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Geometry and Its
Applications
Geometry and Its
Applications
Third Edition

Walter J. Meyer
Third edition published 2022
by CRC Press
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300, Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
and by CRC Press
4 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN
© 2022 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
[First edition published by Elsevier 1999]
[Second edition published by Elsevier 2006]
CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
The right of Walter Meyer to be identified as author of this work has been
asserted by him in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs,
and Patents Act 1988.
Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but
the author and publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all
materials or the consequences of their use. The authors and publishers have
attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in this
publication — we apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this
form has not been obtained. If any copyright material has not been
acknowledged, please write and let us know so we may rectify it in any future
reprint.
Except as permitted under US Copyright Law, no part of this book may be
reprinted, reproduced, transmitted, or utilized in any form by any electronic,
mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including
photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any information storage or
retrieval system, without written permission from the publishers.
For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, access
www.copyright.com or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc. (CCC), 222
Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978-750-8400. For works that are not
available on CCC please contact [email protected]
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered
trademarks and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to
infringe.

Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data

A catalog record has been requested for this book

ISBN: 978-0-367-18798-9 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-0-367-68999-5 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-0-429-19832-8 (ebk)

DOI: 10.1201/9780429198328

Typeset in Palatino
by MPS Limited, Dehradun
Contents

To the Instructor .................................................................................................. vii

To the Student........................................................................................................ix
Dependencies..........................................................................................................xi
Course Outlines .................................................................................................. xiii
List of Glimpses ....................................................................................................xv

1. The Axiomatic Method in Geometry ........................................................1

Section 1. Axioms for Euclidean Geometry ...............................................1

2. The Euclidean Heritage ..............................................................................17

Section 1. Congruence..................................................................................17
Section 2. Perpendicularity .........................................................................31
Section 3. Parallelism ...................................................................................48
Section 4. Area and Similarity....................................................................65

3. Non-Euclidean Geometry........................................................................... 79
Section 1. Hyperbolic and Other Non-Euclidean Geometries.............. 79
Section 2. Spherical Geometry – A Three‐Dimensional View.............. 93
Section 3. Spherical Geometry – An Axiomatic View .........................106
Section 4. The Relative Consistency of Hyperbolic Geometry...........115

4. Transformation Geometry I: Isometries and Symmetries................129

Section 1. Isometries and Their Invariants.............................................129
Section 2. Composing Isometries .............................................................140
Section 3. There Are Only Four Kinds of Isometries...........................152
Section 4. Symmetries of Patterns ...........................................................162
Section 5. What Combinations of Symmetries Can Strip
Patterns Have? .......................................................................... 171

5. Vectors in Geometry .................................................................................179

Section 1. Parametric Equations of Lines ...............................................179
Section 2. Scalar Products, Planes, and the Hidden
Surface Problem........................................................................ 197
Section 3. Norms, Spheres and the Global Positioning System.........210
Section 4. Curve Fitting With Splines..................................................... 222

6. Transformation Geometry II: Isometries and Matrices ....................235

Section 1. Equations and Matrices for Familiar
Transformations........................................................................ 235

v
vi Contents

Section 2. Composition and Matrix Multiplication ..............................246

Section 3. Frames and How to Represent Them .................................. 256
Section 4. Properties of the Frame Matrix .............................................265
Section 5. Forward Kinematics for a Simple Robot Arm....................273

7. Transformation Geometry III: Similarity, Inversion and

Projections ...................................................................................................287
Section 1. Central Similarity and Other Similarity
Transformations in the Plane .................................................287
Section 2. Inversion .................................................................................... 296
Section 3. Perspective Projection and Image Formation .....................306
Section 4. Parallelism and Vanishing Points of a
Perspective Projection.............................................................. 322
Section 5. Parallel Projection.....................................................................334

8. Graphs, Maps and Polyhedra ................................................................. 351

Section 1. Introduction to Graph Theory ...............................................351
Section 2. Euler’s Formula and the Euler Number ..............................373
Section 3. Polyhedra, Combinatorial Structure,
and Planar Maps ......................................................................385
Section 4. Special Kinds of Polyhedra: Regular Polyhedra and
Fullerenes................................................................................... 399

Bibliography ........................................................................................................ 411

Answers to Even-Numbered Exercises ..........................................................413
Index .....................................................................................................................463
To the Instructor

This book is meant to provide a balanced and diversified view of

geometry—modern as well as ancient, axiomatic as well as intuitive, applied
as well as pure, and with some history. We cover Euclid in a more rigorous
and foundational style than students have studied in high school. We also
cover modern ideas, especially ones which show applied geometry. The book
is completely accessible for upper-division mathematics majors. Although
there may be new topics here, nothing is particularly advanced—for the most
part, it all grows directly out of Euclid.
It is a moderately large book so that instructors can design a variety of
courses for different students. We have used it for the following:
• Students who wish to become secondary school teachers and need a
deeper look at Euclid apart from their high school course.
• A course to provide students, especially those of computer science,
with an applied view of modern geometry.
• Graduate students who want to diversify and have a glimpse of
newer geometry.
• Students for whom axiomatics and alternative geometries are
appropriate.

Below are some pointers of how to put together such courses.

A glance at our dependency chart (which follows) shows that not much
is needed from earlier college mathematics courses (more detailed
descriptions of prerequisites are given at the start of each chapter). What
students need is the maturity to deal with proofs and a few careful
calculations but calculation is less than in a calculus course). We also want
students to witness applied geometry; nearly every section of the book
offers an opportunity to introduce or elaborate on an application. Finally,
we want students to see that geometry is part of human culture, so we
included a number of historical vignettes.
In writing this book, I am aware of the many people and organizations
who have shaped my thoughts. I learned a good deal about applications of
geometry at the Grumman Corporation (now Northrop-Grumman) while
in charge of a robotics research program, when I had the opportunity to
teach this material at Adelphi University, and during a year spent as a
Visiting Professor at the US Military Academy at West Point. In particular,
I thank my cadets and my students at Adelphi for finding errors and
suggesting improvements in earlier drafts. Appreciation is due to NSF, the
Sloan Foundation, and COMAP for involving me in programs dedicated to

vii
viii To the Instructor

the improvement of geometry at both collegiate and secondary levels.

Finally, I wish to thank numerous individuals with whom I have been in
contact about geometry, in general, and this book in particular: Joseph
Malkevitch, Donald Crowe, Robert Bumcrot, Andrew Gleason, Branko
Grünbaum, Victor Klee, Greg Lupton, John Oprea, Brigitte Selvatius,
Marie Vanisko, and Sol Garfunkel.
To the Student

The main novelty of this book is that it presents a wider view of geometry
than the Euclidean geometry you will recall from high school. Here, you
will find modern as well as ancient geometry, applied as well as pure
geometry, all spiced with historical vignettes.
There are a number of advantages from this presentation of geometry:
1. Most of the topics are useful. Many of them are being applied
today, for example, in software we use everyday. An important
objective of this book is to introduce applications of geometry,
including the study of symmetry (useful in graphic design),
chemistry, topics in computer science and robotics. About half the
pages of the book concern an application or are part of the theory
that supports an application.
2. There are a few long and complicated calculations where learning
the steps is the main task but understanding the ideas is just as
important.
3. There are parts of this book that help prepare you for advanced
mathematics courses, especially abstract algebra.
4. There are jobs that use geometry—especially the vector geometry of
Chapters 5, 6 and 7.
5. Euclid is well-represented for those who wish to become secondary
school teachers.

How to use this book

Many students study a mathematics course by just examining the worked
examples and hoping this will enable them to work the exercises. But
our exercises are seldom close copies of worked examples. To prepare
for the exercises, you should—with the help of the text and your
professor—follow the storyline of the topic, understand the concepts,
and study the proofs. Finally, it has been repeatedly shown that students
do better if they have a well‐matched study partner.
To understand some machines, people are trained to take them apart and
put them together again blindfolded. We don’t recommend studying
geometry blindfolded, but we do recommend studying the proofs in the
text with that level of attention so you can easily reproduce them.

ix
x To the Student

A bonus
This book is one of the most student-centred courses of study you will
encounter in college. In most courses, you have to accept a lot of what
you are told because you don’t have the time, the energy, or the resources
to verify it for yourself. Is water really composed of hydrogen and
oxygen? Are the Great Lakes salty? Save yourself the trouble and ask
your instructor.
But you can check out the facts of geometry as we present them in this
book. The method is called ’proof’, and you can learn it.
There is a lot in this book and we hope you will take advantage of it.
Dependencies

A student with a modest knowledge of Euclidean geometry—who knows

how to multiply matrices and (for an optional section) has a grasp of
differential calculus—can study this book. Here are the dependencies
among the chapters: items in ellipses are matters presumed from other
studies, but the amount is slight and can be provided by the instructor to
make the geometry class more self-contained. The dotted line signifies some
reference that might be made to axioms of 3-dimensional geometry.
However, one can skip these matters and rely on the students’ intuitions.

Ch. 1. The Axiomatic Slight knowledge of

Method in Geometry 3rd semester
translation, rotation,
calculus
reflection

Ch. 2. The
Euclidean Heritage
Ch. 5. Vectors in
Ch. 4. Transformation Geometry
Ch. 3. Non-Euclidean Geometry I: Isometries
Geometry and Symmetries

Matrix multiplication 3D visualization

Ch. 6. Transformation Ch. 7. Transformation Ch. 8. Graphs, Maps and

Geometry II: Isometries Geometry III: Similarity, Polyhedra
and Matrices Inversion and Projections

xi
Course Outlines

Euclidean Geometry for Prospective Teachers

• Chapter 1. Perhaps skip Axioms for Three‐Dimensional Geometry

and Axioms for Areas and Volume, and go a little light on Interiors
of Angles. The idea is to move quickly into Chapter 2 before
students get bogged down.
• Chapter 2. This is the heart of such a course, but with greater
emphasis on the first three sections on Congruence, Perpendicularity,
and Parallelism.
• Chapter 3. If one wants a point of view on foundations. If not,
proceed to Chapter 4.
• Chapter 4. This is Transformation Geometry, which is an extended
application of Euclidean geometry. Applications in art and design;
composition of isometries—this paves the way for the abstract view
found in Modern Algebra courses.

