3251 3258 3273 122 567 401
•53 3266 3281 3289 3296 3304 345 667
3311 3319 3327 3334 3342 3350 3357 3373 338 133 346 667
•54 3388 3396 3412 3428 3451 345
3404 3420 3436 3443
3365 122 345 667
3467 3475 3483 3491 3499 3508 3516 3524 3532 3540 122 345
•55
122 677
3548 3556 3565 35J3 3581 3589 3697 3614 3622
346
3606
•56 678
•57 123 678
3G31 3639 3648 3656 3664 3673 3698 3707 346
•58 3681 3690 3793 123
3715 3724 3733 3741 8750 3758 3767 123 346 678
3802 3811 3819 3828 3837 3776 3784 3882 445 678
3908 3917 3846 3855 3864 3873 3972 123 455
59 3890 3899 3926 3936 3945 3963
3954
•60
3981 3999 4009 4018 4027 4036 4046 4055 4064 1 2 3 456
*,,
3990
•61 789
•62 4093 4102 4121 4159 123 466
4074 4083 4111 4130 4150 123 789
•63 4169 4178 4188 4207 4217 4140 4246 4256 466
4198 4227 4236 123 789
•64 4266 4276 4285 4295 4315 4325 4345 466 789
4305 4335 4446 4457
4355 123 456
4365 4375 4385 4395 4406 4416 4426 4436
•65 789
4477 4498 4519 4629 123 456
4467 4487 4508 4539 4550 4560
•66
•67 4571 4581 4592 4603 4613 4624 4634 4645 4656 1 2 3 456 7 9 10
•68 4677 4742 4667 123 457 8 9 10
4688 4699 4710 4721 4732 4753 4764 4775 123
4808 467
4786 4797 4819 4831 4842 4853 4864 4875 5000
4887 123 567 88 99 10
10
69 4898 4909 4920 4932 4943 4955 4966 4977 4989
•70 8 9 11
5047 6058 6082 6105 124 567
6012 6023 5035 6070 6093 6117
•71 8 10 11
•72 6164 5224 124
5129 5140 5152 5188 5200 5212 5236 567 9 10 11
6260 5272 6176 5321 124 567
•73 6248 528 i 6297 5433
5309 6333 5346
6470 5358 134 9 10 11
•74 6370 6383 6395 5408 6420 6458 6483
6610 568 9 10 12
6495 6608 5521 6559 5445
5572 134 568
5534 6546 6685 6598
•75 9 10 12
5623 5649 5728 5741 134
5636 6662 6675 5689 5702 578
6715
•76 6012 9 11 12
6781 6808 6861 134
•77 6754 5768 6794 5821 6834 6848 5875 134 578 10 11 12
•78 5888 6902 5916 5929 5943 6970 6984 5998 10 11 13
5957 6124 6138 134 678
•79 6026 6039 6053 6067 6081 6109 6152 10 11 13
6223 6281 6295 134 678
6166 6180 6194 6209 6095
6237 6252 6266
679
•80 10 12 13
6310 6339 6368 6397 6412 6427 6442 134
6324 6353 6383
679
•81 1 6561 6577 235 11 12 14
•82 6457 6471 6486 6501 6516 6546 6592
6668 6631 6699 6730 235 689 11 12 14
6607 6622 6637 6653 6683 6714 6745 11 13 14
6823 6887 236 689
•8634 6761 6776 6792 6808 6839
6998
6855 6871 7047 6902 11 13 15
6918 6934 6950 6982 7015 235 689
6966 7031 7063 6 8 10
85 7178 7211 336 12 13 15
7079 7096 7112 7129 7161 7228
7145 7194 7 8 10
•86 7379
•67 7244 7261 7278 7311 7345 235 12 13 15
7295 7328 7362 7551 7396 236 7 8 10 12 14 16
•83 7413 7430 7447 7464 7482 7499 7516 7534 7568 12 14 16
•69 7603 7638 7691 7907
7727 345 7 9 10
7586 7621 7656 7674 7709 7745 7 9 11
7762 7780 7798 7834 7870 7889 7925 245 13 14 16
7816 7852 7 9 11
•80
8017 8091 8110 13 15 17
7943 7962 7980 7998 8035 8054 8072 7 9 11
•91 8241 8279
•92 8128 8147 8166 204 246 13 15 17
8185 8222 8433 8260 8472 8299 8 9 11
•93 8318 8337 395 8453 8492 246 14 15 17
8375 590 8414 ! 8630 8670 246 8 10 12
•S4 b5U 8531 8551 8570 8610 8831 8650 8690 14 16 18
8810 8872 8892 246 8 10 12 14 16 18
8710 8356 ' 8770
8730 : 8750 790
8851 8 10 12
•95
8913 8933 8954 8974 995 9016 9036 9057 9078 9099 246 8 10 12 15 17 1»

86
•97 9141 9162 204 9247 9311
9120 9183 9226 9268 9290 9528 246 8 11 13 16 17 19
•98 9333 9354 9397 9462 9484 9506 347
9376 419 9 11 13 15 17 20
•99 9550 9572 9594 9638 247 16 18 20
'772 9616 9441 ! 9683
9661 9705 9727
9954
9750
9977 267 9 11 13
9795 9817 9840 9863 9906 9931 9 11 14 16 18 20
9S86

D D
402 MATHEMATICAL TABLES
TABLE IV. — NAPIERIAN, NATURAL, OR HYPERBOLIC LOGARITHMS

1Numbe
0 r. 1 2 3 4 5 16 74 7 8 9
1029
6
8797 0339 i37 6907 2852
01 3-6974 7927 6529 2280 0324 6584 3393
0-2 2-3906 4393 4859 8913 2015 6i43
03 1-•7960
0837 1084
8288 8606
1325 5303
9598 5729 97830057
0-4 2235 2450 2660 2866 8835
6289
05 3267 1560
6853 92121790 7270
86 07 4553
8137 5537 83 9502 5845 4379 7621
06 6433 3068 5057
6575 67J5 3651 3838 75
6989 0677
5995 4724
3461
Mean Differences.
8015 7643
0-7 4892 5220 8256 40
7I23 22 4202 1 6 5 5
0-8 7893
9057 9274
538o 5692 05838492 9899 123 456
09 89467769 7256 9695 8722
9592 7515 789
1-0 o-oooo 1044 9166
"
0198
3 3 0296 0392 9487 0862
OIOO 1484
0953
1-1 1823 1222 938i 0488
0770 8 1624 61 70 78
1989 2070 2151 2927 1398
2231 73862469 1740
157° 56 64 72
1-2 2624 1906 1310 3°75 9798 2546
3293 9 17 26 35 30 37 45
2311 2390 44
35 52
1-3 2776 2852 28 40
32 41
48 52 59 67
1-4 3365 2700 3577 3853 4637 613 19 26 32 39
1-5 4°55 3436 35°7 4187 4253 3646 3001 4447 3784 3148 6259 4574 5247 7 15 22
48 4855 62
6 ii 17 24 29 34 42 55
1-6 4121 4824 6043 4947 4383 5653 3221
6313 671421
12 18 22 27 32
1-7 6627 l 6 24 30 36 45 52 58
6575 6098
536562 5423 4886
4700 5933 5539 37 38 43 49
5306 47 6523
1-8 43i86152 6206 3920 3988 20 20 31 40 46 52
19 64195878 6678 6729
5008 5068
8 i 5
6831
6881 5 1015
6471 8i 4 5128
4 5 "
7275 51886366
2O 24 29
2-0 693i 6981 5988 54 8065 5596 7227 6780 5822 5 " 16 36
34 41 46
39 44
7129 8109
8544 8587 8629
7655 57io8242 68713 5 ioi5 l8 22 27
2-1 75M
7°3i 7178 7747
8198 5
7324 7 6 7839
22 7419 7467 7975 8020 8459
88 80
7079 7793
8671 8286 5 9 14 19 23 28 29
7885 33 3633 42
37 37
23 83298755 8372 16 20 24 3i 40
2-4 79 30 8838
8416 7 5 6 i 76
8502 08 9083 73 72 4 913 16 20 24 2731 3° 34 35 38
8796 9243 0225 9123 4 913 17 21 20 26 26 30
29 34
0043 8920 8961 77019042
33
2-5 9163 9203 9439
0543 9895
9517
0613
26 9555 9594 9282 0473 01529002 0953 4 8 12 15 1923
9783 6188 12
2-7 9933 9969 0006 9632 0403
0367 9670 0080 9322 0116 9361 11 840 1217 9478 091949 0260 4 8 12
0647 0332 105
2-8 1-0296 0784 9 4 0 9858
0682
3 0438
1119
97080818
9746 0852 9821
0508 0886 1537 0578 4 8 ii 15 l8 22 25 28 32
2-9 1019 0750
0716 1086 1151
1474 1817 14 18 21 242731
30 0986 2149 15692179 1282 4711 14 17 2O 22 23 25
26 30
29
1694
31 1314 1663 1346 1378 1725 1442 1787 2119 1848 1878 1909 1600 4 771I0 1 13 16 2019 21 24 27
3-2 1632 1410 1756 1506 2754 2499 3 12 15 18 21 25 28
33 1939 1969 2267 2OOO 2030 2355 2384 2413
2613 2060 2669 2975
2090 369 0 12
12 14 17
3-4 2238 2296 2947 2208 3 3 6 71
369 10 II 14 17
15 18
2O
2O 22
23 25
20
35 2528 2556 2837 2865 2326 2641
2585
2698 2442 2470 369
36 2809 2892 2726 3297 19 22 25
3244 3029 2782 ii 14 16 19 21 24
3-7 3083 3137 2920 18 21 23
3164 3324 368 257 1013 ii 13 1516
38 3455 3533 3056 10 13 16 1 8 20 23
3;9 335° 36353110 3191 3737 3507 3271 3 5 8 IO 12 15
40 3863 3376 34°3 3429 3218
3002
3813
3584 257
3 5 8 10 12 14
3610 3987 257
3661 3686
3913 4255 4279 3558 4085 3838 3257 5 8
4-1 4134
3888 4159 4183 3938 4207 3 4 8 i 3 5 8 9 12 14 17 2O 2 2
4-2 4110 4375 37122 3 7 6 2 4036 4327 247 16
17 19 21
4-3 396 4231 4493 4012 37884061 4303
1922
4633 4679 247 9 II 14 16 18 21
44 435i 4609 4398 4884 4446 4469 4974 4563 9 II 13 16 18 20
45 4816 4586 4839 4656
5085 5107
5063 4861 44224907 4725 5195 5217 5019
5173 4793
6074
5239 9 II 13
5041 5129 4929 60346 6054 62
46 5347 5151 i 454°545473
4548 98 II
II 13
13 15 17 18 20
19
47026014 647 2 3 3 5644
62
5433
47 70
53 246
4-7 5261 52825497 53<>4 6 1 7 4 6 1 9 4 495i
62 5623 4996 5665 2 4, 6 15 17 19
48 5476 5539
6i34 653 i54 5369 14
26 8 10 12 14 16 19
49 56866094 5707
6114 595533i8
5913
5953 5974 57696o 5994 5390
246 8 IO 12
50 5892 246
5728 5748 55 5790 558i 5602 5831 54125851 5872 246 8 IO 12 14 16 18
5810
14 16 18
 MATHEMATICAL TABLES
TABLE IV (contd.) 403
Mean Differences.
6 8 9
123456 789
51 1-6292 6312 6332 6351 6371 6390 64 091642964486467 2 8 IO 12
13 15 17
52 6487 6506 6525 6544 6563 6582 66oi 662066396658 2 8 IO 12
14 15
13 16 18
17
53 6677:6696.671516734167526771 68o8|6827,6846| 2 » g ii
13 15 17
54 6840 6883 690116919 6938 6956 6975|6993|7Oi i 7029
55 7048! 7066! 7084 7102 7120 71387156717471927210
6975'6993'7OII 7O29 2
2
13 14 16
56 7228,7246 7263 7281 7299 7317 7334 7352,7370 7387 •2 44 65| 5:7 7 99 ii
7 9 ii 12 I4
12 14 15
16
57 4 6 12 14 16
7457 7475 7492 7509 7527 7544 7561 12 13 15
5-8 7596 7613 7630J647 7664 7682 4 6
4 57 9 10
59 775017767 7440
769977167733
12 13 15
7783 7800,7817 7834 7851 78687884,7901 3 57 9 10
60 II 13 15
7968 7984 8001 8017 8034 8o5O!8o67 3 5 7 8 10 II 13 14
6-1 8o83!8o99 811618132 8148 8165 8181 8197,8213 8229 2 3 5 7 8 10
62 II 13 14
63 262'8278,8294!83io 8326 8342 8358 8374 8390 II 12 14
64 6 8 9 II 12 14
65 8563^579 8594!86io 862518641 8656'8672|8687'8703 2 II 12 14
7i8,87338749 8764^779 8795 88io8825j8840(8856 2
66 887l'8886 8goi 89l6|893I 8946 8g6l 8976 8991 9006 2 IO 12 13
6-7 2 IO 12 13
68 9169 9184 gigg 9213 9228 9243^257^9272 9286 9301 2 IO 12 13
69 10 ii 13
9315 933° 9344l9359!9373 9387J9402 94i6|943i!9445 I
7-0 9459 9473 9488,9502,95i6|g530 9545 9559 9573 9587 i 10 ii 13
7-1 g6oi|g6i5 9629 9643 ^657^671 g685 g6gg[g7i3 9727 i
72 IO II 12
73 974IJ9755 9769 9782J9796 g8io g824 ^838 g85i 9865 i IO II 12
9879 g8g2g9o6;9920|g9339g47gg6ijg974|gg88 oooi i
7-4 2-0015:002800420055,006900820096010901220136
75 0149^162 0x76 Ol8g O2O2 O2l6 0229^242^255 O268 3 4 5 7
9 II 12
7-6 0281 0295 0308,0321 0334 °347 0360 0373 0386 03gg 9 II 12
7-7 041204250438045104640. 477 0490,050310516 ' 0528
7-8 1580 0592 0605 0618 0631 9 II 12
79 9 IO 12
80 0794
o66g'o68
0807 0819 0832 0844 0857 0744,075
1 ;o6g4j07O7'o7igJQ732 0869,0882 7:0769p8g4 078
0906
5 6 7 9 10 II
9 10 ii
8-1 0919 O93i|og43og56iog68 0980 ogg2 1005 1017 1029 9 10 ii
8-2 1041
1163 io54jio66 107811090 1102 1114 1 126)1138 1151
1223 1235
8-3 12471259,1270 89 10 ii
1175 1187 H99'i2ii
84 1282 1294 98 109 ii
ii
1300)1318 1330 1342
85 1401 1436144814591471 1483 1494 1506 8911
8-6 1518 1529 154 1552
8-7 1633 164511656 16681668 167911691 171317251736
8-8 I748I759I770 1782 1793^1804 1816 1702 1827 1838 1849
8-9 1861
187211883 i894li905 1917 1928 1939 1950 1961
90 1972 I9&3JI994 2bo6|2Oi7 2028 2039 2050 2061 2072 467
91 2083 209412105 2ii6J2i27 2138 9 10
92 2192 2203 2214 2225!2235 49215921702181 9 10
93
46 2257 226&2279J2289
tf A s*lf\Z T O *7 C
9 10
9 10
94 2407
~J~~ "O" -J--|-OJ-"pJitO *OJt -^O^
2418 2428 2439 2450 2460 2471 2481 2492 2502
95 2513 2523 2534 2544 2555 2565 2576 2586 2597 2607 9 10
96 2618 2628 2638 2649 2659 2670 2680 2690 2701 2711 98 10
10
97 9 10
2721 2732 2742 2752J2762 2773 2783
98 2824 2793 2803 2814
2834 2844 2854 2865 2875 2885 2895 2905 2915 9 10
99 29251293512946 2956 2966 2976 2986 2996 3006 3016 9 10
10 2-3020
404 MATHEMATICAL TABLES

