||Jai Sri Gurudev ||

Sri Adichunchanagiri Shikshana Trust®

SJB INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

Accredited by NBA & NAAC with ‘A’ Grade
No. 67, BGS Health & Education City, Dr. Vishnuvardhan Road
Kengeri, Bangalore – 560 060

Department of Electronics & Communication

Engineering
Basic Electronics [23ECT13/23B]

MODULE – 1

(Semiconductor Diodes & Its Applications)

Notes (as per Autonomous Syllabus 2023)

1st SEMESTER – B. E ( 2023 Scheme)

Academic Year: 2023 – 2024 (Even Sem )

Course Coordinator : Dr. Komala.M

Designation & Dept Associate Professor, ECE

Introduction to Electronics 23ECT13A

Module-1

Syllabus
 Semiconductor Diodes:

1.1 Introduction, PN Junction diode,

1.2 Characteristics and Parameters,

1.3 Diode Approximations,

1.4 DC Load Line analysis

 Diode Applications:

1.5 Introduction to rectifiers , Half Wave Rectification working

1.6 Full Wave Rectifier

1.7 Fullwave Bridge Rectifier

1.8 Full Wave Rectifier Power Supply

1.9 Capacitor Filter Circuit, RC π Filter

 Zener Diodes

1.10 Junction Breakdown, Circuit Symbol and Package,

1.11 Characteristics and Parameters,

1.12 Equivalent Circuit,

1.13 Zener Diode Voltage Regulator

Reference Text Book :

Electronic Devices and Circuits, by David A Bell, 5th Edition, Oxford, 2016

• Refer Chapter-2 (2.1,2.2,2.3,2.4,2.9)

• Refer Chapter-3 (3.1,3.2,3.4,3.5,3.7)

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Introduction to Semiconductor physics:

Semiconductor materials are mainly used to manufacture electronic devices like diodes, transistors and
integrated circuits.

Types of materials:
Conductor, Insulator and Semiconductor

A conductor is a material that allows the flow of charge easily when applied with a voltage.
An insulator is a material that does not allow the flow of current.
A semiconductor is a material whose conductivity lies between conductor & insulator
.Conductivity of a semiconductor material can be varied by adding impurities.

Semiconductor materials:
Silicon, Germanium and Gallium Arsenide are basic semiconductor material. Out of which we
choose silicon for most of the applications because it is abundantly available in nature,cheap
and ease of doping.

A silicon atom has 14 protons which reside in Nucleus ,14 Electrons rotate around the
Nucleus.Outer most orbit has 4 electrons and 4 Valence Electrons.Each silicon atom shares 4
electrons with its neighboring atoms. By sharing each silicon atom will become a covalent
bond Free electrons are formed at room temperature which creates a vacancy called as “Hole”.

Intrinsic Semiconductor:
• A semiconductor material in its pure form is known as an intrinsic semiconductor.
Thus, the intrinsic semiconductors are chemically pure, i.e. they are free from impurities.

• Number of free electrons is equal to the number of holes in the intrinsic semiconductor.

• Examples of the intrinsic semiconductors are A.) Silicon (Si) B.)Germanium (Ge)

Extrinsic Semiconductor:
• When a small amount of chemical impurity is added to an intrinsic semiconductor, then
the resulting semiconductor material is known as extrinsic semiconductor.

• Extrinsic semiconductors are of two types

N-type semiconductors and P-type semiconductors.

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Doping:
• The process of adding impurity in the intrinsic semiconductor is known as doping.

• When a trivalent impurity is added to a pure semiconductor, then the obtained

semiconductor is known as P-type semiconductor. Ex: Aluminium, boron and Gallium

• When a pentavalent impurity is added to an intrinsic semiconductor, then the resulting

semiconductor is termed as N-type semiconductor. Ex: Arsenic, Anitmony and
Phosporus.

1.1 Diode:
• Diodes are two terminal component made from a single piece
of Semiconductor material which has a positive “P-region” at one end and a negative
“N-region” at the other, and which has a resistivity value somewhere between that of a
conductor and an insulator.

