THE DESERT ROSES AND OTHER RECENT GYPSUM CRYSTALS OF QATAR

APRIL 2019
Cover page: Giant Desert Rose specimen owned by Qatar Museum (QNM.2012.934.1).
Dimensions: 19 x 71 x 76 cm

https://sites.google.com/site/leblancjacques/fossilhome Page 2
 CONTENTS
Page
Main Text 4
References 10
Appendix A ‐ Dominant habits of gypsum crystals in Dukhan and Umm Said 11
Sabkha sediments (Qatar)
Appendix B ‐ Some gypsum crystal localities 12
1 The Umm Said Sabkha 12
2 The Dukhan Sabkha 13
3 Small area of the Umm Said coastal Sabkha north of Sealine resort 14
4 Sabkha south of the old Camel Track dirt road 14
5 Dohat Faishakh area 16
Appendix C ‐ Glossary & Coordinates 17

https://sites.google.com/site/leblancjacques/fossilhome Page 3
 THE DESERT ROSES AND OTHER RECENT GYPSUM CRYSTALS OF QATAR
By: Jacques LeBlanc, Geologist
(April 2019)

Gypsum is a common mineral (CaSO4 + 2 H2O) that

is dissolved in the sea water, and crystallizes by the
concentration of calcium sulfate through
evaporation. It is a common mineral in the desert
environment due to the climate prevailing in these
zones; at some rare locations it even crystallizes in
the form of desert roses (Fig 3), one of the many
gypsum crystal habits (Appendix A) and perhaps
one of the most spectacular that are found in
nature. Gypsum is one of those evaporite
lithologies that are frequently found in the
geological record, such as in the Miocene Dam
Fig 1: Large (up to 1m) gypsum crystals from
formation in An Nafkhah (and Jebel Al‐Nakhash ‐ the Miocene Dam Formation of SW Qatar over
Fig 1) along the coast of the Gulf of Salwa in Qatar Jebel Al‐Nakhash. (LeBlanc, 2009)
where it was extracted up to 2015 for use in
cement.

Gypsum is the most common of the sulphate minerals (it belongs to a group of minerals that have SO4 in
its composition). Its main occurrences are as sedimentary deposits associated with limestone, shale,
marl and clay, and in evaporite deposits, such as in the recent sabkha deposits of Qatar. The term
"evaporite deposits" means that the mineral deposition is the result of evaporation of a solution (e.g.
seawater). Seawater is a highly saline solution. Of all the minerals dissolved about 80% is sodium
chloride (halite ‐ common salt that we use for cooking) and about 4% calcium sulphate (gypsum). When
the water is evaporated for example due to the action of the sun, the minerals dissolved in it deposit in
a known succession. Such succession starts with calcium carbonate (aragonite/calcite) and carries on
with calcium sulphate (gypsum/anhydrite), sodium chloride (fluorite), sulphates and chlorides of
magnesium, sodium bromide and finally potassium chloride. If all salt of a 1000ft column of water were
precipitated, it would make 15ft of salt deposits in which about 0.4ft would be calcium sulphate, 11.6ft
would be halite and the remainder potassium and magnesium bearing salts. The reason why these
minerals do not precipitate all at the same time has to do with the fact that each one has a different
solubility. Also, because of this mineral precipitation succession we end up with having desert roses with
different compositions. Besides, the abundance of multiple chemical elements (e.g. calcium, potassium)
makes certain types of desert roses more typical of some regions than others.

Gypsum deposits occur in sabkhas (Figs 2 & 3) as fine, white interbedded layers. Sabkhas are supratidal
salt flats found along the coast between a desert and a salty body of water such as the Arabian Gulf.
Their surface elevation is normally at sea level or just few metres below it. There are inland sabkhas,
such as the Dukhan sabkha, and coastal sabkhas, such as the Umm Said Sabkha (Fig 2). All are
characterized by a crusty surface consisting of evaporite deposits (salt, gypsum), calcium carbonate,
windblown sediments, and tidal deposits. Sabkhas form primarily through the evaporation of sea water

https://sites.google.com/site/leblancjacques/fossilhome Page 4
that seeps upward from a shallow water table and through the drying of windblown sea spray. Desert
roses occur in hot and arid coastal environments of the Sahara Desert and the east coast desert regions
of the Arabian Peninsula (Saudi Arabia, Qatar, UAE).

