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Summary
 Sure, I'll provide explanations and derivations for each of your questions:

### 1. Transfer Functions for Data Hold Circuits

#### i. Zero Order Hold (ZOH) Circuit

16 25
A Zero Order Hold (ZOH) circuit holds the sampled value constant until the next sample is taken. The
transfer function of a ZOH can be derived as follows:

1. ∗∗ 𝐼𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑒 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑒 ∗∗ : 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑒 \( ℎ(𝑡) \) 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑍𝑂𝐻 𝑖𝑠:

\[
ℎ(𝑡) =
\𝑏𝑒𝑔𝑖𝑛{𝑐𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠}

1, & 0 \𝑙𝑒 𝑡 < 𝑇 \\

0, & \𝑡𝑒𝑥𝑡{𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒}
\𝑒𝑛𝑑{𝑐𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠}
\]
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 \( 𝑇 \) 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑.

2.∗∗ 𝐿𝑎𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐼𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑒 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑒 ∗∗:

\[
𝐻(𝑠) = \𝑖𝑛𝑡_{0}^{𝑇} 𝑒^{−𝑠𝑡} 𝑑𝑡 = \𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐{1 − 𝑒^{−𝑠𝑇}}{𝑠}
\]

3.∗∗ 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝐹𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ∗∗:

𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 \( 𝐻(𝑠) \) 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑍𝑂𝐻 𝑖𝑠:
\[

𝐻(𝑠) = \𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐{1 − 𝑒^{−𝑠𝑇}}{𝑠}

\]

#### ii. First Order Hold (FOH) Circuit

26 23
A First Order Hold (FOH) circuit linearly interpolates between samples. The transfer function of an
FOH can be derived as follows:

21
1. **Impulse Response**: The impulse response \( h(t) \) of an FOH is:
\[
ℎ(𝑡) =
\𝑏𝑒𝑔𝑖𝑛{𝑐𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠}

1 − \𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐{𝑡}{𝑇}, & 0 \𝑙𝑒 𝑡 < 𝑇 \\

0, & \𝑡𝑒𝑥𝑡{𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒}
\𝑒𝑛𝑑{𝑐𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠}

\]

2.∗∗ 𝐿𝑎𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐼𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑒 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑒 ∗∗:

\[
𝐻(𝑠) = \𝑖𝑛𝑡_{0}^{𝑇} \𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡(1 − \𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐{𝑡}{𝑇}\𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡) 𝑒^{−𝑠𝑡} 𝑑𝑡
= \𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐{1 − 𝑒^{−𝑠𝑇}(1 + 𝑠𝑇)}{𝑠^2𝑇}
\]

3. **Transfer Function**:
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 \( 𝐻(𝑠) \) 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑛 𝐹𝑂𝐻 𝑖𝑠:

\[
𝐻(𝑠) = \𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐{1 − 𝑒^{−𝑠𝑇}(1 + 𝑠𝑇)}{𝑠^2𝑇}
\]

### 2. Summarize Sampling: Advantages, Applications, and Limitations

5
**Sampling** is the process of converting a continuous-time signal into a discrete-time signal by
taking periodic samples of the continuous signal.

**Advantages:**

- **Digital Control Systems**: Easier to implement complex control algorithms using digital
controllers.
 9
- **Noise Immunity**: Digital signals are less susceptible to noise and interference compared to
analog signals.

- **Storage and Processing**: Easier to store and process digital signals using computers.

**Applications:**

- **Digital Signal Processing (DSP)**: Used in audio, video processing, and communication systems.

- **Control Systems**: Used in industrial automation and control applications.

- **Medical Electronics**: Used in imaging systems and monitoring devices.

**Limitations:**
14
- **Aliasing**: If the sampling rate is too low, high-frequency components of the signal can be
misinterpreted as lower frequencies.

- **Quantization Error**: Discretizing the signal introduces quantization error.

- **Computational Load**: High sampling rates require more processing power and memory.

11
### 3. Mapping Between S-Plane and Z-Plane

27
The mapping between the S-Plane and the Z-Plane is crucial for analyzing and designing digital
control systems. The bilinear transformation is a common method used for this mapping.

**Bilinear Transformation**:
\[ 𝑧 = 𝑒^{𝑠𝑇} \]
\[ 𝑠 = \𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐{2}{𝑇} \𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐{1 − 𝑧^{−1}}{1 + 𝑧^{−1}} \]

**Properties**:
1
- **Stability**: The left-half S-plane maps to the inside of the unit circle in the Z-plane.

- **Frequency Response**: The imaginary axis in the S-plane maps to the unit circle in the Z-plane.

### 4. Properties/Theorems of Z-Transforms

#### i. Shifting Theorem

**Time Shifting**:
8
𝐼𝑓 \( 𝑋(𝑧) \) 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑍 − 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑜𝑓 \( 𝑥[𝑛] \), 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑍 − 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑜𝑓 \( 𝑥[𝑛
− 𝑘] \) 𝑖𝑠 \( 𝑧^{−𝑘} 𝑋(𝑧) \).

