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The Human Immune System

Immunity: The defense capacity of the body
to combat diseases.
Introduction to Immune System: Molecules, cells, tissues,
Human Immune and organs that provide non-specific and
System specific protection against microorganisms,
microbial toxins, and tumor cells.

The Human Immune System The Human Immune System

Immune Response – the way our body The immune system protects the body from
recognizes and defends itself against possible harmful substances by recognizing
bacteria, viruses, and other substances that and responding to such substances called
appear foreign and harmful. Antigens.

The Human Immune System Types of Immunity

3 Major Functions • Inborn or innate immunity: It is present
1. Protection from disease-causing invaders. at birth; this is our first line of defense.

2. Removal of dead or damaged tissues and • Acquired or specific: It is not present at

cells. birth but becomes part of our immune
system as the lymphoid system develops.
3. Recognition and removal of abnormal
cells.
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Types of Immunity
The two types of • Inborn or innate immunity: It is present
immune system: at birth; this is our first line of defense.
Immune 1. Innate - fast-acting, • Acquired or specific: It is not present at
System non-specific birth but becomes part of our immune
system as the lymphoid system develops.
2. Adaptive- slower
response, pathogen-specific

Immune System Immune System

The innate immune response involves
• Barrier defenses like the skin, mucous membranes, and secretions. In
humans and most vertebrates, the skin with other ectodermal
derivatives is the first line of defense against infection. That is why it
is important to wash hands with soap and water frequently. If there is
an invading pathogen like a virus (or bacteria or any foreign
substance), the body reacts through mucous secretions. Even the saliva
contains agents which are antimicrobial.
• Internal defenses of the innate immune response consist of phagocytic
cells, natural killer cells, antimicrobial proteins (interferons; the
complement system) and the inflammatory response (that involves
histamines, mast cells, and cytokines).

Immune System Adaptive Immunity

The adaptive immune response (for vertebrates only) 1. The Humoral response- production and secretion of
involves the recognition of traits specific to particular antibodies or immunoglobulins against specific antigens (any
pathogens using a vast array of receptors. Without the innate foreign body/structure- pollen, bacteria, virus, dust). The
immune response, the adaptive immune response cannot be humoral immune response (B-cells) targets extracellular
activated, because the innate immune response gives the rest pathogens. Antibodies are produced by cells that secrete them
of the immune system signals that say there is a real threat in the bloodstream or display them in the surface of some
to the body that must be eliminated. The adaptive immune cells, ready to face and combat any antigen.
response is made possible because of:
2. Cell mediated response- occurs when cytotoxic cells
defend the body against infection. The development of B and
T cells, memory cells and plasma cells are important aspects
of cell mediated immune mechanism.
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Immune System
Acute inflammation can be good since it activates the
Immune System
immune response, but chronic inflammation (e.g., arthritis, Antibody is a protein produced by
psoriasis, irritable bowel disease) is bad because it ultimately our immune system to specifically
leads to tissue damage. Therefore, stopping inflammation is not bind a target. Usually, these
targets are parts of pathogens.
always a good thing. For example, you need to have a fever to
really mount a full-blown response against a pathogen so taking
paracetamol when you have a mild fever (below 38.3OC) for Antigen is a substance / part of
example, may not always be a good thing since you may lose the pathogen that generate an
sterilizing effects of the fever and dampen the danger signals immune response. Usually this
response leads to the production of
that activate the adaptive immune response. However, it is still a specific “antibody” for the given
best to get medical advice on how to treat disease. target. .

Immune System
The adaptive immune response has two aspects: the humeral
and cellular response. The humeral response is due to the
production of antibodies by B-cells. B cells are white blood
cells that develop and mature in the bone marrow. B cells are
activated when they encounter antigen in the lymph nodes.
Activated B cells produce antibodies, proteins that recognize
and bind to specific parts of the pathogen, called antigens.
Each B cell produces only one antibody which recognizes only
one kind of antigen (specificity)

