CE 543 - Traffic Engineering and Highway Safety

Introduction to Traffic Engineering

Bachu Anilkumar
Assistant Professor
Dept. of Civil and Env. Engineering
IIT Patna
E-mail: [email protected]
Anil (IITP) | CE 543 - Traffic Engineering and Highway Safety

Course Contents 1

Module 1: Traffic Characteristics

Road user characteristics - visual acuity, legibility distance, reading time of signs, visual
field, peripheral vision, hearing, reaction time, walking speed, driver eye height. Vehicle
characteristics – static and dynamic characteristics.

Module 2: Traffic Studies

Volume, speed, travel time and delay, O-D, Accident and parking studies – use, variations
in the data, presentation of data.

Module 3: Statistical Applications in Traffic Engineering

Sampling, Confidence interval, Sample size determination, Single Sample and Two
Sample Hypothesis test for means, Hypothesis test for variance, z and t-tests, power of
hypothesis tests, chi-squared test for fitting empirical distributions
Anil (IITP) | CE 543 - Traffic Engineering and Highway Safety

Course Contents 2

Module 4: Capacity and Level of Service

Importance, passenger car units, LOS concept, factors affecting capacity and LOS,
capacity of different types of facilities – HCM approach.

Module 5: Traffic Control

Signs, markings, islands and signals; At-grade and grade separated Intersections;
Rotaries; Basic principles of intersection signalization; Signal Design – HCM approach;
Analysis of signalized intersection, signal coordination.

Module 6: Highway Safety

Elements of highway safety management systems, Road safety audits, Crash investigation
and analysis.
Anil (IITP) | CE 543 - Traffic Engineering and Highway Safety

Reference Textbooks 3

Roess, R.P., E.S. Prassas, and W.R. McShane. Traffic Engineering, Fifth Edition, Pearson-Prentice Hall.
Khanna, S.K., C.E.G. Justo, and A. Veraragavan. (2018). Highway Engineering, Tenth Edition, Nem Chand
& Bros.
Kadiyali, L. R. (2008). Traffic Engineering and Transportation Planning, Khanna Publishers, India.
Garber, N.J., and L.A. Hoel. (2015). Traffic and Highway Engineering, Fifth Edition Cenage Publications.
Chakraborty, P., and A. Das. (2019). Principles of Transportation Engineering, Second Edition. PHI
Learning Private Limited.
Highway Capacity Manual, (2016), TRB, National Research Council, Washington, D. C.
Relevant IRC codes.
Anil (IITP) | CE 543 - Traffic Engineering and Highway Safety

Grading Policy 4

How should I evaluate your learning?

• Attendance: 10 %
• Mid-term: 25 %
• End-semester: 35 %
• Assignments: 30 %
Anil (IITP) | CE 543 - Traffic Engineering and Highway Safety

Class Room Policy 5

Anil (IITP) | CE 543 - Traffic Engineering and Highway Safety

What I expect from you? 6

To accept that previous academic preparation will affect your performance in this
course
To realize that your perception of effort is not enough to justify a good grade

To not plagiarize or otherwise steal the work of others

Anil (IITP) | CE 543 - Traffic Engineering and Highway Safety

What you can expect from me? 7

To make myself available to you for any advice

To assign a grade that will reflect the amount of learning you have demonstrated
and nothing else
Anil (IITP) | CE 543 - Traffic Engineering and Highway Safety

Meetings/Discussions 8
Anil (IITP) | CE 543 - Traffic Engineering and Highway Safety

Transportation Engineering 9
Overview

Mobility is basic human need

Transport of raw materials to a manufacturing unit or finished goods for consumption
Day to day activities
Development of the human civilization
Correlation between population density and the proximity of transport facilities
Correlation between quality of transport facilities and standard of living
Anil (IITP) | CE 543 - Traffic Engineering and Highway Safety

Transportation Engineering 10
Overview

Planning, design, operation and management of different modes of transportation.

Including transportation of Passengers & goods for domestic and international needs.
Anil (IITP) | CE 543 - Traffic Engineering and Highway Safety

Transportation Engineering 11
Major Disciplines

Transport planning
Geometric Design
Pavement design
Traffic engineering
Anil (IITP) | CE 543 - Traffic Engineering and Highway Safety

Transport Planning 12

Development of a transport model which

will accurately represent both the current
as well as future transportation system
Location of the road projects
Estimation of current and future traffic
volumes
Alternative transportation facilities
Anil (IITP) | CE 543 - Traffic Engineering and Highway Safety

Transportation Demand 13

Cyclic Process...

Planning
Preliminary design
Detailed design
Construction
Operations
Planning.....

