This article was downloaded by: [Southern Illinois University]

On: 06 March 2015, At: 01:50

Publisher: Taylor & Francis
Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered office: Mortimer
House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK

Fisheries
Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information:
http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/ufsh20

Hydraulic Fracturing and Brook Trout Habitat in

the Marcellus Shale Region: Potential Impacts and
Research Needs
a a
Maya Weltman-Fahs & Jason M. Taylor
a
New York Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit, and Department of Natural
Resources , Cornell University , 120 Bruckner Hall, Ithaca , NY , 14853
Published online: 22 Jan 2013.

To cite this article: Maya Weltman-Fahs & Jason M. Taylor (2013) Hydraulic Fracturing and Brook Trout Habitat in the
Marcellus Shale Region: Potential Impacts and Research Needs, Fisheries, 38:1, 4-15, DOI: 10.1080/03632415.2013.750112

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03632415.2013.750112

PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE

Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information (the “Content”) contained
in the publications on our platform. However, Taylor & Francis, our agents, and our licensors make no
representations or warranties whatsoever as to the accuracy, completeness, or suitability for any purpose of
the Content. Any opinions and views expressed in this publication are the opinions and views of the authors,
and are not the views of or endorsed by Taylor & Francis. The accuracy of the Content should not be relied
upon and should be independently verified with primary sources of information. Taylor and Francis shall
not be liable for any losses, actions, claims, proceedings, demands, costs, expenses, damages, and other
liabilities whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with, in relation to or
arising out of the use of the Content.

This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic
reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in any
form to anyone is expressly forbidden. Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at http://
www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions
 FEATURE

Hydraulic Fracturing and Brook Trout Habitat in

the M
­ arcellus Shale Region: Potential Impacts
and Research Needs
Maya Weltman-Fahs
Ruptura hidráulica y el hábitat de la
New York Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit, and Department
of Natural Resources, 120 Bruckner Hall, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY trucha de arrollo en la región de Mar-
14853. E-mail: [email protected] cellus Shale: impactos potenciales y
Jason M. Taylor necesidades de investigación
New York Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit, and Department RESUMEN: El crecimiento de las actividades de per-
of Natural Resources, 120 Bruckner Hall, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY
14853
foración de gas natural en la formación Marcellus Shale
Downloaded by [Southern Illinois University] at 01:51 06 March 2015

es una amenaza emergente para la conservación y restau-

ABSTRACT: Expansion of natural gas drilling into the Mar- ración de las poblaciones nativas de la trucha de arroyo
cellus Shale formation is an emerging threat to the conserva- (Salvelinus fontinalis). La perforación más eficiente y las
tion and restoration of native brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) tecnologías de extracción (perforación horizontal y ruptura
populations. Improved drilling and extraction technologies hidráulica) han facilitado el rápido y extensivo desarrollo
(horizontal drilling and hydraulic fracturing) have led to rapid de esta industria a las áreas que comprende la región Mar-
and extensive natural gas development in areas overlying the cellus Shale. La expansión de las rupturas hidráulicas rep-
Marcellus Shale. The expansion of hydraulic fracturing poses resenta múltiples amenazas a las aguas superficiales, que
multiple threats to surface waters, which can be tied to key eco- pueden estar asociadas a atributos ecológicos clave que
logical attributes that limit brook trout populations. Here, we limitan las poblaciones de la trucha de arroyo. En la pre-
expand current conceptual models to identify three potential sente contribución se expanden los modelos conceptuales
pathways of risk between surface water threats associated with actuales que sirven para identificar tres fuentes potenciales
increased natural gas development and life history attributes of de riesgo entre las amenazas a las aguas superficiales aso-
brook trout: hydrological, physical, and chemical. Our goal is ciadas al creciente desarrollo del gas natural y los atributos
to highlight research needs for fisheries scientists and work in de la historia de vida de la trucha de arroyo; atributos hi-
conjunction with resource managers to influence the develop- drológicos, físicos y químicos. El objetivo de este trabajo
ment of strategies that will preserve brook trout habitat and ad- es hacer notar las necesidades de investigación para los
dress Marcellus Shale gas development threats to eastern North científicos pesqueros y trabajar junto con los manejadores
America’s only native stream salmonid. de recursos para influir en el desarrollo de estrategias ten-
dientes a preservar el hábitat de la trucha de arroyo; así
INTRODUCTION mismo se atienden las amenazas que representa el desar-
rollo de la industria del gas natural para el único salmónido
Hydraulic Fracturing in the Marcellus Shale nativo de América del norte.

Natural gas extraction from subterranean gas-rich shale proppants, which allow gas to be extracted (Soeder and Kappel
deposits has been underway in the northeastern United States 2009; Kargbo et al. 2010). The hydraulic fracturing process was
for almost 200 years but has expanded rapidly over the past granted exemptions to the Clean Water and the Safe Drinking
decade within the Devonian Marcellus Shale formation (P. Water Acts under the Energy Policy Act of 2005. Drilling has
Williams 2008). This expansion has largely been driven by since expanded rapidly in the Marcellus Shale deposit in por-
the development and refinement of the horizontal hydraulic tions of West Virginia and Pennsylvania (Figure 2), is expected
fracturing process (United States Energy Information Admin- to continue into Ohio and New York, and will likely continue
istration 2011a). Horizontal gas drilling differs from the more to expand within these states to include the gas-bearing Utica
traditional vertical drilling process because the well is drilled Shale formation.
to the depth of the shale stratum and then redirected laterally,
allowing for access to a larger area of subterranean shale (Fig- Brook Trout Status within the Marcellus Shale
ure 1). Drilling is followed by the hydraulic fracturing process,
which involves injecting a chemically treated water-based fluid Eastern brook trout are native to the Eastern United States,
into the rock formation at high pressure to cause fissures in with a historic range extending from the southern Appalachians
the shale and permit the retrieval of gas held within the pore in Georgia north to Maine (MacCrimmon and Campbell 1969;
space of the shale. The fissures are kept open by sand and other Figure 2). Brook trout require clean, cold water (optimal tem-

4 Fisheries • Vol 38 No 1 • January 2013• www.fisheries.org

 Twenty-six percent of the his-
toric distribution of brook trout
habitat overlaps with the Marcellus
Shale (Figure 2). The Pennsylvania
portion of the Marcellus Shale has
experienced the largest increase in
natural gas development (Figure 2).
Between January 1, 2005, and May
31, 2012, the cumulative number of
Marcellus Shale well permits issued
in Pennsylvania increased from 17 to
11,784 (Pennsylvania Department of
Environmental Protection [PADEP]
2012a). Of these permitted wells,
5,514 were drilled during the same
time period (PADEP 2012b; Figure
3A). Trends in drilled well densi-
ties among subwatersheds during the
Downloaded by [Southern Illinois University] at 01:51 06 March 2015