Applied Geometry
For students of the applied sciences, especially computer science
students wishing to take a mathematics course with applications.

• Chapter 5. Students previously learned this in a calculus or linear

algebra course, but not the geometric point of view or the
applications.
• Chapter 6. Using matrices to represent transformations.
• Chapter 7. Image formation, thought to be an old hat aspect of
projective geometry, has come roaring back for computer vision
and computer graphics.

Topics in Geometry for Graduate Students

For graduate students wanting advanced and diversified glimpses of
geometry.

• Chapter 3. From the point of view of foundations.

xiii
xiv Course Outlines

• Chapter 5. The computational point of view with modern

applications.
• Chapter 8. A look at problems of recent interest in two and three
dimensions.

Axiomatic and Alternative Geometries

For the philosophically inclined, or those headed to graduate school.

• Chapter 1. To be done carefully.

• Chapter 2. If the students are confident in elementary Euclidean,
then the emphasis here should be on the rigour and the role of the
axioms.
• Chapter 3. Non-Euclidean geometry.
Glimpses

Glimpses of Applications

A Glimpse of Application: Mathematics and Building Chapter 2 Section 1

A Glimpse of Application: Thales Estimates Distance Chapter 2 Section 1
A Glimpse of Application: Fermat and the Behavior of Light Chapter 2 Section 2
A Glimpse of Application: Eratosthenes Measures the Earth Chapter 2 Section 3
A Glimpse of Application: The Hidden Surface Problem Chapter 5 Section 2
A Glimpse of Application: Longitude Chapter 5 Section 3
A Glimpse of Application: Stereographic Projection Chapter 7 Section 2
A Glimpse of Application: Modeling Molecules Chapter 8 Section 1

Glimpses of History

A Glimpse of History: The Tragedy of Giordano Bruno Chapter 1 Section 1

A Glimpse of History: The Life of Georgy Voronoi Chapter 2 Section 2
A Glimpse of History: Bolyai, Gauss, Lobachevsky Chapter 3 Section 1
A Glimpse of History: Johann Lambert, A Chapter 3 Section 2
One-Man Band
A Glimpse of History: Josiah Gibbs, the Master Chapter 5 Section 1
of Vectors
A Glimpse of History: Cayley, Mister Matrix Chapter 6 Section 2
A Glimpse of History: Albrecht Dürer, Mathematics Chapter 7 Section 3
and Art
A Glimpse of History: Johannes Kepler Chapter 8 Section 4

xv
xvi Glimpses

Main Applications

Subject Section Area of Application

Deliveries 2.2 Operations research

Pattern recognition 2.2 Computer vision
Rigidity of frameworks 2.3 Building
Modern astronomy 3.1 Astronomy
Shortcomings of maps 3.2 Cartography
Symmetry 5.4 Art
San Ildefonso Pueblo designs 4.5 Art
Does this robot hit the pothole? 5.1 Robotics
Does this robot go through the 5.1 Robotics
doorway?
Is this point in the polygon? 5.1 Robotics
Will this robot hit the desk? 5.1 Robotics
Will this X-ray hit the tumour? 5.1 Medicine
Stereographic vision 5.1 Computer vision
Global positioning system 5.3 Geolocation
Magnifying a curve 5.4 Computer graphics
Curve fitting with splines 5.4 Engineering
Computer graphics: waving the flag 6.1 Computer graphics
Robbie, the robot, turns 6.2 Robotics
Robbie’s location and orientation 6.3 Robotics
Computer vision 6.3 Computer vision
Robot collision avoidance 6.3 (Example 6.11) Robotics
Moving a robot arm 6.5 Robotics
A scaling up by pixels 7.1 Computer graphics
Circular motion goes straight 7.2 (Figure 7.12) Mechanical engineering
Image formation: perspective 7.3 Computer vision and
projection graphics
Stereographic projection 7.3 (Figure 7.17) Cartography
Scheduling a symposium 8.1 Operations research
The Euler number and computer vision 8.2 Computer vision
Fullerene molecules 8.4 Chemistry
1
The Axiomatic Method in Geometry

We human beings are at home with the physical world—our senses guide
our movements and help us estimate sizes. But from earliest times, we have
wanted to know things about our physical world that our senses and
measuring instruments could not tell us—for example, what is the cir-
cumference of the earth? For this, we needed the kinds of geometry we will
explore in this book: axiomatic geometry. This means that we start with
assumptions people are willing to accept as true (perhaps “for the sake of
argument”) and use logical arguments based on these agreed-upon prin-
ciples, instead of our senses. The process is called deduction and the starting
principles are called axioms.
Geometry, that of Euclid in particular (which we start with), has paid
dividends for over 2,000 years, but there are still frontiers to explore. For
example, the development of robots has led to the desire to mimic whatever
mysterious processes our human minds do, through geometry, to move
about in the world safely and effectively.

Prerequisites:
high school mathematics,
the notation of set theory (in just a few places)

Section 1. Axioms for Euclidean Geometry

In this section, we describe the basic principles from which we drive ev-
erything else in our study of Euclidean geometry. These basic principles are
called axioms. We then carry out rigorous proofs of the first few deductions
from this axiom set.
Our axiom set is a descendant of the five axioms provided by Euclid, but
there are some differences. There are two main reasons why we do not use
Euclid’s axioms as he originally gave them:

1. Euclid phrases his axioms in a way which is hard for the modern
reader to appreciate.
2. It has been necessary to add axioms to Euclid’s set to be able to give
rigorous proofs of many Euclidean theorems.

DOI: 10.1201/9780429198328-1 1
2 Geometry and Its Applications

A number of individuals, and at least one committee, have taken turns in

improving Euclid’s axiom set: notably, David Hilbert in 1899, G. D. Birkhoff
in 1932, and the School Mathematics Study Group (SMSG) during the 1960s.
Even though these axiom sets differ from one another—and from
Euclid’s—they all lead to the well-known theorems in Euclid’s Elements.
Consequently, we say that they are all axiom sets for Euclidean geometry.
The axioms we list below for our use are a minor rewording of the SMSG
axiom set.
As we embark on our study of axiomatic Euclidean geometry, you will
be asked to consider proofs of some statements you may have learned
before. To enter the spirit of our study, you must put aside what you have
learned before or find obvious. In earlier sections, we have relied on some
geometry you have previously learned but in this section, we strive to
construct proofs only from the axioms we are about to list, and any the-
orems we have previously proved from those axioms. Keep in mind that
our objective in our axiomatic discussion of Euclidean geometry is not to
learn facts about geometry, but to learn about the logical structure of
geometry.

Axioms About Points on Lines

Axiom 1: The Point-Line Incidence Axiom.

Given any two different points, there is exactly one line which contains
them.

We denote the line connecting A and B by AB . Our first theorem about lines
uses proof by contradiction or indirect proof. It is based on the idea that the
truths of Euclidean geometry do not contradict one another; if you reason
correctly on true statements, then you can never deduce a statement that
contradicts another which is known to be true. If you do find a contra-
diction, then one of the statements you have been reasoning from must be
false. In our proof, we will make a supposition and show that it leads to a
contradiction. This proves the supposition false.

Theorem 1.1: Two lines cross in at most one point.

Proof: Suppose lines L and M contain the two points A and B, then A and B
would have two lines containing them, violating Axiom 1. This contradiction
shows that our supposition that L and M contain two points must be false. ■

Our next axiom is just a mathematical way of saying what everyone who
has ever used a ruler will find familiar: a line “comes with” a set of nu-
merical markings we can use for calculations and proofs.
The Axiomatic Method in Geometry 3

Axiom 2: Ruler Axiom

For any line, there exists a 1-1 correspondence f between the points of the
line and the real numbers. This means:

1. Every point A on the line has a number f(A) associated with it.
2. Different points have different numbers associated with them.
3. Every number, positive or negative, has some point to which it is
associated.

The function f is called the ruler function for that line. The number f(A) is
called the coordinate of A.

This axiom allows us to use the properties of the real numbers to find out
things about lines. For example, there are infinitely many real numbers, so
we must have infinitely many corresponding points on a line. The ruler
axiom also allows us to define the key geometric ideas of distance and
betweenness.

Definitions: Let A, B. and C be three points on a line and f be the ruler

function for that line.

1. We say B is between A and C if either f(A) < f(B) < f(C) or f(C) < f(B) < f(A).
We write A-B-C to indicate that B is between A and C. C-B-A is the same
as A-B-C.
2. The segment from A to B, denoted AB, is defined to be the set
consisting of A, B, and all points X where A-X-B.
3. The distance from A to B is defined to be |f(B) − f(A)| and we denote
this distance by AB. Note that if A and B designate the same point,
AB = 0.
4. If AB = CD, then the segments AB and CD are called congruent.
Theorem 1.2:

1. AB = BA
2. If A-B-C, then AB + BC = AC
3. If A, B, C are three different points on a line, exactly one of them is
between the other two.
Proof:

1. AB = |f(B) − f (A)| = |− [ f (A) − f (B)]| = |f(A) − f(B)| = BA

2. There are two cases. First, suppose f(A) < f(B) < f (C). Then,
4 Geometry and Its Applications

AB + BC = |f (B) f (A)| + |f (C ) f (B)|

= f ( B) f (A) + f (C ) f (B)
= f (C ) f (A)
= |f (C ) f (A)|
= AC

We leave the second case as an exercise.

3. Let a, b, c be the coordinates of A, B, C according to the ruler
function for the line they lie on. It is a well-known fact about
numbers that, out of three different numbers, exactly one can lie
between the other two. Consequently, by definition of what it
means for one point to be between two others, the result follows. ■

The following theorem was assumed as an axiom by Euclid. If Euclid had

included our Ruler Axiom among his, then, of course, he would not have
needed to assume what we are about to prove.

Theorem 1.3: Extendibility

If A and B are any two points, then the segment AB can be extended by any
positive distance on either side of segment AB (Figure 1.1).

Proof: Let e > 0 be the amount of extension wanted. Let’s say we want to
extend past B to a point C, so that B is between A and C and BC = e. Let a
and b be the real numbers f(A) and f(B) under the ruler function for the
line AB .

