CHEMICAL KINETICS XII

CHEMICAL KINETICS
Rate of a chemical reaction: It is the speed at which the reaction takes placed. It
may be considered in the following cases,
(i) The rate of decrease in the concentration of the reactant or,
(ii) The rate increase in the concentration of the product.
Let us take a hypothetical chemical reaction of the type,
R P

Here, [R] 1 and [P] 1 are the initial concentration of the reactant and the product
respectively at time t1 and [R] 2 and [P] 2 are the final concentration at time t2,
then,
Change in time Δ t = t2 – t1
Change in concentration of reactant and product are as follows,
- Δ[R] = [R] 2 –[R] 1
Δ [P] = [P] 2 – [P] 1
Change in concentration of the reactant
Now, rate of consumption of the reactant R =
Change in time

[R]2 –[R]1
=
t2 – t1

-Δ[R]
=
Δt

Change in concentration of the product

And rate of formation of product P =
Change in time

[P]2 –[P]1
=
t2 – t1

Δ[P]
=
Δt

Page 1 of 101
Note: The negative sign in the first expression does not meant that rate of the
reaction is negative, it indicates the decrease in the concentration of the
reactant. Or in another sense, the change in concentration of the reactant is
found to be negative as [R] 1 > [R] 2, that is why the rate is found to be negative
which is not true. Therefore, to give positive value of the rate of the reaction, a
negative sign is multiplied to the rate expression.
- Δ[R]
Thus rate of reaction = Rate of consumption of the reactant R =
Δt

Δ[P]
Or, Rate of formation of product P =
Δt

Instantaneous rate of reaction: Average rate cannot be used to predict the rate
of reaction at a particular instant as it would be constant for the time interval
for which it is calculated. Therefore, to express the rate of a reaction at a
particular moment of time, instantaneous rate is used. It is obtained when the
average rate is calculated at the smallest time interval i.e. when Δ t approaches
zero.
-Δ[R] Δ[P]
Instantaneous rate = Average rate = =
Δt Δt
Δt 0 Δt 0 Δt 0

-d[R] d[P]
Therefore, Instantaneous rate = =
dt dt

Rate of reaction and stoichiometric co – efficient: Let us consider a hypothetical

chemical reaction of the type
aA + bB ℓC + mD

Rate of the reaction can be written as follows,

-Δ[A] - Δ[B] Δ[C] Δ[D]
Rate = = = =
a Δt b Δt ℓ Δt m Δt

Now, considering the chemical reaction,

Rate expression will be,
-Δ[HI] Δ[H2] Δ[I2]
Rate = = =
2Δt Δt Δt
Page 2 of 101
Factors affecting rate of reaction:
(i) Concentration of the reactants
(ii) Temperature
(iii) Catalyst
(iv) Pressure
(v) Nature of the reacting species.
Dependence of rate on Concentration.
With increased in concentration of the reactants, rate of the reaction increases.
This is due to increase in the rate of collision between the reactant molecules so
that successful chemical reaction takes placed (based on collision theory).
It means that rate is a function of concentration and can be written as
Rate = f (concentration)
Let us consider a hypothetical chemical reaction like
aA + bB products

where a and b are stoichiometric co – efficient of the reactants. The rate

expression for this reaction can be written as follows,
Rate f (conc. of reactants) i ; Here, i = arbitrarily chosen values calculated
Rate [A] m [B] n
Here, m and n are two arbitrarily chosen numbers where their values can be
calculated only by experiments. They may or, may not be equal to the
stoichiometric co – efficient a and b of the reactants. Then,
Rate = k [A]m [B]n
-d [A] -d [B]
Rate Inst = = = k [A]m [B]n (i)
adt bdt

Here, ‘k’ is a proportionality constant called rate constant and equation (i) is
called differential rate equation or, rate law expression for the chemical
reaction. For a particular reaction at constant temperature value of rate
constant k remains constant and with change in temperature its value changed.

Page 3 of 101
When, [A] = [B] = 1 mol. L-1,
Then, Rate = k. Thus, rate constant ‘k’ for a chemical reaction may be defined as
the rate of the reaction when concentration of the reactants are 1 mol. L-1. It is
also called Specific rate of the reaction.
Unit of rate of chemical reaction:
Rate = Change in concentration / Change in time = Unit of conc. / Unit of time
=Mol.L-1/ Unit of time = Mol. L-1. Time -1
Order of a chemical reaction: For a hypothetical chemical reaction like
aA + bB ℓC + mD

Differential rate equation is given by

-d [A] -d [B]
Rate = = = k [A]m [B]n………………. (ii)
adt bdt
Now, m = order of the reaction with respect to reactant A, n = order of the
reaction with respect to reactant B and (m + n) = overall order of the reaction.
Thus, order of a reaction is the sum of the powers raised to the concentration
terms involved in the differential rate equation for the chemical reaction.
If order of the reaction is 0 then it is called zero order reaction, if it is 1 then the
reaction is called first order reaction, if it is 2 then it is called second order
reaction and so on. Order of a chemical reaction can be calculated only by
experiments not by observing the reaction. It can be zero, fraction or a whole
number like 1, 2, 3 etc.
Molecularity of a reaction: The molecularity of an elementary chemical reaction
is the number of reactant molecules shown by its balanced chemical equation.
But, for a complex chemical reaction, the number of reactant species involved
in the rate determining step of the reaction is called the molecularity of the that
chemical reaction. It may also be defined as the number of reactant species
involved in the activated complex formation.
Here, rate determining step of a multistage chemical reaction is the slowest step
which involves bond breaking. If molecularity is 1, then it is called unimolecular
chemical reaction, if it is 2, then it is called bimolecular chemical reaction, if it is
3, then it is called trimolecular chemical reaction and so on. Molecularity of a
chemical reaction cannot be zero or a fraction, it must be a positive whole
number like 1, 2, 3 etc.

Page 4 of 101
Elementary chemical reaction: The simple reaction which occurs only through
one step is known as an elementary reaction. For example, the decomposition
of H2O2 takes placed through the following two elementary reactions,
(i) [ H2O2 H2O + O ] x 2 ; Molecularity = 1
(ii) O + O O2 ; Molecularity = 2

If the reaction A + BC AB + C , occurs as,

Slow Fast
A + BC {A B C} AB + C
In the activated complex formation, two reactant species are involved.
Therefore, the molecularity in this reaction mechanism is 2 and it is called
bimolecular reaction.
If the reaction A + BC AB + C , occurs as,
(Slow)
(i) B C B + C
(Fast)
(ii) A + B AB

In the slow step (rate determining step) only one reactant molecule is involved.
Therefore, the molecularity of the reaction is 1 and it is called unimolecular
chemical reaction.
Usually, the steps involving cleavage of chemical bond initially present in the
substrate molecule is slow while bond formation step is fast.
Now,2
Reaction Rate Order Molecularity

N2O → N2 (g) + ½ O2(g) R = k[N2O] 0 0 Unimolecular

N2O5 (g) → 2NO2 (g) + ½ O2 (g) R = k [N2O5] 1 Unimolecular

NH4NO2 → N2(g) + 2H2O R =k[NH4NO2] 1 Bimolecular

2NO2(g) → 2NO (g) + O2(g) R = k[NO2(g)]2 2 Bimolecular

2NO(g) + O2(g) → 2NO2 (g) R = k[NO]2[O2] 1 + 2 =3 Trimolecular

Page 5 of 101
Difference between order and molecularity
Order Molecularity
(i) The order of a chemical reaction is (i) Molecularity of a chemical reaction
always determined experimentally. can be determined from the proposed
mechanism of the chemical reaction.
(ii) For a chemical reaction, it may be
zero, a (+) ve whole no. or, a fraction. (ii) It is always a positive number not
zero or, fraction.
Relation between order and concentration.
For a chemical reaction, let the differential rate equation be represented as
follows,
R1 = K [A]m ---------- (i)

Now, order of the reaction = m. Then the concentration of the reactant A

becomes x - times of the initial, the new rate will be,
R2 = K [xA] m = x m K [A] m
= x m R1 [Since (i)]
= x m- times the initial rate.

Now, change in rate of chemical reaction with change in concentration for

different order are given below,

Number of times changed in Order Change in rate of the reaction

concentration of the reactant

x - times the initial concentration of 0 No changed in the rate.

the reactant
0.5 or, 1/2 x 1/2 - times the former
= √x – times the initial

1 x - times the initial

2 x 2 - times the initial

3 x 3 – times the initial

n x n – times the initial

Page 6 of 101
Q. A reaction is second order with respect to a reactant. How is the rate of the
reaction changed when concentration of the reactant becomes (i) double and (ii)
reduce to half of the initial?
Ans. Let the reaction be R → product,
Initial rate of the reaction, r1 = k [R] 2 ---------- (a)
Now (i) when the conc. of the reactant becomes doubled,
r2 = k [2R] 2
= 22 k[R] 2
= 4 r1 ( four times of the initial rate)
(ii) When the conc. of the reactant to half of the initial,
r3 = k [R/2] 2
= (1/2)2 k[R] 2
= 1/4 r1 ( one - fourth times of the initial rate)
Q.A reaction is first order in A and second order in B.
(i) Write the differential rate equation.
(ii) How is the rate affected on increasing the concentration of B three times of
the initial?
(iii) How is the rate affected on increasing the concentration of A and B are
doubled of the initial?
Ans. Let the reaction be, A + B → Products, then,
(i) Differential rate equation is r1 = k [A] [B] 2 --------------- (a)
(ii) When conc. of B becomes three tomes of the initial,
r2 = k [A] [3B] 2
= 32 k [A] [B] 2 = 9r1, (nine times of the initial)
(iii) When conc. of both A and B are doubled of the initial
r3 = k [2A] [2B] 2
= 8 k [A] [B] 2= 8r1 (eight times of the initial)

Page 7 of 101
Q. In a chemical reaction aA + bB → products, if the concentration of A is
doubled, the rate also becomes doubled and if the concentration of B is four
times the initial, the rate also becomes only doubled, what is the order of the
chemical reaction.
Ans. Now, let r1 = k x m y n, where, x and y are the initial concentration of A and
B, and m and n are the order with respect to A and B respectively.
New condition, 2 r1 = k (2x) m y n = r2
And, 2 r1 = k x m (4y) n = r3
Now, we have, r1 k xm yn r1 1
= => =
r2 k (2x)m yn 2r1 2m
2 = 2m
m=1

Again, r1 k xm yn r1 1
= => =
r3 k xm (4y)n 2r1 4n
2 = 4n
n = ½ or, 0.5

Now, overall order of the reaction is (m + n) = (1+ 0.5) = 1.5

Unit of rate constant k: For an n th order chemical reaction, if rate is given by
Rate = K [A] n
Then, K = Rate
[A] n

Therefore, unit of the rate constant

Unit of Rate Mol.L-1.time -1
K= = = Mol (1-n) L (n-1) time -1
(Unit of concentration) n Mol n L- n
Now, in general
Order Unit of rate constant k
0 Mol L -1 time - 1
1 time -1
2 Mol -1 L time - 1
3 Mol -2 L2 sec -1

Page 8 of 101
 Q. For the reaction 2A + B → A2B, the rate = k [A] [B] 2 with k = 2 x 10-6mol -2
L2s -1.Calculate the initial rate of reaction of the reaction when [A]= 0.1 mol L-1 ,
[B] = 0.2 mol L-1. Calculate the rate of the reaction after [A] is reduced to 0.06
mol L-1.
Ans. Initial condition
[A] = 0.1 mol L-1 , [B] = 0.2 mol L-1 and k = 2 x 10 -6 mol -2 L2s -1
Now,
(i) Initial rate, R1 = k [A] [B]2 = 2 x 10 – 6 mol -2 L2s -1 x 0.1 mol L-1 x (0.2 mol L-1)2
= 8 x 10 -9 mol L-1 s-1
(ii) Final condition, [A]f = 0.06 mol L-1,
[A]consumed = 0.1 - 0.06 = 0.04 mol L-1
[B]consumed = ½ [A] = ½ x 0.04 = 0.02 mol L-1
[B]f = 0.2 – 0.02 = 0.18 mol L -1
Now, rate of the reaction,
R2 = k [A] [B] 2
= 2 x 10 -6 mol -2 L2s -1x 0.06 mol L-1 x (0.18 mol L -1) 2

= 3.89 x 10 -9 mol L-1 s -1

Q. The decomposition of NH3 gas on Pt surface is zero order reaction. What are
the rate of production of N2 and H2 gas if k = 2.5 x 10 -4 mol -1L s -1?
Ans. Here, 2 NH3 (g) → N2 (g) + 3 H2 (g); k = 2.5 x 10 -4 mol -1L s -1
-d [NH3] +d [N2] - d [H2]
Rate = = = = k [NH3]0
2 dt dt 3 dt

+d [N2]
Rate of production of N2 = = k = 2.5 x 10 -4 mol -1L s -1
dt
+d [H2]
Rate of production of H2 = = k = 2.5 x 10 -4 mol -1L s -1
3 dt
+d [H2]
= = 3 x 2.5 x 10 -4 mol -1L s -1 = 7.5 mol L-1s -1
dt

- d [NH3]
Rate of consumption of NH3 = = 2 x 2.5 x 10 - 4 = 5 x 10 - 4 mol -1L s -1
dt

Page 9 of 101
Q. In a reaction between A and B, the initial rate (r0) was measured for different
initial concentration of A and B as follows,
Exp [A] mol L-1 [B] mol L-1 Rate
1 0.20 0.30 5.07 x 10 -5
2 0.20 0.10 5.07 x 10 -5
3 0.40 0.05 1.43 x 10 -4
Calculate order of the reaction and write differential rate equation.
Ans. Let the differential rate equation be
R = k [A] m[B] n -------------------------- (i)
Now, for exp. No. 1, 5.07 x 10 -5 = k (0.20) m (0.30) n --------- (ii)
for exp. No. 2 5.07 x 10 -5 = k (0.20) m (0.10) n --------- (iii)
for exp. No 3 1.43 x 10 -4 = k (0.40) m (0.05)n --------- (iv)
By (ii) ÷ (iii) then, 5.07 x 10 -5 k (0.20) m (0.30) n
=
5.07 x 10 -5 k (0.20) m (0.10) n

Or, 1 = 3 n
Or, n = 0
1.43 x 10 - 4 k (0.40) m (0.05) n
Again, (iv) ÷ (iii) then, =
5.07 x 10 -5 k (0.20) m (0.10) n
Or, 2.8 = 2 m; Here, n = 0
Or, m = 1.5
Here, 21 = 2 and 22 = 4. Therefore, 1 < m < 2 = 1.5

Required differential rate equation is R = k [A] 1.5[B] 0 order w.r.t. A is 1.5, order
w.r.t. B is 0 and overall order of the reaction is m + n = 1.5 + 0 = 1.5.
Q. For the kinetic studies of the reaction 2A + B → C + D, the following results
have been recorded,
Exp [A] mol L-1 [B] mol L-1 Rate
1 0.1 0.1 6.0 x 10 -3
2 0.3 0.2 7.2 x 10 -2
3 0.3 0.4 2.88 x 10 -1
4 0.4 0.1 2.4 x 10 -2
Write differential rate equation.

Page 10 of 101
Ans. . Let the differential rate equation be
R = k [A] m[B] n -------------------------- (i)
Now, for exp. No. 1, 6.0 x 10 -3 = k (0.10) m (0.10) n --------- (ii)
for exp. No. 2 7.2 x 10 -2 = k (0.30) m (0.20) n --------- (iii)
for exp. No 3 2.88 x 10 -1 = k (0.30) m (0.40)n --------- (iv)
for exp. No 4 2.4 x 10 -2 = k (0.40) m (0.10)n --------- (v)
By (v) ÷ (ii) then, 2.4 x 10 -2 k (0.40) m (0.10)n
=
6.0 x 10 -3 k (0.10) m (0.10) n
Or, 4 = 4 m
Or, m = 1

2.88 x 10 -1 k (0.30) m (0.40)n

Again, (iv) ÷ (iii) then, =
7.2 x 10 -2 k (0.30) m (0.20) n
Or, 4 = 2 n
Or, n = 2
Thus, required differential rate equation is R = k [A] 1[B] 2 and overall order is
(m+ n) = 1+2 = 3.
Q. The reaction between A and B is first order with respect to A and zero order
with respect to B. Fill in the blanks in the following table.
Exp [A] mol L-1 [B] mol L-1 Rate( mol L-1min -1)
I 0.1 0.1 2.0 x 10 -2
II x 0.2 4.0 x 10 -2
III 0.4 0.4 rIII
IV y 0.2 2.4 x 10 -2

Ans. Let the differential rate equation be

R = k [A] m[B] n ---------------- (i)
For exp. I 2.0 x 10 -2 = k [0.1]1[0.1] 0 ----------- (ii)
For exp. II 4.0 x 10 -2 = k x 1[0.2] 0 ----------- (iii)
For exp. III rIII = k [0.4] 1 [0.4] 0 ---------- (iv)
For exp. V 2.0 x 10 -2 = k y 1[0.2] 0 ----------- (v)
Page 11 of 101
Now, (iii) ÷(ii) then,
4.0 x 10 -2 k x 1[0.2] 0
=
2.0 x 10 -2 k [0.1]1[0.1] 0
Or, 2 x 0.1 = x
Or, x = 0.2 mol L-1

2.0 x 10 -2 k y 1[0.2] 0
Again (v) ÷ (ii), =
-2
2.0 x 10 k [0.1]1[0.1] 0
Or, 1 x 0.1 = y 1
Or, y = 0.1 mol L-1
rIII k [0.4]1[0.4] 0
Lastly, (iv) ÷ (ii), =
2.0 x 10 -2 k [0.1]1[0.1] 0
Or, riii = 4 x 2 x 10 -2

Or, riii = 8 x 10 - 2 mol L-1 min -1

Integrated rate law expression for Zero order reaction: For a zero order
chemical reaction of the type,
R → Products
Initial condition, [R]o 0
Final condition, [R]t =([R]o – x) x

[R]o = Initial concentration and [R]t = final concentration at the end of time t.
Now, differential rate equation,
-d[R]t
Rate = = k[R]to = k
dt
-d[R]t
Or, =k
dt
Or, -d[R]t = k dt ----------------------(i)

By integrating (i), it gives, ∫-d[R]t = ∫ k dt

Page 12 of 101
Or, - [R]t = k t + I --------------- (ii)

Here, I is constant of integration and its value can be calculated by applying

initial condition.
When, t = 0, [R]t = [R]o and therefore, I = -[R]o
Now, (ii) can be written as follows,
- [R]t = k t - [R]o
Or, kt = [R]0 – [R]t
Or, [R]t = [R]o - kt ------------------- (iii)
[R]0 – [R]t
Or, t=
k
------------------ (iv)
[R]0 – [R]t
Or, k=
t [R]t
Now, from (iii) plot of [R]t vs. t will
give a straight line with slope of – k [R]0 Slope, tan Ѳ = -k
and intercept of [R]0 as shown in
the graph, t
Fig: Variation of conc .of reactant w. r. t. time t

Again, for a zero order chemical reaction, rate is independent of the

concentration of the reactant.
-d[R]t Rate
Rate = = k [R]0 = k
dt
Therefore variation of rate of
zero order reaction with [R]
concentration can be shown as in Fig: Variation of rate of reaction w. r. t.
the graph. conc. of reactant

Or, from (iv), variation of concentration of product x w. r. t time t as follows,

x
Slope, tan Ѳ = k

t
Fig: Variation of conc. of product w. r. t. time t

Page 13 of 101
*** Half-life time of a chemical reaction: It may be defined as the total time
taken to reduce the initial concentration of the reactant into half of the initial. It
is denoted by t1/2.