rapid expansion of drilling activity

suggest that there have not been any
extra protections granted during the
well permitting process for subwa-
tersheds that are expected to support
Figure 1. Conceptual diagram depicting the hydraulic fracturing process. A rig drills down into the gas- intact brook trout populations (Figure
bearing rock and the well is lined with steel pipe. The well is sealed with cement to a depth of 1,000
ft. to prevent groundwater contamination. The well is extended horizontally 1,000 ft. or more into the
3B). Fifty-four of the 134 subwater-
gas-bearing shale where holes are blasted through the steel casing and into the surrounding rock. Sand, sheds categorized as having intact
water, and chemicals are pumped into the shale to further fracture the rock and gas escapes through fis- brook trout populations within the
sures propped open by sand particles and back through the well up to the surface. Supporting activities Marcellus Shale region have already
include land clearing for well pads and supporting infrastructure, including pipelines and access roads.
Trucks use roads to haul in water extracted from local surface waters, chemicals, and sand. Recovered
experienced drilling activity (Hudy et
water is stored in shallow holding ponds until it can be transported by truck to treatment facilities or al. 2008). Overall, Marcellus drilling
recycled to fracture another well. These activities may impact nearby streams through surface and sub- activity has expanded to 377 subwa-
surface pathways. tersheds (mean area = 94.8 ± 1.9 km2)
in Pennsylvania (Figure 4).Within
perature = 10–19°C), intact habitat, and supporting food webs these 377 subwatersheds, patterns in well density over time
to maintain healthy populations, making them excellent indict- show similar trends among subwatersheds varying in their cur-
ors of anthropogenic disturbance (Hokanson et al. 1973; Lyons rent brook trout population status (Figure 3B). Though there is
et al. 1996; Marschall and Crowder 1996). Only 31% of sub- a significant difference in current well densities among the three
watersheds (sixth level, 12-digit hydrological units [HUC12], subwatershed types (one-way analysis of variance [Type II],
as defined by the Watershed Boundary Dataset; U.S. Depart- F2, 292 = 4.14, P = 0.02), mean well density does not differ be-
ment of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service tween subwatersheds where brook trout are extirpated/unknown
2012) within the historic range of brook trout are currently and those with intact brook trout populations (Tukey’s multiple
expected to support intact populations (self-sustaining popula- comparison test, α = 0.05; Figure 3B). In fact, the two highest
tions greater than 50% of the historical population; Hudy et al. drilling densities include an extirpated/unknown subwatershed
2008). Substantial loss of brook trout populations within their (16.7 wells/10 km2) and a subwatershed expected to support
native range is due to anthropogenic impacts that have resulted intact brook trout populations (15.1 wells/10 km2; Figure 4).
in habitat fragmentation and reduction, water quality and tem- These trends highlight that increasing hydraulic fracturing de-
perature changes, and alteration of the biological environment velopment is occurring not only in degraded subwatersheds but
through introduction and removal of interacting species (Hudy also in those that support an already vulnerable native species
et al. 2008). Conservation efforts, including formation of the and valuable sport fish. This trend should be of concern to fish-
Eastern Brook Trout Venture (Eastern Brook Trout Joint Ven- eries scientists, managers, and conservationists who work to
ture [EBTJV] 2007, 2011) and a shift by organizations such as maintain and improve the current status of this natural heritage
Trout Unlimited (TU) to policies that oppose the stocking of species.
nonnative hatchery-produced salmonids in native trout streams
(TU 2011), are focused on maintaining and restoring brook trout Linking Marcellus Shale Drilling Impacts to
populations in their native range. With these growing concerns Brook Trout Population Health
about the future of native brook trout populations, natural gas
well development within the Marcellus Shale region presents Recent efforts to conceptualize horizontal hydraulic frac-
another potential threat to native brook trout populations. turing impacts have focused on stream ecosystems and regional

Fisheries • Vol 38 No 1 • January 2013• www.fisheries.org 5

 We delineated relationships between various
stream ecosystem attributes that are potentially im-
pacted by increased drilling activities and different
aspects of the brook trout life cycle (Figure 5). A re-
view of extant literature on the activities associated
with natural gas drilling and other extractive industries
and of the environmental changes known to directly
influence brook trout at one or more of their life stages
identified three primary pathways by which increased
drilling will likely impact brook trout populations. The
primary pathways include (1) changes in hydrology
associated with water withdrawals; (2) elevated sedi-
ment inputs and loss of connectivity associated with
supporting infrastructure; and (3) water contamination
from introduced chemicals or wastewater (Entrekin et
al. 2011; Rahm and Riha 2012). These three pathways
may be considered natural gas drilling threats to brook
trout populations that require study and monitoring to
Downloaded by [Southern Illinois University] at 01:51 06 March 2015

fully understand, minimize, and abate potential im-

pacts.

PATHWAY #1: withdrawals →

­Hydrology → brook trout
Two to seven million gallons of water are needed
per hydraulic fracturing stimulation event; a single
natural gas well can be fractured several times over
its lifespan, and a well pad site can host multiple wells
(Soeder and Kappel 2009; Kargbo et al. 2010). This
large volume of water needed per well, multiplied by
the distributed nature of development across the re-
gion, suggests that hydraulic fracturing techniques for
Figure 2. Overlay of the Marcellus Shale region of the Eastern United States (U.S. natural gas development can put substantial strain on
Geological Survey [USGS] 2011) and the historic distribution of eastern brook trout regional water supplies. This level of water consump-
(Hudy et al. 2008) with permitted Marcellus Shale well locations, 2001–2011 (Ohio tion has sparked concern among hydrologists and
Department of Natural Resources 2011; West Virginia Geological and Economic Sur-
vey 2011; PADEP 2012a).
aquatic biologists about the sourcing of the water, as
well as the implications for available habitat and other
water supplies but not on potential pathways to particular target hydrologically influenced processes in adjacent freshwater eco-
organisms. Herein, we integrate two existing conceptual models systems (Entrekin et al. 2011; Gregory et al. 2011; Baccante
of potential natural gas development impacts to surface waters 2012; Rahm and Riha 2012; Figure 5). Surface water is the pri-
and link them to different brook trout life history attributes (En- mary source for hydraulic fracturing–related water withdraw-
trekin et al. 2011; Rahm and Riha 2012). Entrekin et al.’s (2011) als in at least one major basin intersecting the Marcellus Shale
conceptual model establishes connections between hydraulic region (Susquehanna River Basin Commission [SRBC] 2010),
fracturing activities and the ecological endpoint of stream eco- but groundwater has been a major water source in other natural
system structure and function by way of potential environmen- gas deposits such as the Barnett Shale region in Texas (Soeder
tal stressors from drilling activity sources. These stressors to and Kappel 2009). The cumulative effects of multiple surface
stream ecosystems can be planned activities that must neces- and/or groundwater withdrawals throughout a watershed have
sarily occur in the hydraulic fracturing process (deterministic the potential to effect downstream hydrology and connectivity
events) or those that may occur unexpectedly (probabilistic of brook trout habitats (Rahm and Riha 2012; Petty et al. 2012).
events; Rahm and Riha 2012). Brook trout have different envi-
ronmental requirements at the various stages of their life cycle Aquatic habitat is particularly limited by low-flow peri-
and may be sensitive to potential impacts associated with the ods during the summer for fish and other aquatic organisms
current expansion of hydraulic fracturing; thus, understanding (Figure 6). Changes in temperature and habitat volume during
the environmental stressors associated with hydraulic fracturing summer low-flow periods are primary factors limiting brook
has implications for fisheries conservation, including mainte- trout populations (Barton et al. 1985; Wehrly et al. 2007; Xu et
nance and/or enhancement of native brook trout populations. al. 2010). Brook trout rely on localized groundwater discharge
areas within pools and tributary confluences to lower body tem-
perature below that of the ambient stream temperature during

6 Fisheries • Vol 38 No 1 • January 2013• www.fisheries.org

 warm periods, and groundwater withdrawals can alter these
temperature refugia. Additionally, access to thermal refugia
may be limited by loss of connectivity associated with reduced
flows between temperature refugia (headwater streams, seeps,
tributary confluences, groundwater upwellings) and larger
stream habitats (Petty et al. 2012). Reduced flows, particularly
coldwater inputs, may inhibit growth rates by reducing feed-
ing activity of both juveniles and adults or inducing sublethal
heat shock at temperatures above 23°C and lethal effects at
24–25°C (7-day upper lethal temperature limit; Cherry et al.
1977; Tangiguchi et al. 1998; Baird and Krueger 2003; Lund
et al. 2003; Wehrly et al. 2007). Recovery from thermal stress
responses (heat shock) can be prolonged (24–48 h) even if ex-
posure to high stream temperatures is relatively short (1 h) but
may be more than 144 h when exposed to high temperatures for
multiple days (Lund et al. 2003). Adult abundance and biomass
of brook trout in run habitats declines with flow reduction and
carrying capacity is likely limited by available pool area dur-
Downloaded by [Southern Illinois University] at 01:51 06 March 2015

ing low-flow periods (Kraft 1972; Hakala and Hartman 2004;

Walters and Post 2008).