Case 1: a < b (Figure 1.1). Then, define c = b + e. By part 3 of the ruler axiom,
there is a point C which corresponds to the number c. C is the point we want
since:

a. B is between A and C (since a < b < b + e).

b. BC = |f(C) − f(B)| = |(b + e) − b| = |e| = e since e > 0.

FIGURE 1.1
The Ruler Function helps extend segment AB.
The Axiomatic Method in Geometry 5

Case 2: a > b. We leave this as an exercise.

⌘

A Glimpse of History. The Tragedy of Giordano Bruno.

FIGURE 1.2
Statue of Giordano Bruno. (Photograph by the author.)
6 Geometry and Its Applications

The statue shown here shows an Italian scholar of the 16th century,
Giordano Bruno. It stands in the Campo de Florio in Rome, where tourists
crowd the many restaurants at night. No doubt that they find it pleasing to
dine in the shadow of history, having no idea that what is commemorated
by the statue is gruesome. Bruno was burnt alive in this very spot because
he professed many ideas that were deeply upsetting to the power structure
of the time. One of Bruno’s heretical ideas comes right from Euclid—our
Theorem 1.3. Bruno deduced from Euclid’s version that the universe must
be infinite if you can always extend segments to be longer. He concluded
further (and this is not in Euclid) that in an infinite universe, there would be
many worlds like our own. This contradicted the prevailing idea that the
earth was the centre of—and the very reason for—God’s creation of the
universe. ■

Theorem 1.4: The Midpoint Theorem

Every segment has a midpoint. That is, for any points A and B, there is a
point M on segment AB so that AM = (1/2)AB. ■
Proof: We leave this as an exercise. ■

The Midpoint Theorem requires us to think of points as infinitely small. If

they had any positive size, a line segment would be a bit like a necklace
(Figure 1.3). If the number of points were even, there would not be one
exactly in the middle by Theorem 1.4.
FIGURE 1.3
A segment AB of 6 “fat” points would not have a midpoint.

Definition: If A and B are distinct points, the ray from A through B, denoted
AB , is the set of all points C on line AB , such that A is not between B and C.
We call A the endpoint of the ray.

The negative phrasing of this definition is sometimes awkward, so the

following theorem is sometimes handy. Its proof is based on one of our
previous results. Can you find it?

Theorem 1.5: AB consists of segment AB together with all points X where

A-B-X. ■

Definition: Let A, B, and C be points not on the same line. AB ∪ AC is

called the angle BAC and denoted as ∠BAC (Figure 1.4). We may also denote
this angle as ∠CAB.
The Axiomatic Method in Geometry 7

B B B
B B
A C
A A
C A
A Line
↔ ↔
AB Segment AB Ray AB Angle ∠BAC Triangle ABC

FIGURE 1.4
The cast of characters.

When we hear “angle”, we often think of it as the space between the rays that
border it. Our definition of an angle does not capture that idea. We will need a
separate definition of the interior of an angle, and base it on the next axiom.

Separation
Axiom 3: Pasch’s Separation Axiom for a Line

Given a line L in the plane, the points in the plane which are not on L form
two sets, H1 and H2, called half-planes, so that:

a. if A and B are points in the same half-plane, then AB lies wholly in

that half-plane.
b. if A and B are points not in the same half-plane, then AB inter-
sects L.

H1 and H2 are also called sides of L. L is called the boundary line of H1 and H2.

Notice that the half-planes mentioned in Pasch’s axiom do not contain their
boundary line. They are sometimes referred to as open half-planes for this reason.

Definition: Let A, B, and C be three non-collinear points, as in Figure 1.5

(this means that there is no line which contains all three of them). Let HB
be the half-plane determined by AC , which contains B. Let HC be the
half-plane determined by AB , which contains C. The inside or interior of
∠BAC is defined to be HB ∩ HC.

Pasch’s Axiom was only added to the axiom set for Euclidean geometry in
the late 19th century when geometers became aware that, for many geo-
metric figures, there was no way to rigorously define the inside or outside of
the figure, much less prove theorems about them. For example, if you had
8 Geometry and Its Applications

FIGURE 1.5
An angle and its interior.

asked Euclid to prove that a line containing a point on the inside of an angle
crosses at least one of the rays making the angle, he would have been unable
to do so. He would undoubtedly have been unconcerned about this,
thinking this theorem to be too obvious to bother with.

Theorem 1.6: If a ray AB has endpoint A on line L, but B does not lie on L,
then all points of the ray, except for A, lie on the same side of L as B.

Proof: The proof is indirect. Assume there is a point C on the ray so that C
and B are on opposite sides of L. By Pasch’s Axiom, BC crosses L at some
point. This must be A since BC AB and, by Theorem 1.1, AB crosses L in
just one point, namely A. Since A is not B or C, the fact that A is in BC means
B-A-C. But this means C is not in AB by the definition of a ray. ■

Triangles play a starring role in geometry, so it is time to define them. Let A,

B, C be three non-collinear points. In that case, we define the triangle ABC to
be AB ∪ BC ∪ AC . Can you see how to define the interior of a triangle?
Suppose we have a triangle ABC and we extend side AC to D, thereby
creating an exterior angle ∠BCD as in Figure 1.6. Pick any point M on BC
which is not B or C, then extend AM past M to any point E. Will E be in the
inside of the exterior angle ∠BCD? Our visual intuition says yes, but if we
want the highest degree of rigour, we need a proof. Here it is, but with
reasons for some steps left for you to supply.

Theorem 1.7: If A, B, and C are not collinear and

1. A-C-D
2. B-M-C
3. A-M-E
then, E is in the interior of ∠BCD.
The Axiomatic Method in Geometry 9

FIGURE 1.6
Illustrating Theorem 1.7.

Proof: According to our definition of the interior of an angle, we need to

show two things:

a. that E is on the same side as D of line BC ; and

b. that E is on the same side as B of line CD .

a. A and D are on opposite sides of BC (why?). A and E are also on

opposite sides of BC (why?). Thus, we have shown both E and D to
be on the opposite side of A of line BC . Therefore, E and D must be
on the same side of BC , as we wished to prove.
b. By hypothesis, B is not on AC , so B is not on CD , since AC and
CD are the same line. Thus, by the previous theorem, CB lies
wholly on the B side of CD (except for C). But B-M-C means M ε
CB , and so M and B lie on the same side of CD Likewise, E and M
lie on the same side of CD . Thus, E and B lie on the same side of
CD as we wished to prove. ■

Axioms about Measuring Angles

We have spoken of angles, but not about measuring them. To fill this gap,
we come now to a group of axioms which do for angles what the ruler
axiom does for lines. We might refer to them. as a group, as the protractor
axioms.

Axiom 4: The Angle Measurement Axiom.

To every angle, there corresponds a real number between 0° and 180° called
its measure or size. We denote the measure of ∠BAC by m∠BAC.
Definition: If m∠BAC = m∠PQR, then we say ∠BAC and ∠PQR are
congruent angles.
Axiom 5: The Angle Construction Axiom.
10 Geometry and Its Applications

B
D A

X
A’
α β

A B C B’

FIGURE 1.7
Supplementary angles α + β = 180°. b) ∠AXB and ∠A’XB’ are vertical angles; ∠BXA’ and ∠B’XA
are vertical angles.

Let AB lie entirely on the boundary line L of some half-plane H. For every
number r where 0° < r < 180°, there is exactly one ray AC where C ε H and
m∠CAB = r.
Axiom 6: The Angle Addition Axiom.

If D is a point in the interior of ∠BAC, then m∠BAC = m∠BAD + m∠DAC.

Definition: If A-B-C and D is any point not on line AC , then the angles
∠ABD and ∠DBC are called supplementary (Figure 1.7).

Axiom 7: The Supplementary Angles Axiom.

If two angles are supplementary, then their measures add to 180°.

Now, consider two lines crossing at X, making four angles as in the right-
hand side of Figure 1.7. Each angle has two neighbouring angles and one
which is “across” from it. For example, ∠AXB is across ∠A’XB’. An angle
and the one across from it are said to be vertical angles or form a vertical pair.
A technical definition goes like this: if A and A’ are points on one line where
A-X-A’ and B and B’ are on the other line with B-X-B’, then ∠AXB and
∠A’XB’ are vertical angles. Notice that an angle cannot be vertical by it-
self—it is only vertical in relation to another.

Theorem 1.8: Vertical Angles Theorem

Vertical angles are congruent.

Proof: We use the notation of Figure 1.7. ∠AXB and ∠BXA’ are supple-
mentary. Likewise, ∠BXA’ and ∠A’XB’ are supplementary. These facts,
together with Axiom 7, give the equations
The Axiomatic Method in Geometry 11

m AXB + m BXA = 180°

m A XB + m BXA = 180°

Subtracting one equation from the other, we deduce m∠AXB = m∠A’XB’.

Axioms about Congruence and Parallelism

The next two axioms are the real workhorses of Euclidean geometry, so we
just list them here, saving a more extensive discussion for the next chapter.

Axiom 8: The Side-Angle-Side Congruence Axiom (SAS)

If

1. one angle of a triangle, say A, is congruent to a certain angle of a

second triangle, say A’; and if
2. one side forming the angle in the first triangle, say AB, is congruent
to a side forming the congruent angle, say A B , in the second tri-
angle; and if
3. the remaining side forming the angle in the first triangle, AC , is
congruent to the remaining side forming the congruent angle in the
second triangle, A C , then the triangles are congruent with the
correspondence A A’, B B’, C C’.

Axiom 9: Euclid’s Parallel Axiom

Given a point P of a line L, there is at most one line in the plane through P
not meeting L.

Axioms for Three-Dimensional Geometry

The axioms we have given so far describe matters on a single plane. This is
adequate for most of our work since plane geometry is our main objective.
But for comprehensiveness, and for brief applications of three dimensions in
this book, we now deal with the third dimension. First, all the previously
mentioned axioms are still true with the understanding that they hold for all
the planes in the three-dimensional space. For example, Pasch’s Separation
Axiom needs to be understood as true for every plane which contains L.
Likewise, the Parallel Axiom holds not just for “the plane”, but for any
plane containing P and L. In addition to these reinterpretations, we need
some extra axioms.
12 Geometry and Its Applications

Axiom 10: Point - Plane Incidence Axiom

Given any three points, there is at least one plane containing them. If the
points are not collinear, there is exactly one plane passing through them.