This circular, self-reinforcing characteristics of traffic demand creates a central dilemma:

building additional transportation capacity invariably leads to incrementally increased
travel demands
Anil (IITP) | CE 543 - Traffic Engineering and Highway Safety

Geometric Design 14

Physical proportioning of other

transportation facilities
Selection of alignment and dimension of
the road
Understanding site topography
Grade separation, culvert, drains
Visible elements of the highways..
Anil (IITP) | CE 543 - Traffic Engineering and Highway Safety

Pavement Design 15

Structural design of roads - thickness, construction, maintenance

Covers structural aspects, functional aspects and drainage
Anil (IITP) | CE 543 - Traffic Engineering and Highway Safety

Traffic Engineering 16

Focus: safety of the public, efficient use of transportation resources

Understand the traffic flow behavior, assuring safe vehicle movement
Interact with planning, geometric design and pavement design
Anil (IITP) | CE 543 - Traffic Engineering and Highway Safety

Transportation Engineering 17
Other Important Disciplines

Public transportation
Financial and economic analysis
Environmental impact assessment
Accident analysis and reduction
Intelligent transportation systems
Disciplines specific to various modes: Railway engineering, Port and Harbor
engineering, Airport engineering, etc.
Module 1: Traffic Characteristics
Road user characteristics - visual acuity, legibility distance, reading time of signs, visual
field, peripheral vision, hearing, reaction time, walking speed, driver eye height. Vehicle
characteristics – static and dynamic characteristics.
Anil (IITP) | CE 543 - Traffic Engineering and Highway Safety

Traffic Engineering 18
Introduction

Traffic engineering is that phase of transportation engineering which deals with the
planning, geometric design and traffic operations of roads, streets, and highways, their
networks, terminals, abutting lands, and relationships with other modes of transportation.
- Institute of Transportation Engineers

Primary Objective: Safety

Other Objectives: Speed, Comfort, Convenience, Economy, Environmental
compatibility
Anil (IITP) | CE 543 - Traffic Engineering and Highway Safety

Traffic Engineering 19
Introduction

Elements of Traffic Engineering

Traffic Studies and Characteristics

Performance Evaluation
Facility Design
Traffic Control
Traffic Operations
Transportation Systems Management
Integration of ITS technologies
Anil (IITP) | CE 543 - Traffic Engineering and Highway Safety

Traffic Engineering 20
Introduction

Critical Components in a Traffic System

Road Users - drivers, pedestrians,

bicyclists, and passengers
Vehicles - private and commercial
Streets and highways
Traffic control devices
The general environment
Anil (IITP) | CE 543 - Traffic Engineering and Highway Safety

Traffic Engineering 21
Introduction

Dealing with Diversity

The traffic engineer must deal with elderly drivers as well as 18-year old, aggressive, timid
and drivers subject to myriad distractions both inside and outside their vehicles !!

Varying skills and perceptual abilities

A wide range of abilities to hear, see, evaluate, and react to information
Abilities may also vary in an individual under different conditions
Influence of alcohol, fatigue, and the time of day
What is the design value?
E.g. reaction time: 1.5, 2.0, 1.6, 2.4, 1.8, 1.9, 2.1, 1.7, 2.7, 1.3
Anil (IITP) | CE 543 - Traffic Engineering and Highway Safety

Traffic Engineering 22
Introduction

Dealing with Diversity

Most human characteristics follow the normal distribution - characterized by a strong

central tendency - characteristics falling into a definable range
Mean or median values may not be adequate for a large number of drivers
Mean: 1.3, 1.5, 1.6, 1.7, 1.8, 1.9, 2.0, 2.1, 2.4, 2.7

About 50% would be in unacceptable risk

85th percentile and the 95th percentile used (Higher the chosen percentile, the wider
the range covered)
Anil (IITP) | CE 543 - Traffic Engineering and Highway Safety

Traffic Engineering 23
Introduction

Dealing with Diversity

Eg. Walking speed of pedestrians (cross-walk) - 0.9 to 1.5 m/s.

Is it okay to design the facility considering the average speed?
About 50% would be in unacceptable risk
Walking speeds - 15th percentile speed - to account slow walkers
Anil (IITP) | CE 543 - Traffic Engineering and Highway Safety

Traffic Engineering 24
Introduction

Addressing Diversity through Uniformity

Roadways of a similar type and function should have a familiar “look” to drivers
Traffic control devices should be as uniform as possible
Provide information to drivers in uniform ways
May not assure from uniform reaction from drivers - narrows the range of behaviour !!

AVOIDING SURPRISE
Anil (IITP) | CE 543 - Traffic Engineering and Highway Safety

User Characteristics 25

Driver, Pedestrian and Bicyclist

Source: Google Images

Anil (IITP) | CE 543 - Traffic Engineering and Highway Safety

User Characteristics 26
Anil (IITP) | CE 543 - Traffic Engineering and Highway Safety

User Characteristics 27
Anil (IITP) | CE 543 - Traffic Engineering and Highway Safety

Driver Characteristics 28

Physical - Measurable and usually

quantifiable
PRT
Visual factors
Hearing
Psychological - Much more difficult to
measure and quantify
Desired speeds
Desired safety distances
Anil (IITP) | CE 543 - Traffic Engineering and Highway Safety

Driver Characteristics 29
Vision

Principal characteristics of the eye are:

Visual acuity
Peripheral vision
Colour vision
Glare vision and recovery
Depth perception
Anil (IITP) | CE 543 - Traffic Engineering and Highway Safety

Driver Characteristics 30
Visual Acuity

Visual Reception - Visual Acuity

Ability to see fine details of an object

Represented by visual acuity
Two types of visual acuity are of importance in traffic and highway emergencies:
Static acuity
Dynamic acuity

 
L
Visual angle, ϕ = 2 arcsin
2D
Anil (IITP) | CE 543 - Traffic Engineering and Highway Safety

Driver Characteristics 31
Visual Acuity

Static Acuity

Drivers ability to identify an object when both the object and driver are stationary
Background brightness
Contrast
Time
Static acuity increases with increasing illumination up to a brightness of about 3
candles (cd)/sq. ft and then remains constant
When other visual factors are held constant at an acceptable level, the optimal time
required for identification of an object with no relative movement is between 0.5 and
1.0 seconds.
Anil (IITP) | CE 543 - Traffic Engineering and Highway Safety

Driver Characteristics 32
Visual Acuity

Visual features on roads get blurred at high speeds, why?