In Qatar, desert roses can be found in a variety of shapes and sizes, however their color, which they take
from the sand in which they grow, is a dark brown, which makes them quite recognizable from those of
the UAE (Liwa Oasis) and Saudi Arabia specimens which often display a pale brown with a touch of
orange tint. Since desert roses can also be found at the surface, most of the people think they originate
there. However, desert roses are not pebbles shaped by wind, but crystallize at the water table, up‐to 1
m below the surface, where large, fresh crystals can be found. Different mechanisms could explain the
outcropping of desert roses at the surface, but their appearance to daylight is short lived. After
weathering, erosion and dissolution, calcium sulfate re‐enters the aquifer where it will contribute to
form new delicate and ephemeral desert roses.

Fig 2: Location of all coastal and inland Fig 3: Top – The Dukhan sabkha; the surface is covered by
sabkhas in Qatar (Al‐Youssef, 2003). Not a polygonal crust of gypsum, halite and dried mud mixed
all of them have names. When in doubt, with sand. Bottom – In the “Camel track” locality
refer to Appendix C for the coordinates of (Appendix B), gypsum crystallizes as desert roses in
few pertinent localities. various shapes and sizes.

Desert roses are assemblages of bladed gypsum crystals that thin towards the edge, where the blade
becomes transparent and sharp. Since gypsum crystallizes in the pore spaces of coarse sand, its growth
is driven by the complex organization of the porosity network. The main trend is the horizontal
stratification of the sand that also conforms to the surface of the water table. This preferential plane

https://sites.google.com/site/leblancjacques/fossilhome Page 5
explains the growth of desert roses from well‐developed horizontal blades, together with the clustering
of rosettes in large horizontal plates (Fig 3 and cover page). Some rosettes and clusters display blades
that seem to have developed in various directions along crystallographic axis; however, the rotation of
the rosettes in the loose sand during their growth is also to be considered. In some particular
circumstances, desert roses look remarkably like a spherical rose flower with its petals wide open
(Mougenot, 2000).

Since pure gypsum is transparent, desert roses are the color of the sand in which they are embedded. If
the sand is coarser, desert rose substance looks like honey. If the sand is black, due to high content in
organic matter, the desert rose is black too. When a desert rose outcrops and starts weathering, the
embedded sand grains become lighter as they oxidize, and the gypsum matrix turns white and soft.
After a few years, depending on its size, the desert rose becomes powder and returns to the ground
(Mougenot, 2000).

Desert roses are found in a variety of sizes, ranging from small rosettes a centimeter across to large
clusters, more than one meter in diameter. Some samples are built from a few very large blades while
others are made into an artistic assemblage of spherical rosettes. All of them provide various natural
sculptures which are not unusual for gypsum and explain how attractive the search for desert roses can
be. The most fascinating aspect is the possibility of being able to find all these different shapes and sizes
from the same small “garden”. Each visit to the sabkha holds a surprise. Nevertheless, the unexpected
large and fresh desert rose clusters rarely lie at the surface. Hard digging (Fig App B‐8) is necessary to
reach the water table, however the best samples are still deeper and could be very difficult to extract
because of the suction of the wet sand on the contorted surface of the rose (Fig 4). These natural
treasures, however are worth your efforts (Mougenot, 2000).

Fig 4: The formation of Desert Roses (Modified from Mougenot, 2000)

https://sites.google.com/site/leblancjacques/fossilhome Page 6
The sea is the source of brine, rich in calcium sulfate
that seeps underground into the sabkhas. Coarse sand
is the substance of desert roses, but you will never find
desert roses below the surface at the beach, because
the concentration of brine is not high enough at the
shoreline (however in some circumstances, gypsum
may precipitate in open water conditions). On the
supratidal zone or in areas of limited marine influence,
where the salinity of the brine increases to more than
three times that of normal sea water, gypsum
formation can start. When the water table is from 0.5
to 1 m below the surface of a sandy sabkha, ideal
conditions for controlled evaporation occur that
Fig 5: Conditions for the formation of
permits desert roses to develop (Fig 5). If the water Desert Roses. (LeBlanc, 2019)
table is deeper, the evaporation is not strong enough
for gypsum to precipitate. If shallower, salt will crystallize and prevent the desert rose from growing
(Mougenot, 2000).