Reduction in surface water discharge during summer

months may also indirectly impact brook trout growth by de-
creasing macroinvertebrate prey densities (Walters and Post
2011) in small streams and lowering macroinvertebrate drift
encounter rates for drift-feeding salmonids (Cada et al. 1987;
Nislow et al. 2004; Sotiropoulos et al. 2006; Figure 5). Other
indirect effects may include increasing interspecific competition
through habitat crowding, especially with more tolerant com-
petitor species such as brown trout (Salmo trutta) and rainbow
trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss), due to decreased habitat avail- Figure 3. Well permitting and drilling in the Pennsylvania portion of Mar-
ability and increased temperature during low-flow periods. cellus Shale from January 1, 2005, through May 31, 2012. (A) Cumulative
Introduced brown trout tend to out-compete brook trout for number of permitted and drilled wells over time. (B) Mean well density
(wells per 10 km2) over time for 377 actively drilled HUC12 subwater-
resources and have higher growth rates in all but the smallest, sheds, grouped by status of brook trout population (Hudy et al. 2008).
coldest headwater streams (Carlson et al. 2007; Öhlund et al. Permitted and drilled Marcellus well data are from PADEP (2012a,
2008; Figure 5). Additionally, salmonids may be more suscep- 2012b), respectively.
tible to disease or infestation of parasites when the tempera-
ture of their environment is not consistent and adequately cool flows after spawning are necessary for maintaining redds during
(Cairns et al. 2005), a problem that could be exacerbated by the egg incubation throughout winter (Figure 6). Maintaining base
crowding in pool habitats that can occur as a result of flow re- flow in trout spawning habitats throughout the incubation pe-
ductions (Figure 5). Sediment accrual in redds can limit recruit- riod maintains shallow groundwater pathways, chemistry, and
ment (Alexander and Hansen 1986; Argent and Flebbe 1999), flow potentials in redds (Curry et al. 1994, 1995), which protect
and adequate summer base flows coupled with occasional high developing eggs from sedimentation (Waters 1995; Curry and
flow pulses are important for preparing sediment free spawning MacNeill 2004) and freezing (Curry et al. 1995; J. S. Baxter and
redds (Hakala and Hartman 2004). DePhilip and Moberg (2010) McPhail 1999). Thus, insuring that water withdrawals required
demonstrated that the magnitude of withdrawals proposed by for hydraulic fracturing do not interrupt stable winter base flows
drilling companies in the Susquehanna River basin has the po- in small coldwater streams is an important consideration in pro-
tential to impact summer and fall low flows, and in some cases, tecting brook trout recruitment in the Marcellus Shale region
high-flow events (Q10) in small streams. (Figures 5 and 6).

Water withdrawals may also impact brook trout spawning PATHWAY #2: ­Infrastructure →
activities and recruitment during higher flow periods (Figures ­Physical Habitat → Brook trout
5 and 6). Brook trout peak spawning activity typically occurs
at the beginning of November in gravel substrates immediately Natural gas extraction requires development of well pad
downstream from springs or in places where groundwater seep- sites and infrastructure for transportation and gas conveyance,
age enters through the gravel (Hazzard 1932). Withdrawals dur- which involves a set of activities that will likely have impacts on
ing the fall may dewater and reduce available spawning habitat, water quality and habitat quality for brook trout unless proper
particularly during low-flow years. Additionally, stable base precautions and planning are implemented. These activities

Fisheries • Vol 38 No 1 • January 2013• www.fisheries.org 7

 include, but are not limited to, construc-
tion of well pads, roadways, stream
crossings, and pipelines; increased use
of existing rural roadways for transpor-
tation of equipment, source water, re-
cycled flow-back, and wastes associated
with hydraulic fracturing activities; and
storage of these same materials (Figure
1). Increased sediment loads and loss
of stream connectivity are some of the
stream impacts associated with these de-
terministic activities, which could reduce
habitat quality and quantity needed for
brook trout spawning success, egg devel-
opment, larval emergence, and juvenile
and adult growth and survival (Figure 5).

Brook trout are particularly sensi-

Downloaded by [Southern Illinois University] at 01:51 06 March 2015

tive to the size and amount of sediment

in streams, with coarse gravel providing
a more suitable substrate than fine par-
ticles (Witzel and MacCrimmon 1983;
Marschall and Crowder 1996). Well pad
Figure 4. Density of wells drilled in the Pennsylvania portion of the Marcellus Shale by HUC12 sub-
watershed (well drilling locations from PADEP 2012b; 12-digit HUC subwatershed boundaries and site, access road, and pipeline corridor
areas from USGS Watershed Boundary Dataset; U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources construction require land clearing, which
Conservation Service 2012), symbolized by status of current brook trout population (Hudy et al. can mobilize from tens to hundreds of
2008). Inset: A subwatershed expected to support an intact brook trout population that currently
metric tons of soil per hectare (H. Wil-
has the second highest well density (15.1 wells/10 km2) of all drilled subwatersheds.
liams et al. 2008; Adams et al. 2011).
Pipeline construction (Reid et al. 2004)
and unpaved rural roadways (Witmer et
al. 2009) crossing streams can trigger
additional sediment inputs to streams.
Road and well pad densities have been
found to be positively correlated with
fine sediment accumulation in streams
(Opperman et al. 2005; Entrekin et al.
2011), which disrupts fish reproduction
and can lead to mortality (Taylor et al.
2006). Overall, trout populations have
been found to decline in abundance,
even with small increases in stream sedi-
ment loads (Alexander and Hansen 1983,
1986). Sediment can impact all stages
of trout life cycles, because turbidity re-
duces foraging success for adults and ju-
veniles (Sweka and Hartman 2001), and
sediment accumulation can cause oxygen
deprivation in salmonid redds and reduce
successful emergence of larvae from eggs
(Witzel and MacCrimmon 1983; Waters
1995; Argent and Flebbe 1999; Curry and
Figure 5. Conceptual model of relationships between hydraulic fracturing drilling activities and the MacNeill 2004; Figure 5).
life cycle of eastern brook trout (modified from conceptual models based on Entrekin et al. [2011]
and Rahm and Riha [2012]).
The spatial and temporal extent of
sediment impacts to streams is linked
to the scale and persistence of mobiliz-
ing activities. For example, localized
events, such as construction of culverts

8 Fisheries • Vol 38 No 1 • January 2013• www.fisheries.org

Downloaded by [Southern Illinois University] at 01:51 06 March 2015

Figure 6. Hydrologic patterns for a trout supporting stream with relatively unaltered hydrology (Little Delaware River, USGS Gage 01422500, watershed
area = 129 km2) in relation to timing of brook trout life history periods. Median (dark line), bounded by 10th and 90th percentile daily flows (grey) for
47 years of discharge data. Important flood, high-, and low-flow components were computed and described using Indicators of Hydrologic Alteration
(The Nature Conservancy 2009).

at stream road crossings can increase sediment loads for up to Conveyance of hydraulic fracturing equipment and fluids,
200 m downstream of the culvert over a 2- to 3-year period and the extracted natural gas, into and out of well pad sites often
(Lachance et al. 2008). Conversely, the sediment loads associ- necessitates crossing streams with trucks and pipelines. Culvert
ated with more diffuse land clearing activities and frequent and construction for roadway and pipeline stream crossings, if not
sustained access into rural areas by large vehicles can contribute properly designed, can create physical barriers that fragment
to reductions in brook trout biomass and densities and shifts in brook trout habitat and disrupt their life cycle by preventing
macroinvertebrate communities that last approximately 10 years movement of adult fish into upstream tributaries for spawn-
(VanDusen et al. 2005). ing and repopulation of downstream habitat by new juveniles
(Wofford et al. 2005; Letcher et al. 2007; Poplar-Jeffers et al.
Sedimentation from drilling infrastructure development 2009; Figure 5). Barriers to connectivity negatively impact fish
can further impact brook trout indirectly by reducing the avail- species richness (Nislow et al. 2011), and habitat fragmenta-
ability of prey (Figure 5): high sediment levels reduce species tion without repopulation can cause local population extinction
richness and abundance of some aquatic macroinvertebrates (Wofford et al. 2005; Letcher et al. 2007). Additionally, connec-
(Waters 1995; Wohl and Carline 1996; VanDusen et al. 2005; tivity between larger stream reaches that provide food resources
Larsen et al. 2009), with high sediment environments generally during growth periods and small headwater streams that may
experiencing a shift from communities rich in mayflies (Ephe- serve as temperature refugia during warmer months is important
moptera), stoneflies (Plectoptera), and caddisflies (Trichop- for overall population health (Utz and Hartman 2006; Petty et
tera) to those dominated by segmented worms (Oligochaeta) al. 2012). For these reasons, land clearing activities, road densi-
and burrowing midges (Diptera: Chironmidae; Waters 1995). ties, and culvert densities can have a negative impact on trout
Riparian clearing can also diminish food sources for brook trout reproductive activity and overall population size (Eaglin and
populations, which tend to depend heavily on terrestrial macro- Hubert 1993; C. V. Baxter et al. 1999).
invertebrates (Allan 1981; Utz and Hartman 2007). However,
shifts in the prey base from shredder-dominated communities PATHWAY #3: Chemical waste →
that support higher brook trout abundance to grazer-dominated ­water quality→ Brook trout
communities have been observed in recently logged watersheds
due to higher primary productivity associated with increased Probabilistic events during the drilling process such as
sunlight from sparser canopy cover (Nislow and Lowe 2006). runoff from well pads, leaching of wastewater from holding
Consequently, land clearing and infrastructure development ponds, or spills of hydraulic fracturing fluids during transporta-
will likely increase sediment loads, culminating in changes in tion to processing sites can affect the chemical composition of
composition and productivity of the invertebrate prey base for streams (Rahm and Riha 2012). Although the specific chemical
brook trout, although not all of these changes will necessarily composition of fracturing fluids is typically proprietary infor-
be negative for brook trout (Figure 5). mation, voluntary reporting of the content of fracturing fluids
to the FracFocus Chemical Disclosure Registry (a partnership