Anil (IITP) | CE 543 - Traffic Engineering and Highway Safety

Driver Characteristics 33
Visual Acuity

Dynamic Acuity
Drivers ability to clearly detect
relatively moving objects
Most people have
Clear vision
Fairly clear vision
Unclear
Location of traffic information
devices is preferable within the
12 degree cone
Anil (IITP) | CE 543 - Traffic Engineering and Highway Safety

Driver Characteristics 34
Visual Acuity
Anil (IITP) | CE 543 - Traffic Engineering and Highway Safety

Driver Characteristics 35
Visual Acuity

Visual features on roads get blurred at high speeds, why?

With modern virtual reality techniques it is also possi-

ble to show that, at 120 km/h,
30% - paved area and median across a 30
metre wide freeway
15% roadside
55% sky
Drivers will see clearly those devices that are within
the 12 Degrees cone, remaining will be blurred.
Anil (IITP) | CE 543 - Traffic Engineering and Highway Safety

Driver Characteristics 36
Peripheral Vision

Ability of people to see objects beyond

the cone of clearest vision
Although objects can be seen within this
zone, details and color are not clear
Peripheral vision could be upto 160
degrees
Peripheral vision field narrows, as speed
increases, to as little as 100 degrees at
20 mi/h and to 40 degrees at 60 mi/h
Varies with age as well.
Anil (IITP) | CE 543 - Traffic Engineering and Highway Safety

Driver Characteristics 37
Visual Acuity

A person with 20/20 vision has normal vision

A person with 20/40 vision can read lettering at half the distance of the normal.
A person with Vision 20/40
Can read a sign from 20 feet
Normal acuity person can see from distance of 40 feet.

Example: A person with 20/20 vision can read the lettering on a given sign from a distance
of 300 ft. How far away could a person with 20/40 vision read the same sign?
Anil (IITP) | CE 543 - Traffic Engineering and Highway Safety

Driver Characteristics 38
Visual Acuity

Examples

Normal person can read a sign from 180 ft. From what distance can a person with
vision acuity 20/60 can read the sign?

Application: How much upstream of an

exit ramp should the sign be installed?
Anil (IITP) | CE 543 - Traffic Engineering and Highway Safety

Driver Characteristics 39
Colour Vision

Standards for Sign Placement

Anil (IITP) | CE 543 - Traffic Engineering and Highway Safety

Driver Characteristics 40
Colour Vision

Ability to differentiate one colour from another

Deficiency - Colour blindness
Limitations of color blindness can be compensated with sign standardization
Combinations of black and white and black and yellow have been shown to be
those to which the eye is most sensitive
Anil (IITP) | CE 543 - Traffic Engineering and Highway Safety

Driver Characteristics 41
Colour Vision
Anil (IITP) | CE 543 - Traffic Engineering and Highway Safety

Driver Characteristics 42
Glare vision and Recovery

Occurs when the image reflected by the relatively bright light appears in the field of
vision - results in decrease of visibility and discomfort to eyes
Age has a significant effect - at about age 40, a significant change occurs in a
person’s sensitivity to glare,
Time required to recover from the effects of glare after passing the light source - Glare
Recovery
Recovery time
Dark to Light - 3 seconds
Light to Dark - 6 seconds
Glare is a design parameter for street lighting
Anil (IITP) | CE 543 - Traffic Engineering and Highway Safety

Driver Characteristics 43
Depth Perception

Occurs when our brain combines pictures from both eyes into one 3D image
Affects the ability of a driver to estimate speed and distance
Two-lane highways during passing maneuvers
Head-on collisions may result - lack of proper judgement

Human eye is not very good at estimating absolute values of speed, distance, size,
and acceleration !!
Anil (IITP) | CE 543 - Traffic Engineering and Highway Safety

Driver Characteristics 44
Visual Factors
Anil (IITP) | CE 543 - Traffic Engineering and Highway Safety

Driver Characteristics 45
Hearing

The ear receives sound stimuli

Important to drivers only when warning
sounds, usually given out by emergency
vehicles.
Loss of some hearing ability is not a
serious problem - can be corrected by a
hearing aid.
Anil (IITP) | CE 543 - Traffic Engineering and Highway Safety

Driver Characteristics 46
Perception-Reaction Process

Stimulus → Response

Driver response process divided into four

subprocesses:
Perception (P): the driver sees a control device,
warning sign, or object on the road
Identification (I): the driver identifies the object or
control device and thus understands the stimulus
Emotion (E): the driver decides what action to
take in response to the stimulus; for example, to
step on the brake pedal, to pass, to swerve, or to
change lanes
Reaction or Volition (V): the driver initiates the
action decided on during the emotion sub-process
Anil (IITP) | CE 543 - Traffic Engineering and Highway Safety

Driver Characteristics 47
Perception-Reaction Process

PIEV time or Perception-Reaction time

Why is this important?