Immune System Immune System

The adaptive immune response has two aspects: the humeral Antibodies are part of a large family of chemicals called immunoglobulins, which
play many roles in the immune response:
and cellular response. The humeral response is due to the Five Major Types of Antibodies
production of antibodies by B-cells. B cells are white blood
A. IgM is the first antibody produced. It coats the pathogen and promotes
cells that develop and mature in the bone marrow. B cells are endocytosis by macrophages.
activated when they encounter antigen in the lymph nodes. B. IgG is a major antibody produced. It activates the other parts of the immune
Activated B cells produce antibodies, proteins that recognize response and leads to neutralization and destruction of the pathogen.
and bind to specific parts of the pathogen, called antigens. C. IgA is an important antibody for the mucosal immune response. It prevents
pathogens from crossing the epithelium and entering the bloodstream.
Each B cell produces only one antibody which recognizes only
one kind of antigen (specificity) D. IgE activates mast cells and leads to histamine production, which is why it is
also associated with allergic reactions.
E. IgD. (The role of this antibody is still unclear at this point.)
Antibodies lock onto the antigen, but they do not kill it, they only mark it for death.
The killing is the job of other cells, such as phagocytes.
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Immune System
The antibody response is best suited to combat pathogens
that survive outside of the cell, such as bacteria, fungi, and
some worms.
Most vaccines today contain an adjuvant (substance that
activates the innate immune response) along with a protein
Immune antigen from the pathogen, or an inactivated version of the
pathogen which stimulates B cells to produce antibodies
System against the pathogen. After getting the vaccine, you now have
cells that remember the pathogen and can act quickly when
you actually get infected with the disease-causing organism.
This memory of the B cells and quick response prevents the
person from feeling any symptoms of the disease

Immune System Immune System

The 3 major types of T cells
The adaptive immune system is due to the production of T A. Cytotoxic T cells recognize virus-infected cells and kill
cells. T cells are white blood cells that are produced in the them.
bone marrow and mature in the thymus. T cells are activated
B. Helper T cells secrete proteins that help other immune
when they encounter antigens in the lymph nodes. However,
cells (B cells, macrophages, etc.) survive and perform their
unlike B cells, T cells need to recognize an antigen in the
function.
context of self-molecules called major histocompatibility
complex (MHC) molecules. C. Regulatory T cells control the immune response by
turning it off. This prevents the immune system from
harming the body.

Immune System
Immune System Our white blood cells are in different
places in the body, which are referred
White blood cells to as lymphoid organs. These include
the following:
- a type of blood cell that is made in the
bone marrow and found in the blood Thymus – a gland between the lungs
and just below the neck.
and lymph tissue. White blood cells are
part of the body’s immune system. Spleen – an organ that filters the
blood. It sits in the upper left of the
- also known, scientifically, as abdomen.
leukocytes. Bone marrow – found in the center of
the bones; it also produces red blood
cells.
Lymph nodes – small glands
positioned throughout the body, linked
by lymphatic vessels.
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Immune System Immune System

There are two main types of leukocytes: There are two main types of leukocytes:
1. Phagocytes – these cells surround and 2. Lymphocytes – help the body to
absorb pathogens and break them down,
effectively eating them. remember previous invaders and
recognize them if they come back to
There are several types, including: attack again.
Neutrophils – these are the most common
type of phagocyte and tend to attack Lymphocytes begin their life in bone
bacteria. marrow. Some stay in the marrow and
develop into B lymphocytes (B cells),
Monocytes – these are the largest type and
several roles. others head to the thymus and become T
lymphocytes (T cells).
Macrophages – these patrol for pathogens
and also remove dead and dying cells. These two cell types have different roles.
Mast cells – they have many jobs, including
helping to heal wounds and defend against
pathogens.

Immune System Immune System

Lymphocytes begin their life in bone marrow. Some stay in the marrow Lymphocytes begin their life in bone marrow. Some stay in the marrow
and develop into B lymphocytes (B cells), others head to the thymus and develop into B lymphocytes (B cells), others head to the thymus
and become T lymphocytes (T cells). and become T lymphocytes (T cells).
These two cell types have different roles. These two cell types have different roles.
B lymphocytes – produce antibodies and help alert the T lymphocytes. B lymphocytes – produce antibodies and help alert the T lymphocytes.
Antibodies attach to a specific antigen and make it easier for the Antibodies attach to a specific antigen and make it easier for the
immune cells to destroy the antigen. immune cells to destroy the antigen.
T lymphocytes – destroy compromised cells in the body and help alert T lymphocytes – destroy compromised cells in the body and help alert
other leukocytes. They also releases chemicals, known as cytokines, other leukocytes. They also releases chemicals, known as cytokines,
which control the entire immune response. which control the entire immune response.