A very restricted location in SW Qatar (with

no name on Fig 2 but located at
24°49'47.52"N, 50°53'44.69"E) as well as in
the Northeast portion of the Dukhan sabkha
(Figs 2 & 7) and in the “Camel track” sabkha
(Fig App B‐7), offer ideal conditions for
desert roses to appear at the surface. In the
three localities, a thin carpet of aeolian sand
currently overlays the sediments of these
inland sabkhas before it reaches the
exposed bedrocks. Today they are exposed
Fig 6: Desert Roses found at the surface at the “Camel at the surface but it was certainly not
track” locality (Appendix B). always the case. There, the roses formed at
the interface between a near‐surface water
table and a previously thicker overlying sand cover. The brine of the Arabian Gulf within the sabkhas
seeped into this thick Aeolian sand, pumped by the evaporation at the surface of the sabkhas (Fig 4).
Since it is isolated from the sea, the brine concentrated. As the water table rose and fell with seasons,
the gypsum crystal grew in the pore space, trapping sand grains. Given time, the thick dune sand cover
migrated away to leave the roses uncovered and exposed to the effects of wind erosion and the arid
climate of Qatar. Under these conditions, the water of crystallization is likely to evaporate from any
exposed parts of the crystal with the conversion of gypsum to anhydrite (Fig 12) (Glennie, 2005). This
implies that the Desert Roses found at the surface (Figs 6 & 7) are often not as good quality as those
found at depth; they are more brittle than their deeper counterpart.

https://sites.google.com/site/leblancjacques/fossilhome Page 7
 Fig 7: Vertical section of the northeast part of the Dukhan sabkha (Fig 2) displaying Desert Roses at
the surface (Al‐Youssef, 2003)

At the surface of the coastal Al‐Kharaij Sabkha (Fig 2) or salt flat, gypsum crystallizes in large quantities
as elongated prismatic crystals rather than Desert Roses (Fig 8). Most of them are white or translucent
and split along the cleavage planes. Some are entirely pale brown crystals and a few are well‐preserved
dark brown gypsum crystals, the color of the wet and more organic sand in which they originated at
least 50 cm below the surface. Unfortunately, these crystals become scarcer when digging down to the
water table.

Fig 8: Gypsum crystallizes in large quantities as elongated crystals rather than Desert Roses (coastal
Al‐Kharaij Sabkha)

https://sites.google.com/site/leblancjacques/fossilhome Page 8
Obviously, there is a mechanism transferring gypsum
crystals to the surface from where they originate. The
most important process is probably lowering of the surface
by wind erosion (as explained earlier for the occurrence of
desert rose at the surface). Another is the seasonal
fluctuation of the water table, which explains the
occurrence of the dark sand and black crystals up to 50 cm
above the water table. Finally, we can speculate also about
the existence of convective motions that are common in
the loose sediments of the ground. All these mechanisms
may contribute to the outcropping of prismatic gypsum Fig 9: How gypsum accumulates at the
and desert roses (Fig 9) (Mougenot, 2000). surface (Mougenot, 2000)

Desert roses probably form rapidly (in tens of

years) and they do not last long. They are
short‐lived creations in geological terms, since
there are no such things as fossilized desert
roses. If not dissolved, desert roses get so
transformed that they are difficult to
recognize (e.g. the Jurassic Arab‐C and Arab‐D
nodular or “chicken‐wire” anhydrites at a
depth of 2,000m in Qatar and the gypsum
nodules found at the surface in the Miocene
Dam Formation of Qatar – Fig 10). Also,
whether through the effect of increased
ground temperature or deeper burial, they
Fig 10: Gypsum nodules in the Miocene Dam lose their water content and are transformed
Formation of SW Qatar (LeBlanc, 2009) into anhydrite. In a recent environment such
as a sabkha, this would be called “tooth‐paste” anhydrite; while in a geological formation it would take
the name of “Chicken‐wire” anhydrite (Figs 11, 12, 13).

Fig 11: Starting conditions for the Fig 12: “Tooth‐paste” Fig 13: “Chicken‐wire” anhydrite in a
gypsum to anhydrite reaction, as anhydrite in the subsurface formation.
observed in the Dukhan sabkha Dukhan sabkha of
of Qatar (Perthuisot, 1977). Qatar (LeBlanc, 2019)