Axiom 11: Plane Intersection Axiom

Two distinct planes either don’t intersect or intersect in a line.

Axiom 12: Existence of the Second and Third Dimensions

For every line, there is a point not on it. For every plane, there is a point not
on it.

Axiom 13: Line - Plane Incidence Axiom

If two points of a line are in a plane, then the line lies entirely in that plane.

Axiom 14: Pasch’s Separation Axiom for a Plane

Given a plane N, the points which are not on N form two sets, S1 and S2,
called half-spaces, with the properties:

a. if A and B are points in the same half-space, then AB lies wholly in

that half-space;
b. if A and B are points not in the same half-space, then AB inter-
sects N.

S1 and S2 are also called sides of N. N is called the boundary plane of S1 and S2.

Axioms about Area and Volume

15. To every polygonal region there corresponds a definite positive
real number called its area.
16. If two triangles are congruent, then they have the same area.
17. Suppose that the region R is the union of two regions, R1 and R2,
which intersect at most in a finite number of segments and in-
dividual points. The area of R is the sum of the areas of R1 and R2:
area(R1 ∪ R2) = area(R1) + area(R2).
18. The area of a rectangle is the product of the length of the base and
the length of the height.
Although we shall not use them in this book, for completeness we
finish with the following axioms concerning volume.
The Axiomatic Method in Geometry 13

19. The volume of a rectangular parallelepiped is equal to the product

of the length of its altitude and the area of its base.
20. (Cavalieri’s Principle) Suppose two solids and a plane are given.
Suppose also that every plane which is parallel to the given plane
either does not intersect either solid or intersects both in planar
cross-sections with the same area. In that case, the solids have the
same volume.

Exercises
Axioms About Points on Lines

1. Which of the three properties of f in the Ruler Axiom ensures that a

line is infinite in extent?
2. Which of the three properties of f in the Ruler Axiom ensures that
for any two different points A and B, AB ≠ 0?
3. Suppose we defined distance as AB = [ f(B) − f(A)]2. Which facts
about distance, proven by Theorems 1.2, 1.3, and 1.4, are no longer
true? Which are still true?
4. Suppose the absolute value was dropped from the definition of
distance. Would parts 1 and 2 of Theorem 1.2 still be true? Explain.
5. Suppose we change the definition for A-B-C by changing the strict
inequalities (“<”) to non-strict inequalities (“≤”). If we keep our
definition of segment unchanged, will the nature of segments be
any different from before? What about the nature of rays?
6. Suppose we took Theorem 1.1 as an axiom and deleted Axiom 1
from our set of axioms. Could you prove that two points de-
termine exactly one line?
7. Prove the second case of part 2 of Theorem 1.2.
8. Prove Case 2 of Theorem 1.3.
9. Prove the Midpoint Theorem (Theorem 1.4). (Hint: How is f(M)
related to f(A) and f(B)?)
10. Which previous theorem is needed to establish the characteriza-
tion of rays in Theorem 1.5? Can you give a proof of Theorem 1.5?
In each of the next four exercises, you are asked to prove that the
pairs are equal. A common way to proceed is by two steps: show
that if X is any point in the first set, then it also lies in the second;
and show that if X lies in the second, it also lies in the first.
14 Geometry and Its Applications

11. Prove that AB ∩ BA = AB.

12. Prove that AB ∪ BA = AB .
13. Prove that if A-B-C then AB ∪ BC = AC .
14. Prove that if A-X-B and A-B-C, then A-X-C.
15. *There is nothing in the axioms that explicitly states that the ruler
functions for the different lines in the plane need to be related in
any way. One could choose each function independently of the
others. Here is a line of thought that undermines that idea: sup-
pose we had a set of ruler functions that made a consistent theory
of Euclidean geometry—this means that it is not possible to de-
duce a theorem that contradicts an axiom or another theorem.
Now, take a single line L and replace its ruler function fL by a new
one gL defined by gL(P) = 2fL(P) for each point P on L. Show that
this will allow you to deduce a contradiction to one of the axioms.

Separation

16. Give a definition of the interior of a triangle.

17. Suppose we define a quadrilateral like this: if A, B, C, D are any
four points where no subset of three of them is collinear, then the
quadrilateral ABCD is AB ∪ BC ∪ CD ∪ DA. Figure 1.8 shows three
types of quadrilaterals.
a. Can you propose a definition for each of these categories (i.e.
what property or combination of properties puts a quad-
rilateral in one of these categories instead of another?)
b. Can you prove that your categories don’t overlap (no quad-
rilateral is in more than one?)?

FIGURE 1.8
Three 4‐sided figures. Are they all quadrilaterals?
The Axiomatic Method in Geometry 15

Can you prove that every quadrilateral is in one of your

categories?
c. Propose a definition for the interior of a quadrilateral (or, if you
like, give a separate definition for each category.).
18. Fill in the missing steps in Theorem 1.7 (respond to all the “why?”
in the proof).
19. Prove that if A, B, and C are not collinear and B-D-C, then D is in
the interior of ∠BAC.
20. Suppose A, B, and C are non-collinear points and L is a line which
does not contain any of them. Prove that if L intersects one of the
segments of the triangle ABC, then it intersects a second one.
21. Prove that, in triangle ABC, AB has no points in common with the
triangle except for those of AB.
22. *Prove that if a line L contains a point D on the inside of an angle
∠BAC, then L must intersect at least one of the rays making the
angle.
2
The Euclidean Heritage

Our main objective in this chapter is to study how some key theorems in
Euclidean geometry arise from the axioms in Chapter 1. To make quicker
progress, we relax slightly the degree of rigour used in the last section of
Chapter 1, to a standard closer to Euclid’s Elements.
The Side-Angle-Side (SAS) Axiom will play a huge role and, in the third
section, Euclid’s Parallel Axiom. Students with a firm grasp of how proofs
are constructed in geometry may go quickly through this. Although the
theorems of this chapter are old, our applications span the from ancient to
modern.
Prerequisites:

• Some intuitive understanding of geometry

• Chapter 1

Section 1. Congruence
To say that figures are congruent means, in non-technical language, that
they have the same size and shape even though they may be in different
positions (Figure 2.1). There is a more to say to make this precise and useful,
so in this section, we will flesh this out with a detailed theory for triangles in
the plane. However, the attention to triangles shouldn’t obscure the fact that
the concept also applies to figures other than triangles. It is entirely rea-
sonable to ask whether two quadrilaterals are congruent and to ask what
evidence would convince us of it. The triangle theory can help with
quadrilaterals, pentagons, and so on. You might like to think about whether
it helps us with curved figures.
It is quite possible that the human mind does three-dimensional congruence
checking to recognize familiar people or objects. If you are sitting in front of
your computer, how do you know it is your computer and not the microwave
oven? The computer has a certain size and shape which is recorded in your
mind. Even if you are seeing it from a new angle right now—an angle you
have never seen if it has tipped over—you can somehow compare the current
view to the recalled image and tell that they differ just by position.

DOI: 10.1201/9780429198328-2 17
18 Geometry and Its Applications

C
Q
√2
45° √2 R 45°
1
45°
1
90° 45° 90°
1
A 1 B
P

FIGURE 2.1
Two congruent triangles.

This recognition is an important problem (only partly solved at the time I

am writing) in developing computer vision systems for robots and other
uses. Solving this problem will require a variety of approaches—the colour
of the object may need to be considered in figuring out what it is—but the
geometry of congruence may turn out to be part of the story.

Congruence and Correspondences

We need a better definition of congruence than “having the same size and
shape”. To understand the definition of congruent triangles, let us first
examine triangles ABC and PQR in Figure 2.1. If we fasten our attention on
any angle of ABC, say the angle at A, for the sake of argument, there is an
angle in the other triangle which has the same size—angle P. If we also
match up B with R, and C with Q, we have a complete 1-1 correspondence
of vertices where corresponding angles are congruent. So, part of what it
means for triangle ABC to be congruent to triangle PQR is that we can
match up vertices so that vertices which correspond in the matching have
congruent angles. In addition, if we look at any pair of vertices in triangle
ABC, say A and B for example, the length of the side they determine is the
same as the length of the side determined by the corresponding
vertices—PR in this case. Summarizing:

Definition: Two triangles are congruent if it is possible to find a 1-1 correspon-

dence from the vertices of one triangle to the vertices of the other so that:

1. Corresponding angles are congruent.

2. Sides whose endpoints correspond are congruent.

Conditions 1 and 2 are reduced to “corresponding parts of congruent tri-

angles are congruent”. It is important to note that the two triangles in the
definition might be the same (we did not say “two different triangles”). This
is relevant in the proof of Theorem 2.1.
A key point here is that you must find the right 1-1 correspondence
(match-up) if you want to demonstrate that the triangles are congruent.
The Euclidean Heritage 19

Example 2.1: In Figure 2.1, there are two 1-1 correspondences that show
congruence:

A P, B Q, C R
A P, B R, C Q

But A → Q, B → P, C → R is not a congruence. ■

We often show a congruence without the “arrow notation” but we illustrate

correspondence by the order we list the vertices. For example, if we say that
triangle ABC is congruent to PQR we mean that A (the first vertex) matches
up with P (also first on its list), B with Q, and C with R. We might also say
that triangle ABC is congruent to triangle PRQ, but we would not say that
triangle ABC is congruent to triangle QPR.
Our definition of congruence suggests a strategy in finding the 1-1 cor-
respondence which shows that two given triangles are congruent: match up
vertices according to the sizes of the angles. This 1-1 correspondence of
vertices creates a 1-1 correspondence among the sides. If the triangles are
truly congruent, corresponding sides are congruent. Notice that checking
whether a given 1-1 correspondence is a congruence seems to require
checking six equalities since there are six parts (sides and angles) to a tri-
angle. The SAS Axiom (Section 3 of the previous chapter) says the work can
be cut down. Here is the SAS axiom again.