Fisheries • Vol 38 No 1 • January 2013• www.fisheries.org 9

 between the Ground Water Protection Council [GWPC] and nhardt and Palmer 2011). Overall, changes in TDS associated
Interstate Oil and Gas Compact Commission [IOGCC], sup- with improper handling or discharge of flow-back water will
ported the U.S. Department of Energy [USDOE]) has become likely impact brook trout through direct and indirect pathways
more common (USDOE 2011). Fracturing fluids are generally including changes in macroinvertebrate communities that serve
a mix of water and sand, with a range of additives that per- as the prey base and/or the alteration of environmental condi-
form particular roles in the fracturing process, including friction tions to those more favorable for harmful invasive species (i.e.,
reducers, acids, biocides, corrosion inhibitors, iron controls, Golden algae; Renner 2009; Figure 5).
cross-linkers, breakers, pH-adjusting agents, scale inhibitors,
gelling agents, and surfactants (GWPC and IOGCC 2012). The A FRAMEWORK FOR ADDRESSING
wastewater resulting from the hydraulic fracturing process is ­RESEARCH NEEDS
high in total dissolved solids (TDS), metals, technologically en-
hanced naturally occurring radioactive materials (TENORM), Our examination of potential impacts of hydraulic fractur-
and fracturing fluid additives (U.S. Environmental Protection ing for natural gas extraction in the Marcellus Shale on brook
Agency [USEPA] 2012). Increased metals and elevated TDS trout populations reveals three key pathways of influence: hy-
from probabilistic spill events, or deterministic events including drological, physical, and chemical. These pathways originate
direct discharge of treated flow-back water into streams, will from the various activities associated with the hydraulic frac-
likely have negative effects on stream ecosystems that support turing method of natural gas extraction and may affect brook
brook trout populations (Figure 5). trout at one or more stages of their life cycle through direct and
Downloaded by [Southern Illinois University] at 01:51 06 March 2015

indirect mechanisms (Figure 5). The hydrological pathway is

Elevated concentration of metals causes decreased growth, the broadest in that it is influenced by events at both the surface
fecundity, and survival in brook trout. In particular, aluminum and groundwater levels and, subsequently, it influences brook
has been shown to cause growth retardation and persistent trout both directly through flow regimes and indirectly by also
mortality across life stages (Cleveland et al. 1991; Gagen et influencing physical and chemical pathways. The primary drill-
al. 1993; Baldigo et al. 2007), chromium reduces successful ing activity driving the hydrological pathway is the need for
emergence of larvae and growth of juveniles (Benoit 1976), and source water for the hydraulic fracturing process. The physical
cadmium can diminish reproductive success by causing death habitat pathway originates from the infrastructural requirements
of adult trout prior to successful spawning (Benoit et al. 1976; of the natural gas extraction industry, which can be expected
Harper et al. 2008). Trout normally exhibit avoidance behav- to increase stream sedimentation and impede brook trout at all
iors to escape stream reaches that are overly contaminated with life phases. The consequences of infrastructural development
heavy metals; however, because brook trout are so heavily reli- further impact brook trout populations if road-building activi-
ant on low-temperature environs, they seek out refugia of cold ties and poorly designed road-crossing culverts reduce con-
groundwater outflow even if the water quality is prohibitively nectivity between spawning areas, temperature refugia, and
low (Harper et al. 2009). Thus, if groundwater is contaminated downstream habitats. Finally, the chemical pathway addresses
and the groundwater-fed portions of a stream are receiving a the potential for contamination of streams by the hydraulic
significant contaminant load, brook trout might be recipients of fracturing fluids and wastewater. This contamination can have
high concentrations of those contaminants. direct consequences for brook trout and their food resources.
The hydrological and physical pathways are expected to result
Total dissolved solids represent an integrative measure of from planned (deterministic) hydraulic fracturing activities, and
common ions or inorganic salts (sodium, potassium, calcium, the chemical pathway may be triggered by both unplanned spill
magnesium, chloride, sulfate, and bicarbonate) that are common and leak (probabilistic) events, as well as planned discharge of
components of effluent in freshwaters (Chapman et al. 2000). treated wastewater into streams or spreading of brines on road-
Elevated TDS and salinity may have negative effects on spawn- ways.
ing and recruitment of salmonids by decreasing egg fertiliza-
tion rates and embryo water absorption, altering osmoregulation The delineation of these pathways identifies an array of
capacity, and increasing posthatch mortality (Shen and Leath- immediate research priorities. The potential relationships identi-
erland 1978; Li et al. 1989; Morgan et al. 1992; Stekoll et al. fied in the conceptual model (Figure 5) provide a framework of
2009; Brix et al. 2010). There is also evidence from western empirical relationships between Marcellus Shale drilling activi-
U.S. lakes with increasing TDS concentrations that growth and ties, deterministic pathways, and brook trout populations that
survival of later life stages may be negatively impacted as well need to be tested and verified. There is currently variation in
(Dickerson and Vinyard 1999). Elevated salinities can lower hydraulic fracturing density within the Marcellus Shale, ranging
salmonid resistance to thermal stress (Craigie 1963; Vigg and from extensive operations in Pennsylvania and West Virginia to
Koch 1980), which may influence competition between brook a moratorium on the process in New York. Opportunities exist
trout and more tolerant brown trout (Öhlund et al. 2008). There for researchers to develop studies that verify potential relation-
is a growing body of evidence supporting associations between ships between drilling activities and brook trout populations,
declines in macroinvertebrate abundance, particularly mayflies, such as examining sediment impacts and brook trout responses
and increased TDS or surrogate specific conductivity related to across watersheds representing a range of well densities (En-
mining activities within the Marcellus Shale region (Kennedy et trekin et al. 2011) or over time in watersheds with increasing
al. 2004; Hartman et al. 2005; Pond et al. 2008; Pond 2010; Ber- levels of drilling activity. Correlative studies should also be

10 Fisheries • Vol 38 No 1 • January 2013• www.fisheries.org

 confirmed through experimental approaches that take advantage just summer low flow) of small streams likely to support brook
of paired watershed or before–after control-impact (Downes et trout (DePhilip and Moberg 2010; Rahm and Riha 2012). Addi-
al. 2002) designs. Tiered spatial analysis techniques can be used tionally, multiple upstream withdrawal events occurring on the
to assess the cumulative impacts of persistent drilling activity same day within the same catchment may culminate in stream
within nested drainage areas at a range of spatial scales (Bolstad flows falling below the passby flow requirement. Though there
and Swank 1997; MacDonald 2000; Strager et al. 2009). Addi- is considerable uncertainty around water withdrawal estimates,
tionally, risk assessment analyses based on biological endpoints accounting for cumulative withdrawal-induced low-flow effects
are needed to characterize impacts of probabilistic events such can increase the number of days that are expected to fall below
as chemical spills and leaks (USEPA 1998; Karr and Chu 1997). passby requirements for smaller streams by as much as approxi-
mately 100 days within an average year (Rahm and Riha 2012).
MOVING FROM RESEARCH TO Consequently, the SRBC has released new proposed low-flow
­MANAGEMENT AND CONSERVATION protection regulations for public comment (SRBC 2012b,
POLICY 2012c), based primarily on recommendations from a coopera-
tive project between The Nature Conservancy, staff from the
Management of hydraulic fracturing activities in the Mar- SRBC, and its member jurisdictions (DePhillip and Moberg
cellus Shale is the responsibility of various permitting regulatory 2010). The proposed SRBC flow policy uses a tiered approach
agencies with various scales of influence, including statewide to flow protection that prevents withdrawals or puts more strin-
(departments of environmental conservation/protection, depart- gent requirements in extremely sensitive or exceptional quality
Downloaded by [Southern Illinois University] at 01:51 06 March 2015

