Chapter 2

Module 1 Measurements
Duration: 3 Hours

INTRODUCTION
According to the Batas Pambansa Blg. 8 entitled “An Act Defining the Metric
System and its Units”, the metric system shall be the sole basis of measurement
system in the Philippines effective January 1, 1982.
However, there are other physical quantities that are often used in our daily
lives that are expressed in other system like the English system. For this reason, the
knowledge on the physical quantities, system of measurements, and conversion will
be of consideration in this module.

LESSON PROPER

Analytical Chemistry is a quantitative science. From calculations, we obtain

all the related quantities. With the use of several common devices, we can make
simple measurements of a substance’s properties. And it is important to note that
measurement is usually reported with a number and an appropriate unit. In
chemistry, it is critical that measurements are stated correctly.

Standard Unit
Analytical chemistry works exclusively with SI units, which are based on
the metric system. Table 1.1. provide the commonly used S.I base units and
shown in Table 1.2 the prefixes used with SI units and example.

Table 2.1 The base units

Dimension Unit name Abbreviation

Mass kilogram kg

Length meter m

Volume cubic meter m3

Time second s

Temperature kelvin K

Electrical current ampere A

Amount of substance Mole mol

Luminous intensity Candela cd

 Table 2.3 Common Conversion Factors

Type of measurement

1 kg = 1000 g = 2.2 pounds (lb)

1 g = 1000 mg
MASS 1 pound = 454 g
1 metric ton = 1000 kg

1 mL = 1 cubic centimeter (cc or cm3)

VOLUME 1 L = 1000 mL = 1.057 quarts (qt)
1 gal = 3.7854 L
1 cubic meter (m3) = 1000 L

1 m = 3.281 ft = 1.094 yards (yd)

LENGTH 1 foot (ft) = 12 in
1 inch (in) = 2.54 cm
1 mile (mi) = 1.61 km

AREA 1 square meter (m2) = 10.76 square feet (ft2)

1 ft 2= 929 square centimeter (cm2)
1 acre = 43,560 ft2
1 hectare = 10,000 m2 = 2.471 acres
Conversion of units

Most of your calculations in Analytical Chemistry are likely to be done using a

calculator, and calculators often provide more digits in the answer than you would be
justified in reporting as scientific data. Here are some examples of unit conversions.

Example 1.1 - Convert 365 nanometers to kilometers.

Solution :

Converts given metric Converts metric base

unit to metric base unit to desired metric unit

Note: 365nm (1m/1x109nm) (1km/1x103m)

Example 1.2 - Convert 4.352 micrograms to megagrams

Solution:

1 mg = 1000 micrograms(µm)
1g = 1000 milligrams(mg)
I kg = 1000 grams (g)
I Mg = 1000 kilograms(kg)

Other measurements that we will utilize frequently in this module are density
and temperature.
Density is mass of the object divided by its volume:

D= mass/volume or d=m/v

The SI unit of density is 1000 kg/m3 = 1 g/cm 3 or 1 g/ mL

1 g /L = 0.001g/mL

Example 1.3

A piece of copper metal of mass of 65.7 g has a volume of 5.80 cm 3. What is the
density of the element Cu?

Solution: D = mass/volume

D = 65.7 g / 5.80 cm3 = 11.33 g/cm3

The ratio of the density of a substance to the density of a reference substance is called
its specific gravity (SG). Water is usually used as the reference substance for solids
and liquids. Common reference substances used in specifying the specific gravity of
gases are air and hydrogen. By definition,

density of a solid or liquid density of a gas

SG = or SG =
density of water density of air

Example 1.4

You have a sample of a block of granite with a density 2.8 g/cm3. The density of water
is 1.0 g/cm3. What is the specific gravity of your granite?

Solution:

= 2.8 g/cm3
1.0 g/cm3
SG = 2.8
(note: no unit)

Temperature
The measure of the average kinetic energy (amount of energy of motion) of
molecules or atoms in a given system is temperature. Simply, it is a comparative
measure of how hot or cold a material is. The coldest theoretical temperature is called
absolute zero where the thermal motion of particles is at its minimum. The absolute
zero is 0 K or −273.15 C or −459.67 F. Thermometer is the instrument used to
measure temperature.
To convert temperature reading from one scale to another, the equations below
are used.
 Table 2.4 Formulas for Temperature Scale Conversion
Celsius to Fahrenheit T℉ = (1.8 x T℃) + 32

Fahrenheit to Celsius T℃ =(T℉ - 32) /1.8

Celsius to Kelvin TK= T℃ + 273. 15

Example 1.4 Conversion of temperature

The air temperature on a hot day is 95oF. What is this temperature in the (a) Celsius
scale? (b) absolute scale?