The SAS Axiom

Axiom 8: The SAS Congruence Axiom

If

1. one angle of a triangle, say A, is congruent to a certain angle of a

second triangle, say A’; and if
2. one side forming the angle in the first triangle, say AB, is congruent
to a side forming the congruent angle, say A B , in the second tri-
angle; and if
3. the remaining side forming the angle in the first triangle, AC , is
congruent to the remaining side forming the congruent angle in the
second triangle, A C , then the triangles are congruent with the
correspondence A → A’, B → B’, C → C’. Briefly, we may write ABC
≅ A’B’C’ with the order by which we list the vertices indicating
what corresponds to what.
20 Geometry and Its Applications

FIGURE 2.2
Side-Angle-Side Axiom. (Given parts in solid lines).

Example 2.2: Why We Should Believe the SAS Axiom

In Figure 2.2, suppose m∠A = m∠A’, AB = A’B’, and AC = A’C’ (note that we
have used solid lines in the figure to indicate the known parts). It seems
obvious that the given information implies that BC = B’C’, m∠B = m∠B’, and
m∠C = m∠C’. As an informal argument for this conclusion, imagine moving
triangle ABC so that vertex A falls on vertex A’, AB falls on top of A B , and
AC falls on top of A C . Clearly, B, in its new position, is the same point as
B’. Likewise, C, in its new position, is the same point as C’. In other words,
the two triangles coincide exactly. Now, the motion of the first triangle
doesn’t change its length or the measures of any angles. Consequently, the
parts of the original ABC are congruent to the corresponding parts of
A’B’C’—the triangles are congruent.
The argument given seems a lot like a proof of the SAS Axiom, but we have
not labelled the SAS principle a theorem—which we would do if we had
proof of it. The reason our argument is not a proof is that it relies on the
assumption that figures can be moved without changing the sizes of their
sides and angles. There is no reason that such an axiom could not be added to
our set of axioms—it is ,after all, quite believable. However, it is common to
exclude ideas of motion from the axioms of Euclidean geometry (but not
from our intuitions about geometry) and we shall follow this tradition. ■
Here is our first deduction from the SAS axiom: the well-known theorem
that base angles of isosceles triangles are congruent. Recall that a triangle is
isosceles if it has two congruent sides.

Theorem 2.1: If two sides of a triangle are congruent, say AB = BC in

Figure 2.3, then the angles opposite these sides are congruent, m∠A = m∠C.

Proof: The idea is to show that A→ C, B→ B, C→ A is a congruence of the

triangle to itself. Under this 1-1 correspondence, ∠B corresponds, and is
clearly congruent, to itself, so we have the "angle" part of the SAS proof. For
BA, the corresponding side is BC and these are congruent by hypothesis. For
BC , the corresponding side is BA and these are congruent by hypothesis. By
The Euclidean Heritage 21

FIGURE 2.3
Base angles of an isosceles triangle are congruent.

SAS, the correspondence is a congruence. Consequently, m∠A = m∠C since

these are corresponding angles. ■

Our proof of Theorem 2.1 sometimes strikes readers as odd, even invalid,
since it deals with a congruence of a triangle with itself. For this reason, this
proof has rarely appeared in geometry texts. It is true that most times we
deal with congruence we are handling different triangles, but there is
nothing about our definition of congruence or the SAS axiom that requires
this. This proof seems first to have been found by Pappus around 300 AD.
There is a story that a computer program, which was designed to find
proofs of theorems in geometry, produced this proof rather than any of the
proofs commonly included in geometry texts.

Example 2.3: Combining SAS and the Vertical Angles Principle

We will prove that if the diagonals of a quadrilateral bisect each other, the
opposite sides are congruent (Figure 2.4).

Proof: In Figure 2.4, we will use SAS to show that triangle ABC is congruent
to triangle EDC, with the 1-1 correspondence A → E, B → D, C → C. We
have AC = CE and BC = CD by hypothesis. We also have α = β since they are
vertical angles. Thus, SAS implies that the triangles are congruent. Then, the
corresponding sides are congruent so AB = DE.
A similar proof will show BE = AD. ■

If we have a triangle, such as ABC at the top of Figure 2.5, if we extend side
AC by some unspecified amount past C to D, then ∠BCD, whose measure is
θ, is called an exterior angle of the triangle. We could make another exterior
angle at C by extending BC . There are two exterior angles per vertex, which
happen to be vertical angles, so six exterior angles in all for the whole tri-
angle. The usual angles at A, B, and C are called interior angles. The ones
that do not touch C, namely ∠A and ∠B, are called remote from the exterior
22 Geometry and Its Applications

FIGURE 2.4
Diagonals of a quadrilateral bisecting each other.

FIGURE 2.5
Illustrating the Exterior Angle Inequality.

angle labelled θ. In the top picture it seems clear that the exterior angle
labelled θ is greater than either of the remote interior angles ∠A and ∠B, but
in other pictures (like the bottom of Figure 2.5), the inequality seems less
obvious. We would like to be convinced of this inequality without drawing
hundreds of triangles and measuring their angles, so here is a proof.
The Euclidean Heritage 23

Theorem 2.2: The Exterior Angle Inequality

An exterior angle of a triangle is greater than either of its remote interior

angles (Figure 2.6.)

FIGURE 2.6
Proving the Exterior Angle Inequality.

Proof: We will only show m∠B < θ and will leave the proof that m∠A < θ as
an exercise.
Let M be the midpoint of segment AC . We don’t have to actually
construct this midpoint using instruments like a ruler and compass—it is
enough to know that it exists. Now, imagine segment AM extended an
equal amount to a point E. Finally, connect E to C, thereby splitting the
exterior angle θ (maybe not evenly).
Our strategy now is to show that triangles ABM and ECM are congruent
(you’ll see in a minute how this helps us with the exterior angle). Since α
and β are vertical angles, they are congruent. Next, we deal with segments.
BM = MC by construction and, likewise, MA = ME. By the SAS axiom, we
have the congruence we wanted. Consequently, m∠B = m∠ECM but
m∠ECM < θ. Therefore, m∠B < θ. ■

There is one lapse from complete rigour in the given proof. We need to
prove (not just observe visually) that E is situated in such a way that
m∠ECM < θ—see exercise 8.
In thinking about this theorem, you might be tempted to give a different
proof, like this: m∠A + m∠B + m∠C = 180°, so m∠B = 180° − m∠A − m∠C <
180° − m∠C = θ. This would be based on your recollection that the sum of
the measures of the angles of a triangle is 180°. We have not yet proved the
principle about the “angle sum” of a triangle, so such a proof for the
Exterior Angle Inequality would be incorrect at this point. In our chapter on
non-Euclidean Geometry, we will find it important to have proved the
Exterior Angle Inequality without relying on the angle sum of a triangle.

Other Congruence Principles

The exterior angle inequality is useful in establishing another congruence
principle—the angle-angle-side principle. If we go around a triangle, such as
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five years old, nevertheless she was of the greatest assistance to
her mother in nursing women. Both showed the utmost kindness to
the new-born children, washed and brushed them up, said pretty
things to them, and strengthened the mothers with cordials and tonic
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soother or beautifier) and the other Puah (the helper).
When they appeared before the king, and heard what he designed,
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the man! God will punish him for his evil deed.”
The executioner would have hurried her out, and killed her for her
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her speech; she is only a little foolish child.”
Pharaoh consented, and assuming a gentler tone, explained that the
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mothers. And he threatened them, if they did not obey his wishes,
that he would cast them into a furnace of fire. Then he dismissed
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And when Pharaoh found that the men-children were saved alive, he
shut up the two midwives, that the Hebrew women might be without
their succour. But this availed not. And God rewarded the midwives;
for of the elder Moses was born.
Five years passed, and Pharaoh dreamed that, as he sat upon his
throne, an old man stood before him holding a balance. And the old
man put the princes, and nobles, and elders of Egypt, and all its
inhabitants into one scale, and he put into the other a sucking child,
and the babe outweighed all that was in the first scale.[457]
When Pharaoh awoke, he rehearsed his dream in the ears of his
wise men and magicians and soothsayers, and asked them the
interpretation thereof.
Then answered Balaam, who, with his sons Jannes and Jambres,
was at the court, and said, “O king, live for ever! The dream thou
didst see has this signification. A child shall be born among the
Hebrews who shall bring them with a strong hand out of Egypt, and
before whom all thy nations shall be as naught. A great danger
threatens thee and all Egypt.”
Then said Pharaoh in dismay, “What shall we do? All that we have
devised against this people has failed.”
“Let the king suffer me to give my advice,” said Jethro, one of his
councillors. And when Pharaoh consented, he said, “May the king’s
days be multiplied! This is my advice; the people that thou
oppressest is a great people, and God is their shield. All who resist
them are brought to destruction; all who favour them prosper.
Therefore, O king, do thou withdraw thy hand, which is heavy upon
them; lighten their tasks, and extend to them thy favour.”
But this advice pleased not Pharaoh nor his councillors; and his
anger was kindled against Jethro, and he drove him from his court
and from the country. Then Jethro went with his wife and daughter,
and dwelt in the land of Midian.
Then said the king, “Job of Uz, give thy opinion.”
But Job opened not his lips.
Then rose Balaam, son of Beor, and he said, “O my king, all thy
attempts to hurt Israel have failed, and the people increase upon
you. Think not to try fire against them, for that was tried against
Abraham their father, and he was saved unhurt from the midst of the
flames. Try not sword against them, for the knife was raised against
Isaac their father, and he was delivered by the angel of God. Nor will
hard labour injure them, as thou hast proved. Yet there remains
water, that hath not yet been enlisted against them; prove them with
water. Therefore my advice is—cast all their new-born sons into the
river.”[458]
The king hesitated not; he appointed Egyptian women to be nurses
to the Hebrews, and instructed them to drown all the male children
that were born; and he threatened with death those who withstood
his decree. And that he might know what women were expecting to
be delivered, he sent little Egyptian children to the baths, to observe
the Hebrew women, and report on their appearance.
But God looked upon the mothers, and they were delivered in sleep
under the shadow of fruit-trees, and angels attended on them,
washed and dressed the babes, and smeared their little hands with
butter and honey, that they might lick them, and, delighting in the
flavour, abstain from crying, and thus escape discovery. Then the
mothers on waking exclaimed:—“O most Merciful One, into Thy
hands we commit our children!” But the emissaries of Pharaoh
followed the traces of the women, and would have slain the infants,
had not the earth gaped, and received the little babes into a hollow
place within, where they were fed by angel hands with butter and
honey.
The Egyptians brought up oxen and ploughed over the spot, in
hopes of destroying thereby the vanished infants; but, when their
backs were turned, the children sprouted from the soil, like little
flowers, and walked home unperceived. Some say that 10,000
children were cast into the Nile. They were not deserted by the Most
High. The river rejected them upon its banks, and the rocks melted
into butter and honey around them and thus fed them,[459] and oil
distilled to anoint them.
This persecution had continued for three years and four months,
when, on the seventh day of the twelfth month, Adar, the astrologers
and seers stood before the king and said, “This day a child is born
who will free the people of Israel! This, and one thing more, have we
learnt from the stars, Water will be the cause of his death;[460] but
whether he be an Egyptian or an Hebrew child, that we know not.”
“Very well,” said Pharaoh; “then in future all male children, Egyptians
as well as Hebrews, shall be cast indiscriminately into the river.”
And so was it done.[461]
 2. THE BIRTH AND CHILDHOOD OF MOSES.