ments of transportation, fish and game commissions, etc.) and streams such as small headwater streams that support reproduc-
regional (conservation districts, river basin commissions, etc.) ing brook trout populations (SRBC 2012b, 2012c). This pro-
entities. Though the individual policies are too numerous to de- posed policy would also provide significant flow protection for
scribe in depth here, it is apparent that policies can be devel- trout streams by incorporating seasonal or monthly flow vari-
oped and refined with the support of research and monitoring ability into passby flow criteria rather than based on a single
programs that provide crucial data, such as a geographically average daily flow criterion (Richter et al. 2011; Figure 6) and
finer scale understanding of brook trout distribution and popula- assessing proposed withdrawal impacts within the context of
tion status, seasonal flow requirements for brook trout at their cumulative flow reductions associated with existing upstream
various life stages (Figure 6), identification and prioritization withdrawals (Rahm and Riha 2012). However, the SRBC’s
of high-quality habitat, and verification of the potential drill- proposed policy has received considerable critique from stake-
ing impacts within the Marcellus Shale. These types of data holders, including the natural gas industry (SRBC 2012a). It is
are necessary for revising existing policies and developing new unclear what protections a revised water withdrawal policy will
policies that are protective of brook trout populations and the provide to streams that support brook trout habitat.
stream ecosystems that support them in the face of increased
Marcellus Shale drilling activities. The SRBC policy is only one example of a regulatory body
using scientific data to improve and refine a management policy
An example of science influencing policy that is protective that directly relates to potential drilling impacts on trout popula-
of brook trout habitat is the current and proposed water with- tions. It is crucial that policies governing hydraulic fracturing
drawal policies for the Susquehanna River Basin. The SRBC activities be likewise dynamic and subject to adaptation based
governs water withdrawal permitting for the Susquehanna River on updated scientific knowledge. For example, the Pennsylva-
Basin region, and its policies have the potential to influence the nia Oil and Gas Operators Manual provides technical guidance
degree to which hydrologic impacts of Marcellus Shale drill- for infrastructure development by identifying best management
ing may influence brook trout populations (SRBC 2002). The practices for sediment and erosion control and well pad, road,
SRBC currently enforces minimum flow criteria for water with- pipeline, and stream-crossing designs and delineates preventa-
drawals for hydraulic fracturing in coldwater trout streams to tive waste-handling procedures to avoid unexpected probabilis-
prevent low-flow impacts (Rahm and Riha 2012). The SRBC tic events like spills and runoff (PADEP 2001). These practices
requires that water withdrawals must stop when stream flow at should be amended and updated as new studies refine methods
withdrawal sites falls below predetermined passby flows and to minimize impacts (e.g., Reid et al. 2004) and strategically
cease until acceptable flow returns for 48 h. For small streams protect or restore habitat quality or connectivity (e.g., Poplar-
(<100 mile2), passby flows are determined based on instream Jeffers et al. 2009). Furthermore, water quality data from moni-
flow models (Denslinger et al. 1998) and are designed to pre- toring efforts, like TU’s Coldwater Conservation Corps (one of
vent more than 5% to 15% change in trout habitat, depending on many stream survey programs that train and equip volunteers
the amount of trout biomass the stream supports. A more gen- to conduct water quality testing in local streams; TU 2012) can
eral 25% average daily flow requirement is used as the passby alert regulatory agencies to failures in the probabilistic event
flow for larger coldwater trout streams (SRBC 2002). This prevention strategies that may help better characterize risks
policy is expected to prevent water withdrawals from impact- and improve waste transport and disposal procedures. For ex-
ing habitats during low flows in summer. However, analyses of pansion of drilling in new areas, such as into New York State,
hypothetical withdrawals within the range of proposed water regulatory agencies including the New York State Department
withdrawal permits suggest that water needs associated with of Environmental Conservation (NYSDEC), which is currently
Marcellus Shale drilling will impact seasonal flow needs (not evaluating potential impacts of hydrologic fracturing activities

Fisheries • Vol 38 No 1 • January 2013• www.fisheries.org 11

 and developing a corresponding set of proposed regulations Tara Moberg provided helpful comments on the hydrology sec-
(NYSDEC 2011), should utilize the most up-to-date and com- tion. Sarah Fox and three anonymous reviewers provided help-
plete scientific data possible from active monitoring efforts to ful suggestions that greatly improved this article. Mark Hudy
develop best management practices that are optimally protective graciously supplied GIS coverages of predicted brook trout pop-
of natural flow regimes, habitat conditions, and water quality in ulation status. Alessandro Farsi and Miles Luo took the cover
high-quality streams. photographs.

Spatial analysis and visualization of well density (Figure REFERENCES

4) can be combined with refined understanding of brook trout
habitat and population status from stream surveys and ground- Adams, M. B., P. J. Edwards, W. M. Ford, J. B. Johnson, T. M.
truthing to prioritize and geographically focus conservation ef- Schuler, M. Thomas-Van Gundy, and F. Wood. 2011. Effects
of development of a natural gas well and associated pipeline on
forts. Currently the Pennsylvania Fish and Boat Commission’s
the natural and scientific resources of the Fernow Experimental
Unassessed Waters Program in conjunction with Trout Unlim- Forest. United States Department of Agriculture Forest Service,
ited and other partner organizations is conducting intensive as- Newtown Square, PA. General Technical Report NRS-76.
sessments of streams with unknown brook trout status: to date, Alexander, G. R., and E. A. Hansen. 1983. Sand sediment in a Michi-
this program has identified an additional 99 streams that sup- gan trout stream, part II. Effects of reducing sand, bedload on a
port wild populations (Weisberg 2011). Similar efforts are being trout population. North American Journal of Fisheries Manage-
spearheaded in New York by the NYSDEC and TU (2011). ment 3(4):365–372.
Downloaded by [Southern Illinois University] at 01:51 06 March 2015

Furthermore, the efficacy of regulatory policy can be bolstered ———. 1986. Sand bed load in a brook trout stream. North American
Journal of Fisheries Management 6(1):9–23.
by data from monitoring and research efforts that define high-
Allan, J. D. 1981. Determinants of diet of brook trout (Salvelinus fon-
est priority watersheds for conservation of brook trout. Vari- tinalis) in a mountain stream. Canadian Journal of Fisheries &
ous trout-focused organizations have identified key watersheds Aquatic Sciences 38:184–192.
for protection and restoration. Trout Unlimited has updated Argent, D. G., and P. A. Flebbe. 1999. Fine sediment effects on brook
their existing Conservation Success Index (J. E. Williams et al. trout eggs in laboratory streams. Fisheries Research 39:253–262.
2007) with a targeted analysis for Pennsylvania to integrate new Baccante, D. 2012. Hydraulic fracturing: a fisheries biologist’s per-
data on brook trout streams and natural gas drilling threats (TU spective. Fisheries 37(1):40–41.
2011b). Likewise, the EBTJV has identified an extensive set of Baird, O. E., and C. C. Krueger. 2003. Behavioral thermoregulation
action strategies that identify priorities on a state-by-state basis of brook and rainbow trout: comparison of summer habitat use in
an Adirondack River, New York. Transactions of the American
(EBTJV 2011). Results from these types of analyses can be used
Fisheries Society 132(6):1194–1206.
to identify and direct conservation efforts to key areas where Baldigo, B. P., G. Lawrence, and H. Simonin. 2007. Persistent mortal-
Marcellus Shale drilling activities are likely to have the greatest ity of brook trout in episodically acidified streams of the south-
impacts by disturbing habitat for the highest quality remaining western Adirondack Mountains, New York. Transactions of the
brook trout populations. American Fisheries Society 136(1):121–134.
Barton, D. R., W. D. Taylor, and R. M. Biette. 1985. Dimensions of
In summary, expedient efforts to develop strategies that riparian buffer strips required to maintain trout habitat in southern
minimize negative impacts of Marcellus Shale drilling activi- Ontario streams. North American Journal of Fisheries Manage-
ment 5(3A):364–378.
ties on brook trout habitat are needed. Horizontal drilling and
Baxter, C. V., C. A. Frissell, and F. R. Hauer. 1999. Geomorphology,
hydraulic fracturing for natural gas extraction is likely to in- logging roads, and the distribution of bull trout spawning in a for-
crease and expand from Pennsylvania and West Virginia into ested river basin: implications for management and conservation.
unexploited areas with growing pressure related to economic Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 128(5):854–867.
incentives from the oil and gas industry and the need for cheap Baxter, J. S., and J. D. McPhail. 1999. The influence of redd site selec-
domestic energy sources. Natural gas drilling is expected to per- tion, groundwater upwelling, and over-winter incubation tempera-
sist in the region for several decades due to the extent of the ture on survival of bull trout (Salvelinus confluentus) from egg to
Marcellus Shale natural gas resource and the presence of the alevin. Canadian Journal of Zoology 77(8):1233–1239.
Benoit, D. A. 1976. Toxic effects of hexavalent chromium on brook
gas-rich Utica Shale below it (P. Williams 2008). Consequently,
trout [Salvelinus fontinalis] and rainbow trout [Salmo gairdneri].
development of adequate management and conservation strate- Water Research 10(6):497–500.
gies based on science and enforcement of policies that conserve Benoit, D. A., E. N. Leonard, G. M. Christensen, and J. T. Fiandt.
and protect stream ecosystems supporting brook trout popula- 1976. Toxic effects of cadmium on three generations of brook
tions and other aquatic organisms are needed to balance energy trout (Salvelinus fontinalis). Transactions of the American Fisher-
needs and economic incentives with environmental and brook ies Society 105(4):550–560.
trout conservation concerns. Bernhardt, E. S., and M. A. Palmer. 2011. The environmental costs of
mountaintop mining valley fill operations for aquatic ecosystems
of the central Appalachians. Annals of the New York Acadamy
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS of Sciences 1223:39–57.
Bolstad, P. V., and W. T. Swank. 1997. Cumulative impacts of landuse
We thank Bill Fisher for his encouragement and support for on water quality in a southern Appalachian watershed. Journal of
this project. Alex Alexiades, Christian Perry, T. J. Ross, Kelly the American Water Resources Association 33(3):519–533.
Robinson, and Geoff Groocock reviewed earlier versions of the Brix, K. V., R. Gerdes, N. Curry, A. Kasper, and M. Grosell. 2010.
manuscript and provided comments on the conceptual model. The effects of total dissolved solids on egg fertilization and water