Important factor for designing facilities
Braking distance
Minimum sight distance required
Length of yellow phase at signalized intersection

The reaction time selected for design purposes should, however, be large enough to
include reaction times for most drivers using the highways.
Anil (IITP) | CE 543 - Traffic Engineering and Highway Safety

Driver Characteristics 48
Perception-Reaction Process

Design Values

Triggs and Harris (1982) - 85th percentile time to brake, obtained from several
situations, varied from 1.26 to over 3 seconds
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO)
recommendations:
For braking reactions on Highways: 2.5 seconds (90th percentile)
For reaction time to traffic signal: 1.0 Second (85th percentile)
2.5 second may not be adequate for unexpected conditions or complex conditions
Vary widely amongst drivers and within driver !!
Anil (IITP) | CE 543 - Traffic Engineering and Highway Safety

Driver Characteristics 49
Perception-Reaction Process

Factors affecting Perception-Reaction Process

Physical and psychological characteristics of driver
Type of the problem involved
Environmental conditions
Temporal factors - purpose of trip, travel speed, fatigue, alcohol consumption
Expectancy - People react quicker to situations they expect to encounter !!
Continuity - Experiences of the immediate past are generally expected to continue
Event - Things that have not happened previously will not happen
Temporal - Drivers will assume change will occur when events are cyclic
Anil (IITP) | CE 543 - Traffic Engineering and Highway Safety

Driver Characteristics 50
Perception-Reaction Process

Controlled Experiment
Case 1: Have prior information
Case 2: Unexpected
Provided signs
PRT under expected situation was
consistently about 0.5 seconds faster
than unexpected situation
Anil (IITP) | CE 543 - Traffic Engineering and Highway Safety

Driver Characteristics 51
Perception-Reaction Process

Performance slows with sleep deprivation. A summary of data (Kribbs, Dinges, 1994) on reaction to an event
marker presented to a subject every 4 seconds or so over a 10-minute period. As reaction time is longer, the
inverse value is reduced, indicating a slowing of the perception/reaction response. The response to an event
marker slows more across time in the sleep-deprived (very sleepy) subject who has had normal amounts of
sleep.
Anil (IITP) | CE 543 - Traffic Engineering and Highway Safety

Driver Characteristics 52
Alcohol and Drugs

Significant contributor to traffic fatalities

and accidents
Blood alcohol limits 0.08%, impairment
of driver functions begins at levels well
below legal limits
Impaired driver leads to poor judgement,
longer PRT times, and actions that can
and do cause accidents
Anil (IITP) | CE 543 - Traffic Engineering and Highway Safety

Driver Characteristics 53
Age Factor - Older Drivers

Decrease in visual acuity starting at age 40

Less light gets into the eye as pupil size decreases and the lens yellows with age
Glare sensitivity increases and recovery takes longer
Contrast sensitivity is poor
Night vision is reduced
More time is required to change focus
Eye movements are slower
Numerous medical problems reduce vision including glaucoma, cataracts, and
diabetes
Medication for visual problems may interfere with vision
Anil (IITP) | CE 543 - Traffic Engineering and Highway Safety

Driver Characteristics 54

DO THESE CHARACTERISTICS MATTER NOW!

Anil (IITP) | CE 543 - Traffic Engineering and Highway Safety

Example Problems 55

Problem 1: How far would a car driving at 100 kph travel during the design PIEV time?
Anil (IITP) | CE 543 - Traffic Engineering and Highway Safety

Example Problems 55

Problem 1: How far would a car driving at 100 kph travel during the design PIEV time?
1000
Solution: 2.5 × 100 × = 69.44m
3600

How much will the braking distance increase if the design PIEV time is assumed to be
35% more?
Anil (IITP) | CE 543 - Traffic Engineering and Highway Safety

Example Problems 55

Problem 1: How far would a car driving at 100 kph travel during the design PIEV time?
1000
Solution: 2.5 × 100 × = 69.44m
3600

How much will the braking distance increase if the design PIEV time is assumed to be
35% more?

Braking distance will not change since the vehicle will continue to move at the same speed
during the PIEV time and only after the PIEV time is the brake applied.
Anil (IITP) | CE 543 - Traffic Engineering and Highway Safety

Example Problems 56

Problem 3: A driver in a vehicle travelling at 95 km/h, shifts her eyes from left to right and
Focuses on construction activities along the right shoulder. Estimate the distance in
meters the vehicle travels as the driver’s eyes shift and fixate.

Solution: The range of time for moving eyes is 0.1 to 0.3 seconds assume that it is 0.2
seconds on average.
The driver also requires about one second to gain information and another 0.2 seconds to
get back to the original sight
Total time required (t) = 0.2+1+0.2 = 1.4 seconds
speed (v) = 95 km/h = 26.39 m/s
Distance travelled = v x t = 26.39 x 1.4 = 36.94 m.
Anil (IITP) | CE 543 - Traffic Engineering and Highway Safety

Pedestrian Characteristics 57

Interactions of vehicles and pedestrians

- one of the most critical safety problem
May influence the design and location of
pedestrian control devices
Most critical group: Very young and very old
Anil (IITP) | CE 543 - Traffic Engineering and Highway Safety

Pedestrian Characteristics 58

The traffic engineer is responsible for designing a safe & convenient facilities for
pedestrians

To save: Small children, elderly, physically handicapped and blind

Information required by the designer are:
Space requirements (needs) for pedestrians
Walking and running speed
Traffic flow characteristics of groups of pedestrians
Anil (IITP) | CE 543 - Traffic Engineering and Highway Safety