Kohath, son of Levi, had a son named Amram, whose life was so
saintly, that death could not have touched him, had not the decree
gone forth, that every child of Adam was to die.
He married Jochebed, the daughter of Levi, his aunt, and by her he
had a daughter Miriam; and after four years she bore him a son, and
he called his name Aaron.
Now when it was noised abroad that Pharaoh would slay all the sons
of the Hebrews that were born to them, Amram thrust away his wife,
and many others did the same, not that they hated their wives, but
that they would spare them the grief of seeing their children put to
death.[462] After three years, the spirit of prophecy came on Miriam,
as she sat in the house, and she cried, “My parents shall have
another son, who shall deliver Israel out of the hands of the
Egyptians!” Then she said to her father, “What hast thou done? Thou
hast sent thy wife away, out of thine house, because thou couldst not
trust the Lord God, that He would protect the child that might be born
to thee.”
Amram, reproved by these words, sought his banished wife; the
angel Gabriel guided him on his way, and a voice from heaven
encouraged him to proceed. And when he found Jochebed, he led
her to her home again.[463]
One hundred and thirty years old was Jochebed, but she was as
fresh and beauteous as on the day she left her father’s house.[464]
She was with child, and Amram feared lest it should be a boy, and
be slain by Pharaoh.
Then appeared the Eternal One to him in a dream, and bade him be
of good cheer, for He would protect the child, and make him great,
so that all nations should hold him in honour.
When Amram awoke, he told his dream to Jochebed, and they were
filled with fear and great amazement.
After six months she bore a son, without pain. The child entered this
world in the third hour of the morning, of the seventh day of the
month Adar, in the year 2368 after the Creation, and the 130th year
of the sojourn of the Israelites in Egypt. And when he was born, the
house was filled with light, as of the brightest sunshine.
The tender mother’s anxiety for her son was increased when she
noted his beauty,—he was like an angel of God,—and his great
height and noble appearance. The parents called him Tobias (God is
good) to express their thankfulness, but others say he was called
Jokutiel (Hope in God). Amram kissed his daughter, Miriam, on the
brow, and said, “Now I know that thy prophecy is come true.”[465]
Jochebed hid the child three months in her chamber where she
slept. But Pharaoh, filled with anxiety, lest a child should have
escaped him, sent Egyptian women with their nurslings to the
houses of the Hebrews. Now it is the custom of children, when one
cries, another cries also. Therefore the Egyptian women pricked their
babes, when they went into a house, and if the child were concealed
therein, it cried when it heard the Egyptian baby scream. Then it was
brought out and despatched.
Jochebed knew that these women were coming to her house, and
that, if the child were discovered, her husband and herself would be
slain by the executioner of Pharaoh.
Moreover they feared the astrologers and soothsayers, that they
would read in the heavens that a male child was concealed there.
“Better can we deceive them,” said Amram, “if we cast the child into
the water.”
Jochebed took the paper flags and wove a basket, and pitched it
with pitch without, and clay within, that the smell of the pitch might
not offend her dear little one; and then she placed the basket
amongst the rushes, where the Red Sea at that time joined the river
Nile.
Then, weeping and wailing, she went away, and seeing Miriam come
to meet her, she smote her on the head, and said, “Now, daughter,
where is thy prophesying?”
Miriam followed the little ark, as it floated on the wash of the river,
and swam in and out among the reeds; for Miriam was wondering
whether the prophecy would come true, or whether it would fail. This
was on the twenty-first of the month Nisan, on the day, chosen from
the beginning, on which in after times Moses should teach his people
the Song of Praise for their delivery at the Red Sea.[466]
Then the angels surrounded the throne of God and cried, “O Lord of
the whole earth, shall this mortal child fore-ordained to chant, at the
head of Thy chosen people, the great song of delivery from water,
perish this day by water?”
The Almighty answered, “Ye know well that I behold all things. They
that seek their salvation in their own craftiness and evil ways shall
find destruction, but they who trust in Me shall never be confounded.
The history of that child shall be a witness to My almighty power.”
Melol, king of Egypt, had then only one daughter, whom he greatly
loved; Bithia (Thermutis or Therbutis)[467] was her name. She had
been married for some time to Chenephras, prince of a territory near
Memphis, but was childless. This troubled her greatly, for she
desired a son who might succeed her father upon the throne of
Egypt.
At this time God had sent upon Egypt an intolerable heat, and the
people were affected with grievous boils.[468] To cure themselves,
they bathed in the Nile. Bithia also suffered, and bathed, not in the
river, but in baths in the palace; but on this day she went forth by the
Nile bank, though otherwise she never left her father’s palace. On
reaching the bathing-place she observed the ark lodged among the
bulrushes, and sent one of her maids to swim out and bring it to her;
but the other servants said, “O princess, this is one of the Hebrew
children, who are cast out according to the command of thy royal
father. It beseems thee not to oppose his commands and frustrate
his will.”
Scarcely had the maidens uttered these words than they vanished
from the surface of the earth. The angel Gabriel had sunk them all,
with the exception of the one who swam for the ark, into the bosom
of the earth.
But the eagerness of the princess was so great, that she could not
wait till the damsel brought her the basket, and she stretched forth
her arm towards it, and her arm was lengthened sixty ells, so that
she was able to take hold of the ark and draw it to land, and lift the
child out of the water.
No sooner had she touched the babe, than she was healed of the
boils which afflicted her, and the splendour of the face of the child
was like that of the sun.[469] She looked at it with wonder, and
admired its beauty. But her father’s stern law made her fear, and she
thought to return the child to the water, when he began to cry, for the
angel Gabriel had boxed his ears to make him weep, and thus excite
the compassion of the princess. Then Miriam, hid away among the
rushes, and little Aaron, aged three, hearing him cry, wept also.
The heart of the princess was stirred; and compassion, like that of a
mother for her babe, filled her heart. She felt for the infant yearning
love as though it were her own. “Truly,” said Bithia, “the Hebrews are
to be pitied, for it is no easy matter to part with a child, and to deliver
it over to death.”
Then, fearing that there would be no safety for the babe, if it were
brought into the palace, she called to an Egyptian woman who was
walking by the water, and bade her suckle the child. But the infant
would not take the breast from this woman, nor from any other
Egyptian woman that she summoned; and this the Almighty wrought
that the child might be restored to its own mother again.
Then Miriam, the sister, mingled with those who came up, and said
to Bithia, with sobs, “Noble lady! vain are all thine attempts to give
the child the breast from one of a different race. If thou wouldst have
a Hebrew woman, then let me fetch one, and the child will suck at
once.”[470]
This advice pleased Bithia, and she bade Miriam seek her out a
Hebrew mother.
With winged steps Miriam hastened home, and brought her mother,
Jochebed, to the princess. Then the babe readily took nourishment
from her, and ceased crying.
Astonished at this wonder, the king’s daughter said, but unawares,
the truth, for she spake to Jochebed, “Here is thy child; take and
nurse the child for me, and the wage shall be two pieces of silver a
day.”
Jochebed did what she was bidden, but better reward than all the
silver in Pharaoh’s house was the joy of having her son restored to
his mother’s breast.
The self-same day the soothsayers and star-gazers said to Pharaoh,
“The child of whom we spake to thee, that he should free Israel, hath
met his fate in the water.”
Therefore the cruel decree ordering the destruction of all male
infants was withdrawn, and the miraculous deliverance of Moses
became by this means the salvation of the whole generation. In
allusion to this, Moses said afterwards to the people when he would
restrain them (Numbers xi.): “Verily ye number six hundred thousand
men, and ye would all have perished in the river Nile, but I was
delivered from the water, and therefore ye are all alive as at this
day.”
After two years Jochebed weaned him, and brought him to the king’s
daughter. Bithia, charmed with the beauty and intelligence of the
child, took him into the palace, and named him Moses (he who is
drawn out of the water). Lo! a voice from heaven fell, “Daughter of
Pharaoh! because thou hast had compassion on this little child and
hast called him thy son, therefore do I call thee My daughter (Bithia).
The foundling that thou cherishest shall be called by the name thou
gavest him—Moses; and by none other name shall he be known,
wheresoever the fame of him spreads under the whole heaven.”
Now, in order that Moses might really pass for the child of Bithia, the
princess had feigned herself to be pregnant, and then to be confined;
and now Pharaoh regarded him as his true grandchild.
On account of his exceeding beauty, every one that saw him was
filled with admiration, and said, “Truly, this is a king’s son.” And when
he was taken abroad, the people forsook their work, and deserted
their shops, that they might see him. One day, when Moses was
three years old, Bithia led him by the hand into the presence of
Pharaoh, and the queen sat by the king, and all the princes of the
realm stood about him. Then Bithia presented the child to the king,
and said, “Oh, sire! this child of noble mien is not really my son; he
was given to me in wondrous fashion by the divine river Nile;
therefore have I brought him up as my own son, and destined him to
succeed thee on thy throne, since no child of my body has been
granted to me.”
With these words Bithia laid the boy in the king’s arms, and he
pressed him to his heart, and kissed him. Then, to gratify his
daughter, he took from his head the crown royal, and placed it upon
the temples of Moses. But the child eagerly caught at the crown, and
threw it on the ground, and then alighting from Pharaoh’s knee, he in
childish fashion danced round it, and finally trampled it under his
feet.[471]
The king and his nobles were dismayed. They thought that this
action augured evil to the king through the child that was before
them. Then Balaam, the son of Beor, lifted up his voice and said, “My
lord and king! dost thou not remember the interpretation of thy
dream, as thy servant interpreted it to thee? This child is of Hebrew
extraction, and is wiser and more cunning than befits his age. When
he is old he will take thy crown from off thy head, and will tread the
power of Egypt under his feet. Thus have his ancestors ever done.
Abraham defied Nimrod, and rent from him Canaan, a portion of his
kingdom. Isaac prevailed over the king of the Philistines. Jacob took
from his brother his birthright and blessing, and smote the Hivites
and their king Hamor. Joseph, the slave, became chief in this realm,
and gave the best of this land to his father and his brethren. And now
this child will take from thee the kingdom, and will enslave or destroy
thy people. There is no expedient for thee but to slay him, that Egypt
become not his prey.”
But Pharaoh said, “We will take other counsel, Balaam, before we
decide what shall be done with this child.”
Then some advised that he should be burnt with fire, and others that
he should be slain with the sword. But the angel Gabriel, in the form
of an old man, mingled with the councillors, and said, “Let not
innocent blood be shed. The child is too young to know what he is
doing. Prove whether he has any understanding and design, before
you sentence him. O king! let a bowl of live coals and a bowl of
precious stones be brought to the little one. If he takes the stones,
then he has understanding, and discerns between good and evil; but
if he thrusts his hands towards the burning coals, then he is innocent
of purpose and devoid of reason.”[472]
This advice pleased the king, and he gave orders that it should be as
the angel had recommended.
Now when the basins were brought in and offered to Moses, he
thrust out his hand towards the jewels. But Gabriel, who had made
himself invisible, caught his hand and directed it towards the red-hot
coals; and Moses burnt his fingers, and he put them into his mouth,
and burnt his lips and tongue; and therefore it is that Moses said, in
after days, “I am slow of lips and slow of tongue.”[473]
Pharaoh and his council were now convinced of the simplicity of
Moses, and no harm was done him. Then Bithia removed him, and
brought him up in her own part of the palace.
God was with him, and he increased in stature and beauty, and
Pharaoh’s heart was softened towards him. He went arrayed in
purple through the streets, as the son of Bithia, and a chaplet of
diamonds surrounded his brows, and he consorted only with princes.
When he was five years old, he was in size and knowledge as
advanced as a boy of twelve.
Masters were brought for him from all quarters, and he was
instructed in all the wisdom and learning of the Egyptians; and the
people looked upon him with hope as their future sovereign.[474]
 3. THE YOUTH AND MARRIAGE OF MOSES.