Immune System Immune System

The Role of B lymphocytes The Role of T-lymphocytes

• Spots antigen and begin secreting antibodies. There are distinct types of T-lymphocytes:

• Antibodies are special proteins that lock on to specific antigens. Helper T cells (Th cells) – they
coordinate with other cells, and some
• Each B cells makes one specific antibody. stimulate B cells to produce more
antibodies. Others attract more T cells or
cell-eating phagocytes.
Killer T cells (Cytotoxic T
lymphocytes) – as the name suggests,
these T cells attack other cells. They are
particularly useful for fighting viruses.
They work by recognizing small parts of
the virus on the outside of infected cells
and destroy the infected cells.
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Cell-mediated Immunity Cell immunity protects the body by:

Cell-mediated immunity (CMI) is an immune response that does not 1. Activating antigen-specific cytotoxic T-lymphocytes (CTLs) that are
involve antibodies, but rather involves the activation if macrophages able to destroy body cells displaying epitopes of foreign antigen on their
and NK-Cells, the production of antigen-specific cytotoxic T- surface, such as virus-infected cells, cells with intracellular bacteria, and
lymphocytes, and the release of various cytokines in response to cancer cells displaying tumor antigens; can
an antigen.

Cell immunity protects the body by: Cell immunity protects the body by:
2. Activating macrophages and NK cells, enabling them to destroy 3. Stimulating cells to secrete a variety of cytokines that influence the
intracellular pathogens; and function of other cells involved in adaptive immune responses and innate
immune responses.

Cell immunity protects the body by: Components of the Innate Immune System
Cell-mediated immunity is directed primarily
microbes that survive in phagocytes and microbes that
Chemical Defenses:
infect non-phagocyte cells.
Enzymes in body fluids,
It destroys virus-infected cells, intracellular such as saliva and
bacteria, and cancers most effectively.
stomach acid, can break
It also plays a major role in delayed transplant down or neutralize
rejection. pathogens.
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Components of the Innate Immune Components of the Innate Immune

System System
Phagocytes:
Natural Killer (NK) Cells:
White blood cells called phagocytes engulf and digest pathogens through
a process called phagocytosis. NK cells are a type of white blood cells that can recognize and destroy
infected or abnormal cells.

Components of the Innate Immune Components of the Adaptive

System Immune System
Complement System: B Cells:
A group of proteins that work together to enhance immune responses, B cells produce antibodies
including opsonization, inflammation, and lysis of pathogens. (immunoglobulins) that recognize
and bind to specific antigens on
pathogens.
This process helps neutralize or mark
pathogens for destruction by other
immune cells.

Components of the Adaptive Components of the Adaptive

Immune System Immune System
Antigen-Presenting Cells (APCs):
T Cells:
T cells play a central role in cell-mediated immunity. APCs, such as dendritic cells and macrophages, capture and process antigens
from pathogens.
They can directly attack infected or abnormal cells and also regulate
immune responses.
They then presents these antigens to T cells, triggering specific immune
responses.
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Components of the Adaptive

Immune System
Immune System
Memory Cells: Immunizations
Immunization introduces antigens or
B and T cells can develop into weakened pathogens to a person in
memory cells after an initial such a way that the individual does
encounter with a pathogen.
not become sick, but still produces
antibodies.
These memory cells “remember”
the pathogen and allow for a quicker For the reason that the body saves
and more effective response if the copies of the antibodies, it is protected
same pathogen is encountered again. if the threat should reappear later in
life.

Immune System Immune System

Immune System Disorders In some cases, immunodeficiencies can
be inherited, for instance, in chronic
Types of immune disorder fall into granulomatous disease where
three categories: phagocyted do not function properly.
1. Immunodeficiencies
These arise when one or more parts of
the immune system do not function.
Immunodeficiencies can be caused in a
number of ways, including age,
obesity, and alcoholism.
Example: AIDS

Immune System Immune System

2. Autoimmunity 3. Hypersensitivity
In autoimmune conditions, the With hypersensitivity, the immune
immune system mistakenly targets system overreacts, damaging healthy
healthy cells, rather than foreign tissue.
pathogens or faulty cells.
An example is anaphylactic shock,
In this scenario, they cannot where the body responds to an allergen
distinguish self from non-self. so strongly that it can be life-
threatening.
Autoimmune diseases include celiac
disease, type 1 diabetes, rheumatoid
arthritis, and Graves’ disease.
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Immune System Immune System