Expression for half – life time for Zero order chemical reaction.
When t = t ½, then, [R]t = [R] ˳/2.
Now,
[R]˳ - [R]t
t½ =
k
[R]˳ - [R] ˳ /2
=
k
2[R] ˳ - [R]˳
=
2k
[R]˳
= ------------------- (iv)
2k

Integrated rate law equation for first order chemical reaction

Let us consider a first order chemical reaction of the type

R Products

Where, [R]o is the initial concentration of the reactant ‘R’ and ([R]o - x) = [R]t is
the final concentration of the reactant at the end of time interval ‘t’. Then, at
the end of time ‘t’ the rate is given by,
d[R]
- = k [R]t
dt
where, k is the rate constant for the chemical reaction.
dx
Or, - = kdt -------- (i)
[R]t
By integrating equation (i), we have,
d[R]
- = kdt
[R]t

Or, - d[R] = k dt
[R]t
Or, - ℓn [R]t = kt + I ------------------------- (ii)

Page 14 of 101
Here, ‘I’ is the constant of integration and its value can be calculated by
applying the initial condition.
When t = 0, [R]t = [R]o and - ℓn [R]o = I,
Now, - ℓn [R]t = kt + (- ℓn [R]o)

Or, ℓn [R]o - ℓn [R]t = kt

[R]o
Or, ℓn = kt
[R]t
1 [R]o
k = ℓn
Or, t [R]t
2.303 [R]o
k = ℓog
Or, t [R]t
--------------------- (iii)
2.303
t = ℓog [R]o
Or, k [R]t

Here, equation (iii) is called integrated rate law expression or equation.

Characteristics of first order chemical reaction

Q. Show that for a first order chemical reaction,
(i) The unit of rate constant is time-1.
(ii) The concentration of reactants tends to zero when time tends to infinity.
(iii) The concentration of reactants decreases exponentially with change in time.
(iv) The magnitude of rate constant K is independent of the concentration unit.
(v) The time taken for half - life change is independent of the initial concentration
of the reactants.

Ans. (i) The unit of rate constant is time-1.

For a first order chemical reaction

2.303 [R]o
k = ℓog
t [R]t

The unit of [R]o and [R]t will cancel each other and therefore, the unit of rate
constant k is only time-1. It is also indicates that the magnitude of rate constant
k is independent of the unit of the concentration terms [case (iv)].

Page 15 of 101
(ii) The concentration of reactants tends to zero when time tends to infinity.

Again for a first order chemical reaction,

[R]o
kt = ℓn
[R]t
[R]t
Or, - kt = ℓn
[R]o
[R]t
Or, = e - kt
[R]o

Or, [R]t = [R]o e - kt

It shows that the concentration of the reactant decreases exponentially with

change in time.

[R]o Products

Reactants

t½ t
It also shows that concentration of the reactant tends to zero when time tends
to infinity [case (ii) and (iii)].

Now, for a first order chemical reaction, we have

2.303 [R]o
t= ℓog
k [R]t
When, t = t½ , [R]t = ([R]˳ /2 )
2.303 ℓog [R]˳
Then, t½ =
k ([R]˳ /2 )
2.303
Or, t½ = ℓog 2
k
0.693
Or, t½ =
k

In the above expression of half – life time of a first order chemical reaction it is
seen that no concentration terms are involved. Therefore, time taken for half
change in the concentration of reactant is independent of the initial
concentration [case (v)].

Page 16 of 101
Note: For a first order chemical reaction,
[R]o
ℓn = kt
[R]t

Or, at
ℓn = - kt
a˳
[R]o
kt = 2.303 ℓog
[R]t

[R]o
Or, - kt = 2.303 ℓog
[R]t
[R]o kt
ℓog =
[R]t 2.303
[R]o
Now, plot of ℓn against time t are shown in the following graphs.
[R]t

[R]o [R]o
ℓn ℓog
[R]t [R]t

tanϴ = k tanϴ = k/2.303

t t

2.303 [R]o [R]o

Further, t= ℓog [R]t
and now plot of ‘t’ against ℓog [R]t
K

t tanϴ = 2.303/K

[R]o
ℓog
[R]t

[R]o [R]t
Or, we have, ℓn = - kt and plot of ℓog
[R]o against ‘t’ is as follows,
[R]t

[R]o
ℓog
[R]t t

tanϴ = -K

Page 17 of 101
In another form of the equation, we have,

ℓn [R]0 - ℓn [R]t = kt

ℓog [R]o - ℓog [R]t = kt

2.303
-kt
ℓog [R]t = + ℓog [R]o ------------------- (iii)
2.303

Here, equation (iii) is in the form of ℓog [R]t

equation of straight line and Plot of
‘ℓog [R]t’ against ‘t’ gives a straight tanϴ = - k/2.303
line with slope tanϴ = - k/2.303 ℓog [R]o
and intercept equal to ℓog [R]o and
it is as follows,
t
Fig: Plot of ℓog [R]t vs t for a first order reaction

Variation of rate with concentration of reactant:

For a first order chemical reaction, rate is given by,

Rate = k [R]t -----------------(iv)

Now,
Rate
tan ϴ = k

Concentration of the reactant

Amount left after nth half - life time: Let us consider the initial concentration of
the reactant as [R]˳.
Now, (i) Amount left after first half life time = [R]o /2
(ii) Amount left after second half – life time = [R]o / (2x2)
(iii) Amount left after third half – life time = [R]o / (2x2x2) …….. so on.
And amount left after nth half – life time = [R]o / (2 x2x2……x2) = a˳ / 2 n
That is,
1st t½ [R]o 2nd t½ [R]˳ 3rd t½ [R]˳ nth t½ [R]˳ [R]˳
[R]˳ = n
2 2x2 2x2x2 2 x 2 x 2….x 2 2

Therefore, amount of the reactant left after nth half – life time = ([R] ˳ / 2 n)

Page 18 of 101
***Time to consumed 1/nth of the initial concentration of the reactant:
Let the initial concentration of the reactant be [R]˳ .
Then, initial conc. = [R]˳
Conc. consumed = ([R]o /n)
[R]˳ n[R]o - [R]˳ [R]o(n - 1)
Remaining conc. = [R]˳- = =
n n n
2.303 [R]˳
Now, t1/n = ℓog
k [R]˳ (n - 1)
n

2.303 n
= ℓog
k (n - 1)

Then, time to consume half of the initial concentration of the reactant will be
as follows,

2.303 2 2.303 2.303 x 0.3010 0.693

t½ = ℓog = ℓog 2 = =
k 2-1 k k k
Time to consume one third of the initial concentration of the reactant,

2.303 3 2.303 2.303 x 1.76 0.4055

t1/2 = ℓog = ℓog 1.5 = =
k 3-1 k k k

Simillarly, t1/4 = 2.303 ℓog 4

=
2.303
ℓog 1.33 =
0.285
k 4-1 k k

Time required to reduce concentration of the reactant to (1/n)th of the initial

Let the initial concentration of the reactant be [R]˳.
Then, initial conc. = [R]˳
Remaining concentration [R]t = ([R]˳ / n)
Conc. Consumed = [R]˳ - ([R]˳ /n)
Now, time required to reduce initial concentration to 1/nth of the initial will be
2.303 [R]˳
t= ℓog
k ([R]˳ /n)
2.303
= ℓog n
k

Page 19 of 101
Then, time to reduce to half of the initial
2.303 [R]˳ 2.303 [R]˳
t ½ nd = ℓog t 1/3rd= ℓog
k ([R]˳ /2) k ([R]˳ /3)

2.303 2.303
= ℓog 2 = ℓog 3
k k
2.303 x 0.3010 2.303 x 0.4771
= = k
k
0.690 0.8394
= =
k k
2.303 [R]˳
And, t 1/4th= ℓog
k ([R]˳ /4)
2.303
= ℓog 4
k

2.303 x 0.6020
=
k
0.9643
=
k
Q. The half life period for radioactive decay of C – 14 isotope is 5730 years. An
archaeological artefact containiing wood had only 80% of C – 14 isotope found
in a living tree. Eatimate the age of the wood sample.
Ans. Radioactive disintegration follows first order chemical kinetics.
Here, t½ = 5730 years , [R]o = 100, [R]t = 80, t20% = ?
Now, k = 0.693/t½ = 0.693/ 5730 = 1.21 x 10 -4 year -1.
2.303 [R]˳
For first order chemical reaction t20% = ℓog
k [R]t

2.303 100
= ℓog
1.21 x 10 -4 year -1 80

= 1845 years

The age of the wood sample is 1845 years.

Page 20 of 101
Q. The rate constant for a first order chemical reaction is 60 min -1. How much
time will it take to reduce its initial concentration of the reactant to its 1/16 of
the initial?
Ans. Here k = 60 s-1. Time required to reduce initial concentration to 1/16th of
the initial concentration will be
2.303 [R]˳
= ℓog
k ([R]˳ /16)

2.303
= ℓog 16
60 s-1
= 2.303 X 1.204
60 s-1
= 4.6 x 10 -2 s

Q. During nuclear explosion one of the product is 90Sr with half life time 28.1
years. If 1μg of 90Sr was absorbed in the bones of a newly born baby instead of
Ca, how much of it will remain after 10 years and 60 years if it is not lost
metabolically?
Ans. Here, [R]o = 1 μg, t½ = 28.1 years, [R]10 = ? And [R]60 = ?
Now, k = 0.693/t½ = 0.693 /28.1 = 0.02466 = 2.466 x 10 -2 year- 1
2.303 [R]˳
(i) After 10 years. 10 years = ℓog
k [R]t

1μg 0.0246 year - 1 x 10 years

= antilog of
[R]10 2.303
= 1.278

Therefore, [R]10 = 1/ 0.1278 = 0.782μg

2.303 [R]˳
(ii) After 60 years, 60 years = ℓog
k [R]60

1μg 0.0246 year -1 x 60 years

= antilog of
[R]60 2.303
= 4.375

Therefore, [R]60 = 1/ 4.375 = 0.228μg

Page 21 of 101
Q. Consider a certain chemical reaction A → Products, with k = 2.0 x 10 -2 s-1.
Calculate the concentration of A remining after 100s if initial conc. of A is 1.0
mol. L -1.
-2
Ans. Here, k = 2.0 x 10 s-1.
Then [R]100 = ?
2.303 [R]˳
Now, 100s = ℓog
k [R]100

1 2 x 10 -2 s -1 x 100 s
= antilog of = 7.379
[R]100 2.303

Therefore, [R]100 = 1/ 7.379 = 0.135 mol L-1

Q. Sucrose decomposition in acidic solution into glucose and fructose according

to first order rate law with t½ = 3hrs. What fraction of the sample of sucrose
remains after 8hrs?
Ans. t½ = 3 hrs
Then k = 0.693 / 3 = 0.231 hr -1 and [R]8 = ?
2.303 [R]˳
Now, t = ℓog
k [R]8

1 0.231 hr -1 x 8 hr
= antilog of = 6.324
[R]8 2.303

Therefore, [R]8 = 1/ 6.324 = 0.158 mol L-1

Q. A first order reaction has a specific reaction rate of 10 – 3s -1. How much time
will it take for 10g to reduce to 2.5g?
Ans. Here, k = 10 -3s-1, then, t½ =0 .693/10 -3 = 693 s
[R]o 10
Nos. of half life time undergone, [R]t = => = 2n
2n 2.5
Or, 2 n = 4
Or, n = 2, two half life time has undergone.

Therefore, time required to reduce initial conc. to 2.5 g = 693 x 2 = 1386 s

Page 22 of 101
Temperature dependence of rate of chemical reaction: With increased in
temperature rate of chemical reaction increases. This is due to increase in the
number of reactant molecules which are getting their activation energy (Ea)
leading to a sucsessful chemical reaction
Effect of temperature change on the rate of chemical reaction is explained by
using a term called temperature co – efficient of chemical reaction which is given
by the ratio of rate constants of the reaction measured at two temperatures
with 10 degree differnce.
k (T+ 10)
Thus, temperature co – efficient of chemical reaction = = 2 to 3
kT
It means that for every 10 degree rised in temperature, rate of chemical reaction
increases from 2 to 3 times of the initial rate.
Note: For a chemical reaction as long as temperature is kept constant rate
constant remains unchanged.
The temperature dependence of rate of chemical reaction accurately explained
by Arrhenius and mathematical expression is a follows,
k = A e - Eₐ / RT
Here, k = rate constant, A = a constant called Arrhenius factor or, frequency
factor or, it is also called pre – exponential factor, R = universal gas constant and
Ea = activation energy and measure in terms of J mol -1.
Note: Activation energy is the minimum amount of energy require to supply to
the reactant molecules above their average energy to undergo a sucsessful
chemical reaction. It is denoted by Ea .

E E

Ea Ea P
R R
Eav P Eav
Eav Eav
Reaction coordinates Reaction coordinates

Fig: Showing activation energy and Fig: Showing activation energy and activated
activated complex for exothermic reaction complex for endothermic reaction
Note: Not all reatant molecules which are getting activation energy undergoes
a successful chemical reation. Only those reactant molecules having energy
equal to or, more than thershold energy (ET) undergoes sucsussfull chemical
reaction. Now,

Page 23 of 101
Threshold energy = Average energy + Activation energy
Or, ET = Eav + Ea
Or, Ea = Eav - ET

( NE /NT)
Reactant molecules which are
having required activation
energy.
Reactant molecules having E > ET

Kinetic energy
Fig: Showing distribution energies of reactant molecules.

Here, NE is the number of reactant molecules which are having required activatin
energy and NT is the number of reactant molecules which are having required
threshold energy. This ratio NE / NT is called fraction of molecules.
Effect of temperature change on rate of reaction:
For every increased in temperature by 10 degrees there is increased in rate of
chemical reaction by two to three times of the initial rate. Graphically it can be
shown as follows,
T = 293K
( NE /NT)

T =303K

Reactant molecules having threshold energy

Kinetic energy
Fig: Showing energy distribution of reactant molecules at different temperatures.

On the basis of probability distribution as shown above the rise in temperature

incresed the kinetic energy of the molecules and therefore the energy
distribution curve flattens and shifts towards higher energy region.From the
curve it is seen that fraction of molecules possessing higher kinetic energy (E >
ET) becomes doubled as shown in the shaded portion. Hence, rate of the reaction
is almost doubled for every 10 degree rised in temperature.

Page 24 of 101
Now, from Arrhenius equation k = A e - Eₐ / RT ------------------- (i)
By taking log on both sides,
ℓn k = ℓn A + [ -Ea /RT]
Or, 2.303ℓog k =2.303 ℓog A + [ -Ea /RT]
Or, ℓog k = ℓog A - Ea /2.303RT -------------------------------- (ii)
Let us consider equation (ii) at two different temperatures T1 and T2 then,
ℓog k1 =ℓog A - Ea /2.303RT1 -------------------------------- (iii)
ℓog k2 =ℓog A - Ea /2.303RT2 -------------------------------- (iv)

k2 Ea 1 1
Now, (iv) - (iii) ⇒ ℓog = -
k1 2.303R T1 T2
k2 Ea (T2 –T1)
Or, ℓog = ---------------- (v)
k1 2.303RT1T2
2.303RT1T2 k2
Or, Ea = ℓog ---------------- (vi)
(T2 –T1) k1

By using equation (vi) activation energy for a chemical reaction can be

calculated.
Justification of Arrhenius equation: For most of the chemical reactions,
activation energy is about 55 kJ mol -1 and let the temperature be incresed by 10
degrees. Then,equation (v) can be written as follows,
k2 55 kJ mol -1 x 10 K
ℓog =
k1 2.303 x8.314 J K -1 mol -1 x 298K x 308K
k2 55 kJ mol -1 x 10 K
Or, = antiℓog of
k1 2.303 x8.314 J K -1 mol -1 x 298K x 308K
k2
Or, = antiℓog of 0.30887 (approx.)
k1

k2
Or, = 2.03
k1
Thus rate of chemical reaction increases 2 to 3 times of initial for every rise in
temperature by 10 degrees.

Page 25 of 101
Q. The time required for 10% completion of a first order chemical reaction at
298K is equal to that required for its 25% completion at 308K. If the value of A is
4 x 1010s-1 calculate k at 308 and Ea.
Ans. The rate of the reaction becomes 2.5 times of the initial rate when
temperature changed from 298K to 308K.

2.303 RT1T2 k2
Now, Ea = ℓog
(T2 –T1) k1

2.303 x 8.314 J K -1mol -1x 308 K x 298 K 2.5k 1

Or, Ea = ℓog
(308 –298)K k1

Or, Ea = 175740.12 ℓog 2.5

Or, Ea = 69,926.9 J mol -1

Then, ℓog k308 =ℓog A - Ea /2.303RT308

Or, ℓog k308 = ℓog 4 x 1010s-1 - (69,926.9Jmol -1/2.303 x 8.31 JK -1mol -1x 308K )
Or, ℓog k308 = 10.602 - 11.863 = - 1.261
Or, k308 = antiℓog of (- 1.261) = 1.824 x 10 -1s -1.
Q. The rate of reaction quadruples when temperature changes from 293K to
313K. Calculate activation energy of the reaction assuming that it does not
change with temperature.
Ans: Here, T1 = 293K, T2 = 313K and k2 = 4k1, then,
2.303 RT1T2 k2
Ea = ℓog
(T2 –T1) k1
2.303 x 8.314 J K -1mol -1x 313 K x 293 K 4k 1
Or, Ea = ℓog
(313 –293)K k1
Or, Ea = 87,798.262 ℓog 4
Or, Ea = 87,798.262 x 0.6021
Or, Ea = 52863.33 J mol -1
Or, Ea = 52.86 kJ mol -1
Concluded

Page 26 of 101
 UNIT-II: SOLUTIONS
Solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more pure substances whose
compositions may be altered within certain limits. The substances which makes
up the solution are generally called its components. The solution of two
components is called a binary solution, containing three components is called
ternary solution and so on.
Solvents and solute: The component in a solution whose physical state does not
change is called the solvent while the component whose physical state changes
is called a solute. In case of liquid components, the liquid component in larger
amount is the solvent while the liquid in smaller amount is the solute. If both
the liquid has same amount, the liquid which is added to the other is the solute.
Concentration of a solution: Amount of solute present in a fixed volume or
amount of the solvent is the concentration. It can be expressed in the following
terms.
WB x 1000 WB x 1000
(i) Percentage by mass.
(ii) Percentage by volume. Nomality = Molarity =

(iii) Normality. GEMB x V (ml) GMMB x V (ml)

(iv) Molarity.
WB x 1000 nB
(v) Molality.
(vi) Mole fraction. Molality = Mole fraction =

GMMB x WA(g) na + n b

Molarity X x = Normality; Here, x = Basicity of the acid

= Acidity of the base

= Charge of the cation

If composition is given in P percentage by weight, then molarity and normality

can be expressed as follows,

P x d x 10 P x d x 10
Molarity = Normality =
GMMB GEMB

Dilution formula: N1V1 = N2V2 and M1V1 = M2V2

(Here, total nos. of moles or, gram equivalent before and after dilution remains the same.)