12 Fisheries • Vol 38 No 1 • January 2013• www.fisheries.org

 hardening in two salmonids—Arctic Grayling (Thymallus arcti- Available: http://www.easternbrooktrout.org/docs/EBTJV_Con-
cus) and Dolly Varden (Salvelinus malma). Aquatic Toxicology servation_Strategy_Nov2011.pdf. (March 2012).
97(2):109–115. Energy Policy Act. 2005. Public Law No. 109-58, § 321, 119 Stat. 694.
Cada, G. F., J. M. Loar, and D. K. Cox. 1987. Food and feeding pref- Available: http://www1.eere.energy.gov/femp/pdfs/epact_2005.
erences of rainbow and brown trout in southern Appalachian pdf. (June 2012).
streams. American Midland Naturalist 117(2):374–385. Entrekin, S., M. Evans-White, B. Johnson, and E. Hagenbuch. 2011.
Cairns, M. A., J. L. Ebersole, J. P. Baker, P. J. Wigington, H. R. Lavi- Rapid expansion of natural gas development poses a threat to sur-
gne, and S. M. Davis. 2005. Influence of summer stream tem- face waters. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 9(9):503–
peratures on black spot infestation of juvenile coho salmon in the 511.
Oregon coast range. Transactions of the American Fisheries So- Gagen, C. J., W. E. Sharpe, and R. F. Carline. 1993. Mortality of brook
ciety 134(6):1471–1479. trout, mottled sculpins, and slimy sculpins during acidic episodes.
Carlson, S. M., A. P. Hendry, and B. H. Letcher. 2007. Growth rate Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 122(4):616–628.
differences between resident native brook trout and non-native Gregory, K. B., R. D. Vidic, and D. A. Dzombak. 2011. Water manage-
brown trout. Journal of Fish Biology 71(5):1430–1447. ment challenges associated with the production of shale gas by
Chapman, P. M., H. Bailey, and E. Canaria. 2000. Toxicity of total hydraulic fracturing. Elements 7(3):181–186.
dissolved solids associated with two mine effluents to chirono- GWPC and IOGCC (Ground Water Protection Council and the Inter-
mid larvae and early life stages of rainbow trout. Environmental state Oil and Gas Compact Commission). 2012. FracFocus Chem-
Toxicology and Chemistry 19(1):210–214. ical Disclosure Registry: chemical use in hydraulic fracturing.
Cherry, D. S., K. L. Dickson, J. Cairns, Jr., and J. R. Stauffer. 1977. Available: http://fracfocus.org/water-protection/drilling-usage.
Preferred, avoided, and lethal temperatures of fish during rising (March 2012).
Downloaded by [Southern Illinois University] at 01:51 06 March 2015

temperature conditions. Journal of the Fisheries Research Board Hakala, J. P., and K. J. Hartman. 2004. Drought effect on stream mor-
of Canada 34(2):239–246. phology and brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) populations in
Cleveland, L., D. R. Buckler, and W. G. Brumbaugh. 1991. Residue dy- forested headwater streams. Hydrobiologia 515(1–3):203–213.
namics and effects of aluminum on growth and mortality in brook Harper, D. D., A. M. Farag, and W. G. Brumbaugh. 2008. Effects of
trout. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 10(2):243–248. acclimation on the toxicity of stream water contaminated with
Craigie, D. E. 1963. An effect of water hardness in the therman resis- zinc and cadmium to juvenile cutthroat trout. Archives of Envi-
tance of the rainbow trout, Salmo Gairdnerii Richardson. Cana- ronmental Contamination and Toxicology 54(4):697–704.
dian Journal of Zoology 41(5):825–830. Harper, D. D., A. M. Farag, C. Hogstrand, and E. MacConnell. 2009.
Curry, R. A., J. Gehrels, D. L. G. Noakes, and R. Swainson. 1994. Ef- Trout density and health in a stream with variable water tempera-
fects of river flow fluctuations on groundwater discharge through tures and trace element concentrations: does a cold-water source
brook trout, Salvelinus fontinalis, spawning and incubation habi- attract trout to increased metal exposure? Environmental Toxicol-
tats. Hydrobiologia 277:121–134. ogy and Chemistry 28(4):800–808.
Curry, R. A., and W. S. MacNeill. 2004. Population-level responses Hartman, K., M. Kaller, J. Howell, and J. Sweka. 2005. How much do
to sediment during early life in brook trout. Journal of the North valley fills influence headwater streams? Hydrobiologia 532(1–
American Benthological Society 23(1):140–150. 3):91–102.
Curry, R. A., D. L. G. Noakes, and G. E. Morgan. 1995. Groundwa- Hazzard, A. S. 1932. Some phases of the life history of the eastern
ter and the incubation and emergence of brook trout (Salvelinus brook trout, Salvelinus fontinalis Mitchell. Transactions of the
fontinalis). Canadian Journal of Fisheries & Aquatic Sciences American Fisheries Society 62(1):344–350.
52:1741–1749. Hokanson, K. E., J. H. McCormick, B. R. Jones, and J. H. Tucker.
Denslinger, T. L., W. A. Gast, J. J. Hauenstein, D. W. Heicher, J. Hen- 1973. Thermal requirements for maturation, spawning, and em-
riksen, D. R. Jackson, G. J. Lazorchick, J. E. McSparran, T. W. bryo survival of the brook trout, Salvelinus fontinalis. Journal of
Stoe, and L. M. Young. 1998. Instream flow studies Pennsylva- the Fisheries Research Board of Canada 30(7):975–984.
nia and Maryland. Susquehanna River Basin Commission, Har- Hudy, M., T. M. Thieling, N. Gillespie, and E. P. Smith. 2008. Distri-
risburg, Pennsylvania. bution, status, and land use characteristics of watersheds within
DePhillip, M., and T. Moberg. 2010. Ecosystem flow recommenda- the native range of brook trout in the Eastern United States. North
tions for the Susquehanna River Basin. The Nature Conservancy, American Journal of Fisheries Management 28(4):1069–1085.
Harrisburg, Pennsylvania. Kargbo, D. M., R. G. Wilhelm, and D. J. Campbell. 2010. Natural gas
Dickerson, B. R., and G. L. Vinyard. 1999. Effects of high levels of plays in the Marcellus Shale: challenges and potential opportuni-
total dissolved solids in Walker Lake, Nevada, on survival and ties. Environmental Science & Technology 44(15):5679–5684.
growth of Lahontan cutthroat trout. Transactions of the American Karr, J. R., and E. W. Chu. 1997. Biological monitoring: essential
Fisheries Society 128(3):507–515. foundation for ecological risk assessment. Human and Ecological
Risk Assessment: An International Journal 3(6):993–1004.
Downes, B. J., L. A. Barmuta, P. G. Fairweather, D. P. Faith, M. J. Kennedy, A. J., D. S. Cherry, and R. J. Currie. 2004. Evaluation of
Keough, P. S. Lake, B. D. Mapstone, and G. P. Quinn. 2002. ecologically relevant bioassays for a lotic system impacted by a
Monitoring ecological impacts: concepts and practice in flowing coal-mine effluent, using Isonychia. Environmental Monitoring
waters. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. and Assessment 95(1):37–55.
Eaglin, G., and W. Hubert. 1993. Management briefs: effects of log- Kraft, M. E. 1972. Effects of controlled flow reduction on a trout
ging and roads on substrate and trout in streams of the Medicine stream. Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada
Bow National Forest, Wyoming. North American Journal of Fish- 29(10):1405–1411.
eries Management 13(4):844–846. Lachance, S., M. Dube, R. Dostie, and P. Berube. 2008. Temporal and
EBTJV (Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture). 2007. Eastern brook spatial quantification of fine-sediment accumulation downstream
trout: roadmap to restoration. Available: http://www.eastern- of culverts in brook trout habitat. Transactions of the American
brooktrout.org/docs/EBTJV_RoadmapToRestoration_FINAL. Fisheries Society 137(6):1826–1838.
pdf. (March 2012). Larsen, S., I. P. Vaughan, and S. J. Ormerod. 2009. Scale-dependent
———. 2011. Conserving the eastern brook trout: action strategies. effects of fine sediments on temperate headwater invertebrates.

