RF Basics

Radio Wave

Radio wave is an energy transmission form.

During transmission, the electrical field and magnetic field are vertically to each other in space, and both are
vertically to the transmission direction.

1.0 Wavelength (λ)

0.5

0 5 10

-0.5

-1.0 Velocity (v)

 RF Basics
RF

Radio frequency (RF) indicates the frequency of electromagnetic waves radiated into space. The frequency range is from 300 kHz to
300 GHz. RF is the abbreviation of high frequency or AC change electromagnetic waves. AC changed less than 1,000 times per second
is low-frequency current, while AC changed greater than 10,000 times per second is high-frequency current. RF is a high-frequency
current. RF features:
Wavelength: Transmission distance of RF signals in a period.
Frequency: Number of times that a specific event is repeated at an interval, in Hz.
Amplitude: Wireless signal strength or power
Phase: Position relationship between two intra-frequency signals. When the phase difference is 0°, the signal strength increases.
When the phase different is greater than 180°, signals are offset.
Wavelength is inversely proportional to frequency. A higher frequency indicates a shorter wavelength and faster attenuation through
different media. 5 GHz signals have a smaller coverage than 2.4 GHz signals.

1.0
Amplitud
0.5 e

0 5 10

-0.5 Wavelength
Period

-1.0
 RF Basics
RF Transmission

In RF communications, one device sends vibration signals, and another device or multiple devices receive the
signals. These vibration signals are based on one constant, called frequency.
The transmitter uses a fixed frequency to send signals, and the receiver is adjusted to the same frequency to
receive the signals.

Transmitter Antenna Receiver

Wireless cable Wireless cable

 RF Basics
Electromagnetic Wave Frequency Distribution

Frequency Wavelength
Item Main Application
Range Range
VLF [Ultra-long wave] 3 to 30 kHz 10 to 100 km Navigation and sonar
LF [Long wave, LW] 30 to 300 kHz 1 to 10 km Navigation and timing

MF (Medium wave, MW) 300 to 3000 kHz 100 m to 1 km Amplitude modulation (AM) broadcast

HF [short wave, SW] 3 to 30 MHz 10 to 100 m AM broadcast, communication

Frequency modulation (FM) broadcast, broadcast TV, mobile
VHF [ultra-short wave] 30 to 300 MHz 1 to 10 m
communications
Broadcast TV, mobile communications, and satellite positioning and
navigation
UHF (microwave) 300 to 3000 MHz 10 to 100 cm
Microwave (2450 MHz), WLAN (2.4 GHz), Bluetooth (2.45 GHz), third-party
cordless phone (2.4–2.4835 GHz)

Satellite broadcast, satellite TV, communication, radar

SHF (microwave) 3 to 30 GHz 1 to 10 cm
WLAN (5G) and fourth-generation cordless phone (5.725–5.850 GHz)

EHF (microwave) 30 to 300 GHz 1 to 10 mm Communications, radar, radio astronomy

Infrared rays, ultraviolet
300 GHz to 3000 EHz 0.0.1 to 0.7 Å Communications, detection, medical care, military
rays, X-ray, Gamma ray
 RF Basics
WLAN Frequency Distribution

WLAN signals indicate electromagnetic waves working at 2.4 GHz or 5 GHz.

AM broadcast FM broadcast Cellular phone

Very Super Infrared Visible Ultraviolet

Ultra low Very low Low Medium High Ultra high X-ray
high high ray light ray

Audio Short-wave radio TV signal IrDA

communication

2.4 to 2.4835 GHz

5 GHz
83.5 MHz
 RF Basics
RF Transmission Behavior

Signals are reflected, scattered, diffracted, or refracted during transmission. The signals arriving at the
receiving end are generally the coupling of multiple signals with different amplitudes and phases. Compared
with the original signals, the received signals change randomly. Transmission behavior includes:
Straight line: transmission method of electromagnetic waves in the free space
Reflection: When an electromagnetic wave encounters an object larger than the wave, reflection occurs, such as the earth surf
ace, building, or wall.
Diffraction: When an electromagnetic wave is blocked by an object nearly the same as or smaller than the wave, the electromag
netic wave bypasses the
object.
Scattering: Tiny particles in the medium change the original direction of an electromagnetic wave and spread it to all direct
ions.

① Straight wave
② Reflected wave
③ ④ Scattered (diffracted) wave
 RF Basics
Reflection

Reflection is one of the most important RF propagation behaviors. When an RF wave hits a smooth object
larger than the wave itself, the wave may travel in another direction. This phenomenon is known as reflection.
Reflection easily generates multi-path interference.
Indoor objects, such as metal furniture, file cabinet, metal door, or wall will cause reflection.
An outdoor signal reflects when it reaches a water surface or the atmosphere.