TABLE V.— NATURAL SINES.

0157
° 6 0 °9
0 02797 Mean Differences.
E 0 0 8
5 7 01 05 0 ° - ° - 8
9 2 0°-3
0°-35 00°2-444 0°
- 0279 0 0854
0

00 °454 0645 0314

1
Q
0°

0140
0°-

0017 0227 0070 00686337 1' 2' 3^4' 5'

0052
0 •oooo
OI22
•0175 0209 3 6 9 12 15
0262 0332
1 •0349 0192 0384 0593
0'

0419 0819
047I 3 6 9 12 15
12'
0993
2 •0523 0366 0767' 07850436 0628 1184 06800506 3 6 9 12 15
6' 18 0610 0802
3 •0698 0541 0558 0576 0401
09 24 1167 0488 !374 3 ° 9 12 15
4 •087 0715
0889 0732 0750 1097 ' 1149 13 57 1028
1115 095824 0976 0' 3 6 9 12 14
IOII 15
5 •1 2 0941
3 1 1874 47 3 6 9 12 14
045 1063 09061253 1132 1323
163 1305
8
1513 7 6'
5 1201
6 •1219 1080 12711444 I685 3
12883 3 6 9 12 14
7 •1392 1236 1340
2045 1719 4222'33 3 6 9 12 14
8 •1564 1409
1599 1805 1650 1478 1530 8' 9 12' 14
1461 1891 3 46
9 •173 1754 1426 1616 129177 1994 1668
47 1822
H95
1840 2215 3 6 9 512 4 14
10 6 1582
1771 1959 2164 1702
2334 2OII 2554 2062 3 6 9 ii 14
•2079 1925 2113
11 •1908 1942
1788
2317 2198
2O28
2385
3 6 9 ii 14
2267 2284 2130
12 •2250 2096 2504 2181 2874 2723
2453 2639 2487 2857 29
3 6 9 ii 14
13 •2419 2689
2351 257107 3 6 8 ii 14
14 2300
2470 2656 2672 2538
2368 2402
2605
15 •2588 2436 2622 2807 2823 2521 2740 3 6 8 ii 14
2773 2957 2974 2840 2706 3057 2890 3074 3 6 8 ii 14
•2
16 • 756
17 2924 2940 2790 3007
2990 3i73 3024
3 6 8 ii 14
18 •3090 3107 3123 3223 3239 3 6 8 ii 14
3 6 8 ii 14
19 •3256 3289 3156
3355 3040
20 •3420 3437
3272 3453 3305 3MO 3190 3535 3387 3404
3567 3 5 8 ii 14
3697
3206 3875
37M 3 5 8 ii 14
•3584 3469
3633 3338
3322 3665
3649
21 3843 3371
3859
22 •3746
•3907 3600 3616 3795 3486 382702 4035 3 5 8 ii 14
23 •406 3939 3955
35 355i 3 5 8 ii 14
7 3923 4*47
3987 35i8
4003
3681 4019
4i95
24 4083
3778 4274
3762 4099 4"5 3811 4163 4179
4337
3 5 8 ii 14
25 •4226 397i 3891
3730 3 5 8 ii 13
4131 4305 4°5i
•4384 4242 4258 4289 3 5 8 ii 13
26 4493
27 •454°
•4695 4399
4555 4415 4617 4633 4664 4679
4524 3
4833 5 8 10 13
28 4509
4352 4210 3
5135 5 8 10 13
4431
4446 5075 4787 4321
29 •4848 4863 45714879 4894 4602 4924 4955
4478 4648 3 5 8 10 13
30 •5000 5015 5045
4586 462 4939 5105 4368
47 1 0
26 4741 4909 4 4985 3 5 8 10 13
47
5030 5195 4756 4772 5255
4802 5284 3 5 8 10 ij
31 •5150
•5299 5165
50 60 5225 5090 4818 5577 2
32 53H 5344 5373 4970 5 7 10 12
33 •5446 5180
5329 5534
5240 5120
54i7
5270
60
6i04
43 2 5 7 10 12
34 •5592 5210
5635 5505 5693
5358 5664
5519 5835
6115 5563 5864 2
5707 5 7 10 12
35 •5736 546i 5476 90
6074 5807
6129 2 5 7 10 12
5606 5764
5621 54
5779 5650
5793 62
5678
53 88
39 6547 2
5432 5 7 9 12
•5878 5934 6225 6374 55485402
36 •6018
5750
6184
6046
6534 6414
37 •6157 6032 6060 6347 6088 6101 5821 6252 5850 2 5 7 9 12
5892 6334 6266 628021
38 •6293 6170 6198 6211 6494 2 5 7 9 12
6307 5906 6665 68
5707
39 6455 5920 5948 6639 5976 2 5 7 9 ii
40 •6428 6320 6613 6361 5962 5990
6794 6934
247 9 ii
6441
6574 6587 6468 6743 6388 6401 6678 247 9 ii
41 •6561 6481 6884 6508 6652 6521
•6691 6704
6833
6
6717
8 4 5 6600 6626 6769 6909
42 6997 2 4 7 9 ii
43 •6820
•6947 6730
6858 6871 6756 6896
6984 2 4 6 9 ii
6959 6782
44 6972 7°34
7157 6921 246 8 ii
7133
7009 7°59 246 8 10
45 -7071 7083
7096 7M5 7169 246 8 10
7108 7022
7046
7120

7181
 MATHEMATICAL TABLES
405
TABLE V. (contd.)

g 0°2 0°3 0°4

0°6 0°-7 0°-8
0°9 Mean Differences.