• A PN-junction is formed when an N-type material is fused together with a P-type

material creating a semiconductor diode called PN Diode.

Size and appearance of diode depending upon forward current:

Appearance of diode is classified into three types:

• Low current diode: This diodes are capable of passing maximum forward current upto
100mA and 75V reverse bias without breakdown.

• Medium current diode: This diode can pass a forward current of 400mA and reverse bias
of 200V.

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• High current diode or power diode can pass forward currents of many amperes and can
survive several hundred volts of reverse bias.

1.2 Characteristics and parameters of diode:

The characteristics of a diode can be analyzed depending upon the biasing conditions.Diode
works under three conditions:

1. Unbiased : When a diode in unbiased , flow of minority charge carriers and majority
charge carriers across the junction will cancel each other so overall current is zero under
unbiased condition of diode.

2. Forward Biased: The voltage potential is connected positive, (+ve) to the P-type
material and negative, (-ve) to the N-type material across the diode which has the effect
of Decreasing the PN junction diodes width.It results in a narrow depletion region.

When the PN junction is forward biased the applied positive potential repels the holes in
the P-region, and the applied negative potential repels the electrons in the N-region so the
charges move towards the junction. Hence, the potential barrier as well as the width of
the depletion region are reduced.

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3. Reverse Biased : The voltage potential is connected negative, (-ve) to the P-type
material and positive, (+ve) to the N-type material across the diode which has the effect
of Increasing the PN junction diode’s width.It results in a wide depletion region or drift
region.

 When the PN junction is reverse biased , electrons in the N region and holes in the P-
region are attracted away from the junction.
 Number of negative ions in the P-region and positive ions in the N-region increases.
Hence the depletion region becomes wider and the potential barrier is increased.
 Since the depletion region does not contain majority charge carriers, it acts like an
insulator causin ga drift .so a wide depletion region is formed.

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V-I Characteristics of a diode:

V I means, Volt Ampere, is an experimental study to analyze graphically the electrical

behavior (relationship between voltage and current) of the device. V I Characteristics of
the Diode is non-linear (not straight line), because its resistance is not constant.

Forward Characteristics of diode:

This is ON mode of diode. P-side is connected to positive (+) and N-side is connected to
negative (-) of the battery. The following point are observed.
(i) The current in this mode is called forward current, IF, only due to majority carriers.
(ii) At VF = 0, diode does not conduct, hence there is no forward current (i.e., IF = 0).
(iii) With gradual increase in the forward voltage VF, forward current IF increases.
(iv) Continuing increase of VF, causes rapid increase of IF, because diode offers less
resistance.
(vi) The knee voltage, at which diode current starts to increase rapidly (0.3V for
Germanium diodeand 0.7V for Silicon). Above knee voltage, the diode current
is almost exponential growth.

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Reverse Characteristics of diode:

This is OFF mode of diode. P-side is connected to positive (+) and N-side is connected
to negative (-) of the battery. The following points are observed.
(i) The majority carrier current is blocked, but very small reverse current called reverse
saturation current Is flows due to minority charge carriers
(ii) At a point called break down voltage, VBR, reverse current IR sharply increases.
This is not normalmode of operation. That means, if IR exceeds the maximum rating,
diode will get damage.
(iii) Break down voltage depends on doping level, set by the manufacturer.

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Diode Parameters:
Diode parameters are the ratings of diodes important in circuit design and component
selection. The list below provides a summary of some of the more widely used diode
specifications, with their meanings
1. Forward Voltage (VF): Forward voltage is the voltage drop across a PN junction
diode duringforward biased condition. It is due to the majority carriers, measured
in volts.
2. Forward Current (IF): It is a current flowing through forward biased diode (due to
the majoritycarriers), measured in milli ampere (mA).
3. Reverse Current (IR): It is a current flowing through reverse biased diode (due to
the minoritycarriers), measured in µA or nanoAm p e r e s .
4. Reverse Break down Voltage (VBR) or Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV): It is a
maximum reverse voltage that a diode can withstand without damage, measured
in volts.
5. Power Dissipation (PD): It is the product of diode voltage, VD and
diode current, ID.i.e., PD = VD ID, measured in watts.