Pedestrian Characteristics 59

Space Needs

Shoulder breadth - 61 cm
Body depth - 35 cm
Total area - 61 cm x 35 cm = 0.214 m2
Should provide slightly more spaces - to avoid bodily contact, luggage, etc.
Useful to determine the space needs or capacity where pedestrians are standing
rather than walking

For sidewalks or other pedestrian corridors we should consider the dynamic spatial
requirements for avoiding collisions with other pedestrians
Anil (IITP) | CE 543 - Traffic Engineering and Highway Safety

Pedestrian Characteristics 60

Walking and Running Speed

Walking characteristics play a major part in the design of controls

Minimum green calculation requires knowledge of the walking speeds of pedestrians
Walking speeds vary between 3.0 and 8.0 ft /sec
Significant differences between male and female walking speeds (4.93 ft/s vs. 4.63
ft/s)
Standard waling speed - 4 ft /sec is used for design purposes
Anil (IITP) | CE 543 - Traffic Engineering and Highway Safety

Pedestrian Characteristics 61

Need to consider
Proportion of elderly population
Handicapped pedestrians

If number of elderly people are high -

3.5 ft/sec
Anil (IITP) | CE 543 - Traffic Engineering and Highway Safety

Example Problem 62

Considering the pedestrians cross the road during the adjacent approach green time,
what is the minimum and maximum pedestrian crossing time that can be given for a 6 lane
divided road with a 2 meter median?
Anil (IITP) | CE 543 - Traffic Engineering and Highway Safety

Example Problem 62

Considering the pedestrians cross the road during the adjacent approach green time,
what is the minimum and maximum pedestrian crossing time that can be given for a 6 lane
divided road with a 2 meter median?

Standard lane width - 3.5 m/s

Standard walking speed - 3.5 ft/s = 1.07 m/s
Full distance - 6 x 3.5 + 2 = 23 m.
Crossing time = 21.5 s ≈ 22 seconds
Half distance = 3 x 3.5 = 10.5 m, crossing time = 9.8 s ≈ 10 sec.
Anil (IITP) | CE 543 - Traffic Engineering and Highway Safety

Pedestrian Characteristics 63

Gap Acceptance

Factors: speed of approaching vehicles, the width of the street, the frequency distribution
of gaps in the traffic stream, waiting time
Anil (IITP) | CE 543 - Traffic Engineering and Highway Safety

Bicyclist - Bicycle 64

The basic human factors discussed for

the automobile driver may also apply for
the bicyclist as well - PRT
Unlike the auto-mobile driver, the
bicyclist provides the power to move the
bicycle
Bicycle and the bicyclist unite to form a
joint system

Source: Pixy.org
Anil (IITP) | CE 543 - Traffic Engineering and Highway Safety

Bicyclist - Bicycle 65

Classes of bicyclists - Guide for the Development of Bicycle Facilities by AASHTO.

Experienced or advanced bicyclists (class A) - comfortable ride in traffic
Less experienced bicyclists (class B) - comfortable on designated facilities, bicycle paths
Children riding on their own or with parents (class C) - residential streets
Urban roads may accommodate bicycle facilities for Class A and Class B bicyclists
Unique characteristics
Design speed - 32 km/h
Downhill - 50 km/h
Uphill - 13 km/h
Mean speed while crossing intersection - 13 km/h, Acceleration rate - 1 m/s2
Anil (IITP) | CE 543 - Traffic Engineering and Highway Safety

Vehicle Characteristics 66

Cars, Buses and Trucks

Source: Google Images

Anil (IITP) | CE 543 - Traffic Engineering and Highway Safety

Vehicle Characteristics 67

American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO)

Design Vehicles
Anil (IITP) | CE 543 - Traffic Engineering and Highway Safety

Vehicle Characteristics 68
AASHTO Design Vehicles
Anil (IITP) | CE 543 - Traffic Engineering and Highway Safety

Vehicle Characteristics 69
Design Vehicle

AASHTO - Motor vehicles are classified by into four main categories

Passenger cars-all passenger cars, SUVs, minivans, vans, and pickup trucks
Buses-intercity motor coaches, transit buses, school buses, and articulated buses
Trucks-single-unit trucks, tractor-trailer, and tractor-semi-trailer combination vehicles
Recreational vehicles-motor homes, cars with various types of trailers (boat, campers,
motorcycles, etc.)

How to determine a design vehicle??

Anil (IITP) | CE 543 - Traffic Engineering and Highway Safety

Vehicle Characteristics 70
Design Vehicle

How to determine a design vehicle? - Use largest design vehicle that a facility will see with
some frequency (should cover 95% or more of vehicle mix)

Parking Lot: Passenger car (accounting for emergency vehicle)

Residential street intersection: Single-unit truck
State highways and city streets that serve bus traffic but with relatively few Large
trucks: City transit bus
Highway and low-volume county intersection: Large school bus
Freeway ramp intersection or industrialized streets: WB-65
Anil (IITP) | CE 543 - Traffic Engineering and Highway Safety

Vehicle Characteristics 71

Design of roadway elements are partly based on:

Static - Physical dimensions and axle weight
kinematic - motion of the vehicle without considering the forces that cause the motion
- Engine characteristics
Dynamic - forces that cause the motion of the vehicle
Anil (IITP) | CE 543 - Traffic Engineering and Highway Safety