1 0°0 0°-1 0°-5

1' 2 3' 4' 5'
0'

7133 7i57
45 •7071 7083 7254 7M5
•7193 12' 7169 246 8 10
6'

46 •73M 7096
47 7206 7337 7 1 18'20 7373
08 7242
71
246
246
8 10
8 10
48 7325 7218 7230
7349
49 ••743i
7547 7443 7455 24' 7385 7278
7266 0'7627 7290 7649 7181
2 4 6 8 10
24689
7559 7593
7 3 6 i 7604 7615 3 7513
8059 6'
7524 24679
50 •7660 7683 7694
7466 7478 874 8 0 963
7672 7570 0390 4
77279 73 7749 2' 7302 24579
9 7837
51 •7771 758i 7705 75oi 7859
7638 4
7804 7815 80707408 757436 20 24579
52 •7880
7793
8007 7934 7944 7955 8171 8080 7869 48'
8377 23579
53 •7986 7782
7891
7997 8018 80287923 7826 7
81417 1 6 8151 7848 77 38 7965 54'
•8 090 8131 8161 8271 8181
54 7902
8100 8111 8121
7 9 12 8231 8241 8251 8261 23578
•8192 8281
55 8202 8211 8221 8434 8443 84
8339
85
53 85 8654
43 776023578
8329 8645
34 7976
8563
56 •8290 8425 8348 8358
•8387 8300 8415 8625
57 8396
8310 8320 8517 8607 8368 8471 23568
8499
8406 8599 8695 8704 8652 23568
58 •8480 8490 8526 8536 8462
88
59 •8572 8508 8616
8805 8813
8729 04 23568
13467
8669
8581 8590
60 •8660 8678 8686
89 73 8738 13467
8854 8712
8957 8721
•8746 8755 8763 8821 13467
61 •8829 8771
8934 8870 8878
8949 8796 8965 8886 13457
62 8838 8846 8780 8788
8862 8902
63 •8910 8942 9033
64 •8988
8918
8996
8926
9003 9107 9114 8980 13456
•9063 13456
12456
65 9085
9011 9041 9048 9056
9070 9078 9157 9018 9026
•9135 9092
9164
66 9M3 9100 9245 9184 9121
9239
9259 9265 12356
67 •9205 9150
9219 9225 9171 9178 9128 12346
12345
9212 9191 9198
68 •9272 9285 9232 9304 9373 9317 9252 12345
69 9278 9354
9291 9298 9367 9379 94449323
••9336
9397 9342 9385 9449
12345
70 94°3 9348
9409 9415 9330 12345
•9455 936i 93ii 9494
71 9438 9553 9505 9391 12334
9421 9537 9483
94 26 9432
9489 12234
72 •95ii
•9563 9461 9466 9527
9472 9478 9593 9603 9655 12234
73 95i6 9573
9521 9583 9694
74
•9613
•9659
9617
9568
9627 9677
9578
9673
9532 9542 9548 9500 9699 11234
75 9664 9622 9632 9636 9641 9646 9558
9668 9588 9598 9650 9608 11233
76 •97°3 9707 9681 9686 9690 9774 11233
•9744 97*5
9755 9759 9724 9767
77 9763 9845
9813 i 223
78 •9781 9748 9711 9833 9803 9839 9736 9874
9751
9785 9823
9789 9720 9799 9732 9740 i 223
79 •9816 9857 9829
9792 9796 9863 97 28 9770
80 •9848 9820 9854 9826 9869
9806 0 122
9851 9836
9893 9895 9842 9810 9778
•9877 9871
81 9885 9860 9866 0 122
82 •9903 9880 9907
9882 9917 9943 0
•992.5 9905 9934 9914
9890 9923
122
83 9888 9954 9957 9898
9919 0 112
•9945 9947 9949 9910 9912 9959 9974 0 I I I
84 9928 9930 9932 9973 2
85 •9962 9963 9965 995i 9952 9936 9938 9940 9921 9942 9900
0 0 I I I
9969 9956
86 •9976 9977 9979
9966 9968 9984
9972 9993 9993
0 0 I I I
87 997 1 99979983 9985 O O O
••9986 9987 9978 9997 9997 i-ooo i-ooo i-ooo
I I
9994 9995 9995 9989 9960 0 O O O
88 9988 99
9990 80 9981 I'OOO
I'OOO O
89 •9998 9999 9999 9999
9996 9999 9990 9991 9982 O O O O O
90 i-ooo 9996 9992
9998 9998
 MATHEMATICAL TABLES
406
TABLE VI.— NATURAL COSINES

0°9
1 0°6
•9 999 0°-7 Mezn Differenci's.

3B, 0°0 0°1 0°2

•ooo •ooo 0°4
0°3 0°-5 0°-8
•ooo I'OOO
1' 2' 3' 4' 5'
I'OOO
0 9999 9999 9999 o o o o o
I'OOO
9997 9997 9995 9995
0'

1 •9998
•9994
9997 9977
9987
0 O O O O
2 9993
9998 9993 12'
9998 6'
0 0 0 I I
3 •9986 9985 9984 9983 18' 9996
9989
9979 9947 O O II
4 •9976 9974 9973 9992 9991 9990
995424' 9990 9996 O O II
9957 9969 ' 9965
9949 9963
5 •9962 9959 9982 9981 9934 30
997 1 01 12
•9945 9972 9988
9978
6 •992 9960
9943 9956
9980 6'
3
9968 9966 2'
01 12
7 •99053 9923 9942 9895
994°
9917 9914 9952 9951
9893 9857 9854
9907 4
9905 O I 22
9919 9938 9936 9885
8 •9877 01
48' 22
9 9874 9898
9921 9869 9833
9863
9890
9932 9930
9823
O 22 54'
10 •9848 9900 9871
9845 9839
9912 9910
9829
I 223
9866 9888 9928
9851
9842 9836 9882 9880
11 •9816 9813 9803 9799 9860 I 223

12 9774 9755 I 233

13
•9744
•9781 9810 9806 9767 9763 96779759 9826
9673 9789 9785
9820 I 233
•9703 9778 9694 9664
9707 1 234
14 9699 977° 9724 9796 97*5 9627
9792 9617 12234
•9659 974°
15 9655 9736 9732 9751
9690 974s 12234
9650 9728 9636
9686 9573
16
•9
613 9646 9593 9681
9641 9632
9720
12334
17 •9563 9603 9537 9583 9668
9711
9608 9553 9527 12345
9494 9622
18 •95"
•9 9598 12345
19 •9435957 9558 9444
95°5
9449
9548 9489
9542 9483
9588 9532
9578 12345
9354
20 95oo 9379 9373 9367 9478 9415 9409 94°3
9385 9438 9432 9472 9521 959568 12345
•9336 9391 9239 9157 9285 i6
21 93^3 9317 9245 9304 9421 9225 9466
22 •9272
•9205 9265 9259
9330 9426 9164 9348 9461
9219 9342
9M3 12346

23 •9135 9184 9361

9298 9278 12356
9252 9291
8834
89
9085 54
24 9198 9191 9114 9107
89935"7
9033 9171 9232 9003
•9063 9178 8949 9150 9212
8996
2456
25 9128 8973
9121 8965 9078 8755
•8988
9056 8894
9048 9041 9100 9092
8695 9070
26 8805 9026 8942
8870 9018 8838
8763 8669 3456
27 •8910
•8829 8980 8813 8886 8878 8607
8862 9011 8926
8918 3457
8902 8634 8704 3456
28 •8746 8821 8643
8729
8625
8796 8599
8771
8686
8678
9846 3467
29 •8660 8738
8652 8721 8712 8788
8616 8780
8517 8499 1 3 4 6
13467
7
30 8554 8545 8434 8590
•8572 8563 8453 8443 8425 8415
31 8536 8339 8581
32 •8480
•8387 8377 8526 8329 8490 23568
8471 8462 8508 8007 8396
33 •8290 8368
8271 8358 8348 8241
8251 8231 8406 8202
23568
34 •8192 8281 8261 8049 8141
8151 8039 8131 8221
8320 8211
8310 23568
8181 8171 8059
8161
23578
35 8121 8300
8111 8100 23578
•8090 8070 23579
36
37
8080 8028 8018 7997
24579
•7986 7955 7944
7837 7934 24579
38 •7880 7965
39 •7771 7976
7869 7859 7923
7815 7694
7804 7793 24679
40 •7660 7749 7848 7683
•7547 7649 7627 7727
7615 7604 24689
7760 7638 7738 7826 7593
7705 7891
41 7912
42 •73H
•7431 69 97 7902 7559
7455 6959 2 4
7672
7443
6 8 10
43 7536 7524 7513 77
7373
7254 1 6
6984 733770 246 8 10
7157 7385
7145 7133 7349 75 7782246
44 .7193 7420 7169 7396 75°i
7408 7278 7490 7478 7 5 8 i 7325
8 10
45 .7071 7302 7290
7059
7181
7034
6972 7083 246 8 10
2 4 6 8 10
1
7046 7266 7009 7242 i 7230 7466
736
7022 7120 7096
72 18
7108 7206
 407
MATHEMATICAL TABLES

TABLE VI (contd.)

1 0°2 0°3 0°-4

0°6
0°-5 6997 6984
8
0°-7 06°845 6959
0°6-8933
Mean Differences.
0' °1
0

Q
0°

6884 1' 2' 3' 4' 5'

0

6972 6574
45 7034 6743
6871 6717 6704
••7071
6947 2' 7009 6613 6858 6587 246 8 10
6'