https://sites.google.com/site/leblancjacques/fossilhome Page 9
REFERENCES
 Al‐Youssef Mariam (now Maryam Mustafa Al‐Mulla) (2003), Mineralogy, geochemistry and origin of
quaternary sabkhas in the Qatar Peninsula, Arabian Gulf. University of Southampton. 562 pages.
PHD thesis.
 Al‐Youssef Mariam (now Maryam Mustafa Al‐Mulla) (2015), Gypsum Crystals Formation and Habits,
Dukhan Sabkha, Qatar. Journal of Earth Science & Climatic Change. Vol. 6, No. 10. 12 pages.
 Glennie Kenneth W. (2005). The Desert of Southeast Arabia. GeoArabia, Gulf PetroLink. 216 pages.
 LeBlanc, Jacques (2009). A Fossil Hunting Guide to the Miocene of Qatar, Middle East: A Geological
& Macro‐Paleontological Investigation of the Dam Formation. 192 pages.
https://sites.google.com/site/leblancjacques/fossilhome , www.academia.edu ,
www.researchgate.net , www.scribd.com
 Mougenot Denis (Sept 2000). Sand roses of Saudi Arabia. The Oil Drop (newsletter of “The Dhahran
Geoscience Society), Vol. 12, No. 6. 5 pages
 Perthuisot, Jean‐Pierre. 1977. La sebkha de Doukhane (Qatar) et la transformation: gypse ‐
anhydrite plus water. [The sabkha of Dukhan (Qatar) and the transformation: gypsum to anhydrite
plus water.] Bulletin de la Société géologique de France, vol. 19, No. 5, 1145‐1149.
 Puls David D., Jameson Jeremy, Kozar Mike, Al‐Kuwari Saeed (2009). Qatar Modern Field Study
workshop (1 of 6): Introduction. ExxonMobil. 46 pages.
 Purser B. H., Wagner C. W., Togt C.v.d., Thornton M.S., Hughes Clarke M. W. (1973). Holocene
Carbonate Sediments of the Southern Arabian Gulf. Shell's exploration Department.
 Ramos Luis (1999). Desert roses field trip. Qatar Natural History Group. 11 pages

https://sites.google.com/site/leblancjacques/fossilhome Page 10
APPENDIX A

Fig App A‐1: Dominant habits of gypsum crystals in Dukhan and Umm Said Sabkha sediments (Qatar). Al‐Youssef, 2003.

https://sites.google.com/site/leblancjacques/fossilhome Page 11
APPENDIX B – Some gypsum crystal localities
There are several places where different types of
gypsum crystals have been reported in Qatar.
This appendix will briefly introduce you to some
of these places. However please keep in mind
that since 2012, it is prohibited to dig for Desert
Roses in Qatar. In the best known digging
locations some signs were erected to warn the
potential desert rose digging enthusiasts of the
consequences of doing so without the proper Fig App B‐1: Sign displayed at some digging sites
permit (Fig App B‐1).

Unless otherwise specified, always refer to Fig 2 for the general locations of the Qatar sabkhas; to
Appendix A for the crystal habits of gypsum and to Appendix C for the glossary and coordinates of some
localities. Pictures are from the author; text is mainly from Ramos, 1999.

1) The Umm Said Sabkha

Here gypsum crystals of 1‐2 cm in size can be found. Usually they are clean and twinned (two
crystals growing as one). Known as swallow‐tail crystals, they consist of yet another type (habit) of
gypsum occurrence. They grow on a sabkha surface for most of the year and with a hand‐lens,
smaller needle‐like crystals of gypsum can be seen, growing associated with the larger crystals,
displaying the same "swallow‐tail" form (Fig App B‐2).

Fig App B‐2: Swallow‐tail or twinned gypsum crystals with their crystallographic habit explained.

What triggers the generation of these crystals is the fact that this area is commonly flooded at high
tides and during the winter. These waters become trapped and begin to evaporate under the
summer sun. The first mineral to precipitate is aragonite, followed by gypsum. First there will be the
large crystals (greater quantity of calcium sulphate is available) and finally the smaller crystals.
However, in this locality, the crystals do not stay for a long time due to their high solubility in
rainwater or even salt water.

2) The Dukhan sabkha (refer also to Fig 7)

This flat area towards the east and south‐east of Dukhan forms a natural drainage basin for the
seasonal rains. The rainwater, although originally fresh when it reaches the ground, dissolves

https://sites.google.com/site/leblancjacques/fossilhome Page 12
 surface occurring minerals such as salt (halite) and gypsum. These minerals are the result of the
previous year's rain.

Though it does not happen every year, quite

often the rains give origin to large shallow
lakes which towards the summer will be
reduced into small hypersaline (highly saline)
ponds (Fig App B‐4). In the margins of these
ponds, both the salt and the gypsum can be
observed since evaporation starts from the
margins towards the centre. The reason is,
the shallower the water, the greater the
evaporation.