Page 27 of 101
Strength of resultant solution when two solutions of same solute with different
strength are mixed, M1V1 + M2V2 + ----- + MnVn = M (V1 + V2 + + Vn)
Mole fraction: it may be defined as the ratio of number of moles of one of the
component to the total number of moles of all the components of the solution.
Simply, it is the total fraction of moles of a particular component present in one
mole of the solution.
Here, let us consider a solution containing WA g of component A and WB g of
component B, now: WA WB

Nos. of moles of A, nA= and nos. of moles of B, nB=

MA MB

Therefore, mole fraction component A and for component B are as follows,

nB nA

xB= xA=

nA + nB nA + nB
Here, sum of mole fraction of all the components of a solution is unity.
X1 + X 2 + X3 + + Xn = 1.
*** Molarity and mole fraction are independent of temperature as they are based on mass
or weight.

Q. What is the molarity of pure water if its density is 1000 gm kg-1? (55.5 Mℓ)
Solubility: The extent to which a substance dissolved in a specific amount of a
solvent is expressed in terms of solubility. Thus, solubility of a solute may be
defined as its amount that can be dissolved in 100gm of the given solvent at a
given condition. In a particular solvent, solubility of different substances are
found to be different and solubility of gases in liquid is governed by Henry’s law.
Henry ’s Law.It states that the solubility of a gas at a given temperature is directly
proportional to the pressure at which it is dissolved. If solubility is measured in
terms of mole fraction XB and P is the partial pressure of the gas in equilibrium
with the solution, then according to Henry’s law,
P XB
Or, P = kH XB
Where, KH is proportionality constant called Henry’s constant. The unit of
Henry’s constant kH is Torr or Kilo Barr and for different gases kH is different.

Page 28 of 101
Significance of Henry’ constant kH.
With the knowledge of kH value, we can calculate the solubility of a gas at that
temperature where dissolution takes placed. With increase in temperature the
solubility of a gas decreases. It emplies that value of kH increases with increasein
temperature and solubility decreases.

KH = P/XB
Q. H2S a toxic gas is used for the analysis, if the solubility of H2S in water at STP
condition is 0.195 mol. kg-1, calculate the value of Henry’s constant.
ANS: Here, solubility = 0.195 mol.kg-1 = nB
Pressure P = 1 bar.
Nos. of moles of solvent H2O, nH2O = 1000g/18g.mol-1 = 55.5 moles
Amount of water WH2O = 1000g
Now, mole fraction of H2S:

X H2S = nH2S / (nH2O + nH2O)

= 0.195/ (55.5 +0.195) = 3.5 X 10-1

Therefore, value of kH = 1 Bar / 3.5 x 10-1 = 285.6 Bar.

Q. Henry’s constant of N2 gas at 293K is 76.48kBar. If N2 gas is bubbled through

water at 293 K at a pressure of 1 Bar, how many mill moles of it will dissolved
in 10 litres of water?
ANS: Here, kH = 76.48kBar = 76480 Bar. P = 1 Bar.
Now, kH = 1Bar/ XB = 1 / 76480 = 1.3 x 10-5
Nos. of moles of water nA =1000g/18g.mol-1
Therefore, XB = nB /(nA + nB)
Or, XB(nA + nB) = nB
Or, XBnA + XBnB = nB
Or, XBnA = nB – XBnB =nB ( 1 – XB)
Or, nB = XBnA/ (1- XB) = (1.3 x10-5x 555.5)/ (1- 1.3 x10-5) = 7.22 milimoles.

Page 29 of 101
Vapour Pressure of a liquid
(When a liquid is taken into a beaker covered from above at certain
Vapour
temperature, a part of the liquid evaporates and its vapours fills
the space available to them. As the evaporation proceeds, the
number of molecules in vapour state or, phase gradually increases
and they moved randomly in space above the surface of the liquid Liquid
and get condensed. Very soon a state of equilibrium is established
between the liquid and the vapour phase.)

***The pressure exerted by the vapours above the surface of the liquid in
equilibrium with the liquid at a given temperature is called vapour pressure of
the liquid.
The following are the factors affecting the vapour pressure of a liquid:
1. Nature of the liquid: Liquids having weak intermolecular forces are more
volatile as their molecules have greater tendency to escape into vapour
state. That is why they have higher vapour pressure.
2. Temperature: Vapour pressure increases with increase in temperature
due to the reason that with increasing temperature, kinetic energy of the
molecules increases with further increasing their tendency to vaporise. As
a result, more molecules of the liquid can go into vapour phase.
3. Presence of impurity: Dissolution of a non – volatile solute like NaCℓ,
Glucose, Sucrose etc. decreases the vapour pressure of a liquid. Thus,
vapour pressure of a solution is lower than the pure liquid (solvent).
Reason: When a non- volatile solute is dissolved into a liquid, a part of the liquid
surface is occupied by the solute particles, which are non-volatile. Therefore,
the evaporation of the liquid will take place from a lesser surface area. In other
words, the particles of the liquid will now have less tendency to escape into
vapour state. Therefore, the vapour pressure of the liquid has been decrease
due to the dissolution of a non- volatile solute.

Page 30 of 101
Raoult’s Law . (For non- volatile solute)
In a liquid mixture, the vapour pressure of a particular component (non- volatile)
is directly proportional to the mole fraction of the component in the mixture.
If nB moles a solute B mixed with nA moles of a solvent A, then we have mole
fraction of A and B as follows:
XA = nA / (nA + nB) and XB = nB/(nA + nB)
Now, By Raoult’s law,
P˚A
PA XA
Or, PA = P˚A XA PA

XA=0 XA=1
Here, PA and P˚A are the vapour of the solvent A in the solution and its vapour
pressure in its pure state.
PB
Similarly, for the solute B:

PB XB P˚B

Or, PB = P˚B XB
XB=1 XB=0

Here, PB and P˚B are the vapour of the solute B in the solution and its vapour
pressure in its pure state.
In general case, Pi Xi
Or, Pi = P˚i Xi
Relative lowering of vapour pressure: ( For non-volatile solute)
For a binary liquide mixture, we have the relation,

PA XA
Or, PA = P˚A XA
Or, PA= P˚A( 1- XB)

Page 31 of 101
 or, PA = P˚A - P˚AXB
or, P˚A - PA = P˚A XB
or, (P˚A- PA)/ P˚A = XB
or, ΔP/ P˚A = XB
Here, ΔP = P˚A- PA is called the lowering of vapour pressure. Again Raoult’s law
states that, for a solution containing a non volatile solute, at a given temperature
the relative of lowering of vapour pressureis equal to the mole fraction of the
solute.
Note: Lowering of vapour pressure is expressed as follows:
PA = P˚A - P˚AXB
or, (P˚A - PA) = P˚A XB
or, (P˚A- PA) XB ; Here, P˚A is considered as a constant
Thus, lowering of vapour pressure of a solution is directly proportional to the
mole fraction of the solute.
Raoult’s law for binary solution of volatile liquid (Volatile solute in volatile
liquid): When two volatile components A and B are mixed together to form a
solution, the vapour phase consists of vapours of both the components of the
solution. Their partial vapour pressure can be calculated by Raoult’s law.

PA XA
Or, PA = P˚A XA (i)
And for the component B,
PB XB
Or, PB = P˚B XB (ii)
By Dalton’s law of partial pressure, we have,
P =PA + PB = P˚A XA + P˚B XB = P˚A+ P˚B (1- XA) = P˚AXA + P˚B - P˚B XA
P = P˚B + ( P˚A - P˚B) XA (iii)
Similarly,
P = P˚A + ( P˚A - P˚B) XB (iv)

Page 32 of 101
Graphically we can represent as follows,
PB PA
Since, P˚A and P˚B are constant at
given temperature, therefore, P˚A
P=PA+ PB
equation (iii) and (iv) implies that
Volatility of A> B
total pressure P is linear function of P˚B
P=P˚AXA
XA and XB. It means that plot of P vs
XA or, plot of P vs XB should be a P=P˚BXB
straight line as shown above.
XA = 0 XA = 1
XB =1
XB = 0
Composition of vapour phase of a solution:
By Dalton, XA = PA/(PA+ PB) =PA / Ptotal
PA = XA. Ptotal
Similarly, XB = PB/ (PA + PB)
PB = XB. Ptotal
In general; Pi = Xi. Ptotal

Ideal solution: Those solutions which obeys Raoult’s law are called ideal
solutions. For such solutions, the vapour pressure lies between the vapour
pressures of the two components in their pure state.
Raoult’s law special case of Henry’s law:
By Raoult’s law, the vapour pressure of a volatile component (solvent), PA of the
solution is equal to the product of its mole fraction XA and its vapour pressure in
its pure state P˚A.
PA =P˚AXA (i)

In case of solution of a gas in liquid, its solubility is governed by Henry’s law and
can be written as
PA = KH XA (ii)

Here, KH is a proportionality constant called Henry’s constant. By comparing

equation (i) and (ii), we can concluded that the partial vapour pressure of a
volatile component of a solution is directly proportional to its mole fraction.
Equation (i) and (ii) are different only in P˚A and KH and the expression becomes
equal when P˚A and KH are equal. With increase in temperature, value of KH

Page 33 of 101
increases and at a certain temperature, it is equal to P˚A. This implies that
Raoult’s law is a special case of Henry’s law.
Characteristics of ideal solution:
Ideal solution may be defined as the solution which obeys Raoult’s law over the
entire range of concentration and temperature. During the formation of ideal
solution, neither involved any change in enthalpy nor in volume.
For an ideal solution:
(i) It should obey Raoult’s law: PA =P˚AXA & P B=P˚BXB
(ii) ΔHmixing = 0
(iii) ΔV mixing = 0
Example:
(i) n- Heptane + n-Hexane
(ii) Bromoethane + Iodoethane
(iii) Chlorobenzene + Bromobenzene
(iv) Benzene + Toluene
(v) Chloroform + Tetrachlorosilane
Non – ideal solution
Those solutions which do not obey Raoult’s law and are accompanied change
in enthalpy and change in volume during their formation are called non –
ideal solutions.
For non – ideal solutions:
(i) PA ≠ P˚A XA and PB ≠ P˚B XB
(ii) ΔH mixing ≠ 0
(iii) ΔVmixing ≠ 0
Deviation from Raoult’s law: Non-ideal solution can be considered in the
following types:
(i) Positive deviation from Raoult’s law
(ii) Negative deviation from Raoult’s law
(iii) Deviation from Raoult’s law showing maximum or, minimum points.

Page 34 of 101
(i) Solutions showing positive deviation from Raoult’s law:
PA
In this case, the vapour pressure of the PB
solution is higher than the value given by P=PA+ PB P˚A
Raoult’s law, but less than the vapour
Volatility of A> B
pressure of the more volatile component P˚B
P=P˚AXA
in its pure state.
P=P˚BXB
Here,
P > ( PA + PB), PA > P˚A XA, and PB > P˚B XB XA = 0 XA = 1
XB =1 XB = 0
ΔHmixing = (+)ve and ΔVmixing =(+)ve.

Positive deviation is due to decrease in the force of attraction between the

solvent and solute molecules. That is solvent – solute attraction is weaker than
solvent – solvent and solute –solute attraction, i.e. A-B interaction ˂ A –A or
B – B interaction. This solution will have higher vapour pressure showing
minimum boiling point. Because of decrease in the magnitude of intermolecular
force of attraction between the molecules of the components in the solution,
they are loosely held leading to higher tendency to escape into vapour state and
hence, increase in volume takes placed and ΔVmixing = (+)ve value. Also this
process will be accompanied by absorption of heat energy and ΔH mixing = (+) ve
value.
Examples like (CH3COCH3 +CH3CH2OH), (CH3COCH3 + C6H6), (CCℓ4 + C6H6), (H2O +
CH3CH2OH), (n- Hexane + CH3CH2OH) etc.
(ii) Solutions showing negative deviation from Raoult’s law.

In this case, the vapour pressure of the PB PA

solution is less than the value given by

Raoult’s law, but higher than the P=PA+ PB P˚A

vapour pressure of the less volatile Volatility of A> B

P˚B
component in its pure state. P=P˚AXA
Here, P=P˚BXB
P > ( PA + PB), PA > P˚AXA and PB> P˚B XB
XA = 0 XA = 1
ΔHmixing = (-)ve and ΔV= (-)ve
XB =1 XB = 0

Page 35 of 101
 This is due to the increase in the force of attraction between the solvent and the
solute molecules and this force of attraction is stronger than the force of
attraction between the solvent molecules and the solute molecules.
That is ( A-B) attraction > ( A-A) or (B-B) attraction. This solution will have lower
vapour pressure and higher boiling point.
Eg: (CH3COOH + C6H5N), (CHCℓ3 + CH3COOH), ( CHCℓ3 + C6H6), ( H2O + HNO3 ) etc.
Here, new attractive force comes into the solution and therefore, these
solutions are accompanied by evolution of heat energy, ΔHmixing = (-)ve value.
Also because of stronger force of attraction among molecules in solution, the
molecules comes closer and volume of the decreases and ΔVmixing= (-)ve.
(iii) Deviation from Raoult’s law showing maximum or minimum points.

PB PA PB PA

P˚A P˚A
P=PA+ PB
P˚B P=PA+ PB Volatility of A> B Volatility of A> B
P˚B
P=P˚AXA P=P˚AXA
P=P˚BXB P=P˚BXB

XA = 0 XA = 1 XA = 0 XA = 1
XB =1 XB = 0 XB =1 XB = 0
Showing maximum point Showing minimum point

In the first case, the vapour pressure of the solution is higher than the value
given by Raoult’s law and even higher than the vapour pressure of the more
volatile component in its pure state showing a maximum point.
In the second case, the vapour pressure of the solution is lower than the value
given by Raoult’s law and even lower than the vapour pressure of the solution
of the less volatile component in its pure state showing a minimum point.
Azeotropic mixture: if a binary solution is prepared by taking the composition
corresponding to the maximum point or, minimum point, then the solution will
behave just like a pure liquid. It will boil at a fixed temperature, the ratio of
composition in the vapour state will be fixed and the liquid obtained by
condensation will have a fixed ratio of composition. Such a liquid mixture is
called an azeotropic mixture.

Page 36 of 101
Azeotropic mixture may be defined as the mixture of liquids which boils at a
constant temperature like a pure liquid and possessed same composition of
components in liquid as well as in vapour state. They are also called constant
boiling mixture. For azeotropic mixture, their components cannot be separated
by fractional distillation.There are two types of azeotropic mixtures and they
are,
1. Minimum boiling azeotropes: These azeotropic mixture are formed by
those liquid pairs which shows large positive deviation from ideal
behaviour. At the azeotropic composition, their vapour pressure is highest
and boiling is minimum and it is lower than either of the component.
Tempeature

Azeotropic
composition

(Fig: Temperature or boiling point v/s mole fraction curve)

XB=1 XA=1
Examples: In percentage by mass:
(i) H2O (4.43%, 373K ) + CH3CH2OH (95.7%, 351.3K) =351.1K
(ii) H2O (28.31% , 373K ) + C2H5CH2OH (71.69%, 370K) = 370.72K
(iii) CHCℓ3 (33% ,334K) + CH3CH2OH (67%, 351K) = 332.3K
2. Maximum Boiling Azeotropes: These azeotropes are obtained by those
liquid pairs which shows negative deviation from the ideal behaviour. At
the azeotropic composition, the vapour pressure is minimum and the
boiling point will be maximum and it is higher than either of the
components.
Azeotropic
Tempeature composition

XB=1 XA=1

(Fig: Temperature or boiling point v/s mole fraction curve)

Examples: In percentage by mass,

Page 37 of 101
 (i) H2O (43%, 273K ) + HI(57%, 329K) = 400K
(ii) H2O (32%, 373K ) + HNO3 (68%, 359K) = 393.5K
(iii) H2O (373K, 28.4%) + HCℓO4 (71.6%, 383K) = 476K
Colligative Properties: It may be defined as the properties of dilute solutions of
non-volatile solute whose value depends on the concentration of solute
particles in the solution but not on the individual identity of the solute particles.
There are four colligative properties:
(i) Relative lowering of vapour pressure
(ii) Elevation in boiling point
(iii) Depression in freezing point
(iv) Osmotic pressure
Now, (i) Relative lowering of vapour pressure.
By Raoult’s law, PA = P˚AXA
Or, PA = P˚A (1- XB) = P˚A - P˚A XB
Or, (P˚A –PA) = P˚A XB
Or, (P˚A – PA)/P˚A = XB
Or, ΔP/P˚A = XB

Relative lowering of vapour pressure is depend upon relative nos. of solute and
solvent molecules and hence it is a colligative property.
Determination of molecular mass of solute by measuring relative lowering of
vapour pressure:

For solvent “A” For solute “B”

WA g WB g
MA g mol-1 MB g mol-1
nA = WA/MA nB = WB/MB
XA= nA /( nA + nB) XB = nB /( nA + nB)

Page 38 of 101
Now by Raoult’s law; PA = P˚AXA
Or, PA = P˚A ( 1- XB) = P˚A - P˚A XB
Or, (P˚A –PA) = P˚A XB

Or, (P˚A – PA)/P˚A = XB = nB / ( nA+ nB )

Or, P˚A/( P˚A – PA) = ( nA + nB) / nB = (nA/ nB) + 1

Or, {P˚A /( P˚A – PA)} -1 = nA/ nB

Or, { PA /(P˚A – PA) =WAMB/ MA WB

Or, MB = [ PAWB MA / (P˚A- PA) WA] (i)

By using above formula of equation (i), molecular mass of an unknown solute

can be calculated.
Or,
PA = P˚AXA
Or, PA = P˚A ( 1- XB) = P˚A - P˚A XB
Or, (P˚A –PA) = P˚A XB

Or, (P˚A – PA)/P˚A = XB = nB / ( nA+ nB )

If the solution is very dilute, then nB ˂˂ nA and ( nA + nB)= 1

Or, { (P˚A - PA) / P˚A)} = nB/nA = WBMA/ MB WA

Or, MB = [ P˚AWB MA / (P˚A- PA) WA] (ii)

Here also by using this relation (ii), we can calculate molar mass of the unknown
solute.
Q. 2% aqueous solution of a non – volatile solute exerts a pressure of 1.004 bar
at 100˚C. What is the molar mass of the solute if vapour pressure of pure water
is 1.003 bar at 100˚C?
Ans: Here, WB = 2 g M B=? WA=98 g M A= 18 g
P˚A = 1.003 bar PA = 1.004 bar

P˚AWBMA 1.003 Bar x2 x 18

Now, MB = = = 41.34 g
(P˚A- PA)WA (1.003- 1.004) 98
Page 39 of 101
Q. Urea forms an ideal solution in water. Determine vapour pressure of an
aqueous solution containing 10% by mass of urea at 40˚C. (V p of water at 40˚C
is 55.3 mm of Mercury.)
Ans: WB = 10 g M B=60g WA=90 g M A= 18 g
P˚A = 55.3 mm of Hg PA =?

P˚A WBMA
Now, P˚A - PA =
MBWA

P˚A WBMA 10 g x 18 g x 55.3 mm of Hg

Or, PA = P A - = 55.3 -
MBWA 60 g x 90 g

= 53.457 mm of Hg

Q. Vapour pressure of pure water is 23.8 mm of Hg at 298K. 50g of urea

(NH2CONH2) is dissolved in 850g of water. Calculate the vapour pressure of
water for this solution and its relative vapour density.
Ans: Here; WB = 50 g M B=60g WA=850 g M A= 18 g
P˚A = 23.8 mm of Hg PA =?