Fisheries • Vol 38 No 1 • January 2013• www.fisheries.org 13

 Freshwater Biology 54(1):203–219. Merenlender. 2005. Influence of land use on fine sediment in
Letcher, B. H., K. H. Nislow, J. A. Coombs, M. J. O’Donnell, and T. L. salmonid spawning gravels within the Russian River Basin,
Dubreuil. 2007. Population response to habitat fragmentation in a California. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences
stream-dwelling brook trout population. PLoS ONE 2(22):1–11. 62(12):2740–2751.
Li, X., E. Jenssen, and H. J. Fyhn. 1989. Effects of salinity on egg PADEP (Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection).
swelling in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar). Aquaculture 76(3– 2001. Oil and gas operators manual 550-0300-001. Chapter 4:
4):317–334. oil and gas management practices. Available: http://www.eli-
Lund, S. G., M. E. A. Lund, and B. L. Tufts. 2003. Red blood cell Hsp brary.dep.state.pa.us/dsweb/Get/Version-48243/chap4.pdf. (June
70 mRNA and protein as bioindicators of temperature stress in the 2012).
brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis). Canadian Journal of Fisheries ———. 2012a. Oil and gas reports: permits issued detail report. Avail-
& Aquatic Sciences 60(4):460–470. able: http://www.depreportingservices.state.pa.us/ReportServer/
Lyons, J., L. Wang, and T. D. Simonson. 1996. Development and Pages/ReportViewer.aspx?/Oil_Gas/Permits_Issued_Detail.
validation of an index of biotic integrity for coldwater streams (June 2012).
in Wisconsin. North American Journal of Fisheries Management ———. 2012b. Oil and gas reports: SPUD data report. Available:
16(2):241–256. http://www.depreportingservices.state.pa.us/ReportServer/Pages/
MacCrimmon, H. R., and J. S. Campbell. 1969. World distribution ReportViewer.aspx?/Oil_Gas/Spud_External_Data. (June 2012).
of brook trout, Salvelinus fontinalis. Journal of the Fisheries Re- Petty, J. T., J. L. Hansbarger, B. M. Huntsman, and P. M. Mazik. 2012.
search Board of Canada 26(7):1699–1725. Brook trout movement in response to temperature, flow, and ther-
MacDonald, L. H. 2000. Evaluating and managing cumulative effects: mal refugia within a complex Appalachian riverscape. Transac-
process and constraints. Environmental Management 26(3):299– tions of the American Fisheries Society 141(4):1060–1073.
Downloaded by [Southern Illinois University] at 01:51 06 March 2015

315. Pond, G. J. 2010. Patterns of Ephemeroptera taxa loss in Appalachian

Marschall, E. A., and L. B. Crowder. 1996. Assessing population re- headwater streams (Kentucky, USA). Hydrobiologia 641(1):185–
sponses to multiple anthropogenic effects: a case study with brook 201.
trout. Ecological Applications 6(1):152–167. Pond, G. J., M. E. Passmore, F. A. Borsuk, L. Reynolds, and C. J. Rose.
Morgan, J. D., J. O. T. Jensen, and G. K. Iwama. 1992. Effects of 2008. Downstream effects of mountaintop coal mining: compar-
salinity on aerobic metabolism and development of eggs and al- ing biological conditions using family- and genus-level macro-
evins of steelhead trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) and fall chinook invertebrate bioassessment tools. Journal of the North American
salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha). Canadian Journal of Zool- Benthological Society 27(3):717–737.
ogy 70(7):1341–1346. Poplar-Jeffers, I. O., J. T. Petty, J. T. Anderson, S. J. Kite, M. P. Strager,
The Nature Conservancy. 2009. Indicators of Hydrologic Alteration and R. H. Fortney. 2009. Culvert replacement and stream habitat
Version 7.1 Software and User’s Manual. Available: http://con- restoration: implications from brook trout management in an Ap-
serveonline.org/workspaces/iha/documents/download/view.html. palachian watershed, U.S.A. Restoration Ecology 17(3):404–413.
(March 2012). Rahm, B. G., and S. J. Riha. 2012. Toward strategic management of
Nislow, K. H., M. Hudy, B. H. Letcher, and E. P. Smith. 2011. Varia- shale gas development: regional, collective impacts on water re-
tion in local abundance and species richness of stream fishes in sources. Environmental Science & Policy 17:12–23.
relation to dispersal barriers: implications for management and Reid, S. M., F. Ade, and S. Metikosh. 2004. Sediment entrainment dur-
conservation. Freshwater Biology 56(10):2135–2144. ing pipeline water crossing construction: predictive models and
Nislow, K. H., and W. H. Lowe. 2006. Influences of logging history crossing method comparison. Journal of Environmental Engineer-
and riparian forest characteristics on macroinvertebrates and ing & Science 3(2):81–88.
brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) in headwater streams (New Renner, R. 2009. Salt-loving algae wipe out fish in Appalachian stream.
Hampshire, U.S.A.). Freshwater Biology 51(2):388–397. Environmental Science and Technology 43(24):9046–9047.
Nislow, K. H., A. J. Sepulveda, and C. L. Folt. 2004. Mechanistic Richter, B. D., M. M. Davis, C. Apse, and C. Konrad. 2011. Short
linkage of hydrologic regime to summer growth of age-0 At- communication: a presumptive standard for environmental flow
lantic salmon. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society protection. River Research and Applications. 28(8): 312–321.
133(1):79–88. Shen, A. C. Y., and J. F. Leatherland. 1978. Effect of ambient salin-
NYSDEC (New York State Department of Environmental Conserva- ity on ionic and osmotic regulation of eggs, larvae, and alevins
tion). 2011. Revised draft supplemental generic environmental of rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri). Canadian Journal of Zoology
impact statement on the Oil, Gas and Solution Mining Regulatory 56(4):571–577.
Program, well permit issuance for horizontal drilling and high- Soeder, D. J., and W. M. Kappel. 2009. Water resources and natural
volume hydraulic fracturing to develop the Marcellus Shale and gas production from the Marcellus Shale. U.S. Department of the
other low-permeability gas reservoirs. Available: http://www.dec. Interior, U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia.
ny.gov/energy/75370.html. (March 2012).
NYSDEC and TU (New York State Department of Environmental Sotiropoulos, J. C., K. H. Nislow, and M. R. Ross. 2006. Brook trout,
Conservation and Trout Unlimited). 2011. New York State con- Salvelinus fontinalis, microhabitat selection and diet under low
servation strategy. Available: http://www.easternbrooktrout.org/ summer stream flow. Fisheries Management & Ecology 13:149–
docs/EBTJV_NewYork_CS.pdf. (March 2012). 155.
Ohio Department of Natural Resources. 2011. Oil and natural gas well SRBC (Susquehanna River Basin Commission). 2002. Guidelines for
and shale development resources. Available: http://www.ohiodnr. using and determining passby flows and conservation releases
com/oil/shale/tabid/23174/Default.aspx. (March 2012). for surface-water and ground-water withdrawal approvals. Avail-
Öhlund, G., F. Nordwall, E. Degerman, and T. Eriksson. 2008. Life able: http://www.srbc.net/policies/docs/Policy%202003_01.pdf.
history and large-scale habitat use of brown trout (Salmo trutta) (March 2012).
and brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis)—implications for species ———. 2010. Managing and protecting water resources in the Susque-
replacement patterns. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic hanna River Basin. Available: http://www.srbc.net/programs/
Sciences 65(4):633–644. docs/JLRH%20presentation%20MarywoodUniversity.pdf.
Opperman, J. J., K. A. Lohse, C. Brooks, N. M. Kelly, and A. M. (March 2012).