Vehicle Characteristics 72

Static Characteristics
Where are the static characteristics useful?
Physical dimensions are used in
Lane width
Shoulder width
Length and width of parking bays
Length of vertical curves

Axle weights are used in

Pavement design - layer thickness
Maximum grades
Anil (IITP) | CE 543 - Traffic Engineering and Highway Safety

Vehicle Characteristics 73
Anil (IITP) | CE 543 - Traffic Engineering and Highway Safety

Vehicle Characteristics 74

Kinematic Characteristics
Involve the motion of the vehicle without considering the forces that causes motion
Acceleration capabilities
Dimensioning freeway ramps, passing lanes
Determines the forces that causes motion
Gap acceptance models

Two cases of interest

Acceleration assumed constant ??
Acceleration as a function of velocity ??
Anil (IITP) | CE 543 - Traffic Engineering and Highway Safety

Vehicle Characteristics 75
Kinematic Characteristics

Acceleration is assumed as constant

May not be correct
Acce capability of vehicle at time t is related to the speed of the vehicle at that time (ut )
Lower the speed, higher the acceleration
Anil (IITP) | CE 543 - Traffic Engineering and Highway Safety

Vehicle Characteristics 76
Kinematic Characteristics

Acceleration is assumed as constant

ẍ = a

d ẋ
=a
dt

ẋ = at + C1

1 2
at + C1 t + C2x=
2
The constants C1 and C2 are either determined by (i) initial conditions on velocity and
position (or) using the known positions of the vehicle at two different times.
Anil (IITP) | CE 543 - Traffic Engineering and Highway Safety

Vehicle Characteristics 77
Kinematic Characteristics

Acceleration as a function of velocity

Assuming the generally accepted equation for acceleration, if a passenger car is traveling
at a speed of ut , after t seconds, what is its speed and the distance travelled?
Solution

dut
= α − βut
dt
After derivation, the velocity and the position
are as follows:
α
1 − exp−βt + uo exp−βt


ut =
β
 
α α
uo
t− 2 1 − exp−βt + 1 − exp−βt


x=
β β β
Anil (IITP) | CE 543 - Traffic Engineering and Highway Safety

Example Problem 78

The acceleration of a vehicle can be represented by the following equations

dut
= 1 − 0.04u (1)
dt
where u is the vehicle speed in m/s. If the vehicle is travelling at 70 km/h, determine its
velocity after 5 sec of acceleration and the distance travelled during that time.
Anil (IITP) | CE 543 - Traffic Engineering and Highway Safety

Vehicle Characteristics 79
Dynamic Characteristics

Several forces act on a vehicle while it is in motion

Air resistance
Grade resistance
Rolling resistance
Curve resistance
Anil (IITP) | CE 543 - Traffic Engineering and Highway Safety

Vehicle Characteristics 80
Dynamic Characteristics

Air Resistance: Resistance of the air in front as well as the force due to the friction action
of the air around the vehicle in motion

Ra ∝ Au 2

Ra = Ca Au 2

Note: Aerodynamic drag coefficient higher for trucks than cars

Anil (IITP) | CE 543 - Traffic Engineering and Highway Safety

Vehicle Characteristics 81
Dynamic Characteristics

Grade Resistance:
Additional work has to be done to keep
the vehicle in same speed as of Level -
to move up an incline
Force due to a component of the weight
of the vehicle acts in a direction opposite
that of the motion - Vehicle will tend to
lose speed

Rg = weight × grade (2)

Anil (IITP) | CE 543 - Traffic Engineering and Highway Safety

Vehicle Characteristics 82
Dynamic Characteristics

Rolling Resistance:
Mainly the frictional slip between vehicle and the type of pavement
Depends on the speed of the vehicle and the type of pavement.
Lower on smooth pavements than on rough pavements

Rr = mfg
m is mass of the vehicle, f is Co-efficient of rolling resistance.
Anil (IITP) | CE 543 - Traffic Engineering and Highway Safety

Vehicle Characteristics 83
Dynamic Characteristics

Curve Resistance:
When manoeuvring a curve, components of external forces act on the front wheels.
Retarding effect on forward motion of vehicles
Depends on radius of the curve, the gross weight of the vehicle, and the velocity at
which the vehicle is moving.

Wu 2
Rc ∝
R
Anil (IITP) | CE 543 - Traffic Engineering and Highway Safety

Vehicle Characteristics 84
Dynamic Characteristics

Power Requirements
Work done by the engine to overcome air, grade, curve and frictional resistances - to
vehicle in motion
Rate at which work is done
Expressed in Horsepower

0.278Ru
P= (3)
760
P is horsepower delivered, R is sum of resistance to motion (in Newtons), and u is the
speed of the vehicle (km/h).
Anil (IITP) | CE 543 - Traffic Engineering and Highway Safety

Applications 85

Critical to determine
Action of forces on the vehicle and the effect of PRT
Braking distance - Distance travelled from the time brake applied to the vehicle comes
to rest
Minimum radius of a circular curve required for vehicle travelling around a curve