P˚A -PA
=?
P˚A

P˚A -PA WB MA 50g. 18g

Now, = = = 0.017
P˚A WA MB 850g. 60g

Lastly, PA = P˚A XA = P˚A (1 – XB) = 23.8 x 0.99 = 23.56 mm of Hg

Q. The vapour pressure of pure Benzene at a certain temperature is 0.850 Bar.

A non - volatile solute weighing 0.5g is added to 39.0 g of Benzene. The vapour
pressure of the solution is 0.845 Bar. What is the molar mass of the solute?
Ans: Here; WB = 0.5g M B=? WA=39g M A= 78g
P˚A = 0.850 bar PA = 0.845 bar

P˚AWBMA 0.850 Bar x0.5g x 78g

Now, MB = = =170gmol-1
(P˚A- PA)WA (0.850- 0.845) 98g

Page 40 of 101
(ii) Elevation in boiling points: The boiling point of a liquid is the temperature at
which its vapour pressure is exactly equal to the atmospheric pressure. Due to
the dissolution of a non – volatile solute, the boiling point of a liquid increases
as a result of decreasing vapour pressure of the liquid. The variation of vapopur
pressure of a pure liquid and its solution containing non- volatile solute with
temperature is shown below:

VP P Atmospheric pressure

Solvent
P’

Solution

To T1 Temperature

Here, elevation in boiling point = T1 – T0 = ΔTb and lowering of vapour pressure

is ΔP = P –P’. Again we have seen that the magnitude of elevation in boiling point
depends on the lowering of vapour pressure.
Therefore, ΔTb ΔP ------------- (i)
According to Raoult’s law;
ΔP XB --------------- (ii)

By (i) and (ii) we have,

ΔTb XB
nB
Or, ΔTb = k XB = k ; Here, k is a proportionality constant.
nA + nB
Or, ΔTb = k nB/nA , if the solution is very dilute nB ˂˂nA and nA+ nB = nA
nB MA
Or, ΔTb = k ------------- (iii)
WA

If WA is the mass of the solvent in kilogram (kg), then, nb/ WA is the molality “m”
of the solution. Therefore,
ΔTb = k MA m -------------- (iv)
Here, k and MA are constant and their products can be replaced by another
constant kb.

Page 41 of 101
Thus, ΔTb = kb m --------------- (v)
Here, kb is a proportionality constant called Boiling point elevation constant,
Molal elevation constant or, Ebullioscopic constant.
Now, from equation (iv), we have seen that elevation in boiling point depends
upon the relative nos. of moles of the solute and the solvent molecules but does
not depend upon the nature of the solute and the solvent molecules. Hence,
elevation in boiling point is a colligative property.
***Remarks:
By (i) and (ii) we have,
ΔTb = kb XB
nB
Or, ΔTb = k
WA
When nb = 1 mole and WA= 1kg,
Then, ΔTb = kb, Thus, ebullioscopic constant kb may be defined as the increased in
boiling point of a liquid when mole of the solute dissolved in 1 kg of the solvent.
Unit of kb:
ΔTB WA
kb = = K.Kg.mol-1
nb
eg: kb for water is 0.52K.Kg.mol-1

Determination of molar mass of unknown non-volatile solute by measuring

elevation in boiling point.
Let WB g of the solute B with molar mass MB is dissolved in WA g of solvent A with
molar mass MA. Then,

WB x 1000
Molality, m =
MBWA
Again, we have the relation
WB x 1000
ΔTb = kb m = kb
M B WA

WB x 1000
Or MB = kb ------------- (vi)
ΔTb WA
By using equation (vi), we can calculate molar mass of the solute.

Page 42 of 101
Q. What is the boiling point of an aqueous solution containing 18g of glucose in
100g of water. Molal elevation constant of water is 0.52 K. Kg. mol-1. The boiling
point of water is 373K
Ans: Here, Tb = 373K ΔTb =? Kb= 0.52K.K.mol-1 WB= 18g
MB = 180g WA = 100g

Kb x WB x 1000 0.52K.Kg.mol-1.18g.1000
Now, ΔTb = = = 0.52 K
M B x WA 180g x 100g

Lastly, Ts – Tb = Δ Tb

Or, Ts = ΔTb + Ts = 0.52 + 373 = 373.52K

Q. The boiling point of benzene is 353.23K. When 1.8g of a non-volatile solute

was dissolved in 90g of benzene, the boiling point is raised to 354.11K. Calculate
the molar mass of the solute dissolved. Here, Kb for benzene is 2.53k.Kg.mol-1.
Ans: Here,
Tb = 353.23K ΔTb =354.11K -353.23K = 0.88K
Kb= 2.53K.K.mol-1 WB= 1.8g MB = ? WA = 90g

Kb x WB x 1000 2.53K.Kg.mol-1.1.8g.1000
Now, MB = = = 57.5 g.mol-1
ΔTb x WA 0.88K x90g

Q. 18g of glucose is dissolved in 1 kg of water in souspan. At what temperature

will water boil at 1.103 Bar? ( Kb for water is 0.52K.Kg.mol-1 and boiling point of
water at 1.103 Bar is 373.15K)
Ans: Here, Tb = 373.15K ΔTb =? Kb= 0.52K.K.mol-1 WB= 18g
MB = 180g WA = 1000g

Kb x WB x 1000 0.52K.Kg.mol-1.18g.1000
Now, ΔTb = = = 0.052 K
MB x WA 180g x 1000g

Lastly, Ts – Tb = Δ Tb

Or, Ts = ΔTb + Ts = 0.052 + 373.15 = 373.202K

Page 43 of 101
Q. Calculate boiling point of 1 molar aqueous solution of a solute with molar
mass 74.5g.mol-1. The density of the solution is 1.04g.mol-1 and kb for water is
0.52K.Kg. mol-1.
Ans: Here, Tb = 373.15K ΔTb =? Kb= 0.52K.K.mol-1
nB= 1mole =WB = 74.5 g
MB = 74.5g.mol-1 Ws = 1000 ml x 1.04 g.ml-1 =1040g
WA = 1040 – 74.5 = 965.5 g

Kb x WB x 1000 0.52K.Kg.mol-1x74.5g x 1000

Now, ΔTb = = = 0.53 K
MB x WA 74.5g.mol-1 x 965.5g

5) 98g
Lastly, Ts – Tb = Δ Tb

Or, Ts = ΔTb + Ts = 0.53 + 373.15 = 373.68 K

(iii) Depression in freezing point: The temperature at which solid phase and
liquid phase have the same vapour pressure is called its freezing point. The
freezing point of a liquid is fixed and due to dissolution of a non-volatile solute
in a pure liquid, its vapour pressure decreases and freezing point is lowered. The
freezing point refers to the temperature at which the vapour pressure of the
solvent in two phases i.e. liquid solution and solid solvent is the same. Since the
vapour pressure solvent in solution is lowered, it becomes equal to that of the
solid solvent at the lowered temperature.
Liquid solvent

Solution
VP
Solid solvent P˚A
PA

Ts Tf Temperature
Here, Tf – Ts = ΔTf is the depression in freezing point. Again, P˚A – PA = ΔP is the
lowering of vapour pressure of the solution.
Now, from the above diagram, it is evident that the magnitude of depression in
freezing point is determined by the lowering of vapour pressure of the solution.

Page 44 of 101
i.e. Δ Tf ΔP ---------------- (i)
Again, from Raoult’s law, we have
ΔP XB ---------------- (ii)
Now by (i) and (ii), we have
Δ Tf XB
Or, ΔTf = k XB : ( Here, k is a proportionality constant.)

nB
Or, ΔTf = k nA + nB
If the solution is very dilute, nA >> nB and ( nA + nB ) = nA.
then, nB nB nB MA
ΔTf = k nA + nB =k = k (iii)
nA WA

If WA is the mass of the solvent in Kg, then nB /WA will be the molality of the
solution. Therefore,
ΔTf = k MA m
Or, ΔTf = kf m -------- (iv)
Here, kf = k MA , which is a constant called freezing point depression constant
or, molal freezing point depression constant or, cryoscopic constant. From
equation (iv) it is clear that the depression in freezing point of a solution is
directly proportional to the (molality) relative number of moles of the solute and
the solvent. Therefore, depression in freezing point is a colligative property.
Unit of kf : nB
ΔTf = kf
WA

ΔTf WA K.Kg
Or, kf = =
Therefore, the unit of kf is K.Kg.mol-1 nB mol
Remarks: When nB = 1mol, WA = 1 Kg, then ΔTf = kf. Thus, cryoscopic constant kf
of a solution may be defined as the depression in freezing point when 1 mol. of
the solute is dissolved in 1kg of the solvent.

Page 45 of 101
Eg: kf for water is 0.52k.Kg.mol-1.
Determination of molar mass of an unknown solute by measuring depression in
nB
freezing point:
ΔTf = kf m = kf
WA (Kg)
WB x 1000
= kf
MB x WA(g)
WB x 1000
Therefore, MB = kf
ΔTf x WA(g)
Now, by using the above equation, we can calculate the molar mass of the
unknown solute.
Application: Concept of depression in freezing in freezing point can be applied
to the following areas,
(i) Antifreeze solution: Water is used in the radiator of vehicles as coolant
(cooling agent) but it cannot be used at high altitudes where the temperature is
sub- zero, water would be freeze in the radiator. To avoid this difficulty a
solution of ethylene glycol in water is used in radiator. This solution has a
freezing point lower than water.
(ii) Clearing the ice from the road: Salts such as NaCℓ, CaCℓ2 etc. are scattered
on icy roads of high altitudes. This helps in melting the ice as long as the outdoor
temperature is above the lower freezing point of the salt and water solution.
Eg: NaCℓ can melt ice at a temperature as long as at -21˚C.
CaCℓ2 can melt ice at a temperature as long as at -55˚C.
Q.Calculate the mass of ascorbic acid (C6H8O6), to be dissolved in 75 g of acetic
acid to lower its melting point by 1.5˚C.(kf value for acetic acid is 3.9K Kg mol-1).
Ans: ΔTf = 1.5K kf =3.9K Kg mol-1 WB= ?
MB = 176g.mol-1 WA = 75g

ΔTf x MB x WA 1.5 K x 176 g mol-1x75g

Now, WB = = = 5.08 g
kf x 1000 -1
3.9K Kg mol x1000

Page 46 of 101
Q. 45g of ethylene glycol (C2H6O2) is mixed with 600g of water. Calculate freezing
point of the solution and freezing point depression.
Ans: Here, Ts= ? ΔTf=? Kf= 1.86 K.K.mol-1
MB = 62 g.mol-1 WB = 45g
WA = 600g

Kf x WB x 1000 1.8K.Kg.mol-1x45g x 1000

Now, ΔTf = = = 2.2 K
M B x WA 62g.mol-1 x 600g

Lastly, Ts = Tf – ΔTf = 273 – 2.2 = 270.8 K

Q. 1 g of non-electrolyte solute dissolved in 50 g of benzene lowered the freezing
point of benzene by 0.40 k. The freezing point depression constant of benzene
is 5.12 K Kg mol-1. Calculate the molar mass of the solute.
Ans: Here, ΔTf = 0.4 K kf =5.12 K Kg mol-1 WB= 1g
MB = ? WA = 50g

kf x MB x 1000 5.12 K Kg mol-1 x1g x 1000

Now, MB = = = 256g mol-1
ΔTf x WA 0.4 K x 50g
Q. How many grams of solute ( molar mass = 342 g mol-1) should be dissolved in
500 g of water so as to get a solution having difference of 105˚C between
freezing point and boiling point? (kf value for water is 0.52 K Kg mol-1)
Ans: Here, MB = 342g mlo-1 kf =1.86K Kg mol-1 kB= 0.52 K Kg mol-1
TB = 100˚C WA = 500g
Now, ΔTb + ΔTf = 5

WB 1000 WB x1000
Or, { kb + kf } = 5K
M B x WA M B x WA

1000 x WB
Or, 5 k = { kb + kf}
M B WA

5 x M B x WA 5 K x 342g mol-1 x500g

Or, WB = = = 359.24g
1000 x { kb + kf} 1000 {0.52 + 1.86} K Kg mol-1

Page 47 of 101
Q. Anti- freeze used in car radiator is a solution of ethylene glycol {( CH2OH)2}.
In oreder to prevent the solution from freezing at -0.3˚K, how much ethylene
glycol be added to 5 Kg of water? ( kf for water is 1.86K Kg mol-1)
Ans: Here,
ΔTf = 0.3K kf =1.86K Kg mol-1 WB= ?
MB = 62g.mol-1 WA = 5000g

ΔTf x MB x WA 0.3 K x 62 g mol-1x5000g

Now, WB = = = 50g
kf x 1000 1.86K Kg mol-1 x1000

(iv) Osmosis and osmotic preesure.

Solvent Solution
When a solution is kept separated from its
solvent by using a semipermeable membrane,
the solvent molecules will pass through the
semipermeable membrane towards the
solution side. Thus the passage of the solvent
molecules towards the solution side from
solvent side is called osmosis.
In other words, when two solutions of Semipermeable
membrane
different concentration are kept separated by
using a semipermeable membrane, solvent
will move towards the solution of higher
concentration through the membrane. This
phenomenon is also called osmosis.

Semipermeable membranes are those special type of membranes which

appears to be contineous sheet or, film but actually they contains a network of
sub microscopic holes or, pores. These membranes allows the passage of solvent
molecules through them but, do not allow the passage of solute molecules or,
particles through them. They can be animal or, vegetable origin.They contain
just under the outer skin of animal and plants. For example, pigs bladder,
cellophane paper, parchment paper etc.

Page 48 of 101
Cause of osmosis: ( Vapour pressure approach is the most accepted theory to
explain osmosis). According to this theory, osmosis occurs as a result of
difference in vapour pressure of the solution and the solvent (or, between two
solutions of different concentations). The vapour pressure of the pure solvent is
higher than that of the solution. Therefore, molecules of the solvent
spontaneously moves from a region of higher vapour pressure towards the
region of lower vapour pressure. As a result there is net transfer of solvent
molecules from pure solvent into solution ( or, from a solution of lower
concentration to the solution of higher concentration). It causes osmosis.
Osmotic pressure: It may be difined as the excess pressure to be applied on the
surface of the solution to stop the passage of solvent molecules from solvent
side to solution side. In short, osmotic pressure is the required pressure to be
applied on the surface of the solution to stop osmosis. It is denoted by ‘ π’.
Remarks: (i) If applied pressure P = π, then osmosis stop.
(ii) If applied pressure P ˂ π, then osmosis continues.
(iii) If applied pressure P > π, then reverse osmosis takes placed.
Reverse Osmosis: If the pressure applied on the surface of the solution is greater
than the required osmotic pressure π, then the solvent molecules start moving
from solution side to the solvent side through the semipermeable membrane.
This phenomanone is called reverse osmosis.
Principle of reverse osmosis is used in the purification of sea water (desalination
of sea water for domestic purposes) and hard water.
Isotonic solution: Two solutions having same osmotic pressure are called
isotonic solutions. At the same temperature, if two solutions are isotonic, then
they have same molar concentration.
Hypertonic and Hypotonic solution: For two solutions the solution having higher
osmotic pressure is called hypertonic solution and the other one having lower
osmotic prssure is called the hypotonic solution.
Some common phenoma based on osmosis:
(i) Shivering of raw mangoes to pickle: Raw mangoes when placed in
concentrated solution of NaCℓ, looses water through osmosis and ultimately
shivel into pickle.

Page 49 of 101
(ii) Revival of wilted flower and limped carrolts: Wilted flowers revived and
regain their freshness when placed in fresh water because of osmosis. Carrots
get limped due to lost of water to atmosphere. However,they placed in water,
they become firm due to inflow of water as a result of osmosis.
(iii) Sweeling of tissues in people consuming more salts.
(iv) Preservation of meat.
(v) Absorbtion of water by plants.
Laws of osmotic pressure.
1.Boyle’s – van’t Hoff law: At constant temperature, osmotic pressure of adilute
solution is directly proportional to the to its concentration.
Thus, π C
2. van’t Hoff temperature law: For a fixed volume or, concentration, the osmotic
pressure is directly proportional to the absolute temperature.
Thus, π T
3. van’t Hoff – Avogadro’s law: The osmotic pressure of a solution is directly
proportional to the number of moles of the solute ( when concentration and
temperature are kept constant).
Thus, π n
Or, If two solutions of different solute of same volume have same osmotic
pressure, they contain same number of solute miolecules.
Thus, n1 = n2 or, C1 = C2
*** For isotonic solutions π1 = π2, then, C1 = C2 or, n1 = n2 for same volume.
Now by combining (1), (2) and (3), we have,
π CTn
Or, π = RCTn, where ‘R’ is a proportionality constant having same value to that
of Universal gas constant ( R = 0.0821 L atm.K-1.mol-1)

Page 50 of 101
Now,
RTn
π= ; Since, C =1/V
V

RTWB
πV =
MB

RTWB
MB =
πV

*** By using this equation we can calculate the molar mass of the unknown solute

Q.Calculate the osmotic pressuere of a solution containing 3.42g of sucrose per

liter at 400K. Molar mass of sucrose is 342g mol-1.
Ans: Here, T = 400K R =0.0821 L. atm. K-1. mol-1 WB= 3.42g
MB = 342g.mol-1 V = 1 L π =?

RTWB 0.0821 L.atm.K-1.Mol-1x400K x3.42g

Now, π = =
MB V 342g. mol-1 x 1 L

= 0.3284 atm

Q. At 298K, 100cm3 of a solution containing 3.002 g of an unknown solute

exhibits an osmotic pressure of 2.55 atm. What is the molar mass of the solute?
Ans: Here;
T = 298K R =0.0821 L. atm.K-1.mol-1 WB= 3.002g
MB = ? V = 100 cm3 = 100 ml = 0.1L π = 2.55 atm

RTWB 0.0821 L.atm.K-1.Mol-1x298K x3.002g

Now, MB = =
πV 2.55 atm x 0.1 L

= 288.02 g mol-1

Page 51 of 101
Q. A solution containing 13.5 g of urea per 500ml of solution in water has same
osmotic pressure as a solution of sucrose (C12H22O11) in water. Calculate the
mass of sucrose present 500ml of water.
Ans: Here, MB = 60g. mol-1 WC = ?
WB = 13.5g MC = 342g mol-1
πB = πC, Volume of solution = 500ml
By Avogadro’s law we know that if two solutions of equal volumes
different solutes have same osmotic pressure then their
concentration are the same.
Then, πB =πC
Or, n B = nC
WB WC
Or, = ; WC = 13.5 g x 342 g mol-1 / 60 g.mol-1
MB MC
= 76.95 g mol-1
Q.Osmotic pressure of a solution containing 7 g of a protein per 100ml of a
solution is 25 mm of Hg at 37˚ C. Calculate the molar mass of the protein. ( R =
0.0821 l.atm. K-1. mol-1)
Ans: Here, T = 37˚C = 273 + 37 = 310K, R =0.0821 L. atm.K-1.mol-1
WB= 7g, V = 100ml = 0.1 L, π = 25mm = 25/760 atm
MB = ? V = 100 cm3 = 100 ml = 0.1L π = 2.55 atm

RTWB 0.0821 L.atm.K-1.Mol-1x 310K x 7g x 760

Now, MB = =
πV 25 atm x 0.1 L

= 54159.728 g mol-1
Q 100 mg of a protein is dissolved in enough water to make 10 ml of a solution.
If this solution has osmotic pressure of 13.3 mm of Hg at 25˚C, what is the molar
mass of the solute?