Antenna
AP

Feeder
 RF Basics
Diffraction

Diffraction indicates that the transmission direction and speed of RF signals are changed when they pass
through the edge or a slit of an obstacle during transmission.
Diffraction indicates that RF signals deflect around an object.

Building

Antenna
AP

Feeder
 RF Basics
Scattering

Type 1 scattering: Electromagnetic waves are reflected by tiny particles, such as smoke, frog, and sand. The
impact on signal quality and strength is small.
Type 2 scattering: A main signal propagated to a rough surface, such as a wire fence, leaf, and rocky terrain
will be decomposed to multiple reflected signals, which will cause the quality deterioration of the main signal
and even destroy the received signal.

Antenna
AP

Feeder
 RF Basics
Refraction

RF signals also deflect, which is known as refraction.

An RF signal deflects when it passes through a medium of varying density, resulting in a change in the
direction of wave propagation. Under the atmospheric effects, RF refraction often occurs and has a great
impact on outdoor projects.

Cold air
Antenna Antenna
AP AP

Feeder Feeder

Antenna Humid air Antenna

AP AP

Feeder Feeder
 RF Basics
Multipath

Multipath transmission easily generates multipath interference. Multipath is the main cause of performance
degradation on a 802.11a/b/g WLAN.

Ceiling

Three signals reached Effect after three

the receiving end signals stacked

Cabinet
 RF Basics
Absorption

Attenuation Attenuation of a 2.4 GHz Signal (dB)

4.5 cm thick metal door 13
4.5 cm thick solid wooden door 6
4.5 cm thick hollow door 4
4.5 cm thick inner partition wall 4
9 cm thick brick 6
45 cm thick concrete wall 18
70 cm thick concrete outer wall 45
1.5 cm thick glass partition 8

Antenna
AP
Wall
Feeder

A signal attenuates when penetrating through an obstacle. Wall, door, and tree
 RF Basics
Relationship Between Absorption and Object Thickness

A smaller amplitude indicates weaker energy.

Signals will be absorbed when they pass through water.
Water may be contained in leaves or human bodies in the wireless transmission path.
Human bodies absorb signals in dense areas such as stadiums, exhibition centers, and other venues.
 RF Basics
Signal Penetration Loss Estimation

Obstacle Attenuation Example

Open space Extremely low Cafeteria, courtyard
Wooden objects Low Inner wall, office partition, door, and floor
Gypsum Low Inner wall (New gypsum has greater impact on wireless signals than old gypsum.)
Synthetic material Low Office partition
Cinder brick Low Inner wall, outer wall
Asbestos Low Ceiling
Glass Low Windows without color
Human body Medium Crowd
Water Medium Damp wood, glass tank, and organism
Brick Medium Inner wall, outer wall, and floor
Marble Medium Inner wall, outer wall, and floor
Ceramics High Ceramic tile, ceiling, and floor
Paper High A roll or a stack of paper
Concrete High Floor, outer wall, and bearing beam
Bullet-proof glass High Safety shed
Silver-plated material Very high Mirror
Metal Very high Desk, office partition, concrete, elevator, file cabinet, and ventilation facilities
 RF Basics
Attenuation

In addition to attenuation caused by obstacles, absorption, reflection, and diffraction, RF signals also
attenuate due to transmission.
Theoretically, RF signals can be transmitted permanently in vacuum. In fact, when RF signals are transmitted
in the air or other media, some energy will be converted to heat or absorbed by the transmission medium,
resulting in signal strength (amplitude) degradation. This phenomenon is called attenuation.

Free space path loss: indicates RF signal strength degradation due to natural spreading.

Air

A signal continuously attenuates in the transmission path.

 RF Basics
Relationship Between Rate and Distance

Wireless signals spread in space in radio waves. As the distance increases, the signal strength attenuates.
The signal strength is stronger when it nears the transmission source.
A longer distance indicates a lower rate.
The maximum coverage varies depending on the environment (signal interference or attenuation).
Coverage is also related to the antenna type and transmit power.

AP

–30 dBm –50 dBm

Distance increases
 RF Basics
Electromagnetic Interference

2.4 GHz and 5.8 GHz are ISM bands and can be used without authorization.
APs in the same area interfere each other, including co-channel interference and adjacent-channel
interference.
Other interference sources:
Microwave
Medical equipment
Bidirectional paging system
Pulse radar system
Other wireless communications systems

Interference deteriorates the overall system performance or even cause system malfunction.
 RF Basics
RF Gain

Gain, also known as amplification and amplitude or signal enhancement, is classified into active gain and
passive gain.

Active gain Passive gain

An amplifier is installed between the An antenna is used to centralize signals. An
transmitter and antenna to amplify the antenna is a passive device and does not
transmitting and receiving signals. Active need an external power supply. An antenna
gain requires an external power supply. can centralize signals in a direction.
 Practice Questions
Which of the following Obstacle cause highest Attenuation to the signal?

A Wooden objects

B Human body

C Paper

D Metal