Nucleic acids and their functions

The general structure of a nucleic acid consists of a pentose sugar a phosphate group and a nitrogenous base. So, a generalised structure looks like:

ATP High energy bond

RNA DNA

Adenine Ribose 3 phosphate groups Phosphate Ribose Nitrogenous base (A,U,C,G) Phosphate Deoxyribose Nitrogenous base (A,T,C,G))

ATP is formed in an endergonic reaction (in These RNA nucleotides are linked together DNA is made from one strand of nucleotides
respiration). 30.6kJ of energy is stored in this in a single-stranded polynucleotide. linked by hydrogen bonds between the
bond and released when it is hydrolysed into bases to another strand that runs antiparallel
ADP and an inorganic phosphate (Pi). Differences between RNA and DNA
There are 3 different types of RNA with to the first.
RNA DNA
different functions.
ATP is called the ‘universal energy currency’ There are 2 types of bases: Ribose sugar Deoxyribose sugar
as it is used to provide energy for all Single stranded Double stranded
Messenger RNA (mRNA) – made as a Purines: Adenine and Guanine.
biochemical reactions in all living organisms. A,U,C,G bases A,T,C,G bases
complementary copy of the DNA genetic Pyrimidines: Cytosine and Thymine.
• ATP releases energy in one hydrolysis code in the nucleus during transcription. Short polynucleotides Long polynucleotides
They pair up with hydrogen bonds - A pairs
reaction controlled by one enzyme. The molecule length is related to the length with T, C pairs with G. This complementary
• ATP releases energy in small, usable of the gene transcribed. It attaches to a base pairing links the two strands and a
amounts. ribosome in the cytoplasm. double helix is formed.
• ATP travels easily to where it may be used Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) – forms ribosomes.
for secretion, muscle contraction, nerve Transfer RNA (tRNA) – carries an amino acid
transmission or active transport. at the 3’ end and an anticodon arm to attach
to the mRNA.

DNA replication 2. This unwinds the DNA and exposes unpaired

bases.
When cells divide to form new cells, they
must receive a copy of the DNA. Therefore, 3. Free nucleotides in the nucleoplasm are bound
chromosomes must be able to make to their complementary bases on the unzipped
exact copies of themselves. strand.
The replication fork is shown opposite, 4. DNA polymerase joins the nucleotides
and DNA replication occurs in the together by condensation reactions between
following steps: sugar and phosphate groups of adjacent
nucleotides.
1. DNA helicase breaks the hydrogen
bonds between the bases in the double 5. Eventually, 2 new DNA molecules are formed
helix. from 1 new and 1 old strand of the DNA. This is
called semi-conservative replication.
 Nucleic acids and their functions

Meselson and Stahl carried out an

experiment which gave evidence to the Centrifuge DNA Protein synthesis
theory of semi-conservative replication of in CsCI

DNA.
Transcription Translation
1. DNA helicase unzips a section 1. mRNA is a linear chain of three base
1. Grow bacteria with a heavy isotope of
nitrogen. Centrifuge a sample – a heavy
N
15 (gene) of the DNA by breaking
the hydrogen bonds between
codons. There are complementary
anticodons on tRNA molecules.
band is seen.
heavy DNA ( 15 N) complementary base pairs. 2. When the mRNA leaves the nucleus,
2. Remove bacteria with heavy DNA and 2. RNA polymerase links to the it attaches to the small subunit of a
place into a medium with light nitrogen template (coding) strand of DNA ribosome.
and allow bacteria to divide. They will and attaches mRNA nucleotides to 3. The large subunits of a ribosome
synthesise DNA with the nitrogen isotope their complementary base pairs, have 2 attachment sites for tRNA.
Centrifuge DNA
available meaning their DNA will contain 1 in CsCI
e.g. Adenine in DNA now pairs with The ribosome holds the mRNA and
new (14N) and 1 old (15N) strand, making it the mRNA base Uracil, Cytosine the tRNA (which have attached
intermediate in density when centrifuged. continues to pair with Guanine. amino acids) in position for the
3. Allow 1 more generation to grow and 3. This copying stops at a stop amino acids to form peptide bonds
the hybrid strands will now be copied in
a semi conservative way creating 50%
N
14 sequence / codon.
4. The newly made premRNA then
and create a polypeptide chain.
4. The codon on the mRNA (3 base
hybrid DNA ( 15N) ( 14N)
hybrid and 50% light DNA. leaves the DNA. code) therefore determines the tRNA
5. Post-transcriptional modification as the tRNA which attaches must
light DNA ( 14N) of the pre-mRNA takes place to have a complementary 3 base code.
remove the non-coding introns, E.g. mRNA CGA, tRNA GCU.
Centrifuge DNA
leaving only the coding sections 5. The tRNA that matches the codon on
DNA strands:
in CsCI (exons) in the mature mRNA. This the mRNA has a specific amino acid
Heavy nitrogen (15N) = I
Light nitrogen (14N = ) I
leaves the nucleus to be translated attached to the 3’ end of the tRNA
into a protein in the cytoplasm. molecule. The ribosome moves along
the mRNA holding each tRNA in

N
14
rewinding of DNA
RNA polymerase
polymerase movement place until the amino acid attaches.
The tRNA then leaves, the ribosome
moves along and the next tRNA
coding strand unwinding of DNA
hybrid DNA ( 15N)

attaches to the next codon.

template
strand
nucleotide being added to

Meselsohn and Stahl’s experiment disproves alternative theories. the end 3’ of the RNA

NTPs

In this way the mRNA (translated

RNA

RNA-DNA hybrid region

Conservative replication – direct copying of the nucleotide sequence onto a new double from a gene) carries the code for
stranded molecule which would give one light and one heavy molecule in generation 1. the formation of a polypeptide
During post-
transcriptional
chain with amino acids set out in a
modification, exons particular order.
Dispersive replication – where half the nucleotides are placed randomly in the DNA being can be spliced (joined)
replicated to make new molecules which would give successively lighter molecules and together in different One gene = one polypeptide.
orders leading to
therefore a band between hybrid and light in generation 2. formation of different amino acid
attached here
OH 3’ end

polypeptides. It may Modification

be that one gene-one of new
polypeptide theory is P
polypeptides
The genetic code is a linear, universal code for the production of polypeptides. not entirely correct. 5’ end

Polypeptides
T loop
can be
D loop
modified by
As there are 64 possible triplet codes the addition of
for the four bases, some amino acids carbohydrates,
have more than one code. This is lipids or
why the code is termed degenerate. phosphate
A change in code does not always
modified nucleotides
or can be
mean a change in amino acid. combined
together, e.g.
anticodon loop
haemoglobin.
anticodon