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1.3 Diode Approximations:

Diode equivalent circuits or approximations describe the behavior of diode circuit. It is useful in
the analysis of the device. In the approximation, the equivalent circuit involves voltage cells and
resistors. There are three diodes approximations demonstrated below.

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DC Equivalent Circuits:
An equivalent circuit for a device is a circuit that represents the device behaviour. Usually, the
equivalent circuit is made up of a number of components, such as resistors and voltage cells. A
diode equivalent circuit may be substituted in place of the device when investigating a circuit
containing the diode. Equivalent circuits may also be used as device models in computer
analysis of circuits.

A more accurate equivalent circuit includes the diode dynamic resistance (rd) in series with the
voltage cell, as shown in fig (b). This takes account of the small variations in V F that occur with
change in forward current. An ideal diode is also included to show that current flows only in
one direction.

1.4 DC Load Line Analysis:

When the precise levels of the diode current and voltage must be calculated a graphical analysis
termed as DC Load Line Analysis is employed. Figure (a) shows a DC Load Line Analysis of
Semiconductor Diode in series with a 100 Ω resistance (R1) and a supply voltage (E) of 5V. The
polarity of E is such that the diode is forward biased, so a diode forward current (IF) flows.

For graphical analysis, a dc load line is drawn on the diode forward characteristics a shown in
above fig b. This is a straight line that illustrates all dc conditions that could exist within the

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circuit. Because the load line is always straight, it can be constructed by plotting any two
corresponding current and voltage points and then drawing a straight line through them.

How to determine the points A and B to draw a DC load line?

To determine two points on the load line, an equation relating voltage, current,and resistance is
first derived for the circuit.

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• Quiescent point is only one point on the dc load line where the diode voltage and current

are compatible with the circuit conditions where the load line intersects the
characteristic.

Applications of Diodes:

Diodes are used in various devices and circuits which are mentioned below

• Rectifiers

• Clipper Circuits

• Clamping Circuits

• Reverse Current Protection Circuits

• In Logic Gates

• Voltage Multipliers

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1.5 Introduction to rectifiers

• A rectifier is an electrical device composed of one or more diodes that converts
alternating current (AC) to direct current (DC).

Rectification is a process of converting a sinusoidal ac waveform into single polarity half

cycles. Rectification may be performed by half wave or full wave rectifier circuits.

Halfwave rectification:
Half wave rectification is carried out by a step-down transformer and a diode as shown in fig
During positive half cycle of the secondary voltage Vm:

Diode is forward biased and offers low resistance RF, hence it a closed switch.

Then, diode current ID flows through the load resistance RL. Therefore, output voltage Vo = ID RL.

During negative half cycle of the secondary voltage Vm:

Diode is reverse biased and offers very high resistance Rr, acts as open switch.
Therefore
Then, diode current ID = 0. Therefore, output voltage Vo = 0.
The cycle repeats over time axis.

(a) Half wave rectifier circuit (b) input-output voltage wave forms

A half wave rectifier is rarely used in practice, because it conducts only for
positive half cycle of the input signal. It is never preferred as the power supply of
an audio circuit due to its high ripple factor.

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Equations to calculate rectifier parameters:

An alternating input voltage is applied to a single diode connected in series with a load
resistor RL. The diode is forward biased during the positive half-cycles of the input
waveform, and reverse biased during the negative half-cycles. Substantial current flows
through RL only during the positive half-cycles of the input. For the duration of the
negative half-cycles, the diode behaves almost as an open switch.
An alternating input voltage is applied to a single diode connected in series with a load
resistor RL. The diode is forward biased during the positive half-cycles of the input
waveform, and reverse biased during the negative half-cycles. Substantial current flows
through RL only during the positive half-cycles of the input. For the duration of the
negative half-cycles, the diode behaves almost as an open switch.
When the diode is forward biased , the voltage drop across it is VF, and the output voltage
is (input voltage) – VF. So, the peak output voltage is,