14 Fisheries • Vol 38 No 1 • January 2013• www.fisheries.org

 ———. 2012a. Low flow protection policy comments. Available: servlet/NogaNewGISResultsSubServ?page=gis&tps=506704.
www.srbc.net/pubinfo/lfppcomments.htm. (November 2012). (March 2012).
———. 2012b. Low flow protection related to withdrawal approvals. Utz, R. M., and K. J. Hartman. 2006. Temporal and spatial variation in
Available: http://www.srbc.net/policies/docs/LowFlowProtec- the energy intake of a brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) popula-
tionPolicy_20120313_fs139580_1.pdf. (March 2012). tion in an Appalachian watershed. Canadian Journal of Fisheries
———. 2012c. Technical Guidance for Low Flow Protection Policy and Aquatic Sciences 63(12):2675–2686.
Related to Withdrawal Approvals. Available: http://www.srbc. ———. 2007. Identification of critical prey items to Appalachian brook
net/policies/docs/TechincalGuidanceWAttachmentsLowFlow- trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) with emphasis on terrestrial organ-
ProtectionPolicy_20120313_fs139629_1.pdf. (March 2012). isms. Hydrobiologia 575(1):259–270.
Stekoll, M. S., W. W. Smoker, B. J. Failor-Rounds, I. A. Wang, and VanDusen, P. J., C. J. F. Huckins, and D. J. Flaspohler. 2005. Asso-
V. J. Joyce. 2009. Response of the early developmental stages of ciations among selection logging history, brook trout, macroin-
hatchery reared salmonids to major ions in a simulated mine ef- vertebrates, and habitat in northern Michigan headwater streams.
fluent. Aquaculture 298(1–2):172–181. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 134(3):762–774.
Strager, M. P., J. T. Petty, J. M. Strager, and J. Barker-Fulton. 2009. Vigg, S. C., and D. L. Koch. 1980. Upper lethal temperature range of
A spatially explicit framework for quantifying downstream hy- Lahontan cutthroat trout in waters of different ionic concentration.
drologic conditions. Journal of Environmental Management Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 109(3):336–339.
90(5):1854–1861. Walters, A. W., and D. M. Post. 2008. An experimental disturbance
Sweka, J. A., and K. J. Hartman. 2001. Influence of turbidity on brook alters fish size structure but not food chain length in streams. Ecol-
trout reactive distance and foraging success. Transactions of the ogy 89(12):3261–3267.
American Fisheries Society 130(1):138–146. ———. 2011. How low can you go? Impacts of a low-flow distur-
Downloaded by [Southern Illinois University] at 01:51 06 March 2015

Tangiguchi, Y., F. J. Rahel, D. C. Novinger, and K. G. Gerow. 1998. bance on aquatic insect communities. Ecological Applications
Temperature mediation of competitive interactions among three 21(1):163–174.
fish species that replace each other along longitudinal stream Waters, T. F. 1995. Sediment in streams: sources, biological effects,
gradients. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences and control. American Fisheries Society, Bethesda, Maryland.
55(8):1894–1901. Wehrly, K. E., L. Wang, and M. Mitro. 2007. Field-based estimates of
Taylor, C. M., T. L. Holder, R. A. Fiorillo, L. R. Williams, R. B. thermal tolerance limits for trout: incorporating exposure time and
Thomas, and J. M. L. Warren. 2006. Distribution, abundance, temperature fluctuation. Transactions of the American Fisheries
and diversity of stream fishes under variable environmental Society 136(2):365–374.
conditions. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences Weisberg, D. 2011. Unassessed waters initiative. Pennsylvania Angler
63(1):43–54. & Boater January/February:11–14.
TU (Trout Unlimited). 2011a. Guidance document for NLC Resolution West Virginia Geological and Economic Survey. 2011. Selected refer-
on stocking non-native hatchery trout over native trout popula- ences about Devonian shales. Available: http://www.wvgs.wvnet.
tions. Available: http://www.tu.org/member-services/welcome- edu/www/datastat/devshales.htm. (March 2012).
to-my-tu/tackle-box/important-tu-policies. (March 2012). Williams, H., D. Havens, K. Banks, and D. Wachal. 2008. Field-based
———. 2011b. Trout Unlimited’s conservation success index: sta- monitoring of sediment runoff from natural gas well sites in Den-
tus and threats to trout and coldwater habitats in Pennsylvania. ton County, Texas, USA. Environmental Geology 55(7):1463–
Available: http://www.tu.org/sites/www.tu.org/files/documents/ 1471.
CSI_PA_Trout_Cons_Strat_v1_Full.pdf. (June 2012). Williams, J. E., A. L. Haak, N. G. Gillespie, and W. T. Colyer. 2007.
———. 2012. Marcellus Shale Stream surveillance in Pennsylvania. The conservation success index: synthesizing and communicating
Available: http://www.tu.org/conservation/eastern-conservation/ salmonid condition and management needs. Fisheries 32(10):477–
marcellus-shale-project/stream-surveillance. (March 2012). 493.
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Ser- Williams, P. 2008. Appalacian shales. Oil & Gas Investor 28(6):46–58.
vice. 2012. Watersheds, hydrologic units, hydrologic unit codes, Witmer, P. L., P. M. Stewart, and C. K. Metcalf. 2009. Development
watershed approach, and rapid watershed assessments. Avail- and use of a sedimentation risk index for unpaved road–stream
able: http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/ crossings in the Choctawhatchee Watershed. Journal of the Ameri-
stelprdb1042207.pdf. (June 2012). can Water Resources Association 45(3):734–747.
USDOE (U.S. Department of Energy). 2011. The SEAB (Secretary of Witzel, L. D., and H. R. MacCrimmon. 1983. Embryo survival and
Energy Advisory Board) Shale Gas Subcommittee second 90 day alevin emergence of brook charr, Salvelinus fontinalis, and brown
report/final report. Available: http://www.shalegas.energy.gov/ trout, Salmo trutta, relative to redd gravel composition. Canadian
resources/111811_final_report.pdf. (March 2012). Journal of Zoology 61(8):1783–1792.
U.S. Energy Information Administration. 2011. Annual energy outlook Wofford, J. E. B., R. Gresswell, and M. A. Banks. 2005. Influence
2011 with projections to 2035. DOE/EIA-0383(2011). Available: of barriers to movement on within-watershed genetic variation of
http://www.eia.gov/forecasts/aeo/pdf/0383(2011).pdf. (March coastal cutthroat trout. Ecological Applications 15(2):628–637.
2012). Wohl, N. E., and R. F. Carline. 1996. Relations among riparian graz-
USEPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency). 1998. Guidelines ing, sediment loads, macroinvertebrates, and fishes in three central
for ecological risk assessment. EPA/630/R-95/002F. Available: Pennsylvania streams. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic
http://www.epa.gov/raf/publications/pdfs/ECOTXTBX.PDF. Sciences 53(Suppl. 1):260–266.
(March 2012). Xu, C. L., B. H. Letcher, and K. H. Nislow. 2010. Size-dependent
———. 2012. Natural gas extraction–hydraulic fracturing: ensuring survival of brook trout Salvelinus fontinalis in summer: effects
the safe disposal of wastewater and stormwater from hydraulic of water temperature and stream flow. Journal of Fish Biology
fracturing activities. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 76(10):2342–2369.
Washington, D.C. Available: http://epa.gov/hydraulicfracturing/
#wastewater. (March 2012).
USGS (U.S. Geological Survey). 2011. Marcellus Shale assessment
unit GIS shapefile. Available: http://certmapper.cr.usgs.gov/noga/

Fisheries • Vol 38 No 1 • January 2013• www.fisheries.org 15