Moses, as he grew older, distinguished himself from all other young

men of Egypt by the conquest which he acquired over himself and
his youthful passions and impetuous will. Although the life of a court
offered him every kind of gratification, yet he did not allow himself to
be attracted by its pleasures, or to regard as permanent what he
knew to be fleeting. Thus it fell out, that all his friends and
acquaintances wondered at him, and doubted whether he were not a
god appeared on earth. And, in truth, Moses did not live and act as
did others. What he thought, that he said, and what he promised,
that he fulfilled.
Moses had reached the summit of earthly greatness; acknowledged
as grandson to Pharaoh, and heir to the crown. But he trusted not in
the future which was thus offered to him, for he knew from
Jochebed, whom he frequently visited, what was his true people, and
who were his real parents. And the bond which attached him to his
own house and people was in his heart, and could not be broken.
Moses went daily to Goshen to see his relations; and he observed
how the Hebrews were oppressed, and groaned under their burdens.
And he asked wherefore the yoke was pressed so heavily on the
neck of these slaves. He was told of the advice of Balaam against
the people, and of the way in which Pharaoh had sought the
destruction of himself in his infancy. This information filled Moses
with indignation, and alienated his affections from Pharaoh, and filled
him with animosity towards Balaam.[475] But, as he was not in a
position to rescue his brethren, or to punish Balaam, he cried, “Alas!
I had rather die than continue to behold the affliction of my brethren.”
Then he took the necklace from off him, which indicated his princely
position, and sought to ease the burden of the Israelites. He took the
excessive loads from the women and old men, and laid them on the
young and strong; and thus he seemed to be fulfilling Pharaoh’s
intentions in getting the work of building sooner executed, whereas,
by making each labour according to his strength, their sufferings
were lightened. And he said to the Hebrews, “Be of good cheer, relief
is not so far off as you suppose—calm follows storm, blue sky
succeeds black clouds, sunshine comes after rain. The whole world
is full of change, and all is for an object.”
Nevertheless Moses himself desponded; he looked with hatred upon
Balaam, and lost all pleasure in the society of the Egyptians. Balaam
seeing that the young man was against him, and dreading his power,
escaped with his sons Jannes and Jambres to the court of Ethiopia.
The young Moses, however, grew in favour with the king, who laid
upon him the great office of introducing illustrious foreigners to the
royal presence.
But Moses kept ever before his eyes the aim of his life, to relieve his
people from their intolerable burdens. One day he presented himself
before the king and said, “Sire! I have a petition to make of thee.”
Pharaoh answered, “Say on, my son.”
Then said Moses, “O king! every labourer is given one day in seven
for rest, otherwise his work becomes languid and unprofitable. But
the children of Israel are given no day of rest, but they work from the
first day of the week to the last day, without cessation; therefore is
their work inferior, and it is not executed with that heartiness which
might be found, were they given one day in which to recruit their
strength.”
Pharaoh said, “Which day shall be given to them?”
Moses said, “Suffer them to rest on the seventh day.”
The king consented, and the people were given the Sabbath, on
which they ceased from their labours; therefore they rejoiced greatly,
and for a thousand years the last day of the week was called “The
gift of Moses.”[476]
As the command to destroy all the male children had been
withdrawn the day that Moses was cast into the Nile, the people had
multiplied greatly, and again the fears of the Egyptians were
aroused. Therefore the king published a new decree, with the object
of impeding the increase of the bondsmen.
He required the Egyptian task-masters to impose a tale of bricks on
every man, and if at evening the tale of bricks was not made up,
then, in place of the deficient bricks, even though only one brick was
short, they were to take the children of those who had not made up
their tale, and to build them into the wall in place of bricks.[477] Thus
upon one misery another was piled.
In order that this decree might be executed with greater certainty, ten
labourers were placed under one Hebrew overseer, and one
Egyptian task-master controlled the ten overseers. The duty of the
Hebrew overseers was to wake the ten men they were set over,
every morning before dawn, and bring them to their work. If the
Egyptian task-masters observed that one of the labourers was not at
his post, he went to the overseer, and bade him produce the man
immediately.
Now one of these overseers had a wife of the tribe of Dan, whose
name was Salome, daughter of Dibri. She was beautiful and faultless
in her body. The Egyptian task-master had observed her frequently,
and he loved her. Then, one day, he went early to the house of her
husband, and bade him arise, and go and call the ten labourers. So
the overseer rose, nothing doubting, and went forth, and then the
Egyptian entered and concealed himself in the house. But the
overseer, returning, found him, and drew him forth, and asked him
with what intent he had hidden himself there; and Moses drew nigh.
Now Moses was known to the Hebrews as merciful, and ready to
judge righteously their causes; so the man ran to Moses, and told
him that he had found the Egyptian task-master concealed in his
house.
And Moses knew for what intent the man had done thus, and his
anger was kindled, and he raised a spade to smite the man on the
head and kill him.
But whilst the spade was yet in his hand, before it fell, Moses said
within himself, “I am about to take a man’s life; how know I that he
will not repent? How know I that if I suffer him to live, he may beget
children who will do righteously and serve the Lord? Is it well that I
should slay this man?”
Then Moses’s eyes were opened, and he saw the throne of God,
and the angels that surrounded it, and God said to him, “It is well that
thou shouldst slay this Egyptian, and therefore have I called thee
hither. Know that he would never repent, nor would his children do
other than work evil, wert thou to give him his life.”
So Moses called on the name of the Most High and smote; but
before the spade touched the man, as the sound of the name of God
reached his ears, he fell and died.[478]
Then Moses looked on the Hebrews who had crowded round, and
he said to them, “God has declared that ye shall be as the sand of
the sea-shore. Now the sand falls and it is noiseless, and the foot of
man presses it, and it sounds not. Therefore understand that ye are
to be silent as is the sand of the sea-shore, and tell not of what I
have this day done.”
Now when the man of the Hebrews returned home, he drove out his
wife Salome, because he had found the Egyptian concealed in his
house, and he gave her a writing of divorcement, and sent her away.
Then the Hebrews talked among themselves at their work, and some
said he had done well, and others that he had done ill. There were at
their task two young men, brothers, Dathan and Abiram, the sons of
Eliab, of the tribe of Reuben, and they strove together on this
subject, and Dathan in anger lifted his hand, and would have smitten
Abiram. Then Moses came up and stayed him, and cried, “What
wickedness art thou doing, striking thy comrade? It beseems you not
to lay hands on each other.”
Boldly did Dathan answer: “Who made thee, beardless youth, a lord
and ruler over us? We know well that thou art not the son of the
king’s daughter, but of Jochebed. Wilt thou slay me as thou didst the
Egyptian yesterday?”
“Alas!” said Moses, “now I see that the evil words, and evil acts, and
evil thoughts of this people will fight against them, and frustrate the
loving-kindness of the Lord towards them.”
Then Dathan and Abiram went before Pharaoh, and told him that
Moses had slain an Egyptian task-master; and Pharaoh’s anger was
kindled against Moses, and he cried, “Enough of evil hath been
prophesied against thee, and I have not heeded it, and now thou
liftest thy hand against my servants!”
For he had, for long, been slowly turning against Moses, when he
saw that he walked not in the ways of the Egyptians, and that he
loved the king’s enemies, and hated the king’s friends. Then he
consulted his soothsayers and his councillors, and they gave him
advice that he should put Moses to death with the sword. Therefore
the young man, Moses, was brought forth, and he ascended the
scaffold, and the executioner stood over him with his sword, the like
of which was not in the whole world. And when the king gave the
word, the headsman smote. But the Lord turned the neck of Moses
into marble, and the sword bit not into it.
Instantly, before the second blow was dealt, the angel Michael took
from the executioner his sword and his outward semblance, and
gave to the headsman the semblance of Moses, and he smote at the
executioner, and took his head from off his shoulders. But Moses
fled away, and none observed him. And he went to the king of
Ethiopia.[479]
Now the king of Ethiopia, Kikannos (Candacus) by name, was
warring against his enemies; and when he left his capital city, Meroe,
at the head of a mighty army, he left Balaam and his two sons
regents during his absence.
Whilst the king was engaged in war, Balaam and his sons conspired
against the king, and they bewitched the people with their
enchantments, and led them from their allegiance, and persuaded
them to submit to Balaam as their king. And Balaam strengthened
the city on all sides. Sheba, or Meroe, was almost impregnable, as it
was surrounded by the Nile and the Astopus. On two sides Balaam
built walls, and on the third side, between the Nile and the city, he
dug countless canals, into which he let the water run. And on the
fourth side he assembled innumerable serpents. Thus he made the