Note that Vpi= 1.414 Vi , where Vi is the rms level of the sinusoidal input voltage.
The diode peak forward current is,

During the negative half-cycle of the input [Fig. 3-1(b)], the reverse-biased diode offers a very
high resistance. So, only a very small reverse current (IR) flows, giving an output voltage,

While the diode is reverse biased, the peak voltage of the negative half-cycle of the input is
applied to its terminals. Thus, the peak reverse voltage, or peak inverse voltage (PIV), applied
to the diode is,

Advantage: Half wave rectifier is cheap, simple and easy to construct.

Disadvantage:
1. Ripple factor is high at the output.
2. Rectification efficiency is quite low, that means, power is delivered only
during one half cycle of the input alternating voltage.
3. Transformer utilization factor is low.

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1.6 Two Diode Full Wave Rectifier Circuit:

Two Diode Full Wave Rectifier Circuit, and its input voltage is supplied from a transformer (T 1)
with a center-tapped secondary winding is shown in below figure. The circuit is essentially a
combination of two half-wave rectifier circuits, each supplied from half of the transformer
secondary.

When the transformer output voltage is positive at the top, as illustrated in Fig. 3-3(a), the anode
of D1 is positive, and the center-tap of the transformer is connected to the cathode of D1 via
RL. Consequently, D1 is forward biased, and load current (IL) flows from the top of the
transformer secondary through D1, through RL from top to bottom, and back to the transformer
center-tap. During this time, the polarity of the voltage from the bottom half of the transformer
secondary causes diode D2 to be reverse biased.

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For the duration of the negative half-cycle of the transformer output, the polarity of the
transformer secondary voltage causes D1 to be reverse biased and D2 to be forward biased,
IL flows from the bottom terminal of the transformer secondary through diode D 2, through
RL from top to bottom, and back to the transformer center-tap. The output waveform is the
combination of the two half-cycles; that is, a continuous series of positive half-cycles of
sinusoidal waveform. This is Two Diode Full Wave Rectifier Circuit rectification.

Disadvantages of Full wave rectifier

Since, each diode uses only one-half of the transformers secondary voltage,
the DC output is comparatively small.
It is difficult to construct and locate the center-tap on secondary winding of
the transformer. The diodes used must have high PIV.

1.7 Full Wave Bridge Rectifier:

The center-tapped transformer used in the circuit of Full wave Rectifier is usually more
expensive and requires more space than additional diodes. So, a bridge rectifier is the circuit
most frequently used for full-wave rectification.

The bridge rectifier circuit in shown below it consist of four diodes connected with their
arrowhead symbols all pointing toward the positive output terminal of the circuit. Diodes
D1 and D2 are series-connected, as are D3 and D4. The ac input terminals are the junction of
D1 and D2 and the junction of D3 and D4. The positive output terminal is at the cathodes of
D1 and D3, and the negative output is at the anodes of D2 and D4.

Working of Bridge Rectifier:

During the positive half-cycle of input voltage, diodes D1 and D4 are in series with RL, aThus,
load current (IL) flows from the positive input terminal through D1 to RL, and then through

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RL and D4 back to the negative input terminal. Note that the direction of the load current
through RL is from top to bottom. During this time, the positive input terminal is applied to the
cathode of D2 and the negative output is at D2 anode,]. So, D2 is reverse biased during the
positive half-cycle of the input. Similarly, D3 has the negative input at its anode and the positive
output at its cathode during the positive input half-cycle, causing D3 to be reverse biased.

When the diodes D2 and D3 are forward biased during the negative half-cycle of the input
waveform, while D1 and D4 are reverse biased. Although the circuit input terminal polarity is
reversed, IL again flows through RL from top to bottom, via D3 and D2.