46
7°59
6934 16909 6896
6639
6807 7046
6794 6769 6455 246 8 ii
47 •6820 6921
6665 18'22 6756' 6347 6730
6494 6334 6307
48 •6691 6678 6534 6782 670
6652 374 6626
2 4 6600 6184
246
2 4 7
9
9
ii
ii
6547 '
49 •6561 0
60734 6441 247 9 II
50 •6428 6414 6521 6508
6239 6225 6481 6468 36'
6401 6388 6361 6198 6320 46170 247 9 II
•6293 6266 6252
6115 6211 2'
6046 6032
51 6i43
6280 6129
52
•6157 6101 6088 6060 48'
257 9 II
•6018 6004 257
' 9 12
2 5 754 9 12
53 5934
54 •5878 5864 5990 5835
5976
5693
5807
5664
5793 5635
5779 5764 2 5 7 9 12
55 •5736 5850
57°7 5962 5948 5892 2 5 7 10 12
5821
56 •5592 5721
5577
5678
5534 5650 5920 5906
5563 5344 2 5 7 10 12
57 •5446 5548 55i9
5373 5505 5621 5750
58 •5 299 5432
5417 5255 5225
5195 5606
53i4
5165 2 5 7 10 12
5284 5°75 2 5 7 10 12
59 •515° 5135 527° 54°2 524°
5105 5090 5490 5476
5329
5030 5015
60 5388 5358 5045
4879 4863 3 5 8 10 13
•5000 5120 4955
4939 4924 5210 4894
4985
4970 4909
5060 5180 5461 3 5 8 10 13
61 •4848 4833
62 •4695 4679 4664
4818
4787
4648 4633 4617 4741
4586 4726
4571 4555 3 5 8 10 13
63 •454° 4802 3 5 8 10 13
4772
64 •4384
4524
4509
4493 447s 4756 4431 4415
4399 3 5 8 10 13
65 •4226 4337 4163
4179 4321 4602 4274
4305 4289
4M7 4115 4258
4099 4083 3 5 8 ii 13
4 368 4195
4352
4210 4462 4446 4710 3
4242
5 8 ii 13
66 •4067 4051 4°35 4019 4003 3987 4131
67 •3907 3875 3859 3843 3827 3955 '3939 3923 3 5 8 ii 14
68 •3746 3795 3778
3891 37M 3665 3649
3971 3437
3 5 3 ii 14
69 •3584 3730
3567
3697 3681 3469
3633 , 3453
3616 3 5 8 ii 14
3535 35i8 3811 3 5 3 ii 14
70 •3420 34°4 3551
3387 3371 3355 3289 2773 3
2857 3173 2823 3305 3107
3600 5 8 ii 14
71 •3256 3239 3223 2874
3206 3502
3190 3338
2639 3123 2605
3762 3
3272 6 8 li 14
3057 3007 29903486 2974 2957 2940
72 ••3°90
2924
3074
2907 3040 3024 2840 3156 2453 3 6 8 ii 14
73 2890 2689 3322 2807
2656
2672 2487
2504
3140 2790
2284 22 67 3 6 8 ii 14
•2756 2723
2554 2622
74 2740 2706 2334
2147
2317 2113 3 6 8 ii 14
75 •2588 2571 2538 2521 2164 2470 2436 3 6 8 ii 14
2385 1977
•2419 1959
76 2233
2402
2215
2045 2368
2351 1994
1805
2130
1633 2300
1925
1754
2096 3 6 8 ii 14
77 •2250
•2079 1874
1857
2198 2181
1942 3 6 9 ii 14
78 2062 2028 201 1 1599 3 6 9 ii 14
79 •1908 1891 1685 1840 1822 1444 1253
1771
1650 1616 3 6 9 ii 14
80 •1736 1719 1668 1097
1788 3 6 9 12 14
1702 1495 1409
1547 1513 i"5 1063
•1564 1357 1271 1582
81 1374 1530 1167 1323
1149 1305
1478 0924 1236
08893 6 9 12 14
82 •1392 1184 134° 1132
1288
1461 1426 3 6 9 12 14
83 •1219 1201 0993 1080
•1045 0837 0819 0767 0715 3 6 9 12 14
84 0854
1028 IOII 0976 0785
0958 0941
0593 0906 3 6 9 12 14
85 •0872 0645 O8O2 0732
0663 0244 0750 003 0017 3 6 9 12 14
0209 5
0227 0384
•0698 0454 0576
86 •0523
0680 0297 0628
0279 0610
0087 0419 0558 0541 3 6 9 12 15
87 0314 0471 OIO5 0436 0192
88 •0349 0506
0157 0488 0262 3 6 9 12 15
•0175 0332 0070 0052
0401 0366 3 6 9 12 15
89 0140 OI22
90 •oooo 3 6 9 12 15
 MATHEMATICAL TABLES
4°S
TABLE VII. — NATURAL TANGENTS.
oi57
r 0°8 0°9
£& 3 °5
000 01 05 0 °0-2797
Mean Differences.
ID
00°2 0° 4
00°-244
87 0 2 79
0°-6
1

035
0

0°

c 0647 0314 0857

0507
0°

0017 0227 °437 °454 0122 0140 0664 1' 2' 3' 4' 5'
0 •0175
•oooo 0209 0052 0070
0629 0489
1033
•0349 °594 0262 0805 3 6 9 12 15
0'

1 0192
0367 0384 05'77 0419 0332 3 6 9 12 15
2 •0524 0559 12 0787 "57 0472 "75 0840
6'
0734 0402 091845
' 0963 0682 3 6 9 12 15
•0875
3 •0699 0769 0612
0542
0717 H39 0822 3 6 9 12 15
4 0752 24' J334 0998 1016 3 6 9 12 15
5 0892 1104 '
•1051 1069 0910 0928 1299 1317 0981 30 1192 3 6 9 12 15
6 1263
1086 1673
1655 1495 3 6' I2IO
1745
•1228
•14 1281
1122
1835 1853 *352 137° 1727
42'O7
3 6 9 12 15
•150854
7 1246 1459 2I 3 6 9 12 15
1423 H77 2035 1691
8 1817
1441 16^8 1530 1548
2053 1709
22 3 486' 9 12 15
9 •1763 1602 1620
1799 2217
1512
1871
2235 1890
54 2089 1388
1566
2475 3 6 9 '
5412 15
10 •1944 2199 2071 3 6 9 12 15
1781 1908
2272 1926
2144 2016 2849
11 1998
2345 2364 2605 2623 229O
3 6 9 12 15
12 •2126
•2• 309 1962
2327
1980
2162 2180 2419
3 6 9 12 15
2 2549 2754
•2649739
2773 2642
13 2438 2456 3 ° 9 12 15
14 2530
2717 2382 2401 2830 2661
15 2512
2698
2943
2568 2586 2792 3 6 9 12 16
2736 2811
•2867 2905 2924 3 6 9 13 16
16 •3057 2886
3134 3153
2962 2981 3 6 9 13 16
17
18 •3249 3076
3H5 3019
3 6 10 13 16
19
•3 443 3269 3096 3307 3327 3172 34°4
3038 3 6 10 13 16
3365 3000
3385
3I9T 3424
20 •3640 3463
3659 3288
3679 3699 3346
3739 3230
3819 3 77 I0
10 J3
13 16
3759 3779 3211
3799 3 17
•3839 3482 3899
3879 3502 3719 3541
21
22 •4040
3859 3522
3919
3939 3959 3979 3600
356i 4183 4224
3620 3 7 I0 T3 17
•4245 4i63 358i 4204 3 7 10 14 17
23 4265
24 •4452 4061
4473 4081 4307 4327
4494 4101 4122
4557
4142 4834 3 7 10 14 17
•4663 4286 45i5 4000
25 4684 4369 4599
48i3 5073
4O2O 4 7 ii 14 18
•4877 4727 4348
26 4536 4 7 ii 14 18
•5095 4899 4964 4578 4390
5029
4642
27 5"7 470
5139
6 4748
5184 4770 4621
4431
•5317 4411'5295
5272 6224
4856 4 7 ii 15 18
28 •5543 4921 4942 5635 4791 5473 5051 4 87 ii 15 19
18
29 •5774 5161
5384 5407 5008 5250 6694 4 8 12 15 19
30 5340 5844 6104
5867 4986 6644
5206 6445
5727
5797 5362
5589 5228 6176
6395 5704
•6009 5566 6297 5612 5658
5430 5914
5452 4 8 12 16 20
•6249 6273 5820 6080 6594
6056 6847 6873 6152
6619
6128 6899 6669 6200
5985
6469
31 6032
6544
5890 5681
6924
5498
32 •6494 6371 4 8 12 16 20
33 •6745 6519 6569
6322 6346 5938 575020
55 4 8 12 16 20
6420 596i 4 8 13 17 21
34 6771 6822 6950 6976
35 6796
7°54 7J33 6720
•7002 7107 7*59
8273 7239
8069 4 9 13 17 21
•7265 7028 8243 4 9 13 18 22
36 8214
37 •7536 7080 7373 7673 7427 7454
8040 5 9 14 18 23
•7813 7292
8127 7319 8185 8012 7757
38 •8098
7563
7346 7646 8847
7954 7186 7212 5 9 14 18 23
39 8156
7869 8632
8332 5 9 14 19 24
•8391 7841 7983 5 10 15 20 24
40 7590 7618
7898 854100 8571
74
7729
8302
8601
8662
7785
8361
•8693 8421 8754
8451 8511 5 10 15 20 25
8724 8785 7926
8481 8816 8878
9195
7701 0247
41 •9004 8941 48i9293
02783
8972
7508
42 •9325
9067 9099 9163 8910 5
5
10 16 21
ii 16 21
26
27
43 •9657 9036 9457
003 9424 9131
0105 9623
0319 66 ii
ii 17 22 28
44 93585 9759 9793 9827
0176 9523 17 23 29
45 i-oooo 9691 9391
9725
0070 0141 O2 1 2 9228 9260 9965
6 12 18 24 30
9490 9556
9896
9861 9590
9930
 MATHEMATICAL TABLES
409

TABLE VII. (contd.)

0°07247 0°9 Mean Differences.

I
1 02 83
0°3 0°4 0°-5 0°-6 00°6-849 0319
0°-2 1067
0'0°1
0

1875 1'6 2' 3' 4' 5'

0°

0575
0035 0875 0176 1833 12 18 24 30
20'837 0141
0070 0464 O2I2
45 I-OOOO
1- 10105 0913 1343 0612 1463 6 12
6'