city wholly impregnable.
When King Kikannos returned from the war, he saw that his capital
was fortified, and he wondered; but when he was refused admission,
he knew that there was treason.
One day he endeavoured to surmount the walls, but was repulsed
with great slaughter; and the next day he threw thirty pontoons
across the river, but when his soldiers reached the other side, they
were engulfed in the canals, of which the water was impelled with
foaming fury by great mill-wheels. On the third day he assaulted the
town on the fourth side, but his men were bitten by the serpents and
died. Then King Kikannos saw that the only hope of reducing the city
was by famine; so he invested it, that no provisions might be brought
into it.
Whilst he sat down before the capital, Moses took refuge in his
camp, and was treated by him with great honour and distinction.
As the siege protracted itself through nine years, Kikannos fell ill and
died.
Then the chief captains of his army assembled, and determined to
elect a king, who might carry on the siege with energy, and reduce
the city with speed, for they were weary of the long investment. So
they elected Moses to be their king, and they threw off their
garments and folded them, and made thereof a throne, and set
Moses thereon, and blew their trumpets, and cried “God save King
Moses!”[480]
And they gave him the widow of Kikannos to wife, and costly gifts of
gold and silver and precious stones were brought to him, but all
these he laid aside in the treasury. This took place 157 years after
Jacob and his sons came down into Egypt, when Moses was aged
twenty-seven years.
On the seventh day after his coronation came the captains and
officers before him, and besought of him counsel, how the city might
be taken. Then said Moses, “Nine years have ye invested it, and it is
not yet in your power. Follow my advice, and in nine days it shall be
yours.”
They said, “Speak, and we will obey.”
Then Moses gave this advice, “Make it known in the camp that all
the soldiers go into the woods, and bring me storks’ nests as many
as they can find.”
So they obeyed, and young storks innumerable were brought to him.
Then he said, “Keep them fasting till I give you word, and he who
gives to a stork food, though it were but a crumb of bread, or a grain
of corn, he shall be slain, and all that he hath shall become the king’s
property, and his house shall be made a dung-heap.”
So the storks were kept fasting. And on the third day the king said,
“Let the birds go.”
Then the storks flew into the air, and they spied the serpents on the
fourth side of the city, and they fell upon them, and the serpents fled,
and they were killed and eaten by the storks or ever they reached
their holes, and not a serpent remained. Then said Moses, “March
into the city and take it.”
And the army entered the city, and not one man fell of the king’s
army, but they slew all that opposed them.
Thus Moses had brought the Ethiopian army into possession of the
capital. The grateful people placed the crown upon his head, and the
queen of Kikannos gave him her hand with readiness. But Balaam
and his sons escaped, riding upon a cloud.
Moses reigned in wisdom and righteousness for forty years, and the
land prospered under his government, and all loved and honoured
him. Nevertheless, some thought that the son of their late king ought
to ascend the throne of his ancestors;—he was an infant when
Moses was crowned, but now that he was a man, a party of the
nobles desired to proclaim his right.
They prevailed upon the queen to speak; and when all the princes
and great men of the kingdom were assembled, she declared the
matter before all. “Men of Ethiopia,” said she, “it is known to you that
for forty years my husband has reigned in Sheba. Well do you know
that he has ruled in equity, and administered righteous judgment. But
know also, that his God is not our God, and that his faith is not our
faith. My son, Mena-Cham (Minakros) is of fitting age to succeed his
father; therefore it is my opinion that Moses should surrender to him
the throne.”
An assembly of the people was called, and as this advice of the
queen pleased them, they besought Moses to resign the crown to
the rightful heir. He consented, without hesitation, and, laden with
gifts and good wishes, he left the country and went into Midian.[481]
Moses was sixty-seven years old when he entered Midian. Reuel or
Jethro,[482] who had been a councillor of Pharaoh, had, as has been
already related, taken up his residence in Midian, where the people
had raised him to be High Priest and Prince over the whole tribe. But
Jethro after a while withdrew from the priesthood, for he believed in
the one True God, and abhorred the idols which the Midianites
worshipped. And when the people found that Jethro despised their
gods, and that he preached against their idolatry, they placed him
under the ban, that none might give him meat or drink, or serve him.
This troubled Jethro greatly, for all his shepherds forsook him, as he
was under the ban. Therefore it was, that his seven daughters were
constrained to lead and water the flocks.[483]
Moses arrived near a well and sat down to rest. Then he saw the
seven daughters of Jethro approach.
The maidens had gone early to the well, for they feared lest the
shepherds, taking advantage of their being placed under ban, should
molest them, and refuse to give their sheep water. They let down
their pitchers in turn, and with much trouble filled the trough. Then
the shepherds came up and drove them away, and led their sheep to
the trough the maidens had filled, and in rude jest they would have
thrown the damsels into the water, but Moses stood up and delivered
them, and rebuked the shepherds, and they were ashamed.
Then Moses let down his pitcher, and the water leaped up and
overflowed, and he filled the trough and gave the flocks of the seven
maidens to drink, and then he watered also the flocks of the
shepherds, lest there should be evil blood between them.
Now when the maidens came home, they related to their father all
that had taken place; and he said, “Where is the man that hath
shown kindness to you?—bring him to me.”
So Zipporah ran—she ran like a bird—and came to the well, and
bade Moses enter under their roof and eat of their table.
When Moses came to Raguel (Jethro), the old man asked him
whence he came, and Moses told him all the truth.
Then thought Jethro, “I am fallen under the displeasure of Midian,
and this man has been driven out of Egypt and out of Ethiopia; he
must be a dangerous man; he will embroil me with the men of this
land, and, if the king of Ethiopia or Pharaoh of Egypt hears that I
have harboured him, it will go ill with me.”
Therefore Raguel took Moses and bound him with chains, and threw
him into a dungeon, where he was given only scanty food; and soon
Jethro, whose thoughts were turned to reconciliation with the
Midianites, forgot him, and sent him no food. But Zipporah loved him,
and was grateful to him for the kindness he had showed her, in
saving her from the hands of the shepherds who would have dipped
her in the watering-trough, and every day she took him food and
drink, and in return was instructed by the prisoner in the law of the
Most High.[484]
Thus passed seven, or, as others say, ten years;[485] and all the while
the gentle and loving Zipporah ministered to his necessities.
The Midianites were reconciled again with Jethro, and restored him
to his former position; and his scruples about the worship of idols
abated, when he found that opposition to the established religion
interfered with his temporal interests.
Then, when all was again prosperous, many great men and princes
came to ask the hand of Zipporah his daughter, who was beautiful as
the morning star, and as the dove in the hole of the rock, and as the
narcissus by the water’s side. But Zipporah loved Moses alone; and
Jethro, unwilling to offend those who solicited her by refusing them,
as he could give his daughter to one only, took his staff, whereon
was written the name of God, the staff which was cut from the Tree
of Life, and which had belonged to Joseph, but which he had taken
with him from the palace of Pharaoh, and he planted it in his garden,
and said, “He who can pluck up this staff, he shall take my daughter
Zipporah.”
Then the strong chiefs of Edom and of Midian came and tried, but
they could not move the staff.
One day Zipporah went before her father, and reminded him of the
man whom he had cast into a dungeon so many years before. Jethro
was amazed, and he said, “I had forgotten him these seven years;
he must be dead; he has had no food.”
But Zipporah said meekly, “With God all things are possible.”
So Jethro went to the prison door and opened it, and Moses was
alive. Then he brought him forth, and cut his hair, and pared his
nails, and gave him a change of raiment, and set him in his garden,
and placed meat before him.
Now Moses, being once more in the fresh air, and under the blue
sky, and with the light of heaven shining upon him, prayed and gave
thanks to God; and seeing the staff, whereon was written the name
of the Most High, he went to it and took it away, and it followed his
hand.
When Jethro returned into the garden, lo! Moses had the staff of the
Tree of Life in his hand; then Jethro cried out, “This is a man called
of God to be a prince and a great man among the Hebrews, and to
be famous throughout the world.” And he gave him Zipporah, his
daughter, to be his wife.[486]
One day, as Moses was tending his flock in a barren place, he saw
that one of the lambs had left the flock and was escaping. The good
shepherd pursued it, but the lamb ran so much the faster, fled
through valley and over hill, till it reached a mountain stream; then it
halted and drank.
Moses now came up to it, and looked at it with troubled
countenance, and said,—
“My dear little friend! Then it was thirst which made thee run so far
and seem to fly from me; and I knew it not! Poor little creature, how
tired thou must be! How canst thou return so far to the flock?”