Page 52 of 101
Ans: Here,
T = 25˚C = 273 + 25 = 278K, R =0.0821 L. atm.K-1.mol-1
WB= 100mg = 0.01g, V = 10ml = 0.1 L,
π = 13.3mm = 13.3/760 atm
MB = ? V = 100 cm3 = 100 ml = 0.1L π = 2.55 atm

RTWB 0.0821 L.atm.K-1.Mol-1x 278K x 0.01g x 760

Now, MB = =
πV 13.3 atm x 0.01 L

= 13980.457 g mol-1

Q. A 5% solution of cane sugar (molar mass 342g. mol-1) is isotonic with 0.877%
solution of urea. Find the molar mass of urea.
Ans: Here, for Cane sugar, MB = 342g. mol-1 For Urea, WC =0.877g
WB = 5g MC = ?
Now, πB = πC , then, nB = nC
WB WC
Or, =
MB
MC

MC = WC x MB / WB = 0.877g x 342g. mol-1/5g = 59.98 g mol-1

Abnormal molecular masses
The different relations between colligative properties and molar masses can be
applicable only to the solutions of non – volatile and non- electrolyte and are
based on the following points:
(i) The solution is dilute so that Raoult’s law is obeyed.
(ii) The molecular state of solute remains unchanged, i.e. they neither
dissociation nor association.
*** When measured the colligative properties of electrolytes or, for the solute
which undergoes molecular association or, dissociation, there will be difference
between the theoretical and experimental values. Consequently, the molar
mass of such solute as calculated from the experimentally measured value of
colligative properties differs widely from their actual molar mass. Such
substances are said to exhibit abnormal molecular masses.

Page 53 of 101
Abnormal molecular mass is due to:
(i) Association of solute molecules.
(ii) Dissociation of solute molecules.
***Association of solute molecules: Association involves combination of two or,
more solute molecules to form a single entity. Combination of n numbers of
solute molecules of solute ‘A’ results in single associated entity as (A) n. This
eventually leads to decrease number of molecular species in the solution and
experimental value of the colligative properties.
1
Molar mass of the solute
Colligative property

As colligative property and molecular mass are inversely related to each other,
the experimental value of molar masses in such cases are higher than normal
values for un- associated solutes.
Examples: Acetic acid CH3COOH
COOH
O------H O
Benzoic acid
CH3C C CH3
O H-------O
Dimer of acetic acid
Dissociation of solute molecules: Electrolytes Benzoic acid also undergoes dimerization
like acids, bases and salts
dissociates in their aqueous solutions to form two or, more ionic particles.
Therefore, the number of particles in the solution of such substances increases.
Accordingly, such solutions exhibits higher values of colligative properties. Since,
colligative properties are inversely proportional to the molar masses and
therefore, molar masses of such substances as calculated from colligative
properties will be less than their normal values.
Examples: NaCℓ, HCℓ, NaOH, CaCℓ2, Ca(OH)2 etc

Page 54 of 101
van’t – Hoff factor (i): It may be defined as the ratio of the normal molar mass
(theoretical value) to the experimental molar mass (observed molar mass) of the
solute. It is denoted by ‘i’.
Normal molar mass
i.e. i
Observed molar mass

Normal molar mass

Or, i =
Observed molar mass
Theoretical molar mass

Or, i =
Experimental molar mass

Remarks:
(i) If molecular association takes placed normal molar mass ˂ observed molar
mass and I ˂ 1.
(ii) If molecular dissociation takes placed normal molar mass > observed molar
mass and i > 1 .
(iii) If no association or, dissociation takes placed, normal molar mass is equal
to observed molar mass and i = 1.
Or, Observed value of colligative property
van’t – Hoff factor, i =
Normal value of same colligative property

Remarks:
(i) For association of solute molecules, observed value is less than that of
normal value of that colligative property and i ˂ 1.
(ii) For dissociation of solute molecules, observed value is more than that of
the normal value and therefore, i > 1.
(iii) No association or, dissociation takes placed observed value and normal
value are equal and therefore, i = 1.
*** Normal molar mass = i x Observed molar mass

Page 55 of 101
Now, (i) Observed value of colligative property
Normal value of colligative property =
i
P˚A - PA
(ii) = i XB
P˚A

WB x 1000
(iii) ΔTb = i kb m, where m is the molality of the solution & MB = i k b
ΔTb x WA

WB x 1000
(iv) ΔTf = i kf m, where m is the molality of the solution & MB = i kf
ΔTf x WA

RWBT RWBT
MB = i &π=i
πV MB V

Degree of dissociation: It may be defined as the fraction of total number of

molecules which dissociates into simpler molecules or ions .Now let us supposed
that each molecules of a substance on dissociation gives ‘m’ number of particles
and that ‘α’ is the degree of dissociation. Then, for each mole of the substance
dissolved,
(A)m mA

Now, we have, Number of moles of solute dissolved = 1

Number of moles of solute dissociated = α
Number of moles of solute un- dissociated = 1 – α
Number of moles of particles formed by dissociation = mα
Total number of moles of particles at equilibrium = (1 – α) + mα

Nos. of particles after dissociation (1 – α) + mα

Then, van’t Hoff factor, i= =
Nos. of particles before dissociation 1

i-1
Therefore, α=
m-1

Page 56 of 101
Degree of association: It may be defined as the fraction of total number of
molecules which associates or, combined together resulting in the formation of
bigger molecules.
Now let us consider that if ‘m’ particles of the solute associates to form one
bigger particle and ‘α’ is the degree of association, then,

mA (A)m
Now, we have, Number of moles of solute dissolved = 1
Number of moles of solute associated = α
Number of moles of solute un- associated = 1 – α
Number of moles of particles formed by association = α/m
Total number of moles of particles at equilibrium = (1 – α) + αm

Nos. of particles after association (1 – α) + α/m

van’t – Hoff factor, i= =
Nos. of particles before association 1

i-1
Therefore, α=
(1/m) - 1
Q. The freezing point of a solution containing 3g of acetic acid in 300g of benzene
is lowered by 0.45˚C. Calculate van’t – Hoff factor and predict whether the solute
undergoes association or dissociation and find it degree.(kf for benzene is
5.12K.Kg.mol-1)
Ans: Here, WB = 3g, WA = 300g, ΔTf = 0.45˚C = 0.45K, Kf = 5.12 K.Kg. mol-1
MB (Theo) = 60g.mol-1 , MB (Exp) = ?, i=?

Kf WB x 1000 5.12K.Kg.mol-1 x 3 g x 1000

Now, MB (Exp) = = = 113.8 g. mol-1
ΔTf x WA
0.45 k x 300g

Then, i =60/ 113.8 = 0.527 ˂ 1 and therefore, molecular association takes placed.
Degree of association,

0.527 - 1
α = = 0.94
½- 1

Therefore, degree of association is 0.94 x100% = 94%

Page 57 of 101
Q. 2g of benzoic acid (C6H5COOH), dissolved in 250g of Benzene, shows a
depression in freezing point equal to 1.62K. Molal depression constant for
benzene is 5.12K K.mol-1.What is the degree of association if it dimerised in the
solution?

Ans: Here, WB = 2g, WA = 250g, ΔTf = 1.62˚C = 1.62K, Kf = 5.12 K.Kg. mol-1

MB (Theo) = 122g.mol-1 , MB (Exp) = ?, i = ? B = Benzoic acid ( C6H5COOH)

Kf WB x 1000 5.12K.Kg.mol-1 x 2 g x 1000

Now, MB (Exp) = = = 241.98 g. mol-1
ΔTf x WA
1.62K x 250g

Then, i =122/ 241.98 = 0.504 ˂ 1 and therefore, molecular association takes placed.
Degree of association,

0.504 - 1
α = = 0.92
½- 1

Therefore, degree of association is 0.92 x100% = 92%

Q. Freezing point depression of 0.1m NaCℓ solution is 0.372K. What conclusion

would you draw out about the state of NaCℓ in the solution? ( kf for water is
1.86K.Kg mol-1)
Ans: Here, WB = 0.1 mol = 0.1 x 58.5 = 5.85g, WA = 1000g, ΔTf = 0.372˚C = 0.372K,
Kf = 1.86 K.Kg. mol-1, MB (Theo) = 58.5g.mol-1 , MB (Exp) = ?, i = ? B = NaCℓ

Kf WB x 1000 1.86K.Kg.mol-1 x 5.86g x 1000

Now, MB (Exp) = = = 29.25 g. mol-1
ΔTf x WA
0.372K x 1000g

Then, i =58.5/ 29.25 = 2 > 1 and therefore, molecular dissociation takes placed.
Degree of dissociation,

i- 1
α = =(2 – 1)/ (2 – 1) =1
m- 1

Therefore, degree of association is 1 x100% = 100%

Page 58 of 101
Q.75.2g of phenol (C6H5OH) is dissolved in a solvent of kf = 14 K.Kg .mol-1. If
depression in freezing point is 7K, find the % of phenol that dimerises?
Ans: Here, WB = 75.2g, WA = 1000g, ΔTf = 7K, Kf = 14 K.Kg. mol-1

MB (Theo) = 94g.mol-1 , MB (Exp) = ?, i = ? B = Phenol ( C6H5OH)

Kf WB x 1000 14K.Kg.mol-1 x 75.2 g x 1000

Now, MB (Exp) = = = 150g. mol-1
ΔTf x WA
7K x 1000g

Then, i =94/ 150 = 0.62 ˂ 1 and therefore, molecular association takes placed.
Degree of association,

0.62 - 1
α = = 0.76
½- 1

Therefore, degree of association is 0.76 x100% = 76%

END

Page 59 of 101
 COORDINATION COMPOUNDS
Coordination Compounds
Double salt: A salt in the crystal lattice of which there are two different simple
salts in 1:1 ratio retaining their chemical identities or properties is called a
double salt.
For example, Mohr’s salt - FeSO4. (NH4)2SO4.6H2O
Common alum or potash alum - K2SO4.Aℓ2 (SO4)3.24H2O
Chrome alum - K2SO4.Cr2 (SO4)3 .24H2O
In this case of double salt, all the individual species do retain their chemical
identities. When they are dissolved in aqueous medium each and every
individual species will come out and their test can be carried out.
That is, FeSO4. (NH4)2SO4.6H2O → Fe2+ + 2NH4+ + 2SO42-
K2SO4.Aℓ2 (SO4)3.24H2O → 2K+ + 2Aℓ3+ + 4SO42- etc.
Complex salt or, Complex compound: A salt containing at least a complex basic
radical or, complex acid radical formed due to the coordination of certain
molecules, anions or sometimes certain cations without retaining their chemical
identities or chemical behaviour is called a complex salt.
For example. K4[Fe(CN)6], K3[Fe(CN)6], [Co(NH3)6]Cℓ3, Na[Ag(CN)2] etc. In these
compounds the individual species do not retain their chemical identities and test
for their presence cannot be done (as the species present inside the square
brackets cannot be ionised in their aqueous solutions).
K4[Fe(CN)6] → 4K + + [Fe(CN)6] 4-
K3[Fe(CN)6] → 3K + + [Fe(CN)6] 3-
[Co(NH3)6]Cℓ3 → [Co(NH3)6] 3+ + 3Cℓ -
Na[Ag(CN)2] → Na + + [Ag(CN)2] -
Note: In K4 [Fe (CN) 6], Fe 2+ ion and CN - ions have lost their identities and so on.
Formation of complex compounds can be explained with the help of Warner’s
theory of coordination compounds.

Page 60 of 101
Warner’s theory of coordination compounds: The following are the postulates of
Warner’s theory of coordination compounds.
(i) Every metal ions has two valencies and they are primary valency and
secondary valency. Primary valencies are ionisable while secondary valencies
are not ionisable.
(ii) The primary valencies are satisfied by anions only while secondary valencies
are satisfied by anions, neutral molecules and sometimes by certain cations.
(iii) The secondary valency of metal ion is a constant value and it is called
coordination number of the metal ion while the primary valency of metal ion is
called oxidation state of the metal ion.
(iv) The secondary valencies are directional and the groups satisfying the
secondary valencies are arranged in a fixed geometry around the metal ion.
(v) The charge on the complex or, the coordination sphere is the algebraic sum
of the charges of the ions present within it.
Note: An anion containing in the complex sphere satisfies both primary and
secondary valencies of the metal ion at the same time and are not ionisable.
An anion present outside the complex sphere satisfies only the primary
valency of the metal ion and therefore it is ionisable. For example,
NH3 NH3
Represents Cℓ NH3
Cℓ NH3
secondary
Co Co Cℓ
valency
Represents
NH3 Cℓ NH3
Cℓ Primary valency
Cℓ NH3

(i) [Co (NH3)3 Cℓ3] (ii) [Co (NH3)4 Cℓ2]Cℓ

NH3 NH3
Cℓ NH3 Cℓ NH3
Cℓ
Cℓ Co Cℓ Cℓ Co

NH3 NH3 NH3 NH3 Cℓ

NH3 NH3

(iii) [Co (NH3)5 Cℓ]Cℓ2 (iv) [Co (NH3)6 ]Cℓ3

Page 61 of 101
The chemical identities of the ions and molecules present within the coordination
sphere are not retained. Therefore, the individual test for such ions cannot be
done.
For example, When the complex [Co (NH3)3Cℓ3] is treated with AgNO3 solution,
no ppt of AgCℓ is obtained as the metal – chloride bond is not ionisable.
Q. Explain the following:
(i) When NaCℓ solution is treated with Na [Ag (CN)2], no ppt of AgCℓ is obtained.
Ans. No ppt of AgCℓ is obtained as Ag – CN bond is not ionisable.
(ii) On adding NH4OH solution to a solution of K4 [Fe (CN)6], no ppt of Fe(OH)3 is
obtained.
Ans. No ppt of Fe (OH)3 is obtained as Fe – CN bond is not ionisable.

Or, In the solution of K4 [Fe (CN )6], the amount of Fe2+ ion is negligibly small in
the free state as the metal – ligand bond are not ionisable. Therefore, no ppt of
Fe (OH) 3 is obtained.

(iii) On passing H2S gas into an aqueous solution containing Cu2+ ion and Cd2+ ion
after adding excess of KCN only CdS is precipitated out.

Ans. On adding KCN solution into a solution containing Cu2+ ion and Cd2+ ion, only
Cu2+ can formed the stable complex compound.

Cu2+ + 4KCN → K2 [Cu(CN)4] + 2K+

Therefore, only CdS ppt is obtained.

(iv) On passing CoCℓ3 with NH3 in the ration of 1: 3 molar ration, the conductance
of the solution becomes almost zero.

Ans. CoCℓ3 forms the complex [Co(NH3)3Cℓ] with three NH3 molecules.

CoCℓ3 + 3NH3 → [Co (NH3) Cℓ3]

As the metal – ligand bond present in the complex are non – ionisable in the
solution, there is negligible amount of ions. Therefore, the solution becomes
non – conductor and conductance becomes zero.

Page 62 of 101
Complex sphere or coordination sphere: The species formed due to the
coordination of cations, anions or certain neutral molecules around a metal ion
or, metal atom is called a complex sphere or, coordination sphere.

The properties of coordination sphere are different from the properties of the
individual ions or, molecules present in it. The coordination sphere is kept within
the square bracket.
Ligands: The neutral molecules, anions or, certain cations which are coordinated
to the central metal atom or, ion in a complex sphere are called ligands. For
example, OH- , CN- , CO32-, SO42- , H2O, NH3, NH2NH3+, NO2+ etc.

Coordination number: The coordination number of a metal ion or, metal atom is
the number of ligand atoms directly bonded to it. It is equal to the total number
of monodentate ligands satisfying the secondary valencies of the metal ion. For
example, in [Co (NH3)3 Cℓ3], coordination number of Co atom is 6, in [Ni (CO) 4],
coordination number of Ni atom is 4. In [Co (en) 3] 3+, coordination number of Co
atom is 6 as it is coordinated by six ligand atoms.
en 3+

en Co

en

Here, coordination number is 6.

Classification of ligands:

1. Based upon the presence or, absence of lone pair of electrons:

(i) Ligand containing lone pair of electrons: H2Ö: , N̈ H3, :C̤̈̈ℓ:- , SO42- etc.

(ii) Ligands with no lone pair of electrons: C6H6, CH2=CH2 etc.

2. Based upon the number of donor atoms present which can be coordinated to
a metal atom simultaneously:

(i) Monodentate ligand: A ligand which can occupy only one stereochemical site
around the central metal atom in a complex and can be coordinated only

Page 63 of 101
through one metal atom is called monodentate ligand. For example, H2O, NH3,
CN-, OH-, Cℓ-, SO42- etc.

(ii) Bidentate ligand or, didentate ligand: A ligand which can be coordinated
simultaneously to a metal atom through two donor atoms of it and can occupy
two stereochemical sites is called a bidentate ligand.

For example N̈ H2CH2CH2N̈ H2, N̈ H2CH2CH2CH2N̈ H2, (COO)2 2- etc.

(iii) Tridentate ligand: A ligand which can be coordinated simultaneously to a

metal atom through three donor atoms of it and can occupy three
stereochemical sites is called a tridentate ligand.

For example N̈ H2CH2CH2N̈ HCH2CH2N̈ H2 (Diethylenetriamine)

(iv) Tetradentate ligand: Which can be coordinated through four donor atom to
a metal atom simultaneously and occupies four stereochemical sites.

For example, ethylenediaminediacetate N̈ H CH2CH2 N̈ H CH2COO-

CH2COO-

(v) Pentadentate ligand: For example: ethylenediaminetriacetate

N̈ H CH2CH2 N̈ CH2COO-
CH2COO- CH2COO-
(vi) Hexadentate ligand:

For example, ethylenediaminetetracetate -OOCCH2 N̈ H CH2CH2 N̈ CH2COO-

CH2COO- CH2COO-

3. Based on the charge of the ligand:

(i) Neutral ligand or, charge less ligand:

For example, H2O, NH3, CO, NO, CH2=CH2, C6H6, NH2CH2CH2NH2 etc.

(ii) Anionic ligand: For example, F -, Cℓ -, Br - , I -, OH -, CN - , NO 3- , SO42- etc.

(iii) Cationic ligand: For example, NH2NH3+ , NO2+, NO+ etc.

4. Bridging ligands: A ligand which can be coordinated to two metal atoms

simultaneously is called a bridging ligand. The donor atom of the bridging ligand
Page 64 of 101
contains two or, more number of lone pair of electrons. For example, OH -, H2O,
Cℓ -, F -, Br - , I - , O2-, O22-, O 2-, N2 etc.

5. Ambidentate ligand: A ligand containing two different donor atoms, but only
one donor atom can be coordinated to the metal atom through either one of
them only at one time, is called an Ambidentate ligand.

For example, NO2- which can be coordinated through N atom as well O – atom,
( -NO2 is called nitrito – O and –ONO is called nitrito – O ).

CN – If bonding is through C atom it is called cyano and it bonding is through N

atom, it is called isocyano. (-CN and – NC).

SCN – if bonding is through S atom it is called thiocyanato and if bonding is

through N atom, it is called isothiocyanato. (- SCN and - NCS).