It is also possible to see different forms of

gypsum. In deeper pools, coarse (±2 cm)
swallow‐tail twinned gypsum crystals (similar
to the ones described before) can be found
but as we go higher towards the sides of the
pools the gypsum crystals get smaller (0.5‐1
cm) and they grow in radiating clusters (Fig
App B‐3). Sometimes it is possible to find
Fig App B‐3: Gypsum crystals of various shapes even smaller crystals with the same habit.
and sizes in the sediment of the Dukhan Sabkha.
(a ‐ gypsum fragments of broken crystals, b and A possible explanation for this decreasing
c ‐ thin gypsum crystals of acicular shape, d ‐ crystal size is simply the increasing salinity. As
short, thick acicular crystals, e and f ‐ pyramidal evaporation continues and consequently the
shapes) – lenses power is 2.5 and field view is
salinity rises, the crystals will nucleate in far
3.4 mm. (Al‐Youssef, 2015)
greater numbers, thus leading to smaller
crystal sizes. Eventually these pools will
evaporate completely and salt will be
developed.

Fig App B‐4: Details of a pond encrusted with

gypsum crystals (Ramos, 1999)

https://sites.google.com/site/leblancjacques/fossilhome Page 13
3) Small area of the Umm Said coastal Sabkha north of Sealine resort (by 24°53'9.28"N, 51°32'3.25"E)
Here the desert roses can be found at an
approximate depth of 1 meter. In this particular
location, the gypsum shows a different habit from
the other two locations. In fact, the gypsum crystals
here form as platey crystals and include abundant
sand grains. When such platey crystals intergrow, the
so called desert roses are formed (Fig App B‐5). Such
minerals are located just above the water table,
which in such low lying area, so close to the coast, is
Fig App B‐5: A sandy Desert rose almost always highly saline. Due to the action of
capillary forces, this water is "sucked" upwards and
by the action of intense heat, evaporation turns the water intensively saline (hypersaline) and
gypsum starts to crystalize. The close proximity of the ground water makes that the chemical
elements that compose the gypsum are available quite continuously and therefore the crystals can
grow bigger. Even common salt (halite) can form. The presence of sand grains in their structure is a
consequence of growing within the sand.

4) Sabkha south of the old Camel Track dirt road (Fig App B‐7)

Fig App B‐6: Desert rose specimen

from the Camel track sabkha. See
also Fig 3 and cover page.
At the southern end of the Camel
Track dirt road, on the surface of Fig App B‐7: Location of the old Camel Track sabkha.
small land depressions, true desert (Puls et al, 2009)
roses showing the characteristic petal‐like structure can be seen (Fig 3, Figs App B‐6, B‐8 and cover
page). These gypsum crystals are similar to the ones found at Umm Said but they are smaller and
more abundant which probably reflects the greater salinity of the ground water within the capillary
zone. The greater salinity is probably a consequence of the distance of the sabkha from the coast,
which allows the groundwater to be more saline than normal seawater due to evaporation.

https://sites.google.com/site/leblancjacques/fossilhome Page 14
 Fig App B-8: Left - A dig in the “Camel track” sabkha organized by Qatar Museum (November 11th
2017). Fig 3 shows few samples collected at depth from this locality. Right – This large cleaned
Desert Rose specimen was collected at the surface; also seen in Fig App B-9.

Fig App B-9: From left to right: Memanja, Dr Fareed Krupp (Qatar Museums), Dr. Kaveh Samimi
(from “Naturalis” in Netherland, under contract with the National Museum of Qatar), Jacques
LeBlanc (Qatar Petroleum) and Khalid Ahmed Khalil Al-Agha (Qatar Petroleum). Picture taken on
November 11th 2017.

https://sites.google.com/site/leblancjacques/fossilhome Page 15
5) Dohat Faishakh area
Dohat Faishakh (Fig 2 and Fig App B‐10) is a
very shallow lagoon with the bottom
covered with carbonate sands. Towards
the margins, can be found a typical sabkha
environment. Here, gypsum crystals are
growing on the surface (often twin crystals
as described earlier). During some period
of the year, can be observed a very typical
structure of most salt flats (sabkhas) ‐ the
teepees (Fig App B‐11); named after the
tents of the North American Indians. Their
formation is a result of the gypsum crystals
lateral expansional forces as they grow.
Cubic salt (halite) crystals are also growing
on this same surface. At a depth of about
30‐40 cm, desert roses will be
encountered.