It is seen that during both half-cycles of the input, the output terminal polarity is always positive
at the top of RL, negative at the bottom. Both positive and negative half-cycles of the input are
passed to the output. The negative half-cycles are inverted, so that the output is a continuous
series of positive half-cycles of sinusoidal voltage.

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The bridge rectifier has two forward-biased diodes in series With the supply voltage and
the load. Because each diode has a forward voltage drop (VF), the peak output voltage is,

Other Ways to connect Bridge Wave Rectifier:

Advantages:

1. Need for center-taped transformer is eliminated.

2. Output is twice when compared to center-tapped full wave rectifier for the same secondary
voltage.
3. The PIV is one-half (1/2) compared to center-tapped full wave rectifier

Disadvantage:
It requires four diodes, the use of two extra diodes cause an additional voltage drop
thereby reducingthe output voltage.

1.8 Full Wave Rectifier DC Power Supply

Like half-wave rectifiers, full-wave rectifiers require filter circuits to convert the output

waveform to direct voltage. Figure shows a Full Wave Rectifier DC Power Supply with a
reservior capacitor and a surge limiting resistor. These components operate exactly as

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explained for the half-wave rectifier circuit, with a few important exceptions.

The capacitor-smoothed full-wave rectifier waveforms are shown in fig below

Angle θ1 and θ2 can be derived from below equations

time t2 can be calculated from the equation

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It is seen that the capacitor discharge time (t1) for the half-wave circuit is approximately equal
to the waveform time period (T), whereas for the full-wave circuit t1 approximately equals T/2.
More precisely,

Using the correct value of t1 below equation can be used for calculating the reservior
capacitance for a full-wave rectifier circuit.

Repetitive current (IFRM) can be determined from Equation below

1.9 Rectifiers with filters:

Filters are employed in rectifier circuits for smoothing the DC output voltage, so that the
undesirable AC components (the ripples), can be minimized. Capacitor C can be used as a
filtering element which converts the rippled output of the rectifier into a smooth DC output
voltage.

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Zener Diodes

A heavily doped semiconductor diode which is designed to operate in reverse direction is

known as the Zener diode. In other words, the diode which is specially designed for optimising
the breakdown region is known as the Zener diode.

Symbol of Zenerdiode

1.10 Zener Diodes Characteristics:

When a Junction diode is reverse biased, normally only a very small reverse saturation current
flows; IS on the reverse characteristic. When the reverse voltage is sufficiently increased, the
junction breaks down and a large reverse current flows. If the reverse current is limited by
means of a suitable series resistor, the power dissipation in the junction can be kept to a level
that will not destroy the device. In this case, the Zener Diodes Characteristics may be operated
continuously in reverse breakdown. The reverse current returns to its normal level when the
voltage is reduced below the reverse breakdown level.

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Diodes designed for operation in reverse breakdown are found to have a breakdown voltage that
remains extremely stable over a wide range of current levels. This property gives the breakdown
diode many useful applications as a voltage reference source.

There are two mechanisms that cause breakdown in a reverse biased pn- junction. With a very
narrow depletion region, the electric field strength (volts/width) produced by a reverse bias
voltage can be very high. The high intensity electric field causes electrons to break away from
their atoms, thus converting the depletion region from an insulating material into a conductor.
This is ionization by electric field, also called Zener breakdown, and it usually occurs with
reverse bias voltages less than 5 V.

In cases where the depletion region is too wide for Zener breakdown, the electrons in the
reverse saturation current can be given sufficient energy to cause other electrons to break free
when they strike atoms within the depletion region. This is termed ionization by collision. The
electrons released in this way collide with other atoms to produce more free electrons in an
avalanche effect. Avalanche breakdown is normally produced by reverse voltage levels above
5 V. Although Zener and avalanche are two different types of breakdown, the name Zener
Diodes Characteristics is commonly applied to all breakdown diodes.

1.11 Characteristics and Parameters:

The forward characteristic of a Zener diode is simply that of an ordinary forward-biased diode.
Some important points on the reverse characteristic are:

VZ – Zener breakdown voltage

IZT – Test current for measuring VZ

IZK – Reverse current near the knee of the characteristic; the minimum reverse current to
sustain breakdown

IZM – Maximum Zener current; limited by the maximum power dissipation.