1423 0686 18 25 31
46 0355 0392 1263 0538 1383
47 1-0724 0761
H45 0799
0428
1184 1224 0501 18' '
241303 2174 0990 1028
0951 6 13
2305 7 13
19 25 32
48 1-1106 1544 2 20 27 33
0 4
1585 1626 16675 2753 7 14
49 1504
1- 2131 175030' 1792
2617 21 28 34
50 1-1918 1960 2OO2 2088 1708 2218 36'2261
2527 7 14 22 29 36
2437 42'
51 1-2349 2393 2985 2572 2662 3i75 8 15
488' 16
23
24 30
31 38
39
2892 2482
3079 3127
52 1-2799 2846 2938 2708
53 1-3270 35H 3613 3663 8 16 54'
25 33 '41
3367 3465 3032 3564 9 17 26 34 43
54 1-3764 33i9
3814 3865 4019
4124 3713
6577 9 18 27 36 45
55 1-4281 4335 34i6 4605 4659 4229
3222
39i6 63295658 4071 6447 4176
5224
56 1-4826 4442 5637
4388 4994 5697 47i5 10 1929 38 48
57 1-5399 4882 5517 5577 4496 645
9750 5757
7 6383 10
ii 20
21 30
32 40
43 50
4938 6191 5051 6319 4770
53
58 1-6003 6066
5458 6775
6128 5108 5166
59 1-6643 6709 6842 6909 7°45 6512
5282 II 23 34 45 56
7675 8495 5818
7H3 7893
5880 594i
5340
60 1-7321 8265 7603 7747 0233
8650 12 24 36 48 60
8115
739i 819061 7532 8341 0057 oi45 "55 0413
7251 13 26 38 51 64
61 1-8040 8887 9047 8572 7182
62 1-8807
74
8967
8418 2045 9375 0323 2355
8728 14
63 1-9626 0594 9797 9883 0872 0965
1943 9292 7820 1251 27 41
15 29 44 55
58 68
73
9128 2251
64 2-0503 1543
9711 0686 0778 997° 1842
9210 1060 2148 796616 31 47 63 78
1348
65 2-1445 1642 1742 9458 9542
2673 2889 17 34 51 68 85
66 2998 3445 18 37 60
55 79
73 92
2-2460 2566 3109 20 40 99
67 2-3559 3673 2781 6605 4023
5257 83
688997 4627
68 3789 6464 8239 5649
2-4751 6187 6325
4876 5002 5129 8083 4383
02 4504 8878 22
322037 3332
4142 5517 7°34 43 65 87 108
69 2-6051 3 9 0 6 6746 7179 0595
2-7475 4262 8556 24
26 47 71 104
52 78 95 131
119
70 7625 5386 0415
2305
7929
1334
7776 9544 9887 0061 8716
71 2-9042 9375
9208 1146 97J4 6554 5782 591629 58 87 116 145
72 3-0777 0961 1524 8947 2106
1716 6305 2 32 64 96 129 161
2914
3544 ! 3759
3977
1910 635 250632636 72 108 144 1 80
73 3-2709 7
74 3-4874 5105 5339 5816 6059 4197 4420
6806 41 81 122 163 204
3122 3332
75 8118 8391 8667 2303
3-7321 7583 7848 5576 4646 46 93 139 1 86 232
0713 IO22 1976 9232 2972
6646
76 4-0108 0408 1335 1653 9812
77 4-33I5 4OI5 4374 5864 6252 7062
78 3662 2924 8716
8288 4737 9152 9594
5107 5483 0045 9520 0970
6504
79
4-7046 1929 7867
7453 3955 5026 5578 6140
6264
5-I446 2422 3435 0285
80 5-67I3 7297 7894 8502 9124 9758 0405
1066
1742 2432
81 3859 6122 8548 9395 Mean differences are
6-3138 6912 0579 10-99
82 7'IJ54 2066 3002 4947
6427 10-39 69964486 8062 2052 no longer suffici-
83 8-1443 4596 535°
2636 9-3863 13-95
9-677 84 5 12 -43 10-58 10-78 9158 since the differ-
84 9-5I4
"•43 3962 IO-2O
IO-O2
5126 5958 9152
16
12-71
II-2O ences vary along
con-
85 n-66 11-91 12-16 -35
7769 siderably
772017-34
16-83 13-3° 26-03 each line.
15-89 13-00 13-62
17-89 18-46
27-27
86 14-30 14-67 I5-46 3572
87 15-06 22-02 22-90
19-08 19-74 20-45 21-20
88 24-90
38-19 23-86 44-07 47-74
28-64 30-14 31-82 81-85
89 286-5
33-69 95-49
90 57-29
00 63-66 114-6 40-92
71-62 35-8o
52-08
143-2 191-0

573-0
 MATHEMATICAL TABLES

TABLE VIII. — LOGARITHMIC SINES.

0°5 0°6 0°-7 Mean Differences.

0°2 0°-9
18' 24' 0°-8
0

1
0°-
0°

Q
0°3 8439
0°-4 6870 6889 1' 2' 3' 4' 5'
— 00
6397 8213
0 3-2419 6035 6567 1450
1
0'

2-2419 2832 5429 4J79 4459 1961

8849
•5428
9408 O2OO
2 12'
8647 7190 6220 7857 8098
6'
8749 6731
9i35
4723
3 •8•7188
436 8543
5640 3210
5842 3558 3880
H57 9894
8946 0605 0734
1847 8326
0046
0797

4 •9403 7979 1895

9655
5 7330 9573 0539 1214 0670 5206 16
4971 93i5 32 48 64 80
0264
9489 74
7602 1099
033468 0403 174730'1797
1697 9042 7041 13
OI2O ii 26
22 39
33 52 65
44 55
773i
•0859
6 1-0192 1594 0472
9736 9816 2647 1271
2687 36'
9226
2353

1040 997° 42'

2727 2767 10 19 29 38 48
7
8
•1•1439463 0920
1489 0981
2085
1646
2131 2176 1326 84817
' 25 34 42
1542 2524 2565
9 •2397 1991
2439
2038 2997 2221 2266
I38l
8 15 23 530
4' 38
10 2959 2606 2310 3143 7 M 20 27 34
2845 2883 3034
2482 6 12 19 25 31
•2806
11
12 •3179 2921 3353
3107
3455
3214 3284 6 ii 17 23 28
13 •3837
•3521 3554 3251
3897 3319
3957
3387
4044
3745
3070 3775
4°73 5 ii 16 21 26
14 3867 3927 3713 4377 5 10 15 20 24
15 •4130 3618 3650
3586 4214 4269
4015

•4403 4158 3682 4323 4634 5 9 14 18 23

16 4242 4533 3421
17 4186 3986 42964559
5037 4584 4609
4853 3806
3488
•4659 4684 4733 4757 4805 4 9 13 17 21
18 •4900 4430 4456 5015 4829 5104
4IO2
44 88 ii
12 15
16 20
19
19 4923 4709 5235 4350
5299
•5126 4482
4969 4508
5213
20
•5341 4946
5I70 4992 5443 66024 6059
6227
6243
4876
•5543 5H8 5192 60
64107 194 5484
77871 5847
5256 5278
5060 5504 4 7 ii 14 18
5423 5463 5679 5082 5523
6076 3 7 10 14 17
21 536i 5382
5563 6144 5717 3 6 10 13 16
22 •5736 5754 5583
6127
5773 5402 6042
5865 63875883 3 6 9 12 15
5621 5641 6403
23 -5919 5937 5954 5602 6324 6673 5698
6210 5320 3 6 9 12 15
6161 6644 5660 6687
24 -6093 6110 6292 5792 5810 5828
6495 6659 6371 3 6 8 ii 14
25 •6259 6276 5972 5990 6340 6356 6 8 1 4 6977
6449 6308
6465
6615 6629
6773 6787 6937 3 5 8 ii 13
26 •6418 6434 6541
6963 6556
6842
59oi
27 6759 6480 6923 6510 6526 6828
28 •6570 6585 6600 6801 23 55 87 10 13
10 12
29
•6716 6730 ! 6744 6896
6910 6950 6702 2 5 7 9 12
•6856 6869 6883 7°55 7°93 2 4 7 9 ii
30 •6990 7003 2 4 6 9 ii
7029
31 •7118' 7131 7016
7M4 7042 7193
2 4 6 8 10
32 7205
•7242 7254 7156 7068 2 4 6 8 10
33 •736i ' 7373 7278 7168 7314 7080 7349
7106 224679
4 6 8 10
34; -7476 | 7487
7266
7384 7407
7290 7181 7553 7453 7230
7575
7464 24579
35 •7586 7597 7607 7419 8044 8053 7218
7509
7396 7629 87033052 7430
•7692 7498 8i34 8i34236 7564
7338 8 23579
36
37 •'77795 7734 753i
7744 7854
520 7844 7754
7542 7 42 8063
74 7874
7774
7671 8072247
893 77°3
7805 8007
7713
7815 80
7723
7825 87117 8125 7650
18 7835
7617 7864 7884 23578
38 7764
7661
•7989 8099
7913 8026 7 6 4 0 8152 7785
7979
7682 23568
39 •8081 7903 8i95 8204 82 821397
8090 8108 8161 13467
23568
40 8187 7932 794i 8313
•8169 98 8289 8305 8230 8238
41 •8255 879
264
8178 79 2 2
8457 8221 7951 8394
8487 13467
42 8354
8272 8280 8449 87594670 797° 13467
8464 8555 8330
8433 8378 13457
43 -8338 8346 8517 8370
8525 8322
8362 8472 8402
44 -8418 8426 8441 8386 13456
45 -8495 8532 8540 8410 12456
8502 8510 8480
1
8562
 MATHEMATICAL TABLES

TABLE VIII. (contd.)

0°7 0°9
8634
0°6 0°8
8547 8555
Mean Differences.
E 0°5 8627
t
0°2 0°3 0°4 86 97
0°0 0°-1
0'

Q
8517 8525
8683
1' 2' 3' 4' 5'
8704 12456 411
45 ^•8495 8532 8540
12'
6'

88502
577 8584
8510
46 •8569 8655 8669 8606 9613
8745 8817 86908620
8823 8765 8893 8562
8899 12456
47 •8641 8648 8662 88 18'04 8676
8591 8598
8874 8887
8836 1 2 3 5 6
8724 8797 8830 8771
48 •8711 8718 885 8731 8738 24' 8751 8758
8 9 4
2345
2346
8784 7 8953 8959
49 •8778 8849 87915 8810 0' 2345
50 •8843 8862 8868 8935 8880 3 3 6 '
8917 8923 8929 8995 2' 2345
51 •8905 8977 8983 8989 8941 49074 2345
•8965 8911 9057 48' 2345
52 8971
53 •9023 9029 9035 9063 9069 54'
2345
9041 9046 9107 9175
9123
54 •9080 9085 9149 9155 9052 9000 9006 9012
2334
55 •9134 9139 9144
9091 9096 9165
9101 9018 2334
9112 9170
9118 9275 2234
56 •9186 9255 9160 9279
9128
57 •9236 9191 9196 9265 9181 2234
9241 9201 9206 1234
58 •9284 9294 9251
5S 9289 9246
9-298 9303
9344
9211 9216 93179270 9226 9231
9221 1234
•933i 9335 9349 9353
9260 9367
60 '9375 9340 9393 9397 1233
9384 9308 9414 233
61 9380 9312 9447
9358
9443 22 9455
9326
9371
9388 9435 9439 93
'•9418 9362
9427 233
62 9459 9422
9463 9467 9431 9475 9479 9483 9401 9487 9495
9533 223
63 '9499
'9537 9503 9507 9471 95H 9406 9410 223
64 9544 9555 9525
9597 945i
9529 9604
65 "9573 9540 95io 9587 9594 9491 9637
9548
9583 955i 9634 9569
9576 95i8 9522
9627
66 •9607 958o
9614 9617 9624 9558 i 223
67 •9640 9611
9643 9647 9653 9590 9659 9562 9601 9566 9699 i 223
9621 9687 9693 9669 0 I I 2 2
68 •9672 9675 9650 9684 9656 9631
69 •9702 9678
9707 9681 9662 O I I 2 2
9704 97*3 9743 9690 9749 9724 9666 9727
9754
70 '973° 9733 9735 9719 9696 O I I 2 2
•9757 9710 9716 9777
71 9759 9738 9775
9764 9741
9767 9794 9797 9746 9804 0 I I 2 2
72 •9782 9785 9787 9817 9799
22
97 9845 9847 0 I I 2 2
73 9762 9789
9813 9815 977° 9843 975i
9824
•9806 9835 9837
O I I 2 2
9808 9833 9792 9839 9772 9867 0 I I I 2
74 '•9828
9849 9831
9811
9855 9857 9859 9865
75 9853
9851
9820 9822 9801 9826
9841 9863 9780
0 I I I 2