Fig App B‐10: Recent carbonate sediments in the

protected embayment of Dohat Faishakh (Purser,
1973)

Fig App B‐11: Teepee structure in halite (left) and gypsum (right).

https://sites.google.com/site/leblancjacques/fossilhome Page 16
APPENDIX C – Glossary & Coordinates

Glossary
 Anhydrite: An evaporite mineral composed of calcium sulphate, CaSO4, found in some
sedimentary rocks. Often derived from gypsum by losing its water of crystallization.
 Aquifer: A bed of porous water‐bearing rock between impermeable layers. It permits the flow of
water within it.
 Capillarity: The property of surface tension seen by the rise of liquids in tubes of very small bore
or the action of blotting paper. Important as the mechanism whereby groundwater is brought to
the surface in sabkhas, where precipitation of evaporite minerals such as halite takes place.
 Desert Rose (rock rose, sand rose): A cluster of intergrown (complex twinning) platy crystals,
such as gypsum or barites, that often form at the interface between the water table overlying
dune sand and incorporate grains of sand into their crystal lattice poikilitically.
 Evaporites: Those minerals, most commonly anhydrite, gypsum and halite, that are typically
formed in areas where evaporation is much more important than precipitation; i.e. in deserts.
 Gypsum: An evaporite mineral, Calcium Sulphate (CaSO4. 2H2O), typically found just below the
surface of coastal and inland sabkhas. Alters to anhydrite when it loses its water of
crystallization.
 Halite: The evaporite mineral common salt (NaCl), which forms a thin crust over the surface of
both coastal and inland sabkhas; also precipitated as bedded halite on the floor of some deep
evaporite basins (e.g. beneath the salt domes of Iran, the Gulf and southeast Oman).
 Playa (or salt flat): Shallow saline lake; its sediment fill when dry.
 Poikilicrystals: Crystal growing in porous rock to incorporate the original rock structure.
 Poikilitic: In the desert, a term applied to the incorporation of randomly oriented grains such as
quartz in the structure of large crystals such as gypsum; e.g. in desert roses.
 Sabkha: A flat area of clay, silt or sand, commonly with crusts of salt. Subdivided into:
o Coastal sabkha: A coastal flat, such as in Umm Said, at or just above the level of normal
high tide. Its sediments consist of sand, silt or clay and its surface is often covered with a
salt crust formed by the evaporation of water drawn to the surface by capillary action of
from occasional marine inundations. The coastal sabkha is characterized by the
presence of algal mats and the occurrence of gypsum and anhydrite within its sediment.
It is subject to deflation down to the water table.
o Inland sabkha: A flat area of clay, silt or sand, commonly with saline encrustations, that
is typical of desert areas of inland drainage (such as Dukhan sabkha), and in some
interdune areas. Their salts may be formed by evaporation of surface water, or of water
drawn to the surface from the water table by capillary action; algae occur but are not
widespread; commonly underlain by gypsum and may be overlain by small sand dunes.
 Supratidal: Portion of a tidal flat which lies above the level of mean high water for spring tides.
It is inundated only occasionally by exceptional tides or by tides augmented by a storm surge
 Teepee structure: Named after a North American Indian wigwam, it is a descriptive term for the
flanks of limestone or halite/gypsum forming a low ridge caused by preferentially horizontal
crystal growth.

https://sites.google.com/site/leblancjacques/fossilhome Page 17
  Water of crystallizations: The water present in hydrated compounds such as gypsum
(CaSO4.2H2O). If the temperature of the gypsum crystal is raised above about 50°C, either by
deep burial or by near‐surface heating in a desert, it loses its water of crystallisation (2H20) and
becomes the anhydrous mineral anhydrite.
 Water Table: The level below the Earth’s surface at which pore spaces and other voids are filled
with water rather than with air, as it occurs above the water table.

Coordinates of some localities mentioned in the text

 Al‐Kharaij Sabkha: 25°0'19.56"N, 50°49'12.97"E
 An Nafkhah: 24°50'8.88"N, 50°53'4.62"E
 Dohat Faishakh: 25°37'48.37"N, 50°58'15.48"E
 Dukhan Sabkha: 25°25'1.16"N, 50°51'3.41"E
 Gulf of Salwa: 24°52'26.60"N, 50°48'46.34"E
 Jebel Al‐Nakhash: 24°52'19.13"N, 50°54'14.84"E
 Umm Said Sabkha: 24°52'29.90"N, 51°28'19.94"E

https://sites.google.com/site/leblancjacques/fossilhome Page 18