The Zener diode current may be any level between IZK and IZM. For greatest voltage stability,
the diode is normally operated at the test current. Many low-power Zener diodes have a test
current specified as 20 mA, however, some devices have lower test currents.

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1.12 Equivalent Circuit:

The dc equivalent circuit for a Zener diode is simply a voltage cell with a voltage V Z, as in Fig
below. This is the complete equivalent circuit for the device for all dc calculations. For the ac
equivalent circuit if figure b , the dynamic impedance is included in series with the
voltages cell. The ac equivalent circuit is used in situations where the Zener current is varied by
small amounts. It must be understood that these equivalent circuits apply only when the Zener
diode is maintained in reverse breakdown. If the device becomes forward biased, then the
equivalent circuit for a forward-biased diode must be used.

Applications of Zener Diode:

The Zener diode is mostly used in the commercial and industrial applications

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1. As Voltage Stabilizer : It provides the constant voltage from the fluctuating voltage
source to the load.

2. For Meter Protection: The Zener diode is generally used in multimeters for controlling
the movement of the meter against accidental overloads.

3. For Wave Shaping: The Zener diode is used for converting the sine wave into the
square wave.This can be done by placing the two Zener Diodes in series with the
resistance.

1.13 Zener Diode as Voltage Regulator

A series resistor limits the current passing through the diode by connecting it to the
circuit. Normally, the positive terminal of the d.c. is connected to the pulsator. The reverse-
biassed device works in such a way that it can also operate under breakdown conditions. A
simple junction diode cannot be used because the diode’s low power rating could be damaged
if reverse bias is applied above its breakdown voltage. The Zener diode current should always
be minimum when the minimum input voltage and the maximum load current are applied.

Since the input voltage and the required output voltage are known, it is easier to select a Zener
diode with a voltage that is approximately equal to the load voltage, i.e., VZ = VL.

The value of the series resistor is written as RS = (VL − VZ)IL

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When the voltage across the diode tends to increase, the current through the diode increases,
which causes the resistance to drop in voltage. When the voltage across the diode decreases, the
current through the diode also tends to decrease. The voltage drop across the resistor is very
small in this case, so the output voltage is normal.

Question Bank for Module-1

1. What is a PN junction Diode?

2. Explain the formation of depletion layer in PN junction Diode.

3. Discuss the behavior of PN junction Diode under following conditions

(i) Unbiased orNo bias (ii) Forward Bias and (iii) Reverse
Bias
4. Draw and explain V-I characteristics of Silicon and
Germanium diodes.

5. Define the following PN junction Diode parameters:

(i) Forward Voltage (VF) (ii) Forward Current (IF)
(ii) (iii) Reverse Current (IR)

(iv) Reverse Break down Voltage (VBR) or Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV)

(v) Power Dissipation (PD)

(vi) (vi) Dynamic Resistance (rD)

(vii) Knee voltage (VK)

6. With appropriate diagrams discuss diode approximations.
7. What is purpose of DC load . Explain the procedure to draw DC Loadline with an
example and also discuss in brief about Q point.

8. What is a rectifier? Briefly discuss the common types of rectifier circuits.

9. With a circuit diagram and relevant waveform explain working of Half wave rectifier.

10. With a circuit diagram and relevant waveform explain working of Full wave rectifier.

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11. With a circuit diagram and relevant waveform explain working of Bridge wave
rectifier.
Discuss the need of filter circuit. Explain the operation of C filter for half wave
rectifier.
12. Explain working of Full Wave Rectifier DC Power Supply.

13. With neat circuit diagram and waveforms explain the operation of C filter for full wave
rectifier.

14. What is Zener diode , Explain the VI characteristics of Zener diode.

15. Explain how zener diode works as a voltage regulator.

16. Problems on diodes , rectifiers.( Solved problem will be shared as separate file).

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