Solution:

a) T℃ = (℉-32) /1.8 = (95 -32) /1.8 = 35℃

b) TK = ℃+ 273. 15 = 35℃ +273.15 = 308.15 K

Handling Numbers

A. Significant Figures

Significant figures are meaningful digits in any measurement that are known
with a certain plus one digit that is uncertain. Only one estimated or uncertain digit is
ever recorded as part of a measurement.
For example,
123 km (123 + 1) meaning: 122 km or 124 km
NOTE: The last digit is uncertain and the other digits are certain.

Rules in determining the number of significant figures:

1. All non-zero digits are significant
Examples: 111 g = 3 S.F
12345 ml = 5 S.F
2145 s = 4 S.F
2. Significant zeros
a. Middle Zeros
Examples: 101 nm = 3 S.F
30009 m = 5 S.F
2005 km = 4 S.F

b. Zeros that fall both on the right of a nonzero digit and a decimal point.
Examples: 0.330 dg = 3 S.F
523.00 cg = 5 S.F
5.000 μg = 4 S.F

c. All zeros written to the right of a decimal point when a number is

greater than 1.
Examples: 20.0 Gb = 3 S.F
610.00 Mb = 5 S.F
 400.0 kb = 4 S.F

3. Insignificant zeros – Leading Zeros

Examples: 0.00321 m= 3 S.F
0.000091375 cm= 5 S.F
0.007291 km= 4 S.F

4. Trailing zeros are sometimes significant or not. To solve the issue of ambiguity,
express ambiguous zeros to scientific notation.
Given Possible No. of S.F. Resolving Ambiguity
Examples: 1000 = 4 S.F. 1.000 x 10 3
= 3 S.F. 1.00 x 10 3
= 2 S.F. 1.0 x 10 3
5. Exact numbers are always significant. These numbers derived
through counting.
Examples: 500 pcs. of paper = 3 S.F
10534 students = 5 S.F
1.13 mL (density of seawater at 4 ºC) = 4 S.F

1. Considered as Defined Numbers are always significant.

Examples: 1 ft = 12 inches
1 inch = 2.54 cm

For addition and subtraction use the following rules:

1. In the problem, count in the decimal portion ONLY the number of significant
figures. Add or subtract in the usual way.
2. Your final answer must contain the LEAST number of significant figures in any
number in the problem.

Example: 5.201 g has 3 significant figures in the decimal portion

2.3 g has 1 significant figures in the decimal portion

Adding : 5.201 g + 2.3 g = 7.5 g

The final answer must only contain 1 significant figure in its decimal portion

For multiplication and division use the following rule:

1. The number of significant figures in the product or quotient is determined by

the LEAST number of significant figures in any number of the problem. (You
have to look at the entire number and not only the decimal portion. Be able to
recognize correctly the number of significant figures to apply this rule.)

Example: 5.26 m has 3 significant figures

6.1 m has 2 significant figures
Multiplying: 5.26 m x 6.1 m = 32.09 m2
expressed to 2 significant figures is 32m2

B. Scientific Notation

Scientific notation is a convenient way of expressing a very small or very large

number. It simplifies the use of significant figures and facilitates computation.
 Table 2.5 Examples for Numbers expressed in Scientific Notation

Large numbers Small numbers

Decimal notation Scientific notation Decimal notation Scientific notation

200.0 2.0 x 10 2 0.02 2 x 10 -2

40,000.0 4 x 10 4 0.0004 4 x 10 -4

50,000,000.0 5 x 10 7 0.0000005 5 x 10 -7

96,500,000,000.0 9.65 x 10 10 0.000000000965 9.65 x 10 -2

A. Rounding off Numbers

Rounding whole numbers refers to changing the value of the whole number to the
nearest ten, hundred, thousand, etc.