6. Chelating ligand: A ligand containing two or, more donor atoms through
which it can be coordinated simultaneously to the same metal atom or, ion
occupying one stereochemical site around the metal atom is called a chelating
ligand. For example,

N̈ H2CH2CH2N̈ H2, (COO) 2- , N̈ H2CH2CH2CH2N̈ H2, N̈ H2CH2CH2N̈ HCH2CH2N̈ H2 etc.

Nomenclature of Complex compound (IUPAC Name):

1. Anything outside the complex sphere is named as usual.

2. Naming of the complex sphere:

NO3- Nitrato SO42- Sulphato H- Hydrido

CH3COO- Acetato (COO)2- Oxalato CN- Cyano

F- Fluorido Cℓ- Chlorido Br- Bromido

I- Iodido O2- Oxo O2- superoxo

O22- Peroxo OH- Hydroxo S2- Sulphido

Page 65 of 101
 NH2- Amido NH2- Imido N3- azido

N3- Nitrido P3- Phosphido S2O32- thiosulphato

(i) Naming of the anionic ligand: For most of the anionic ligand, the last ‘e’ of
the name is replaced by ‘o’. If it is ended with ide, ite or ate then last ‘e’ replaced
by ‘o’. But, for CN – only cyano is retained. (2004, IUPAC Rule). Example:

(ii) Naming of charge less ligands: Their usual names will be used with some
exceptions.

NH3 Ammine H2O Aqua or, aquo

CO Carbonyl N2 Dinitrogen

NH2CH2CH2NH2 Ethylenediamine Et3P Triethylenephosphine

Or,Ethane-1,2- diamine

NH2CH2CH2NHCH2CH2NH2 Diethylenetriamine C6H5N Pyridine

NO Nitrosyl O2 Dioxygen

CH3NH2 methylamine Ph3P triphenylphosphine

(iii) Naming of cationic ligand: Most of the cationic ligands their names are
ended with the suffix ‘ium’.

For example, NO2+ → nitroniuim ion,

NO+ → nitrosonium ion.

NH2NH3+ → hydrazinium ion.

(iv) Naming of Ambidentate ligand:
NO2; - NO2 → nitrito – N or, nitro.
- ONO → nitrito – O
CN- ; - CN → cyano
- NC → isocyano
SCN- ; - SCN → thiocyanato

Page 66 of 101
 - NCS → isothiocyanato.
(v) Bridging ligand is indicated by the Greek letter ‘μ ‘placed before the name of
the ligand separated by a hyphen.
(vi) The number of ligand is shown by the prefixes like di, tri, tetra, penta and
hexa for two, three, four, five and six ligands.

*** For polysyllabic ligands bis, tris, tetrakis, pentakis and hexakis for two,
three, four, five and six ligands.
3. The metal atom within a chargless or, cationic complex, their usual names will
be used.
4. The metal atom within an anionic complexes their name will be ended by
suffix ‘ate’ like cobaltate, chromate, nickelate etc.
If Latin name is there, it will be used, ended by suffix ‘ate’ just like ferrate,
cuprate, argentate, plumbate etc.
Note: But in case of W, Hg and Sb their Latin name will not be used, their usual
name will be used.
5. The oxidation state of the metal ion or, atom will be calculated and will be
shown in Roman numerals within parenthesis placed after the name of the
metal atom.
6. According to 1970, IUPAC Rule, the names of the ligands are listed as anionic,
neutral ligand and cationic ligands.
***According to 1989, IUPAC Rule, the ligand are listed on the basis of
alphabetical order.
7. After listing the names of the ligands, the name of the metal ion will be placed
with its oxidation state. The name of the coordination compound will be written
as a single word without any break.
Na[B(NO3)4] Sodiumtetranitratoborate(III)

K2[Os Cℓ5 N] Potassiumpentachloridonitridoosmate(VI)

[Co(NH2)2(NH3)4]OCH2CH3 Diamidotetraamminecobalt(III)ethaxide

Page 67 of 101
[CoN3(NH3)5] SO4 Azidopentaamminecobalt(III)sulphate

Na3[Ag(S2O3)2] Sodiumbis(thiosulphato)argentate(I)

NH4[Cr(NCS)4(NH3)2] Ammoniumtetrathiocyanantodiamminechromate(III)

Ba[BrF4] Bariumtetrafluoridobromate(III)

[Pt(NH3)2 Cℓ2] Diamminedichloridoplatinum(II)

K3[ Fe(CN)6] Potassiumhexacyanoferrate(III)

[Co(en)(NH3)2Br Cℓ ]+ Bromidochloridodiammine(ethylenediamine)cobalt(III)ion

[Ni(H2O)F5] Pentafluoroaquanickel(II)

[Fe(H2O)4(ox)] Tetraaquaoxalatoiron(II)

[Cu (NH3)4] SO4 Tetramminecopper(II)sulphate

[Co(NH2)5Cℓ]Cℓ Pentaamidochloridocobalt(III)chloride

[Co(NH2)4(H2O)Br]NO3 Tetraamidoaquabromidocobalt(III)nitrate

K2[Fe(CO)(CN)5] Potassiumpentacyanocarbonylferrate(III)

[Co(en)3]Cℓ3 Tris(ethylenediamine)cobalt(III)chloride

[Co(en)2Cℓ2]SO4 Dichloridobis(ethylenediamine)cobalt(III)sulphate

[Cr(SCN)4(NH2)2NH4] Ammoniumdiamidotetraisothiocyanatochromium(V)

K[B(C6H5)4] Potassiumtetraphenylborate(III)

K[SbCℓ5(C6H5)] Potassiumpentachloridophenylantimonate(V)

[Pt(Et3P)2Cℓ2] Dichloridobis(triethylenephosphine)platinum(II)

[CuCℓ2(CH2NH2)2] Dichloridobis(methylamine)copper(II)

[Pt(py)4][PtCℓ4] Tetrakis(pyridine)platinum(II)tetrachloridoplatinate(II)

[Co(en)2]2(SO4)3 Bis(ethylenediamine)cobalt(III)sulphate

[CoCℓ2(en)2]2(SO4)3 Dichloridobis(ethylenediamine)cobalt(III)sulphate
Or, Dichloridobis(ethane -1,2 -diamine)cobalt(III)sulphate

Page 68 of 101
K[PtCℓ3(CH2CH2)] Potassiumtrichlorido(ethylene)palatinate(II)

[Ru(NH3)5N2] Pentaamminedinitrogenruthenium(II)chloride

[Cr(H2O)6]Cℓ3 Hexaaquachromium(III)chloride

Na2[Fe(CN)6NO] Sodiumhexacyanonitrosylferrate(II)

K3[Fe(CN)5CO] Potassiumcarbonylpentacyanoferrate(III)

Na3[Co(NO2)6] Sodiumhexanitrito – N –cobaltate(III)

[Co(ONO)(NH3)5]SO4 Pentaamminenitrito – O – cobalt(III)sulphate

[Co(NCS)(NH3)5]Cℓ Pentaammineisothiocyanantocobalt(III)chloride

[PtCℓ2(NH3)(CH2CH2)] Amminedichlorido(ethylene)platinum(II)

K[PtCℓ3(CH2CH2)] Potassiumtrichlorido(ethylene)platinum(II)

[ReH(C5H5)2] Bis(n – cyclopentadienyl)hydridorhenium(VI)

[CoF2(en)2]CℓO4 Bis(ethylenediamine)difluoridocobalt(III)chlorate

[Co(NH3)4(H2O)Cℓ]Cℓ2 Tetraammineaquachloridocobalt(III)chloride

K3[Aℓ(C2O4)3] Potassiumtrioxalatoaluminate(III)

[CoCℓ2(en)2]+ Bis(ethylenediamine)dichloridocobalt(III)ion
Or, Bis(ethane -1,2 - diamine)dichloridocobalt(III)ion

[Pt(NH3)2Cℓ(NO2)] Diamminechloridonitrito – N – platinum(II)

[Co(NH3)5(CO3)]Cℓ Pentaamminecarbonatocobalt(III)chloride

[CoCℓ2(en)2]Cℓ Dichloridobis(ethane – 1,2 – diamine)cobalt(III)chloride

K3[Fe(C2O4)3] Potassiumtrioxalatoferrate(III)

K2[PdCℓ4] Potassiumtetrachloridopalladate(II)

[Pt(NH3)2Cℓ(CH2NH2)]Cℓ Diamminechlorido(methylamine)platinum(II)

Page 69 of 101
 Fe4III [Fe(CN)6] Iron(III)Hexacyanoferrate(II)
Pentaamminechromium(III)tri – μ – hydroxopentaamminechromium(III)chloride
[(NH3)5Cr - (OH)3 - Cr(NH3)5]Cℓ Or, Tri – μ – hydroxobis(pentaamminechromium(III))chloride
Tricarbonyliron(0)tri – μ – carbonyltricarbonyliron(0)
[(CO)3 Fe(CO)3 Fe(CO)3] Or, Tri – μ – carbonylbis(tricarbonyliron(0))
Dioxalatochromium(III)di – μ –hydroxodioxalatochromate(III)ion
[C2O4)2 Cr(OH)2Cr(C2O4)2 ]4- Or, Di – μ – hydroxobis(dioxalatochromate(III))ion
Bis(ethylenediamine)cobalt(III)–μ–hydroxo–μ – imidobis(ethylenediaminecobalt(III)chloride
Or, μ – Hydroxo – μ – imidobis(bis(ethylenediamine)cobalt(III))chloride
[(en)2Co(NH)(OH)Co(en)2]Cℓ3
Tetraamminecobalt(III)di – μ- chloridotetraamminecobalt(III)sulphate
[(NH3)4CoCℓ2Co(NH3)4](SO4)2 Or, Di – μ – chloridobis(tetramminecobalt(III))sulphate
Tetraamminecobalt(III)- μ – chloro – μ – peroxotetraamminecobalt(III)chloride
[(NH3)4Co(O - O)(Cℓ)Co(NH3)4]Cℓ3 Or, μ – Chloro – μ – peroxobis(tetraamminecobalt(III))chloride

VO(acac)2 Bis(acetylacetonato)oxovanadium(V)

[Br2Pt(SMe2)2PtBr2] Dibromoplatinum(II)di – μ – dimethylsulphidedibromidoplatinum(II)

Or, Di – μ – dimethylsulphidebis(dibromidoplatinum(II))
[Br4Re - ReBr4]2- Bis(tetrabromidorhenium(III))ion

[(CO)5Mn – Mn(CO)5] Bis(pentacarbonylmanganese(0))

[(CO)4Co – Co(CO)4] Bis(tetracarbonylcobalt(0))

[(CO)5Re – Re(CO)5] Bis(pentacarbonylrhenium(0))

Di – μ –chlorobis(bis(trichlorosttannyl)rhodate(I))ion
[(Cℓ3Sn)2Rh –Cℓ2 - Rh(Cℓ3Sn)2]

Complex with unsaturated molecules and groups: The name of the ligand
group in a given complex will be given with the prefixes ‘n’ when some but not
at all ligand atoms in a chain or, a ring or, some but not all ligand atoms involved
a double bonds are bounded to the central atom, local designator are
involved/inserted preceding ‘n’. For example,
[PtCℓ2(NH3)(CH2CH2)] – Amminedichlorido(n – ethylene)platinum(II)
K[PtCℓ3(CH2CH2)] - Potassiumtrichlorido(n – ethylene)platinum(II)
[ReH(C6H5)2] - Bis(n – cyclopentadienyl)hydridorhenium(III)
Complexes of different coordination number:

Page 70 of 101
(i) Coordination number 2: Complexes of metal ions like Cu+, Au+ and Hg+ are
linear with coordination number 2. For example, [Cu(CN)2]-, [Cu(NH3)2]+,
[Ag(NH3)]+, [Ag(CN)2]-, [Au(CN)2]-, [Hg(NH3)]+ , [Hg(CN)2]-, [NH3 – Ag – NH3] etc.
(ii) Coordination number 3: Complexes of the type [HgI3] - possessed planar
trigonal geometry.
(iii) Coordination number 4: L n±
(a) Tetrahedral complex: Complexes of the type
[ZnCℓ4]2-, [ZnBr4]2-, [Zn(CN)4]2+, [Zn(NH3)4]2+ , [CuX4]2-,
M L
[Hg(CN)4]2-, [Ni(CO)4]4-, [Fe(Cℓ4)]- etc. possessed sp3 L
hybridised central metal ion and possessed tetrahedral
For example, L
geometry.
Br 2- CO 4- CN 2-

Zn Br Ni CO Hg CN
Br CO NC
Br CO CN

(b) Square planar complex: Complexes of the L L n±

type [Cu(en)2], [Cu(NH3)4]2+, [Ni(NH3)4]2-,
M
[PtCℓ4]2+ ,[AuCℓ4]2+, [Ni(CN)4]2-, [Pt(NH3)4]2+ etc.
possessed dsp2 hybridised central metal ion and L L
possessed square planar geometry.

NC CN 2- H3N NH3 2+ H3N NH3 2-

Ni Cu Ni

NC CN H3N NH3 H3N NH3

H3N NH2 H3N NH3 2+

CH2 CH2
Cu Pt
CH2 CH2
H3N NH2 H3N NH3

(iii) Coordination number 5: Br

(a) Square planar complex: Complexes
Et3P Br
like [NiBr3(Et3P)] possessed square
Ni
pyramidal geometry.
Page 71 of 101 Et3P Br
(b)Trigonal bipyramidal geometry: Complexes like [Fe(CO)5], [Fe(CO)4(R3P)],
[CuCℓ5]3-, [SnCℓ5]- etc. possessed trigonal bipyramidal geometry.
Cℓ Cℓ R3P CO
3- -
Cℓ Cℓ OC OC
Cu Cℓ Sn Cℓ Fe CO Fe CO
Cℓ Cℓ OC OC
Cℓ Cℓ CO CO
(iv) Coordination number 6: All CN NH3
4- 3+
complexes having coordination NC CN H3 N NH3
number 6 possessed octahedral Fe Co

geometry. For example, [Fe (CN) 6] 4-, NC CN H3N NH3

[Co (NH3)6]3+ etc. CN CN

Q. How Warner prove that for the six coordinated complexes the most stable
geometry is the octahedral geometry?
Ans. The possible geometry of six coordinated complexes are regular hexagon,
trigonal prism, the metal atom being situated in the centre of the geometry.
Warner calculated the possible number of geometrical isomers for the different
types of geometrical isomers for the different types of six coordinated
complexes with respect to each geometry and compared them with the actually
observed number of geometrical isomers.
1 1 Observed no.
1 3
Types of 2 2 of geometrical
6 6
complex M M 2 M isomers
4 5
5 3 5 3
4 6 4
[MA6]n± No geometrical No geometrical isomers No geometrical isomers
isomers Nil
[MA4B2 ]n± 3 geometrical isomers 3 geometrical isomers 2 geometrical isomers
(1,2), (1,3) and (1,4) (1,2), (1,3) and (1,4) (1,2) and (1,3) 2

3 geometrical isomers 3 geometrical isomers 2 geometrical isomers

[MA3B3 ]n± (1,2,3), (1,2,4) and (1,2,3), (1,2,5) and (1,2,6) (1,2,5) and (1,5,6) 2
(1,3,5)

A complex of the type [M(AB)3]n± where AB is bidentate ligand exhibits optical

isomerism. The octahedral geometry also predicts optical isomerism for such
complexes, but the other geometries do not predict optical isomerism.
Therefore, for six coordinated complexes, the most preferred geometry is the
octahedral geometry.
Page 72 of 101
Q. Will the solution of the compound CoCℓ3.3NH3 be conductor of electricity or,
not?
Ans. Here, CoCℓ3. 3NH3 → [Co (NH3) Cℓ3]. In the solution of this compound,
there will be negligible amount of ions as the bond between the cobaltic ion
(Co3+) and Cℓ- ion are non – ionisable. Therefore, a solution of CoCℓ3. 3NH3 will
not be a conductor of electricity.

Bonding in complex compounds:

1. Valence bond theory (VBT):
Postulates of Valence Bond Theory are follows,
(i) The metal atom first loses requisite number of electrons to form a cation
(metal ion), the number of electron lost is equal to the oxidation state or, primary
valency of the metal ion.
(ii) The metal ion will make available a number of vacant orbitals equal to its
coordination number for the formation of covalent bonds with the ligands.
Or, the metal ion undergoes hybridisation to give a new set of equivalent orbitals
called hybrid orbitals. These hybrid orbitals are described according to the
geometry of the complex.
Coordination number State of hybridisation Geometry
2 sp Linear
3 sp2 Trigonal planar
4 sp3 Tetrahedral
4 dsp2 Square planar
5 dsp3 Trigonal bipyramidal
5 sp2d2 Square pyramidal
6 d2sp3 Inner orbital octahedral
6 sp3d2 Outer orbital octahedral

(iii) The hybrid orbitals are so directed as to facilitate their occupation by the
electrons of the incoming ligands to form M  L dative bond.

Page 73 of 101
(iv) The non – bonding electrons of the metal ion are then reorganised to occupy
the remaining atomic orbitals of the metal atom according to Hund’s rule and
Auf – bau principal.
(v) In addition to σ – bond, a π – bond may also be formed by overlapping of a
filled d – orbital of the metal ion with vacant ligand orbital forming M → L, π –
bond. It is called m → L back bonding and this effect is called synergic effect. This
type of bonding is found in metal carbonyls.

Formation of some of the complex compounds based on VBT ,

(i) [Co (NH3)6 ]3+, Coordination number = 6 and oxidation state = +3.
Co 3+ = [Ar] 3d 6 4s o 4p 0
= [Ar]
= [Ar]
d2sp3 - hybridisation

d2sp3 – hybrid orbitals

xx xx xx xx xx xx
= [Ar]
M  L, σ - Bond
NH3 NH3 NH3 NH3 NH3 NH3
3+
Here, [Co(NH3)6] undergoes d2sp3 hybridisation giving an inner orbital
octahedral geometry and there are no unpaired electrons and it is found to be
diamagnetic substance. Here, NH3
NH3 3+
being strong ligand, it forced unpaired
H3N NH3
electrons to get paired up and magnetic
moment, μ s = √n (n+2) BM = o BM and M
diamagnetic. H3N NH3

NH3

(ii) [CoF6] 3- (Hexafluorochromate (III) ion): Coordination number = 6

Co 3+ = [Ar] 3d 4 4s o 4p 0 4d
= [Ar]
d2sp3 - hybridisation
d2sp3 – hybrid orbitals
xx xx xx xx xx xx
Page 74 of 101
M  L, σ - Bond
- - - - -
F F F F F F-
 = [Ar]

F 3-
Here, F – - Ligand being a weak ligand cannot forced
F F
unpaired electrons to get paired up and that is why it
forms outer orbital octahedral complex. Now, M
magnetic moment of [CoF6] 3- , μ s = √4(4+2) = √24 BM F F
and it is paramagnetic.
F

(iii) [NiCℓ4] 2- [ Tetrachloridonickelate(II)ion]

Ni 2+ = [Ar] 3d 8 4s o 4p 0
= [Ar]
sp3 - hybridisation
sp3 – hybrid orbitals
= [Ar] xx xx xx xx

M  L, σ - Bond

Cℓ- Cℓ- Cℓ- Cℓ-

Here, Cℓ – - Ligand being a weak ligand cannot Cℓ

2-
forced unpaired electrons to get paired up and
that is why it undergoes sp3 – hybridisation Ni Cℓ
giving a tetrahedral geometry. Magnetic Cℓ
moment μs = √2(2+2) =√8BM > 0 and therefore,
Cℓ
it is paramagnetic.