•9869 9873 9875 9897 9884 9885 O I I I 2

76 9871 9894 9861 9899
77 •9887 9876 9878 0 I I I I
•9904 9889 9891
78 9907 9892 9896 9913
9880 9882 O I I I I
79 •9919 9906 9909 9915
'9934 9924
9937 9925 9927 9944 9945 O 0 I I I
80 9935
9921 9939
9910 9912 9943
9929 9901 0 0 I I I
9922
9936 9902
81 •9946 9947 9949 9953
9928 9954 9955
9916 O O I I I
994° 9941 993i 9932 9918 O 0 I I I
82 •9958 9959 9974 9967
83 9950 9951 9963 9973 9965 9975 9975 O O O I I
9952 9964
•9968 9960
9969
84 •9976 9977
9968 9961 9979
9962
997° 9971 9956 O O O 0 I
•9983 9972 9983
85 9984 997s
9985 9985
997s 9987 9987 O O O O 0
9966 9994
9989 O O O O O
86 •9989 9980 9981 9993 9993 9997
87 '9994 9990 9995 9995 99 86 998i 9997
9994 9990 9991 9991 9992 9982 O O O O O
88 '9997 9999 9999
9992 9988 999988 9999 O O O O O
9999
•9999 9998 9996 9996 9 9
89 9999 oooo oooo
9998 oooo
90 O'OOOO
9998 9998 oooo oooo 9996 oooo
9996 oooo oooo O O O O O
 MATHEMATICAL TABLES
4T2
TABLE IX. — LOGARITHMIC COSINES

8 0°-7
0°8 0°9 Mean Differences.
&of 0°3 0°4 j 0°5 0°-6
0 0°0 0°-1 0°-2
1' 2' 3' 4' 5'
0 o-oooo oooo oooo oooo oooo oooo oooo oooo oooo
1-9999 9999 O 0 O O O
1 9999 9994 o o o o o
0'
•9997 9999 9999 9999 9999 9995 9995
2 •9994 9997 9997 12' 9977
O O O O O

6'
3 9994 9993
4
•9989 9993
9996 18' 9998 9998 9998 9984
9998
0 0 O O O
•9983 9987 9996 '9996
9996 9987 o o o o o
5 9989 9992 9992 24 9979 9985 9985
9983
9988 9974
9991 39991
0' 9990 9990
O O 0 O I

6 •9976 9975 9975 9988 9973 6'

39969
9982 9981 9986 9978 9947
9959
O O 0 I I
7 •9968 9967 9954
9981
9965 9964 9963
9953 9980
9972 42'
997s 9935
9937 9949
O 0 I I I
8 •9958 9955 9970 48O'
0 0 I I I
9944 9943 9971
9 •9934
•9946 9945 9966 9939
9956 54I'
O I I I
10 9952
9927 9924
9961 9968 0 0 I I
9929 9962
9925
9951 9950 9960
•9919 9932 9941 9940 9894
11 •9904
9931 9897 9875 9936
9907
9873 O I I I I
12 9915
9899 9913 9909
•9887
9918 9928 9857 9855 9853
0 I I I I
13 •9869 9885 9916
9884 9859
9896 9837 9835 9922 9921
9833 0 I I I 2
14 9902
9867 9865 9863 9912 9876
•9849
9847
9901
9845 9843
9882 9839
9878 9910 9892 9891 g88q 0 I I I 2
15 9880 9906
9871 0 I I I 2
9861
9841 9817 9815 9813 9851
16 •9828 9824 9831
17 •9806 9797 9794 0 I I 2 2
9804
9826 9799 9787 O I I 2 2
•9757 9777 9822
9775 9820 9767 9785
9764 9735 9759
18 •9782
9801 9745 9789 9811 9733
0 I I 2 2
19 9754 9749 9808 0 I I 2 2
•9730 9780 9770 9792 9675
20 9727 9724
975i 9772 9713 9707 9704
9647
9643
0 I I 2 2
9693 9719
9746 9687 9684
9653
21 •9702 9699 9659 9741
•9672 9722 9738
9617 9762
0II223
I I 2 2
22 9669 9696
9634 9690
9627 9716
9624 9614 II223
23 •9640 9637 9678
•9607 9666 9662 9594
9597 9656 9650 II223
24 •9573 9604 9631 9587 9710 9544
9681 II223
9555 9583
25 •9537 9569 9601 9621 1 i 2 3
9590 3
26 9533 9514 9507 9611 II233
9475 9548 9467 9576
•9499 9566 9525 955i 9503
27 9529 9562 9558 9479
•9459 9495 9487
9447 9443
9483 9435 958o 9540 111i .2
2 34
3 3
28 9455
9522
9439
9397 9393 9427 9463
29 •937158
•9-1 9491 9344 9384 II234
9414 945i 95i8
9353 9471 9335
30 9367 9349 95io 9294 12234
9431
31 •9331 9371
0279 9410 9406 9401 9255 12234
•9284 9275 9317
9362 9358
9265 9303 9144 9289
9422
32 9388 934° 9139
2334
33 •9236 9326 9322 9270
9155 9149
9298 8977 9380 2334
34 •9134
•9186 9231 9175
9226 9312
9165 9107
9308
9260 92518799246
7|885
9085
9241 2345
35 9181 9123 9221
9170 9216 9211
8995 9206 9196 5 9191
9035
8983 8917 8849
9057 9160
89 74 8989 9201 2345
9074
9128 9063
8947 8835 8923
36 •9080
•9023 9069 9118 9112 8804 9096 9091 89719029 2345
37 •8965 8953 8887 8929
9101
8959
8899 8893 8817 9052 9046 9041 8784
2345
38 •8905 9018 9012 8823 8941 8862 8655 1
22
•8843 8868
39 9006 9000
8880 8745
8810 8724 8911
8577 1 33 44 5
40 8836 8830 8683
•8778 8697 8669 8791
8765 8676 8738 8648 12356
41 •8711 8634 8627
8771
8704 8758 8613
8751 8662
8731
42 •8641 8547
8690 8457 8525 8517 8433 1 2 3 5 6
43 •8569 8555 8620 8606 8449
8598 8591 .8584 8718 12456
•8495 8464 12456
44 8487 8540 8532
45 8562 8472 8441 8510 8502 13456
8480 8426
 MATHEMATICAL TABLES 413

TABLE IX (contd.)

V
0°8 Mean Differences.
1 12' 18' 0°5 36' 42' 8433 0°-9
0°-4 8457 8354
1

Q 0°-2 0°3 8264 1' 2' 3' 4' 5'

0

0'°

0°6 0°-7
0°

8297 8187
45 1-8495 8480 8472 8464
6'

8487 8449 8441 8272

8099 13456
8346 13457
46 •8418 8410 8394 9386 8213
8378 8117
8370 8017 8007
8362 8426
8178
8402 8313 8305 80345' 8289 8280
47 -8338 8330 8322 804 8204 8195 8090 11 33 44 66 77
48 -8255 8247 8238 8053
8230 82214 2
49 -8169 8161
8152
8063 8143 8134 8125 30' 8108 13467
50 •8081 8072 8026
23568
51 •7989 7979 8'
423568
52 •7893 7874 7864 7854 7844 7835 79i3 7805 23578
53 •7795
7884 7970 7825 7815 7903 54'
23579
7774 7960 795i
7754 7744
794i 7932
7734 7713
7607 : 7597
7703
7998 24579
54 •7692 7785 7764
55 •7586 7671 7723 24679
7682
7575 7564 7553 7629 7922
7661 7650 7640 7487
56 •7476 7453 7542 7509
7618 7254
7373
57 •7361 7464 7531 7407 246 8 10
7349 7419 7384 246 8 10
58 •7242 7442 7314
69 7520
7338 7205 7*937437
30 6923 498
67744 246
59 •7118 7230
69 77 7°93
7218
6963 7326
7055 7278
7290 6896
7396 7016
7H4 7003
7i3i 2 4 6 98 10
II
60 •6990 7106 6950 67634042 6773 6759
6615
7029
6814 7181 7156 6883 6434
7266 ' 6869
6780
670 6659 6787
3 7068 6910
6629
7042
7168 6585 247 9 II
61 •6856 6687
6842 i 6828 6801 6495 6144 6127 6730 2 5 7 9 12
62 •6716 6177 6324 6465 6600
6702 6194 6449 6276 2 5 7 10 21
63 •6570 6556 6541
6387 6292
6526 6510
64 •6418 6403 6227 6371 6356 6340
6007 6480 3 5 8 10 13
65 •6259 6243 6059 6210 6024 6161
6308 6110 3 65 8 it
ii 13
14
66 •6093 6042 5954 5937
6076 5847 3 6 9 12 15
67 •5919 5901 5883 5865 5773 5754 3 6 9 12 15
68 •5736 5717 5679 5660 5641 3 6 10 13 16
69 •5543 5990 5972
5523 5698
5504 5484
5463 5828
5443
5235 5810
5213
5583 5563
70 •5341 5299 5423
5621 5792 3 7 10 14 17
532 0 5278 5256
5037 5602 18
71 •5162 5I04 5015 4 87 ii
ii 14 19
15
5060 4805 4781 5192 5170
72 •4900 4853
5082 4829 4757 5402 5382 4684
4969
4733 4923
536i 4 8 12 16 20
73 •4659 4876
4634 5M8
4584 4559 4533
74 •44°3 4377 4609 4044
4992
3957
3897
4214 4946
4709 2845 4
3867
9 13 17 21
75 •4130 4°73 4323 4269 3927 55 109 14
15 18 24
20 23
4350 4°i5
4296 4242
•3837 4102 4508 2883
4456
76 3775 3745 2959 3554
4482 4186 4158 4430 5
77 3806 3455 2647 368286
3713 3284 2439
3214 ii 16 21 26
•3521
•3179 2687 3387 3353
39 2565
3650 2524
2085 66 it 19
12 17 23
25 28
31
78 3143
3488 2727
2767 3io/ 3034 2997 3319 2921 3250
79 •2806 3070
34 21 2606
1 697 3618
1594 2038 7 14 20 27 34
•2397 2353 2176 2131
80 1847 2266 2221J747 "57 1099 2482 0264 8
586 1489
1991 15 23 30 38
1895 2310 1797 1214 1646 03334
•1943 8647
81 1271 0605 °539 1040 1542 8543 8
0403 i? 25 34 42
82 •1436 °7 34 10
ii 19 29
22 38 55
33 44 48
•0859 07
1381
97 1326 0670 8849
83 9894 0472 9655 0981 0920
8749
84 •0192 OI2O 0046 9573 13 26 39 52. 65
85 2-9403 9135 8946 6035
9315
8213 9970 9042 6397 16 32 48 64 80
•8436 9226 9816
7857 9736 9489
86 6889 8098 6567
8326 7979 2832
87 -7188 6731 6220
7041
4*79 8439 •5429
88
89 •-5428
2419 0870
4723 4459 7731 7602 5842 2419
52O6
I96l 4971 O200
90 — CO
5640
733°
M50 3880
3558 3210
7190 7468
9408
414 MATHEMATICAL TABLES

TABLE X. — LOGARITHMIC TANGENTS.