**Proof**:

\[
8
\𝑚𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑐𝑎𝑙{𝑍}\{𝑥[𝑛 − 𝑘]\} = \𝑠𝑢𝑚_{𝑛 = −\𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑡𝑦}^{\𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑡𝑦} 𝑥[𝑛 − 𝑘] 𝑧^{−𝑛}
= 𝑧^{−𝑘} \𝑠𝑢𝑚_{𝑚 = −\𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑡𝑦}^{\𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑡𝑦} 𝑥[𝑚] 𝑧^{−𝑚} = 𝑧^{−𝑘} 𝑋(𝑧)
\]

#### ii. Complex Translation Theorem

**Translation in the Z-Domain**:

𝐼𝑓 \( 𝑋(𝑧) \) 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑍 − 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑜𝑓 \( 𝑥[𝑛] \), 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑍
− 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑜𝑓 \( 𝑎^𝑛 𝑥[𝑛] \) 𝑖𝑠 \( 𝑋\𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡(\𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐{𝑧}{𝑎}\𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡) \).

#### iii. Complex Differentiation and Partial Differentiation Theorem

**Differentiation Theorem**:

𝐼𝑓 \( 𝑋(𝑧) \) 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑍 − 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑜𝑓 \( 𝑥[𝑛] \), 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑍 − 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑜𝑓 \( 𝑛 𝑥[𝑛] \) 𝑖𝑠:
\[

\𝑚𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑐𝑎𝑙{𝑍}\{𝑛 𝑥[𝑛]\} = −𝑧 \𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐{𝑑𝑋(𝑧)}{𝑑𝑧}

\]

### 5. State Space Representation Forms

15
**State Space Representation**:
20
The state space representation of a system involves expressing the system dynamics using a set of
first-order differential (or difference) equations.

**Forms**:

- **Canonical Form**: Involves representing the system using state variables that directly correspond
to the system's physical states.
 - **Controllable Canonical Form**: Arranges the state equations to emphasize the controllability of
the system.

- **Observable Canonical Form**: Arranges the state equations to emphasize the observability of
the system.

24
### 6. Controllability of Discrete Time Control System

4
A discrete time control system is controllable if it is possible to move the system from any initial state
to any desired final state in a finite number of steps.

**Controllability Matrix**:

\[ \𝑚𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑐𝑎𝑙{𝐶} = [𝐵, 𝐴𝐵, 𝐴^2𝐵,\𝑙𝑑𝑜𝑡𝑠, 𝐴^{𝑛 − 1}𝐵] \]

10 22
The system is controllable if the controllability matrix has full rank (i.e., its rank is equal to the
number of state variables).

7
### 7. Stability Conditions of Closed Loop Systems in the Z-Plane and S-Plane

3
**Stability in the S-Plane**:

- A continuous-time system is stable if all poles of its transfer function lie in the left-half S-plane.

**Stability in the Z-Plane**:

6
- A discrete-time system is stable if all poles of its transfer function lie inside the unit circle in the Z-
plane.

7
### 8. Mapping Constant Damping Loci from S-Plane to Z-Plane

1
To map constant damping loci from the S-plane to the Z-plane, use the bilinear transformation. The
28 19
damping ratio \(\zeta\) and natural frequency \(\omega_n\) in the S-plane correspond to specific
regions in the Z-plane.

12
### 9. Full Order Observer with Block Diagram
**Full Order Observer**:

A full-order observer estimates all the state variables of the system.

**Block Diagram**:
2
1. **System Model**: Represents the actual system dynamics.

2. **Observer Model**: Estimates the system states.

17
3. **Feedback Gain**: Corrects the observer state estimates based on the error between the
measured output and the estimated output.

**Explanation**:
2
The observer uses the system inputs and outputs to generate an estimate of the internal state
2
variables. The feedback gain is designed to ensure that the estimation error converges to zero.

### 10. Design of Digital Control System with State Feedback and Dynamic Output Feedback

**State Feedback**:

- Uses the state variables to generate a control signal.

13
- Control Law: \( 𝑢[𝑛] = −𝐾𝑥[𝑛] \), where \( K \) is the feedback gain matrix.

**Dynamic Output Feedback**:

- Uses output measurements to design the feedback.

- Involves designing an observer to estimate the states and using these estimates for feedback.

**Design Steps**:

1. **Model the System**: Obtain the state space representation.

18
2. **Design the Controller**: Choose \( K \) to place the closed-loop poles in desired locations.

3. **Design the Observer**: Choose observer gain \( L \) to ensure fast convergence of state
estimates.

4. **Combine Controller and Observer**: Implement the control law using the estimated states from
the observer.

**Block Diagram**:
1. **System Dynamics**: Represented by ( 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶, 𝐷 ).

2. **State Feedback Controller**: Computes control signal based on state estimates.

3. **Observer**: Estimates states based on system inputs and outputs.

4. **Output**: Controlled system output.

This comprehensive approach ensures that the system follows the desired performance and stability
criteria. If you need more detailed derivations or specific examples, feel free to ask!
 Similarity Report ID: oid:3618:63297526

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