Rules of probability:

1. Probability Range:
• Probability values range from 0 to 1, where 0 indicates an impossible
event, and 1 indicates a certain event. The probability of any event is
always between 0 and 1.
2. Complementary Rule:
• The probability of the complement of an event (not A, denoted as �′A′ or
��Ac) is equal to 1 minus the probability of the event �A.
�(�′)=1−�(�)P(A′)=1−P(A)
3. Addition Rule for Mutually Exclusive Events:
• For mutually exclusive events (events that cannot occur at the same time),
the probability of the union of these events is the sum of their individual
probabilities. �(�∪�)=�(�)+�(�)P(A∪B)=P(A)+P(B)
4. Multiplication Rule for Independent Events:
• For independent events (the occurrence of one event does not affect the
occurrence of the other), the probability of the intersection of these events
is the product of their individual probabilities.
�(�∩�)=�(�)×�(�)P(A∩B)=P(A)×P(B)
5. General Addition Rule:
• For any two events, the probability of the union of these events is given by
the sum of their individual probabilities minus the probability of their
intersection.
�(�∪�)=�(�)+�(�)−�(�∩�)P(A∪B)=P(A)+P(B)−P(A∩B)
6. Conditional Probability:
• The probability of event A given that event B has occurred is denoted as
�(�∣�)P(A∣B) and is calculated as the probability of the intersection of
A and B divided by the probability of B.
�(�∣�)=�(�∩�)�(�)P(A∣B)=P(B)P(A∩B)

These rules form the foundation of probability theory and are used to analyze and solve
various probability problems in different fields such as statistics, mathematics, and
science.
The sum of all probability outcomes:

The sum of all probabilities in a sample space is always equal to 1. This is a fundamental
property of probability.

Mathematically, for a sample space �S and events �1,�2,...,��A1,A2,...,An that

form a partition of �S (meaning the events are mutually exclusive and exhaustive, i.e.,
exactly one of the events must occur), the sum of their probabilities is equal to 1:

�(�)=�(�1)+�(�2)+…+�(��)=1P(S)=P(A1)+P(A2)+…+P(An)=1

This makes sense intuitively because, in any given situation, one of the possible
outcomes in the sample space must occur. Therefore, the sum of the probabilities of all
possible outcomes is 1.

Emperical probability:

Empirical probability, also known as experimental probability, is a type of probability

that is based on direct observations or experiments. Instead of using theoretical
calculations or models, empirical probability relies on actual data collected through
experimentation or observation.

Here's how you can calculate empirical probability:

1. Conduct Experiments or Observations:

• Gather data by conducting experiments or making observations related to
the event of interest.
2. Count the Favorable Outcomes:
• Identify the number of times the event of interest occurs (favorable
outcomes).
3. Count the Total Outcomes:
• Determine the total number of trials or observations.
4. Calculate Empirical Probability:
• The empirical probability (�empiricalPempirical) is calculated as the ratio
of the number of favorable outcomes to the total number of outcomes.
�empirical=Number of Favorable OutcomesTotal Number of Outc
omesPempirical=Total Number of OutcomesNumber of Favorable Outcomes
Empirical probability is particularly useful when dealing with real-world situations where
it may be challenging to determine theoretical probabilities. It provides an estimate of
the likelihood of an event based on observed data.

For example, if you toss a coin 100 times and observe that it lands on heads 45 times,
the empirical probability of getting heads would be 45100=0.45 10045=0.45 or 45%. As
the number of trials increases, the empirical probability tends to approach the
theoretical probability predicted by probability theory.
Classical probability:

- an approach to the understanding of probability based on the assumptions that any random
process has a given set of possible outcomes and that each possible outcome is equally likely to
occur.

Experimental probability:

- Experimental probability is the actual result of an experiment, which may be different from the
theoretical probability. Example: you conduct an experiment where you flip a coin 100 times.
The theoretical probability is 50% heads, 50% tails. The actual outcome of your experiment may
be 47 heads, 53 tails.