(iv) [Ni (CN)4] 2- [ Tetracyanonickelate(II)ion]

Coordination number = 4, Oxidation state = +2.
Ni 2+ = [Ar] 3d 8 4s o 4p 0
= [Ar]

= [Ar]
dsp2 - hybridisation
dsp2 – hybrid orbitals
xx xx xx xx
Page 75 of 101
M  L, σ - Bond

CN- CN- CN- CN-

 = [Ar]

Here, CN – - Ligand being a strong ligand forced NC CN 2-

unpaired electrons to get paired up and that is
why it undergoes dsp2 – hybridisation giving a Ni

square planar geometry. Magnetic moment μs=0

BM and therefore, it is diamagnetic. NC CN

Limitations of valence bond theory:

(i) It does not give quantitative interpretation of magnetic properties.
(ii) It does not explained about the colour exhibited by coordination
compounds.
(iii) It does not give quantitative interpretation of kinetic stabilities of
coordination compounds.
(iv) It does not give exact prediction of tetrahedral and square planar complex
of coordination number 4.
(v) It does not distinguished between weak and strong ligands.
Crystal field theory:
(i) In octahedral field: When five degenerate d – orbitals are exposed in a field
of six ligands, it splitted in two energy sets which are called t2g and eg - sets.

dx2- y2 dz2
eg - set
0.6Δo CFSE Or, Δo = 10 Dq

Bary centre
Five d – orbitals in spherical 0.4Δo
field or, smeared out field
t2g - set
dxy dyz dzx

Five degenerate d – orbitals Splitting of d – orbitals in octahedral field

Orbitals d x2- y2 and dz2 of the metal ion having their lobes along the axes
experienced stronger force of repulsion from the incoming ligands and as a

Page 76 of 101
result their energy increases. On the other hand orbitals dxy, dyz and dzx have their
lobes concentrated in between the axes do not interact with incoming ligands
directly and that is why energy of these atomic orbitals are lowered relative to
the average energy in the spherical crystal field. Thus the degeneracy of d –
orbitals has been removed due to ligand – electron repulsion in an octahedral
field. In the lower energy level is called t2g – set consist of dxy , dyz and dzx while
higher energy level is called eg – set, consist of dx2- y2 and dz2 – orbitals.
The splitting of the degenerate d – orbitals due to presence of ligands in a
definite geometry is termed as crystal field splitting and the energy separation
between t2g and eg energy sets is called crystal field stabilisation energy (CFSE)
and denoted by Δo or, 10Dq. Every electron present in t2g – set is stabilised by
an energy equal to – 0.4Δo and every electron present in eg – set is stabilised by
an energy equal to + 0.6Δo.
Spectrochemical Series: For a particular metal ion, the magnitude of Δo for
octahedral complexes depends upon the nature of the ligand. The ligands have
been arranged in increasing order of their Δo as follows,
I -< Br-< S 2-< SCN - < Cℓ - < F - < ox < O22- < H2O < NCS - < NH3 < en< NO2- < CN- < CO
This series is called Spectrochemical series. Those ligands which causes only a
small crystal field splitting are called weak field ligands and gives high spin
complexes while those which causes large crystal field splitting are called strong
field ligands and gives low spin complexes.
Electronic distribution in octahedral complexes: Electronic distribution in the
splitted d- orbitals of the metal ion in octahedral coordinated entities will be
done according to HUND’S Rule. Moreover it also depends on the relative
magnitude of Δo and pairing energy ‘P’. Now,
(i) If Δo < P, then electron will move to eg – set instead of getting paired up in t2g
– set and it gives more number of unpaired electrons and is called high spin
complexes.

Metal Δo >P μ = √n(n+2) BM Δo < P μ = √n(n+2) BM

ion Low spin complex High spin complex
d1 t2g1eg0 n = 1, μ = √3 BM t2g1eg0 n = 1, μ = √3 BM

Page 77 of 101
 d2 t2g2eg0 n = 2, μ = 2√2 BM t2g2eg0 n = 2, μ = 2√2 BM
d3 t2g3eg0 n = 3, μ = √15 BM t2g3eg0 n = 3, μ = √15 BM
d4 t2g4eg0 n = 2, μ = 2√2 BM t2g3eg1 n = 4, μ = √24 BM
d5 t2g5eg0 n = 1, μ = √3 BM t2g3eg2 n = 5, μ = √35 BM
d6 t2g6eg0 n = 0, μ = 0 BM t2g4eg2 n = 4, μ = √24 BM
6 1 5 2
d7 t2g eg n = 1, μ = √3 BM t2g eg n = 3, μ = √15 BM
d8 t2g6eg2 n = 2, μ = 2√2 BM t2g6eg2 n = 2, μ = 2√2 BM
6 3 6 3
d9 t2g eg n = 1, μ = √3 BM t2g eg n = 1, μ = √3 BM
d10 t2g6eg4 n = 0, μ = 0 BM t2g6eg4 n = 0, μ = 0 BM
(ii) If Δo > P, then the electron will be getting paired up in t2g - set and it gives
less number of unpaired electrons and it is called low spin complexes.
(ii) In tetrahedral field: A tetrahedral can be best represented by s cube in which
the ligands are present in alternate corners.
Z
Y

L
dxy dyz dzx
L
M
t2 - set
X
L 0.4Δo
L Δt = 4/9Δo
Bary centre
Five d – orbitals in spherical 0.6Δo
field or, smeared out field
e- set
dx2- y2 dz 2

Five degenerate d – orbitals Splitting of d – orbitals in tetrahedral field

In this case, the orbitals dxy , dyz and dzx with their lobes concentrated in between
the axes interacts with the incoming ligands and that is why their energies has
been increased while those orbitals dx2- y2 and dz2 with their lobes concentrated
along the axes do not interacts with the ligands and their energies has been
decreased. Thus, dxy , dyz and dzx are found in higher energy level and it is called
t2 – set and dx2- y2 and dz2 are found in lower energy level and it is called e – set.

Metal Δt >P μ = √n(n+2) BM Δt < P μ = √n(n+2) BM

ion Low spin complex High spin complex

Page 78 of 101
 d1 e1 t20 n = 1, μ = √3 BM e1 t20 n = 1, μ = √3 BM
d2 e2 t20 n = 2, μ = 2√2 BM e2 t20 n = 2, μ = 2√2 BM
d3 e3 t20 n = 3, μ = √15 BM e2 t21 n = 3, μ = √15 BM
d4 e4 t20 n = 0, μ = 0 BM e2 t22 n = 4, μ = √24 BM
d5 e4 t21 n = 1, μ = √3 BM e2 t23 n = 5, μ = √35 BM
d6 e4 t22 n = 2, μ = 2√2 BM e3 t23 n = 4, μ = √24 BM
d7 e4 t23 n = 3, μ = √15 BM e4 t23 n = 3, μ = √15 BM
d8 e4 t24 n = 2, μ = 2√2 BM e4 t24 n = 2, μ = 2√2 BM
d9 e4 t25 n = 1, μ = √3 BM e4 t25 n = 1, μ = √3 BM
d10 e4 t26 n = 0, μ = 0 BM e4 t26 n = 0, μ = 0 BM
Electronic distribution in tetrahedral complexes: Distribution of electrons in the
splitted d – orbitals in tetrahedral field is done according to Hund’s rule as
follows,

Q. What is the effective atomic number of a metal ion in a complex compound?

Ans. The effective atomic number of a metal ion in a complex compound is the
sum of the number of electrons present initially in it and the electrons assumed
to be accepted by it from the ligands. Therefore, effective atomic number of the
central metal ion can be calculated as follows,
EAN = [(Nos. of electrons initially present in it) + (2 x its coordination number)]
For example,

Complex Total no. electrons initially Coordination no. EAN

present
[Fe(CN)6 ]2- 26 -2 = 24 6 24 + 6 x 2 = 36
[Co(en)3]3+ 27 -3 = 24 6 24 + 6 x 2 = 36
[Co(NH3)6]3+ 27 – 3 = 24 6 24 + 6 x 2 = 36
[PtCℓ6]2- 78 – 4 = 77 6 74 + 6 x 2 = 86
[Ag(NH3)2]Cℓ 47 – 1 = 46 2 46 + 2 x 2 =50
[Fe(CN)6]3- 26 – 3 = 23 6 23 + 6 x 2 = 35
[Cu (CN)2]- 29 – 1 =28 2 28 + 2 x 2 = 32
[Ni(CO)4] 28 – 0 = 28 4 28 + 4 x 2 = 36

Effective atomic number rule: This rule states that, the metals forms complexes
so that their effective atomic number may become equal to the atomic number
Page 79 of 101
of the nearest noble gas element having higher atomic number or, present in
the same period. However, there are many exceptions to this rule. If the
effective atomic number is equal to the atomic number of the noble element
present in the same period, then the complex compound is usually stable.

Complex Atomic no. Total no. electrons Coordination EAN

initially present no.
[Fe(CN)6 ]2- 26 26 -2 = 24 6 24 + 6 x 2 = 36
[Co(en)3 ]3+ 27 27 -3 = 24 6 24 + 6 x 2 = 36
[Co(NH3)6]3+ 27 27 – 3 = 24 6 24 + 6 x 2 = 36
[PtCℓ6 ]2- 78 78 – 4 = 77 6 74 + 6 x 2 = 86
[Ag(NH3)2]Cℓ 47 47 – 1 = 46 2 46 + 2 x 2 =50
[Fe(CN)6]3- 26 26 – 3 = 23 6 23 + 6 x 2 = 35
[Cu (CN)2]- 29 29 – 1 =28 2 28 + 2 x 2 = 32
[Ni(CO)4] 28 28 – 0 = 28 4 28 + 4 x 2 = 36
Bonding in metal carbonyls:

The bonding in metal carbonyls can be explained with the help of molecular
orbital theory. In the metal carbonyl, the initial overlap takes placed between the
filled molecular orbital of the CO ligand with vacant hybrid orbital of the metal
atom forming M L , σ – bond. The next overlap is between the filled d – orbital
of metal atom with vacant π*2px and π*2py anti
π - Bond
– bonding molecular orbital of CO ligand
forming M → L, π – bond. It is the M → L back M C ≡O
bonding and this effect is called synergic σ - Bond

effect. For example, [Ni (CO) 4]

Formation of [Ni (CO) 4] can be explained as follows,

Ni (28) = [Ar] 3d8 4s2 4p0

= [Ar]
= [Ar]
sp3 - hybridisation

sp3 – hybrid orbitals

xx xx xx xx
= [Ar]
M  L, σ - Bond
M → L, π - Bond
- - - -
PageCN
80 of CN
101 CN CN
Isomerism in coordination compouds.
Two or, more compounds which have same composition or, formulae but
different structures or, spatial arrangement are called isomers and this
phenomanon is called isomerism. Isomerism can be classified as follows,
1. Structural isomerism.
2 Stereoisomerism.
(i) Geometrical isomerism
(ii) Optical isomerism.

Structural isomerism: It arises due to the difference in the structures of

coordination compounds. It can be considered in the following types.
(i) Ionisation isomerism: Compounds which give different ions in their solutions
though they have same compositions are called ionisation isomers and this
phenomenon is called ionisation isomerism. For example, [Co(NH3)5Br]SO4 and
[Co(NH3)5SO4]Br, [Co(NH3)4Cℓ2]NO2 and [Co(NH3)4Cℓ (NO2)]Cℓ, [Pt(NH3)4Cℓ2]Br2
and [Pt(NH3)4Br2 ]Cℓ2 etc.
(ii) Hydrate isomerism: Compounds which have same molecular composition but
different in the number of water molecules present in the square complex as
ligand and present outside the complex sphere are called hydrate isomers and
this phenomenon is called hydrate isomerism. For example [Cr(H2O)6]Cℓ3,
[Cr(H2O)5Cℓ]Cℓ2. H2O, [Cr(H2O)4Cℓ2]Cℓ2. 2H2O, [Cr(H2O)3Cℓ3]H2O etc.
(iii) Coordination isomerism: This isomerism takes placed in those compounds in
which both the cationic and anionic parts are complex ions. It arises due to the
difference in the distribution of the ligands in both the complex ions. For
example [Co(NH3)6][Cr(H2O)6] and [Co(H2O)6][Cr(NH3)6], [Cu(NH3)4][PtCℓ4] and
[CuCℓ4][Pt(NH3)4] etc.
(iv)Linkage isomerism: This type of isomerism arises due to presence of
ambidentate ligands in the complex sphere. For example [Co(NH3)2(
NO2)2(H2O)2] and [Co(NH3)2( ONO)2(H2O)2], [Mn(CO)5 (SCN)] and [Mn(CO)5 (NCS)]
etc.
Stereoisomerism:

Page 81 of 101
This type of isomerism occurs in heteroleptic complex compounds which differs
from one another in the spatial arrangement of ligands around the central metal
atom. It can be considered in the following types,
(i) Geometrical isomerism
(ii) Optical isomerism.
Geometrical isomerism: It is due to the ligands occupying different positions
around the central metal atom. The isomer in which similar ligands occupying
the adjacent positions are called cis- isomer and isomer in which similar ligands
occupying opposite positions are called trans – isomer. Geometrical isomer is
applicable to those heteroleptic complexes with coordination number 4 and 6.

(a) Square planar complexes of the type MA2B2 (CN = 4):

B A n± B A n± Cℓ NH3 Cℓ NH3

M M Pt Pt
B A A B Cℓ NH3 Cℓ
H3N
cis - isomer trans - isomer cis - isomer trans - isomer
Fig: [Pt (NH3)2 Cℓ2]
(b) Square planar complex of the type MA2BC (CN = 4): (Here cis and trans will
be decided by ligand A)

B A n± A B n± Cℓ NH3 Cℓ NH3

M M Pt Pt
C A C A O2N NO2
NH3 H3N
cis - isomer trans - isomer cis - isomer trans - isomer
Fig: [Pt (NH3)2 (NO2) Cℓ]

2. (a) Octahedral complex of the type MA3 B3 (CN = 6):

A n± A n± Br Br

B A B A H3N Br H3N Br

M M Co Co
B A B B H3N Br H3N NH3

B A NH3 Br
fac - isomer mer - isomer Page 82 of 101fac - isomer mer - isomer
Fig: [Co (NH3)3 Br3]
(b) Octahedral complex of the type MA4B2 type (CN = 6):
A n± B n± NH3 + Br +
B A A A H3N Br H3N NH3

M M M M
B A A B H3N Br H3N NH3

A B NH3 Br
cis- isomer trans - isomer cis - isomer trans - isomer
Fig: [Co (NH3)4 Br2]

(c) Octahedral complex of the type M (AA)2B2 (CN =6):

A B n± Cℓ +
n± en +
B A A A Cℓ

M M Co en Co en

B A A A Cℓ
en Cℓ
A B
cis- isomer cis- isomer trans - isomer
trans - isomer
Fig: [Co (en)2 Cℓ2]

Optical isomerism: Those compounds which can rotate plane polarised light
when passed through their aqueous solutions are called optically active
compounds. Isomers which rotates plane polarised light towards RHS are called
dextro rotatory, denoted by ‘d’ or, (+) – isomer and rotates towards LHS are
called laevo rotatory, denoted by ‘ℓ’ or, (-) – isomer. Those compounds having
non- superimposable mirror images are optically active. Optical isomerism for
different complexes can be considered as follows,
(i) Square planar complex of the type MA2B2 (CN = 4):

B A n± A B n± Here, Superimposable mirror images

Page 83 of 101
and optically inactive (after rotation
M M
around the C2 – axis)
B A A B
cis - isomer
 B A n± A B n± Here, Superimposable mirror images
and optically inactive (after rotation
M M
around the C4 – axis)
A B B A
trans - isomer
C4

For example,
Cℓ NH3 H3N Cℓ H3N Cℓ Cℓ NH3

M M M M

Cℓ NH3 H3N Cℓ Cℓ NH3 H3N Cℓ

cis - isomer trans - isomer
C2 C4
Here, Superimposable mirror images and Here, Superimposable mirror images and
optically inactive (after rotation around the optically inactive (after rotation around the C4 –
C2 – axis) axis)

(ii) Octahedral complex of the type MA3B3 (CN = 6):

A A A A
n± n± n± n±
B A A B B A A B
M M M M
B B B B B A A B

A A B B
mer – isomer: non – superimposable mirror fac – isomer: non – superimposable mirror
images and optically active compounds images and optically active compounds

(iii) Octahedral complex of the type MA2B4 ( CN = 6):

B B A A
n± n± n± n±
B A A B B B B B
M M M M
B A A B B B B B

B B A A
cis – isomer: non – superimposable mirror trans – isomer: superimposable mirror
images and optically active compounds Page 84 of 101
images and optically active compounds
(iv) Octahedral complex of the type M(AA)2B2 (CN = 6):

A A n± B n± B n±
n±
B A A B A A A A

M M M M
B A A B A A A
A

A A
B B
cis- isomer: non – superimposable mirror trans – isomer: superimposable mirror images
images and optically active compounds and optically inactive compounds

END

Page 85 of 101
 Unit V: Surface Chemistry
Surface chemistry is the branch of chemistry which deals with the study of
phenomena occurring on the surface or, interface.
1. Adsorption: The phenomenon of attracting and retaining the molecules of a
substance at the surface of a solid or, a liquid resulting into higher concentration
of the molecule on the surface than in the bulk is called adsorption.
As a result of adsorption, there is decrease in the surface energy.
Reason for adsorption: In a liquid or, solid substances, a molecule present within
the bulk of the substance is being attracted uniformly from all sides by
neighbouring molecules. Hence, there is no net force acting on the molecule or,
there are no unbalanced force of the molecule.
On the other hand, a molecule present on the surface is not attracted to the
other molecules from all directions/sides because there are no neighbouring
molecules above the surface. Hence, it possessed some unbalance force and as
result of this, the molecule present on the surface of the solid or, the liquid tends
to satisfy this residual force by attracting other molecular species and retain on
the surface. It causes increase in the concentration of the molecular species near
the surface as compare to its bulk phase.
The molecular species on the surface of solid or, liquid get adsorbed is called
adsorbate and the material on the surface of which adsorption takes placed is
called adsorbent.

Adsorbate (Butter, Cheese, fruit jam etc.)

Adsorbent (Bread)

Desorption: The process of removal of the molecules of adsorbate from the

surface of adsorbent is called desorption. It can be done by increasing
temperature and decreasing pressure. It is the reverse process of adsorption.