Table 2.6 Rules for Rounding Off Numbers

Rule Example

1. The digit to be rounded off should be left

unchanged if the next digit is lower than 5. 8.42 is rounded off to 8.4

2. The digit to be rounded off should be increased 6.89 is rounded off to 6.9
by 1 if the next digit is higher than 5.

3. The digit to be rounded off should be raised by 1 5.352 is rounded off to 5.4
if the next digit is 5 followed by digits other than 16.159 → 16.2
zero.

4. If the next digit is 5 or 5 followed by zeros, then 2.45 is rounded off to 2.4
the digit to be rounded off is not changed if it is 6.250 → 6.2
EVEN

5. If the next digit is 5 or 5 followed by zeros, then 2.35 is rounded off to 3.4
the digit to be rounded off is raised by 1 if it is 7.350 → 7.4
ODD
Chapter 2
Module 2 Accuracy and Precision
Duration: 1.5 hour

INTRODUCTION

A common example to demonstrate the difference between precision and

accuracy is with a dartboard. If the bulls-eye (center) of a dartboard represents the
true value, then, the closer the darts land to the bulls-eye, the more accurate they are.
On the other hand, the closer the darts are to each other this describes a higher
precision.
Precision and accuracy are two distinct ways that describe an error or
uncertainty in measurements. Accuracy is independent of precision. In this module,
the concepts of accuracy and precision will be given emphasis.

LESSON PROPER

Precision and accuracy are distinctly different concepts and should not be used
interchangeably. Precision is defined as the closeness of individual measurements
to each other. It is usually expressed in terms of percent deviation.

We can calculate the % deviation from the formula

where: Ave AD : average absolute deviation

M : mean or average of several measurements

Absolute deviation (AD) is the difference between the measured value(Mo) and the
mean (M) for the set of several measurements. In equation,

AD = /Mo – M/

Accuracy is defined as the closeness of a measured value to the correct or accepted

value for a particular physical quantity. It is expressed in terms of percent error.

We can calculate the % error from the formula

where: Ave AE = average absolute error

MA = accepted value

Absolute error refers to the actual difference between the measured value and
the accepted value. In equation,

AE = /Mo – MA/
Measurement Uncertainty- is the outcome of inaccuracy in measuring devices.
All measuring devices have some degree of imprecision and uncertainty. Also the
methods used in measuring and human or operator and machine/equipment.
Example:

(1/10 the smallest scale division

1,14mL=? 1.15 mL=? 1.16 mL=?

Uncertain digit

Example: Standard weight =50.0 grams

A B
50 grams 48.99 grams

Precise and Accurate Not precise/not accurate

A B

Trial # Mass (g) Trial # Mass(g)

1 50.00 1 48.9

2 50.01 2 50.0

3 49.99 3 50.02

Average 50 Average 49.7

AD 0.006 AD 0.473

D% 0.012% %D 0.95 %

AE 0.006 AE 0.373

%E 0.012% %E 0.75 %
Table xx Example for accuracy and precision Computation

Result: A is precise and accurate

Problem: Three students performed an experiment to measure the density of
Magnesium ribbon (1.85 g/ml). Which data is most precise and most
accurate?

Rona (g/mL) Beatriz (g/mL) Allan

1.4 4 1.75 1.85

1.54 1.63 1.86

1.64 1.52 1.84

Solution: Compute for each %D and % E.

Rona
% DA= Ave AD / Mean X 100 = 0.06/1.54 X 100 = 3.89 %
% EA = Ave AE /MA X 100 = 0.31/1.85 X 100 = 16.76 %

Beatriz
% DA= Ave AD / Mean X 100 = 0.076/1.63 X 100= 4.66%
% EA= Ave AE / Mean X 100 = 0.22/1.85 X 100 = 11.9 %

Allan
% DA= Ave AD / Mean X 100 =0.01/1.85 X 100= 0.54 %
% EA= Ave AE / Mean X 100 = 0.01 /1.85 X 100 = 0.54 %

ANSWER: ALLAN IS THE MOST ACCURATE AND MOST PRECISE.

How to Remember?

● aCcurate is Correct (a bullseye).

● pRecise is Repeating (hitting the same spot, but maybe not the correct spot)