0°8
0°5 0°6 0°-7 °-9
Mean Differences.
1
0 0°2 °-3 0°4 6894 0
0

o
0°
1' 2' 3' 4' 5'
0°

— 00 2833 8107 8223

0870 0143
0 2- 3-2419 8439 9409 02 oo
0'
1 2419 5429 3559 3881 4181 4973 1962
2 •5431 5643 5845 6038
7190
' 6571 4725
0633 6736
•719 8659 12 6223 6401 8336
6'
3 •84446 7337
8554 3211
7475 7609 886218' 7865 0699
4 9674 7739 1194 4' 0764 7046 16 32 48 8164
5 •9420 8762H35 0567
8960 2 9915461 ' 0068 13 26 40 6653
0499 9056 23M754o 5208
1367
4 30915° 9241 1423 ii 22 34 45
0289 1693 1797 0828 56
6 1-0216 09
9554
06 1015
959i 0430 1745 1252
9836 288 '05 933i 10 20 29 4939
•0891 0360 1076 9756
2637 79 9992
8 8 3
7 •1 47 1533 2094
1587 1640 2189 1848 1898 2419
2764 42'
1948 9 17 26 35 43
8 •19987 2236
2282 1310
2594
2142 8 16' 23 31 39
9 •2463 2046 2846 48
10 •
2507
2551 2680 2328 3237 54' 35
7 14 21 28
2887 2927 2967 2722
11 •3275 3085 3123 66 12
13 18
19 24
26 30
32
12 •3634 3837
13 3349 3385 3046 3804 3493 3564 3935
3006 3599 6 ii 17 22 28
14 •3968 3312
3668 4064 4°95 4127 3162 3903
3529
3200 5 10 16 21 26
15 •4281 22 3458 3870
4189 5 10 15 20 25
4000 3702
4032 34
3736 3770 4517
•4575 4459
16 43ii
4603 4158
4744
17 4341 4371 5014
4934 5245 5295 47994220 4250625 5 9 14 19 23
18 •4853 4880
•5118 5143 4632
4907 5195 4400
4987
4430 5345 7
5169 4660 8 4546 4 98 13 18
17 22
21
19 5443 4688 4
6194 62415
5040 8
20
•537° 56«4
•5611
5394
5419 5467
4961 477i 64645
4716 5270 5539
5773 647 5587
5092
6667
4826 4 8 12 16
15 20
19
5220 5727 6627 5066
5563 6042
6843 5819
•5842
•6064 5864 5658 6129 5704 6607 6424
5954 6404 6020
6236 6465
5887 6172
21 •6279 6086 6108 5681
6547 6151 6383 68 i6 6824 5320 6863
549i 4 7 ii 15 19
22 5909 6567 5504
6587 5750
23 6527 6341 5932 5796
6300 6785
6977 5976 4
3 77 10
ii 14
14 18
17
24 •6486
•6687
6506
6321 6362
6765 5998
3 7 10 13 17
25 6939
6746
6706 6726 7°34 7°53
26 •6882 6901 6958 6996 3 7 10 13 16
27 •7072
•7257 6920 7°i5 3 6 9 13 16
28 7275
7090
7109
7293 7^5 7183 8075 8257 8274 3
3
6
6
9
9
12
12
15
15
29 •7438
•7614 7473 7128 7146 8059 7384
7544 8109
30
7455
7667 7579 7597 3 6 9 12 15
7649 8025
7684 8224 7753 7238 3 6 9 12 14
8i?35H 7509 7202 8092
31 •7788 7632 7 9i
74
7330 7348
7873
8042 7220 8597
7805 7839
8008 7719 7907
8241 3 6 9 ii 14
•8125
32 •7958 7975 8339 8355
8191 85733 7366 8565
526 8549 8404 8897
7924 3 6 8 ii 14
33 •829 8142 8158 8208 7562 402 87755
84 •845
0 7822
8323 7856
8517
83717701 7890 87247736 7 8436 420
3 5 8 n 14
8484 92
879644 8834
35 • 2 8306
8501 8676
8388
8865 8420
794i71
77 3 5 8 n 14
8613 8468
8629 8803 89 8692 8581 3 5 8 ii 13
36 •8771 8787 75
8660 8850 9037 9053
8740
37 8944 8959 8818 8881 3 5 8 ii 13
38 •8928 8708 8912
9207 9223
•9084 8990 3 5 8 10 13
39 9099
9254 9H5
9284 3 5 8 10 13
40 •9238 9269 9130 9146 9006
9315 9022 9192
9176 3 5 8 10 13
9161 9068 3 5 8 10 13
41 •9392
•9 9453
42 •9659474 9407
9575
9499
9330 9346
9514 9833
937°
0045 9605
9300
9757 9773
9483
9529 3 5 8 10 13
43 •984 9422 9438
9727 9803 936i 0136
44 8 9560
0015
9864 9879 9894
9590 0076 9636 9651
9955
3 5 8 10 13
9468 9939 3 5 8 10 13
9666 9985
45 o-oooo 9712 0030 9742 99090061 9621
9924 0091 0106 0121
9681 3 5 8 10 13
9818 3 5 8 10 13
9788 997°
 MATHEMATICAL TABLES

TABLE X. (contd.)

7 0°
8 0°9
0°6 0°-
Mean D;ffer;uces.
12' 18' 24' 30' 0243
1

0°4 0°5
0

0°2 0°3
00'°
0g>°

0091 1' 2' 3' 4' 5'

Q

0076
45 °395
0547 OIO6
0258 OI2I OI36
6'

•oooo 0167 0030 0045 0061

0015 °379 35 8 10 13
46 •0 152 Ol82 0197 O2I2
0228
0854
47 •0303 0319 0334 0349 0364 0685
0273
0425 0288
0440 35 8 10 13
48
083
05329 0410 0578 0593 35 8 10 13
•0456 0471 0486 0501 0517 0562 35 8 10 13
49 •0608 0624 0639 0654 0670 0994 IO25 0731
0870 0746
0700 0716 36'0885 0901 35 8 10 13
50 •0762 0777 0793 0808 ; 0824 35 8 10 13
2'
1041 41056
51 •0916 0932 0947 0963 0978 1150
IOIO
1324
1645 1182 8'
435 8 10 13
52 •1072 1245 1103 nig 1135
1088 1467
1166 1197 1213
584'10 13
53 •1229 1260 1276 1292 1483 1340
1356 I371 35
54 •1387 1403 1419 H35 1451 1629
1308 1825 1516 1532
2195 35 8 ii 13
55 •1548 1564 1612 1809
19 1490
1661 1677 1694 35 8 ii 13
1580
1596 2175
44 35 8 ii 14
2127 2333
56 ••1710 1726 1743 ! 1759 1776 1792 1842 1858
2545
2008 2025
57 1875
2299
1941 1958 1992
1891
20 59 1908 1925
2247 2093
2264 2161 2178
2527 35
36 88 ii
ii 14
14
58 •2042
2229 2076 2110 2474
2509 2351 3 6 9 ii 14
59 •2212 228l
2634 2854 2725 3 6 9 12 14
60 •2386 2403 2 2316 2368
2421 2438 2456 835 2491
2817 2652 2670 2689 2707
3 6 9 12 15
2580 2598
61 •2562 2616 2872 2891
3 6 9 12 15
62 •2743 2947 2780
2762 2985 3 6 9 12 15
2798 3254 2910
3080 3099
63 •2928 2966 3004 3023
3235 36 9 13 16
64 •3"8 3i37 3i57 3176 3196 3215
3042
3274 3294 3 6 10 13 16
65 •3313 3333 3353 3373 3393 3433 3453 3473 3494
3413 3061 3679 3 7 I0 13 17
66 •35H 3617 3659
3535 3555 3849 3 7 10 14 17
67 •3721 3743 3764 3576 3596 3638
68 •3936 3785 4024 4068 4091 4"3 3914
3958 398o 3806 4273 3871 4 7 ii 14 18
69 •4158 4181 4204 4227 3828
4046 4296 4319 3892 44 87 ii 15 19
12 15 19
70 •4389 4002 4533 4557 4136
44U ' 4437 4250 4857
4484 4509 3700 4 8 12 16 20
71 4755 4805 5093
4342
•4630 4655 4 8 13 17 21
4461 5013
72
73
•4882
•5M7 5174
4680 47°5
4934
5284 5039
5066 4831
5397
4366
4606
4908 522960 4730 5312
5340
626 5659458i 4 99 13 18 22
74 •5425 5454 5201 49 4986 5873
5256 56294
5600 5689
5
5 10
14
15
19
20
23
25
5483 6l63 4780
6615 6000
75 •5719 6097 5541 5570 59056994 6298 5120 5 10 16 21 26
5750
6065 5512 6507
5811 6877 6196
5842 6954
6230
76 •6032 578o 6130 5368
6651 6332 6 II
12 17
18 22
24 28
30
77 6542
6915 6578
5936 7033 6688
•6366 6401 6436 6471 7°73
78 •6725 6763 6800 6838 5968 6 13 19 26 32
79 •7"3 7154 7*95 8255
8307 8413
8467
7493 87 16
14 23
21 31
28 39
35
80 •7537
7236 8203
7278 7363
7449
8865 8924 8985 7954
7764 109 17
81 •8003 758i
88052
577
876
6326
8102 7672
3 8152
7320
0244
7858
0494 20 26
29 35 43
39 49
8690 8806
82 •8522 77
8748
0085 l 8 0164 7811 8360
7406 0409 ii 22 34 45 56
83 •9109 0944 9433
9367
9172 9236 0008 7906 9046
2663
84 •9784 9857
0669 0759 0850 1040
2135 1138 1238 2525
9640 13 26 40 53 66
85 1-0580 9932 9301
1893 9501 9570
0326 1341 1446 16 32 48 64 81
1664 1777 97"
86 I-I554 2954 2OI2 2261 2391 4155
6119
3777 4357
87 1-2806 3264 6789
88 3106 3599 7167
1-4569 5027 5275 55393429 5819 6441
89 1-7581
8038
4792 8550 0591 2810
90 -00 9130 1561
9800 3962 457 1