What's the probability of 2 mutually exclusive events:

- A and B are mutually exclusive events if they cannot occur at the same time. This means that A
and B do not share any outcomes and P(A AND B) = 0

Permutation and combination:

- In mathematics, combination and permutation are two different ways of grouping elements of a
set into subsets. In a combination, the elements of the subset can be listed in any order. In a
permutation, the elements of the subset are listed in a specific order.

Independent and dependent events:

- An independent event is an event in which the outcome isn't affected by another event. A
dependent event is affected by the outcome of a second event.

Conditional probability:

- Conditional probability refers to the chances that some outcome occurs given that another event
has also occurred. It is often stated as the probability of B given A and is written as P(B|A),
where the probability of B depends on that of A happening.
A school musical director can select 2 musical place to present next year. 1 will be presented in the fall
and 1 in the spring. If she has 9 to pick from how many different possibilities are there.

In this scenario, the school musical director needs to choose two musical pieces, one for
the fall and one for the spring, from a total of 9 available options. Since the order in
which she chooses the musical pieces matters (the fall choice is different from the spring
choice), we are dealing with permutations.

The number of ways to choose �r items from a set of �n distinct items, where order
matters, is given by the permutation formula:

�(�,�)=�!(�−�)!P(n,r)=(n−r)!n!

In this case, the musical director needs to choose 2 musical pieces from 9, and the order
matters. Therefore, the number of different possibilities is given by:

�(9,2)=9!(9−2)!=9!7!P(9,2)=(9−2)!9!=7!9!

Simplifying the expression:

�(9,2)=9×82×1=36P(9,2)=2×19×8=36

So, there are 36 different possibilities for the school musical director to select 2 musical
pieces for the fall and spring presentations from the 9 available options.
What is the number of permutations of 6 different objects taken all together.:

The number of permutations of �n distinct objects taken all together is denoted as

�(�,�)P(n,n) and is given by the formula:

�(�,�)=�!(�−�)!=�!P(n,n)=(n−n)!n!=n!

This formula simplifies because the term (�−�)!(n−n)! becomes 0!0!, and 0!0! is
defined to be 1. Therefore, the number of permutations of 6 different objects taken all
together is:

�(6,6)=6!=6×5×4×3×2×1=720P(6,6)=6!=6×5×4×3×2×1=720

So, there are 720 different permutations of 6 distinct objects taken all together.
A card is drawn from a deck and replaced, and the second card is drawn. Find the probability of getting a
queen and an ace.

When a card is drawn from a deck and then replaced, it means the deck is returned to
its original state before the second card is drawn. Since the events are independent
(drawing the first card does not affect the outcome of drawing the second card), you
can find the probability of each event separately and then multiply the probabilities.

Let's denote:

• Event �Q: Drawing a queen on the first draw.

• Event �A: Drawing an ace on the second draw.

The probability of drawing a queen (�(�)P(Q)) is the number of queens in a standard

deck divided by the total number of cards: �(�)=452=113P(Q)=524=131

The probability of drawing an ace (�(�)P(A)) is the number of aces in a standard

deck divided by the total number of cards: �(�)=452=113P(A)=524=131

Since the events are independent, the probability of both events happening is the
product of their individual probabilities:
�(� and �)=�(�)×�(�)P(Q and A)=P(Q)×P(A)

�(� and �)=113×113=1169P(Q and A)=131×131=1691

So, the probability of drawing a queen and an ace in two consecutive draws with
replacement is 11691691.

Probability of getting 6 when rolling a dice

When rolling a fair six-sided die, each face has an equal probability of 1661 of landing
face up. Since there is only one face with a 6, the probability of rolling a 6 is:

�(rolling a 6)=16P(rolling a 6)=61

This is because there is 1 favorable outcome (rolling a 6) out of the 6 possible outcomes
(rolling a 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6). The probability is expressed as a fraction, where the
numerator represents the number of favorable outcomes, and the denominator
represents the total number of possible outcomes. In this case, 11 (favorable outcome)
divided by 66 (possible outcomes).