Inflammation Inflammation
The inflammatory response occurs The chemicals also attract
when tissues are injured by bacteria, white blood cells called
trauma, toxins, heat, or any other phagocytes that “eat” germs
cause.
and dead or damaged cells.
The damaged cells release chemicals
including histamine, bradykinin, and This process is called
prostaglandins. phagocytosis.
These chemicals caused blood vessels Pus is formed from a collection
to leak fluids into the tissue, causing of dead tissue, dead bacteria,
swelling. and live and dead phagocytes.
This helps isolate the foreign
substance from further contact with
body tissues.

Immune System
Allergy
- body’s reaction to a normally
harmless substance including pollen,
molds, animal dander, latex, certain
food and insect stings.
Allergy symptoms range from mild –
rash or hives, itchiness, runny
nose, watery/red eyes – to life-
TONICITY
threatening repercussions.
Treatments include antihistamines,
decongestants, nasal steroids, asthma
medicines, and immunotherapy.
,

There are three main terms used to describe the

tonicity of a solution compared to another solution:
Tonicity
Tonicity is a term used to describe the relative solute 1. Hypertonic
concentration of two solutions separated by a semipermeable
membrane, such as a cell membrane. 2. Hypotonic

It indicates how a solution will affect the volume and shape of 3. Isotonic
cells when they are placed in that solution.
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Hypertonic Solutions Hypertonic Solutions

Solutions that has a higher solute Hypertonic solutions have a higher
concentration that the solution it is solute concentration than the
being compared to. patient’s blood.
When a cell is placed in a They are used to draw water out of
hypertonic solution, water cells and into the bloodstream,
molecules tend to move out of the making them useful for treating
cells by osmosis, causing the cell to conditions like cerebral edema or
shrink or shrivel. hyponatremia (low blood sodium
levels.)

Hypertonic Solutions Hypotonic Solutions

1. 3% Saline (3% NaCl): this
A hypotonic solution has a lower
solution is hypertonic and is used
to treat severe hyponatremia and
solute concentration than the
cerebral edema cases. solution it is being compared to.

2. 5% Dextrose in 0.9% Saline When a cell is placed in a hypotonic

(D5NS): solution, water molecules tend to
move into the cell by osmosis,
Dextrose (glucose) is a source of causing the cell to swell or burst if
energy. Adding to a normal saline
the membrane cannot handle the
creates a hypertonic solution used in
specific medical situations such as
pressure.
preventing hypoglycemia in diabetic Distilled water is an example of a
patients. treat hypotonic solution.

Hypotonic Solutions Isotonic Solutions

1. 0.45% Saline (0.45% NaCl): An isotonic solution has the same
Also known as half-normal solute concentration as the solution
saline, this solution is used to is being compared to.
treat conditions where there is a
need for water replacement, When a cell is placed in an isotonic
such as dehydration. solution, there is no net movement
2. 5% Dextrose in Water (D5W): of water, and the cell maintains its
while dextrose is a sugar, at normal shape.
concentrations of 5% or less, it is
considered isotonic. However, Normal saline (0.9% NaCl) is an
once the dextrose is metabolized, example of an isotonic solution.
D5W becomes hypotonic.
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Tonicity
Isotonic Solutions in Red Blood Cells
1. 0.9% Saline (0.9% NaCl): also known as normal saline, this In red blood cells, which lack cell
solution is commonly used for fluid replacement and to treat walls, tonicity is particularly
dehydration, hemorrhage, and shock. significant.
2. Lactated Ringer’s Solution: this solution contains If the red blood cells are placed in a
electrolytes like sodium, potassium, and calcium, as well as hypotonic solution, they can swell
lactate. It is used to restore fluid volume and electrolyte and burst (hemolysis), while in a
balance. hypertonic solution, they can
3. 5% Dextrose in 0.225% Saline (D5¼NS): this solution shrink (crenation).
contains both dextrose and a lower concentration of saline,
making it slightly hypotonic after the dextrose is metabolized.
It can be used to provide water and energy.