758i
 MATHEMATICAL TABLES
•0997
4i 6 •1974
TABLE XI. — EXPONENTIAL AND HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS
•1 cosh x sink• x
2013
tanh•29x13
•3 •i •3
X 04
•4
•8187 2
1-0050 2 5
002 •379•69044
•9048 1-0453
•5 1-1052
1-2214 ex+e-* ex— e~x
•6703 I-020I •6367
2 •6 1-3499 •6065
•7 •7408 •4108 _e*-e~*
1-6487 6-x
1-0811
1-1276
1-1855 +e0~*
•537°
ex
•664
•4621
•8 1-4918 ex •5211
•8
1-3374
1-2552 80303537
•7•16
1-8221 •5488
•4493 •8881
2-0138 1- 0265
•7586 •8•6818754
2-2255 •4966
•3679 1-3357
I-433I 1-1752
2-4596 •4066 I-543I 1-5095 •7616
9 2-7183 1-6685
10 •3329 1-8107 1-6984
•2725 1-9043
1-1 3-0042 1-9709 2-1293 •9
•921
3574
•3012 2-1509 •9051
12 3-6693
13 3-3201 •2466
•2231 2-3524
•2019 2-5775
1-4 4-0552 •1827 2-3756 •9563
15 4-4817 •i653 2-8283 2-6456
4-953° •13 3-1075 •9468
•9704
•9640
17 5-4739 •149563 2-9422
1-6 6-0496
6-6859 3-4I77 •9837
1-8
19 •1225
4-I443 3-6269 •9758
20 3-2682
7-3891 •1003
•1108 3-7622 4-0219
8-1662 •0907 4-5679 •9801
2-1 9-0251 6-6947
22 5-0372
6-1323 4-4571
2-3 9-9742 •0743
•0821 4-937° •9866
•9890
11-0232 5-557° 6-0502
2-4 12-1825
25 •0672 8-2527
6-7690 5-4662
8-1919 •9910
7-4735 •9940
•9959
26 13-4638 •9926
14-8797 •0608 7-4063 •9951
•9•96
99773
2-7 •0550
28 16-4446 •0498 9-1146
18-1741 9-0596
29 20 -0855
30 •0450 10-068 10-018
11-076 •9978
22-1980 •0•0363394
•0408
12-287
12-246
3-1 11-122
13-575
16-543
32 24-5325 16-573
•9985
33 •0273 I4-999 I3-538
14-965 •9982
27-1126
29-9641 •0302
•0247
34 18-285 •9993
35 33-II55 •0224 I8-3I3
22-339 •9990
36 • 999
•9988
36-5982 20-236 •9992 5
3-7 40-4473 •0183
2O-2II
•O2O2
3-8 22-362
•9997
39 44-7012
49-4024 24-691 •9997
40 •0166 24-711 •9996
60 -3403 •0150 27-290 •9996
54-5982 27-308
36-843
•0•O13
I263
4-2
4-1 66-6863 30-178
36-857
4-3 30-162 •9999
4-4 81-4509
73-6998 •01 1 1 33-351 33-336
40-719 •9998
•9999
4-5 90-0171 •OIOI 40-732 •9998
•0•09
00174 •9999
99-4843 49-747 49-737
45-003
4-6
4-7 •0082
45-014
60-759
60-751
4-8 109-9472 •006
7
121-5104 67-149
54-978 54-969
4-9 134-2898 67-141
5-0 148-4132
74-203
74-210
 INDEX
Contraflexure, point of, 93
Cooling curves, 21
Abbreviations, i Coradi integraph, 126
Altitude, 366 Curvature of an arc, 308
" Ambiguous " case in the solution Cycloid, equation of, 69
of spherical triangles, 360
Amsler planimeter, theory of, 266
Analysis, harmonic, 342
Anchor ring, moment of inertia of, 256
Applications of the Calculus, 300 D, the operator, 26, 286
et seq. d?s
Applications of Differentiation, 88
' et seq. dp , meaning 367
Declination, of, 9
Applied electricity, examples in, 317 Definite integral, 118, 137
Arc, length of, 201
Archimedean spiral, 258 Deflection of muzzle of a gun, 316
Derivative, 9
Area of cardioid, 262
Derived curve, 12
Areas by polar co-ordinates, 261 Differential coefficient, 9
Areas by sum-curve method, 118 Differential equations, exact, 279
Arithmetic mean, probable error of, -- , homogeneous, 281
378
Arrangement of electric cells, 317 -- , solution of, 270 et seq.
Azimuth, 367 - of type - = /(*), 271
dv =b> 275
B
Beam problems, 38, 93, 123, 307
Belt round pulley, tension in, 330
Bending moment on ship, 126
Buoyancy, curve of, 125

— of the second degree, 294

Differential, total, 82
Cable, approximate length of, 202 Differentiation,
et seq. applications of, 88
Calculation of small corrections, 107
Cardioid, area of, 262 — , graphic, 12
Catenary, 321 — , logarithmic, 85
Centre of Gravity, 211 et seq. Differentiation of axn, 26
— of irregular solids, 225 — exponential functions, 47
— of solids of revolution, 228 - function of a function, 63
Centre of Pressure, 232, 336 - hyperbolic functions, 54
Centroid, 211 et seq. - inverse trigonometric functions,
of sections by calculation, 220 - log x, 51
by drawing, 251
Centroid vertical, determination of, - product, 70
by double sum curve method, — quotient, 73
218 - trigonometric functions, 56
Differentiation, partial, 79
Circular parts, Napier's rules of, 359 Double integral, 123
Complementary function, 289
Compound pendulum, time of oscilla- Double sum curve method for fixing
tion of, 324 the centroid vertical, 218
MATHS. FOR ENG. 76
E E
417
 INDEX
4i8 E Integration by partial fractions, 146
by parts, 155
Efficiency of engine working on the 129
by substitution, 148
Rankine cycle, 304 Integration, graphic, 118
Electric condenser, time of discharge Integration, meaning of, 115
of, 318 Integration of exponential functions
Ellipse, perimeter of, 205
Elliptic integral, 205 powers of x, 127
Entropy of water, 304 trigonometric functions, 134
Equations, differential, 270 Interpolation, using Taylor's theorem,
112
Euler's formula for struts, 328
Exact differential equations, 279 K
Expansion in series, 108
Exponentialtion of, 47functions, differentia- k, symbol for swing radius, 240
Kinetic energy, 240
, integration of, 129

First moment, 211 Least squares,

Leibnitz, 3 theorem of, 374
Fixed beams, deflection of, 309 Length of arc, 201
Fleming's
R.M.S.graphic
values, method
264 of finding Length of cable, approximate, 202
List of integrals, 175
'Footstep bearing,338friction in, 331
Forced vortex, Logarithmic differentiation, 85
Fourier's theorem, 342 Logarithmiction of, 51functions, differentia-
Friction on wheel disc in fluid, 335 Logarithmic spiral, 258

M
Gamma function, 173
Maclaurin's theorem, 108
Gauss's error curve, 374 Maximum and minimum values, 88
Goodman scheme for fixed beams, 313 Maximum intensity of shear stress,
Governor, problem on, 75 3H
Graphic differentiation, 12 et seq. Maxwell's needle, 250
Graphic integration, 1 1 8 et seq. Mean spherical candle-power, 262
Graphic solution of spherical triangles, Mean values, 180 et seq.
Modulus of rigidity, determination of,
368 H 325 of inertia, 237 et seq.
Moment
Moment of circle
inertia of anchor ring, 256
, 246
Harmonic analysis, 342 et seq.
Harrison's method of harmonic compound
cylinder, 247 vibrator, 249
analysis, 346
Homogeneous differential equations, pulley wheel,
281 rectangle, 244 248
Hour angle, 367 — sphere, 250
Hydraulics, examples on, 334 et seq. Tee section, 245
Moments, tion,ist
251 and 2nd, by construc-
Muzzle of gun, deflection of, 316
Inertia, moment of, 237 et seq.
Inflexion, point of, 93 N
Integral, definite, 118, 137
, double, 123 Napier's rules 238
of circular parts, 359
, indefinite, 118, 137 Neutral axis,
Newton, 3
Integrals, list of, 175
Integraph, the Coradi, 126 Notch, triangular, 334
 INDEX 419
0 Strength of materials, examples on,
321 et seq.
Oblate spheroid, volume of, 200 Stresses in thick cylinders, 325
spherical shells, 327
Struts, formulae for, 328
Sub-normal, length of, 42
Sub-tangent, length of, 42
Parallel axis theorem, 241 Sum curve, 119
Partial differentiation, 79 Surface of solid of revolution, 208
Pendulum, time of swing of, 324 Swing radius, 240
Perimeter of ellipse, 205
Perpendicular axes theorem, 243
Planimeter, theory of, 266
Point of inflexion, 93
Polar co-ordinates, 257 et seq. Taylor's theorem, 108 of, 220
Pressure, centre of, 232, 336 Tee section, centroid
Probability, 370 , moment of inertia of, 245
Probability of error, 372 Thermodynamics,
et seq. examples in, 300
Probable error of arithmetic mean,
e id, olume f, 00 Thick cylinders, stresses in, 325
Prolat 378sphero v o 2 Time to empty a tank, 334
Total differential,
Tractrix , 333 82
K Transition curve, 338
Triangle, spherical, 355
Radius of gyration, 240 , solution of, 357
Rankine cycle, efficiency of, 304 Triangular
flow by, notch,
324 measurement of
Reduction formulae, 163
Right-angled spherical triangles, solu- Trigonometric
tion of, 56 functions, differentia-
tion of, 358
Root mean square values, 188 et seq. , integration of, 134
, Fleming's gra- Trigonometry, spherical, 355
phic method for, 264
Rousseau diagram, 262

Values, mean, 180

Schiele pivot, 333 , root mean square, 188
Second moment, 211 Velocity of piston, 65
Volume of oblate spheroid, 200
Shear stress in beams, 314
Simple harmonic motion, 60 prolate spheroid, 200
solid of revolution, 195
Simpson's rule, proof of, 141 Vortex, forced, 338
" Sine " rule for spherical triangles,
. 357
Solid of revolution, centre of gravity W
of, 228
Solid of revolution, volume of, 195
Wattless current, 187
Solution of right-angled spherical Wheel disc in fluid, friction on, 335
triangles, 358
Solution of spherical triangles, 357 Work done in complete theoretical
Sphere, moment of inertia of, 250 cycle, 303
, volume of zone of, 200 expansion of a gas, 302
Spherical excess, 356
Spherical triangle, 355
Spherical trigonometry, 355 et seq.
Spheroid, volume of, 200
Spiral, Archimedean, 258 Zenith, 366
— , logarithmic, 258 Zone of sphere, volume of, 200
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