Horizontal distance, Db = x cos γ, not the inclined distance

Anil (IITP) | CE 543 - Traffic Engineering and Highway Safety

Applications 86
Braking Distance

Vehicle moving on a downhill

Grade and rolling resistance
Air resistance ignored

W
Σf = ma → W sin γ − Wf cos γ = a
g
Assuming vehicle will come to stationary position:
Db = x cos γ
W −u 2
W sin γ − Wf cos γ = (4)
g 2x
Wu 2 u2 u2
Divide Eq. (5) with cos γ → = f − tan γ → Db = =
2gDb 2g(f − tan γ) 2g(f − G)
Anil (IITP) | CE 543 - Traffic Engineering and Highway Safety

Applications 87
Braking Distance

A similar equation could be be developed for a vehicle travelling uphill:

u2
Db =
2g(f + G)
A general equation for the braking distance can therefore be written as:

u2
Db =
2g(f ± G)
Distance travelled in reducing the speed of a vehicle from u1 to u2 during a braking
manoeuvrer:

u12 − u22
Db =
2g(f ± G)
Anil (IITP) | CE 543 - Traffic Engineering and Highway Safety

Example Problems 88

Problem 1: A motorist travelling at 65 mi/h on an express way intends to leave the

express way using an exit ramp with a maximum speed of 35 mi/h. At what point on the
express way should the motorist step on her brakes in order to reduce her speed to the
maximum allowable on the ramp just before entering the ramp, if this section of the
express way has a downgrade of 3%?

Problem 2: A motorist travelling at 55 mi/h down a grade of 5% on a highway observes a

crash ahead of him, involving an overturned truck that is completely blocking the road. If
motorist was able to stop his vehicle 30 ft from the overturned truck, what was his distance
from the truck when he first observed the crash? Assume perception-reaction time = 2.5
sec.
Anil (IITP) | CE 543 - Traffic Engineering and Highway Safety

Applications 89
Radius of Curve

Road is inclined towards the centre of the curve

(called superelevation) to balance the centripetal
acceleration
Equilibrium with respect to the incline
Equate centrifugal force with counteracting forces

Wac W u2
ΣFc = mac = = = W sin α + Wfs cos α
g g R
u2 u2 u2
Divide Eq. (5) with cos α → = tan α + fs → R = =
gR g(tan α − fs ) g(e + fs )
Anil (IITP) | CE 543 - Traffic Engineering and Highway Safety

Applications 90
Radius of Curve

u2
R= (5)
g(e + fs )
To reduce R, either e of fs or both should be increased
For expressways in urban areas, a maximum superelevation rate of 0.08 is used
Anil (IITP) | CE 543 - Traffic Engineering and Highway Safety

Road Characteristics 91

Stopping Sight Distance, Passing Sight Distance

Source: Google Images

Anil (IITP) | CE 543 - Traffic Engineering and Highway Safety

Sight Distance 92

Length of roadway a driver can see ahead at any time

SD must be such that, at design speed, driver has adequate time to make the
necessary evasive manoeuvre without colliding the object
Two types of SD are
Stopping sight distance
Passing sight distance
Anil (IITP) | CE 543 - Traffic Engineering and Highway Safety

Stopping Sight Distance 93

Minimum sight distance available on a highway at any spot having sufficient length to
enable the driver to stop a vehicle travelling at design speed, safely without collision
with any other obstruction
Sight distance depends on
Feature of the road ahead
Height of the drivers eye above the road surface
Height of the the object above the road surface
Anil (IITP) | CE 543 - Traffic Engineering and Highway Safety

Stopping Sight Distance 94

The stopping distance of a vehicle is the sum of

Lag Distance - Distance travelled by the vehicle during reaction time
Braking Distance - Distance travelled by the vehicle after the application of brakes, to
a dead stop position
Anil (IITP) | CE 543 - Traffic Engineering and Highway Safety

Stopping Sight Distance 95

Factors affecting SSD

Total reaction time of driver
Speed of vehicles
Efficiency of brakes
Frictional resistance between road and tyre
Gradient of road

v2
SSD = Vt + (6)
2g (f ± G)
Anil (IITP) | CE 543 - Traffic Engineering and Highway Safety

Stopping Sight Distance 96

Remarks

Minimum SSD = SSD for single lane one-way traffic.

Roads with restricted width and single lane roads with two-way traffic - TWICE the
stopping distance
SSD should be provided throughout all roads - Absolute Minimum Sight Distance
If not, speed should be restricted by a warning sign and suitable speed limit regulation
sign
Upgrades - SSDs are shorter
Downgrades - SSDs are longer
Anil (IITP) | CE 543 - Traffic Engineering and Highway Safety

Stopping Sight Distance 97

Remarks

When the stimulus is unexpected, may need longer SSDs are required - PRT is much
longer - DECISION SIGHT DISTANCE
Anil (IITP) | CE 543 - Traffic Engineering and Highway Safety

Passing Sight Distance 98

Minimum SD required on a two-lane, two way highway to complete a passing

manoeuvre without colliding with an opposing vehicle and without cutting off the
passed vehicle.
Also allows to successfully abort the passing manoeuvre
Only single passes considered (single vehicle passing a single vehicle)
multiple passing maneuvers is not practical for minimum design criteria based design
Anil (IITP) | CE 543 - Traffic Engineering and Highway Safety

Passing Sight Distance 99

The vehicle being passed (impeder) is traveling at a uniform speed

The speed of the passing vehicle is reduced and is behind the impeder as the passing
section is entered.
On arrival at a passing section, some time elapses during which the driver decides
whether to undertake the passing maneuver.
If the decision is made to pass, the passing vehicle is accelerated during the passing
maneuver, and the average passing speed is about 10 mi/h more than the speed of
the impeder vehicle.
A suitable clearance exists between the passing vehicle and any opposing vehicle
when the passing vehicle reenters the right lane.
Anil (IITP) | CE 543 - Traffic Engineering and Highway Safety

Passing Sight Distance 100

Anil (IITP) | CE 543 - Traffic Engineering and Highway Safety

Passing Sight Distance 101

Anil (IITP) | CE 543 - Traffic Engineering and Highway Safety

Passing Sight Distance 102

Anil (IITP) | CE 543 - Traffic Engineering and Highway Safety

Passing Sight Distance 103

Anil (IITP) | CE 543 - Traffic Engineering and Highway Safety

Passing Sight Distance 104

Anil (IITP) | CE 543 - Traffic Engineering and Highway Safety

Passing Sight Distance 105

d1 - Initial maneuver distance

d2 - Distance while passing vehicle
occupies left lane
d3 - Clearance length
d4 - Distance traversed by an opposing
vehicle

Source: The Green Book

PSD = d1 + d2 + d3 + d4
Anil (IITP) | CE 543 - Traffic Engineering and Highway Safety

Passing Sight Distance 106

d1 - Initial maneuver distance - two

components
A time for PRT
Interval during driver brings the vehicle
from trailing speed to the point of
encroachment
 
at1
d1 = t1 u−m+
2
d2 - Distance while passing vehicle
occupies left lane - Will occupy around
9.3 to 10.4 s.
Source: The Green Book
d2 = ut2
where u=average speed of passing vehicle, m=difference in speeds of passing and impeder vehicles, t1 =time for initial maneuver,
t2 = time passing vehicle is traveling in left lane.
Anil (IITP) | CE 543 - Traffic Engineering and Highway Safety

Overtaking Sight Distance 107

AASHTO Method

d3 - Clearance length - around 30 to 75

m
d4 - Distance traversed by an opposing
vehicle
Should be the distance traversed by an
opposing vehicle during the entire time
it takes to pass or during the time the
passing vehicle is in the left lane
2d2
d4 =
3
Anil (IITP) | CE 543 - Traffic Engineering and Highway Safety

Passing Sight Distance 108

AASHTO-Recommended Values
Anil (IITP) | CE 543 - Traffic Engineering and Highway Safety

Overtaking Sight Distance 109

IRC Approach

Notation
V= Initial speed of overtaking vehicle
vb = speed of overtaken vehicle
t= reaction time of the driver
a= acceleration of overtaking vehicle
Anil (IITP) | CE 543 - Traffic Engineering and Highway Safety

Overtaking Sight Distance 110

IRC Approach

The vehicle A is forced to reduce its speed to the speed of slow vehicle

d1 = vb t (7)
where vb =speed of slow moving vehicle, t is reaction time of driver (usually taken as 2
seconds as per IRC standards)
Anil (IITP) | CE 543 - Traffic Engineering and Highway Safety

Overtaking Sight Distance 111

IRC Approach

Maintain space s till A finds an oppurtunity for safe overtaking operation

s = (0.7vb + 6)m
Minimum distance between A2-B1 and B2-A3 assumed to be same.
aT 2
d2 = b + 2s = vb T + (8)
2
r
aT 2 4s
Here b = vb T ; 2s = →T = → d2 = vb T + 2s
2 a
Anil (IITP) | CE 543 - Traffic Engineering and Highway Safety

Overtaking Sight Distance 112

IRC Approach

The distance travelled by vehicle C moving at design speed v during the overtaking
operation time (T) is the distance between C1 and C2

d3 = vT (9)

OSD = vb t + vb T + 2s + vT (10)

Minimum overtaking distance = d1+d2+d3 for two-way traffic

On divided highways, where there is no opposing traffic OSD= d1+d2
Anil (IITP) | CE 543 - Traffic Engineering and Highway Safety

Overtaking Sight Distance 113

Effect of Gradient

Descending Grades
Overtaking vehicle - Easy to accelerate and pass
Overtaken vehicle - Also covers greater distance

Ascending Grades
Overtaking vehicle - acceleration will be less
Overtaken vehicle - heavy loads - may get compensated.

Milder gradients (up to ruling gradient for plain and rolling terrains) - OSD can Be taken as
in level road

For steeper grades - OSD should be greater than the minimum OSD required at level
Anil (IITP) | CE 543 - Traffic Engineering and Highway Safety

Overtaking Sight Distance 114

Overtaking Zones

Provided when OSD cannot be provided throughout the length of the highway
Min length of overtaking zone = 3 × OSD
Desirable length = 5 × OSD
Anil (IITP) | CE 543 - Traffic Engineering and Highway Safety

Example Problems 115

The speed of overtaking and overtaken vehicles on a highway are 85 kmph and 70 kmph
respectively. Calculate the overtaking sight-distance needed for two way traffic. Assume
the acceleration of the overtaking vehicle as 2.5 kmph per second and the speed of the
vehicle in the opposite direction as 85 kmph

Calculate safe OSD using IRC and AASHTO approaches.

Calculate minimum and desirable length of overtaking zone
Draw a neat sketch of the overtaking zone and show the position of the sign post.
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 Bachu Anilkumar
IIT Patna
[email protected]

Thank You !!