Page 86 of 101
Adsorption in action:
(i) O2, H2, CO, Cℓ2, NH3 gases etc. enclosed in a vessel containing powdered
charcoal, then their pressure decreases. This is due to the adsorption of these
gases on the surface of the charcoal.
(ii) Aqueous solution of raw sugar( reddish colour) when passed over the bed of
animal skin charcoal becomes colourless due to adsorption of colouring material
of the sugar solution by the animal charcoal on its surface.
(iii) Air becomes dry in the presence of silica gel because, moisture is getting
adsorbed on the surface of silica gel.
Absorption. It is the phenomenon of distribution of molecules of a substance
uniformly in the bulk of other substance.
For example, (i) ammonia gas is absorbed by water and (ii) water vapour is
absorbed by CaCℓ2 (anhydrous). Simplest example is Deeping a chalk stick in
aqueous solution of ink. After sometimes, when the chalk is broken, it is found
that inside the bulk still it is white but wet. The colouring material is retained
only on the surface due to adsorption while the solvent of the ink solution goes
deeper into the chalk stick due to absorption.
***Differentiation between adsorption and absorption
Adsorption Absorption
(i) It involves unequal distribution (i) It involves uniform distribution of
of the molecules of the adsorbate the molecular species of the adsorbate
on the surface and in the bulk of throughout the bulk of the adsorbent.
the adsorbent.
(ii) It is rapid in the beginning and
(ii) It occurs at uniform rate.
slow down near the equilibrium.
(iii) It is bulk phenomena.
(iii) It is surface phenomena.

Sorption: In some cases, both adsorption and absorption takes placed together
and it is called sorption. In this case the substance (adsorbate molecule) get
uniformly distributed into the bulk of the solid but at the same time, its
concentration is higher on the surface of the adsorbent than in the bulk.
Example. Dyes gets adsorbed as well as absorbed in cotton fibre and sorption
takes placed.

Page 87 of 101
Positive and negative adsorption: When the concentration of the adsorbate is
more on the surface of the adsorbent relative to its concentration in the bulk,
then it is called positive adsorption. When the concentration of the adsorbate is
less on the surface of the adsorbent relative to its concentration in the bulk, then
it is called negative adsorption.
Example. When a concentrated solution of KCℓ is shaken with blood charcoal, it
shows positive adsorption and when dilute solution of KCℓ is shaken with blood
charcoal, it shows negative adsorption.
Types of adsorption: (Based on the force of attraction between the molecules of
adsorbate and adsorbent)
1. Physical adsorption or, Physisorption
2. Chemical adsorption or, Chemisorption.
***Physisorption: When the particles of the adsorbate are held to the surface of
the adsorbent by physical forces like van der Waal’s forces, then the adsorption
is called physical adsorption or, Physisorption. As the attractive forces are weak,
it can be easily overcome either by increasing temperature or, by decreasing
pressure and therefore, the adsorbate molecules can be removed from the
surface of the adsorbent. Thus, Physisorption is reversible.
Example. Adsorption of H2gas on the surface of Pt – catalyst.
***Chemisorption: When the molecules of the adsorbate are held to the surface
of the adsorbent by forces like chemical bond, then the adsorption is called
chemical adsorption or, chemisorption. In this case, chemical reaction takes
placed between the molecules of adsorbate and adsorbent, it is found to be
irreversible.
Example. Oxygen exist as O2 in the bulk but on the surface it may exist as O2-,
O22-, O, O2-, O- etc.
Enthalpy of adsorption: The amount of heat involved when 1 mole of an
adsorbate (gas or, liquid) is completely adsorbed on the surface of the adsorbent
is called enthalpy of adsorption.
Adsorption is an exothermic process (ΔH = (-) ve value), as there is formation of
a stable system and there is always decrease in the residual force of the surface
of the adsorbent. That is, there is decrease in surface energy which appears as
heat energy.

Page 88 of 101
According to Gibb’s – Helmholtz relation, ΔG = ΔH – TΔS, when, ΔH = (-) ve and
ΔS = (-) ve, now in order to get ΔG = (-) ve value, ΔH >TΔS and it happens only
when temperature T is very low. Therefore, for a successful adsorption
temperature should be kept low.
Differentiation between Physisorption and Chemisorption.
Physisorption Chemisorption

(i) The force between the adsorbate (i) The force of attraction between the
and the adsorbent molecule is weak adsorbate and adsorbent molecule is of
and of the order of van der Waal’s the order of chemical bond.
forces.
(ii) Enthalpy of adsorption is low and (ii) Enthalpy of adsorption is very high
lies between 20 – 40kJ mol-1. and lies between 80 – 240kJ mol-1..
(iii) It takes placed at low (iii) Usually takes placed at high
temperature and rate of adsorption temperature and increases with
decreases with increased in increased in temperature and reaches a
temperature. maximum value.
(iv) It is reversible. (iv) It is irreversible.
(v) It is not specific in nature, all (v) It is specific in nature and occurs
gases are adsorbed on the surface of only when there is bond formation
a solid to some extent. between the adsorbate and adsorbent
molecules.
(vi) It does not need activation
energy. (vi) It needs activation energy.

(vii) It forms multimolecular layer. (vii) It forms monomolecular layers.

(viii) Rate of adsorption usually
(viii) Rate of adsorption increases
decreases with increased in
with increased in pressure of the
temperature.
adsorbate.

Extent of adsorption: It may be defined as the ratio of the quantity of the gas
adsorbed by unit mass of the adsorbent when equilibrium state is reached. It
is given by the ratio of ( m ), where’ ‘ is the mass of the adsorbate and m is
the mass of the adsorbent

Page 89 of 101
Adsorption Isotherm
The rate of adsorption of a gas generally increases with increase in pressure at
a constant temperature. Adsorption of gas on solid results in the decrease of
pressure and therefore, according to Le – Chatelier’s principle, the increase in
pressure results increased in the extent of adsorption.
Variation of extent of adsorption with the pressure at constant temperature can
be drawn graphically and it is called adsorption isotherm. A simple type of
adsorption isotherm at different temperature are given in the following figure,

195K
x/m
244K
273K (Here, Ps is the equilibrium pressure.)

Ps
P
Fig. Variation of extent of adsorption with pressure.

***Freundlich Adsorption Isotherm: Freundlich gave an empirical mathematical

relation between the extent of adsorption (x/m) and the pressure of the gas ‘P’
at a given constant temperature.

x/m

Ps
P
Fig. Variation of extent of adsorption with pressure.

Here, the curve indicates that (x/m) value increases with increase in pressure
and attains a maximum value corresponding to pressure ‘Ps’ which is called
equilibrium pressure or, saturation pressure. At this stage the amount of gas
adsorbed equal to the amount of gas desorbed so that value of (x/m) does not
change even if the pressure is further increased. This state is called saturated
state.

Page 90 of 101
Remarks:
(i) At low pressure condition, (x/m) is directly proportional to the pressure P and
this relation can be written as under,
Mathematically, (x/m) P1 ……………………….(i)

(ii)
At high pressure condition, beyond the saturation pressure condition, (x/m)
found to be independent of pressure ‘P’ and this elation can be written as under,
Mathematically, (x/m) P0 ……………………….(ii)

(iii) At intermediate pressure condition, (x/m) is proportional to pressure ‘P’

having power lies between 0 and 1 and this relation can be written as follows,
Mathematically, (x/m) P1/n , here n>1

Or, (x/m) = K P1/n ……………………….(iii)

By taking logarithm on both sides of equation (iii), we have,
ℓog(x/m) = ℓogK + 1/n ℓogP ………………(iv)

This is in the form of equation of straight line, then plotting ℓog (x/m) versus
ℓogP, a straight line having intercept ℓog K and slope (1/n) is obtained.

tanӨ =(1/n)
ℓog(x/m
)
ℓog K

ℓog P

Demerits: Freundlich adsorption isotherm cannot explain for the condition (1/n)
= 0 and (x/m) = KP0, although it well supported by experimental results. In other
words, it fails at high pressure condition.
***Effect of temperature on adsorption and Adsorption Isobar.
Addsorption is an exothermic process and in acccordence with Le – Chatelier’s
principle, the magnitude of adsorption should decrease with rised in
temperature.

Page 91 of 101
A graph can be drawn between the extent of adsorption (x/m) and temperature
‘t’ when pressure is kept constant and it is called adsorption isobar. It can be
consider for physisorption and chemisorption separately.
(i) Adsorption isotherm for physisorption.
In this case, extent of adsorption (x/m)
decreases with increased in temperature.
In Physisorption, the force of attraction P = constant
between the adsorbate and the (x/m)
adsorbent is of van der Waal’s force and
Physisorption being an exothermic
process, by increasing temperature helps
t
desorption process.

(ii) Adsorption isobar for chemisorption.

For chemisorption, activation energy is
required. At low temperature condition
(x/m) value is small and with increase in P = constant
temperature, the adsorbate molecules (x/m)

gains their activation energy so that a

proper chemical reaction takes placed
t
with the adsorbent molecules.

Therefore, initially extent of adsorption increases with increase in temperature.

Further increase in temperature will increase the energy of the adsorbate
molecules which have already been adsorbed. This helps increase the rate
desorption and therefore, decreases the extent of adsorption.
Or,
Energy supplied by initial rise in temperature provides the molecules of the
adsorbate the desired activation energy, so that a proper chemical reaction
takes placed with the molecules of the adsorbent. When all the molecules of the
adsorbate have been properly oriented, a further rise in temperature will
decrease the extent of adsorption in case of chemisorption.

Page 92 of 101
Application of adsorption.
(i) Removing colouring material.
(ii) In gas mask.
(iii) In dyeing cloths.
(iv) In chromatography.
(v) In separation of noble gases: Activated coconut charcoal has the capacity to
adsorb the noble gases present in a mixture (except Rn) at different
temperature. This helps in separation of these noble gases.
Catalyst: These are the substances which can alter the rate of a chemical
reaction without changing overall energetics of the chemical reaction. Example.
Pt, Ni, Pd, Cu etc.
Catalysis: It is the phenomenon of changing the rate of a chemical reaction by
using a suitable catalyst and the reaction is said to be catalysed chemical
reaction.

Classification of solutions
Based on the size of solute particles, solutions can be classified as under:
(i) Crystalloids: If the size of solute particles is less than 1nm, then the solution
is called crystalloids. Example. Aqueous solution of NaCℓ, KCℓ, NaOH etc.
(ii) Colloidal solution: If the size of solute particles i lies between 1nm to 1000nm,
then the solution is called colloidal solution. Example. Milk, Gold sol, Sulphur sol,
Smoke, Fog, Colloidal solution of Fe (OH)3, Aℓ(OH)3 etc.
(iii) Suspension: If the size of the solute particle is larger than 1000nm, then the
solution is called suspension. Example: Muddy water, Sandy water etc.
Components of colloidal solution: For a colloidal solution, the component which
is present in larger proportion ( solvent) is called dispersion medium and the
component which is present in smaller proportion ( solute) is called dispersed
phase.
Example. In milk, water is the solvent and it is the dispersion medium while fat
and oil molecule is the solute and it is the dispersed phase. In fog, air is the
dispersion medium and water is the dispersed phase.

Page 93 of 101
 Classification of colloidal solution:
1. Based on the nature of force between the molecules of dispersion medium
and dispersed phase, colloidal solution can be classified as follows,
(i) Lyophilic colloids: It is also called solvophilic colloid. In this type of colloidal
solution, the dispersed phase has great affinity for the dispersion medium. The
dispersed phase does not get easily precipitated and the colloidal solution is
quite stable. The solid obtained by evaporation of lyophilic colloidal solution
may be further reconverted into the original colloidal solution by simply
agitating them with the dispersion medium. Therefore, lyophilic colloids are
called reversible colloids. (If the dispersion medium is water, then the colloidal
solution is called hydrophilic sol or hydrophilic colloids.)
Example. Colloidal solution of gum, gelatine, starch, protein etc.
(ii) Lyophobic colloids: It is also called solvent hate colloids. In this case, the
molecules of dispersed phase has little affinity for the molecules of dispersion
medium and the solution is less stable in comparison to lyophilic colloids. For
lyophobic colloids, the dispersed phase can be easily precipitated out/
coagulated on addition of little amount of a suitable electrolyte or, by heating
or, by shaking. These are reversible, because the precipitate mass cannot be
changed into the colloidal solution by shaking them with the dispersion medium.
Example. Sulphur sol, gold sol, colloidal solution of Fe (OH)3.
Difference between lyophilic colloids and lyophobic colloids.
Lyophilic colloids Lyophobic colloids
(i) Dispersed phase strong affinity (i) Dispersed phase has little affinity for
for the dispersion medium. the dispersion medium.
(ii) It is reversible colloidal solution. (ii) It is irreversible colloidal solution.
(iii) They are quite stable and (iii) They are less stable and dispersed
dispersed phase cannot be phase can be separated from the
separated easily from the dispersion dispersion medium by addition of a
medium. suitable electrolyte.
(iv) They are self-stabilised. (iv) They are unstable and can be
stabilised by using a stabiliser.
(v) For example, colloidal solution of
starch, gum gelatine etc. (v) For example, colloidal solution gold,
sulphur, silver, Fe(OH)3.
Page 94 of 101
2. Based on the nature of the particles of the dispersed phase, colloidal solution
can be classified as under,
(i) Multimolecular colloids
(ii) Macromolecular colloids and
(iii) Associated colloids.
Multimolecular colloids: In this type of colloids, the particles are aggregate of
atoms or, small molecules with molecular size less than 1nm.
Examples. Gold sol consist of colloidal particles of various sizes which are cluster
of several gold atoms. Sulphur sol consist of colloidal particles which are
aggregate of S8 molecules. These molecules in the aggregate are held by van der
Waal’s forces.
Macromolecular colloids: In this type of colloids, colloidal particles are
themselves large molecules having colloidal dimension. They have high
molecular masses varying from thousands to millions. Examples: Colloidal
solution of starch, cellulose, protein etc. Artificial macromolecular colloids
consist of polymer such as polythene nylon, plastics etc.
Associated colloids: There are certain substances which behaves like an
electrolyte at low concentration but behaves like a colloidal solution at higher
concentration due to formation of aggregated particles. Such colloids are called
associated colloids. Example. Soaps and detergents are examples of associated
colloids.
Micelles: The cluster of aggregated particles formed by associated colloids in
solutions are called micelles. The formation of micelles takes placed above
certain concentration which is called critical micelles concentration. The
temperature above which micelles are obtained is called Kraft temperature and
denoted by Kf.
COO-Na+
Formation of micelles: Na+ -OOC COO-Na+

Na+ -OOC
When soaps and detergents are COO-Na+

dissolved in polar solvents like water,

then micelles are obtained. Shape of Na+ -OOC COO-Na+

micelles at low concentration is

Na+ -OOC COO-Na+
spherical and with increasing
Na+ -OOC
concentration it becomes cylindrical Na+ -OOC
COO-Na+
COO-Na+
shape.
Page 95 of 101
 Reverse Micelles: When soaps and
detergents are dissolved in non – polar
solvents like CCℓ4, C6H6, CS2 etc.
reversed micelles are obtained.

Non – polar ends Polar ends

Peptisation: It may be defined as the process of converting a precipitate into a
colloidal solution by shaking with dispersion medium in the presence of a
suitable electrolyte. The electrolyte used in this process is called peptising agent.
This method is applied to convert a freshly prepared precipitate into a colloidal
solution.
Purification of colloids
The process used for reducing the amount of impurities present in a colloidal
solution to minimum amount is called purification of colloidal solution and it can
be carried out by the following process as under,
(i) Dialysis: It is the process of removing the dissolved substances from a colloidal
solution by means of diffusion through a suitable membrane.

Since the solute particles of

true solution can pass through H2O out
cellophane paper or, +crystalloids
parchment paper, but not the
colloidal particles, the
Cellophane
membrane can be used for paper bag Colloidal
dialysis. The apparatus used solution

for this purpose is called

‘Dialyser’. H2O in

Unwanted ions can move through the membrane leaving only the colloidal
particles inside the bag. (-) (+) (H2O out +
(ii) Electro dialysis: In the Crystalloids)
purification of colloidal solution by
dialysis, the movements of the ions
across the membrane can be Colloidal
increased by electric current solution

through two electrodes. This H2O in

method is very fast and is known as
Cellophane
‘Electro dialysis.’ paper bag
Page 96 of 101
(iii) Ultra filtration: In this method, the colloidal solutions are purified by
filtration through a special type of graded filters called ‘ultra filters’. These filter
papers allows the electrolytes to pass through them but do not allow the
colloidal particles.
These filter papers are prepared by reducing their pore size by impregnating
them with colloidion; which is 4% of nitrocellulose solution in a mixture of
ethanol and ether.
Properties of colloidal solution:
(i) Colligative properties: Colloidal particles have very high average molecular
mass, and as a result they give very low mole fraction in colloidal solution.
Hence, they have very low values of colligative properties such as relative
lowering of vapour pressure, elevation in boiling points, depression in freezing
points and osmotic pressure.
(ii) Filterability: The size of colloidal particles is less than the size of pores of the
filter paper and therefore, they easily pass through filter it. But, colloidal
particles cannot pass through parchment paper or, cellophane paper, animal
membrane etc. as the size of pores of these filters are smaller than the size of
the colloidal particles.
(iii) Tyndall Effect: When a strong beam of light is passed through a colloidal
solution placed in dark room, the path of the beam of light gets illuminated by a
bluish light. This effect is called ‘Tyndall Effect’. (Tyndall effect is due to
scattering of light radiation by colloidal particles and it was first observed by
Tyndall and Michael Faraday). But, true solution does not saw Tyndall effect.
(iv) Brownian Movement: For a colloidal solution, the colloidal particles were in
constant motion in zig – zag (ceaseless motion) pattern or, path in all possible
directions. This zig – zag motion of colloidal particles is called Brownian motion.
Brownian motion is due to the impact of molecules of dispersion medium with
the colloidal particles. As a result of this colloidal particles moves in zig – zag
pattern. Brownian motion opposes the gravitational force and that is why
colloidal solution never settle down. (It can also be explained on the basis of
charge of colloidal particles that for a particular colloidal solution, all the
colloidal particles possessed same charges and they do not come closer to one
another which prevents from aggregation). Sometimes, colloidal particles settle
down very slowly and it is called sedimentation.

Page 97 of 101
Charge on colloidal particles: Colloidal particles always carry an electrical charge
and nature of this charge is the same on all the particles in a given colloidal
solution. It may be positive or, negative charged.

Positively charged colloidal solution: Negatively charged colloidal solution:

Colloidal solution of Fe(OH)3, Colloidal solution of As2S3, Sb2S3, CdS,
Cr(OH)3, Aℓ(OH)3, Ca(OH)2, Dyes like Gold sol, Silver sol, Dyes like Congo Red,
methylene blue, haemoglobin etc. colloidal solution starch etc.

Caused of charge on colloidal particles:

It can be explained on the basis of ‘Preferential Adsorption Theory’ of positive
or, negative charge. When two or, more ions are present in the dispersion
medium, preferential adsorption of the ion which is common to the colloidal
particle usually takes placed.
For example, when AgNO3 (dispersed phase) solution is added to KI (excess:
dispersion medium) solution, ppt. of AgI will adsorbed I- ion forming negatively
charged colloidal particles.
AgNO3 (Limited) + KI (excess) AgI (ppt) + KNO3

K+
I- +
K+ I- K
Now, colloidal particle will be AgI/ I- and it I-
AgI
negatively charged.
I- I-
K+ I- K+
K+

On the other hand, when KI (dispersed phase) solution is added to AgNO 3

(excess: dispersion medium) solution, ppt. of AgI will adsorbed Ag+ ion forming
positively charged colloidal particles.
AgNO3 (excess) + KI (limited) AgI (ppt) + KNO3
NO3
-
NO3 Ag+
- Ag
+ Ag + NO3
Now, colloidal particle will be AgI/ Ag and it +
AgI -

positively charged. Ag Ag+

+
Ag NO3
NO3 -
+
-
NO3
-

Page 98 of 101
Electro kinetic potential: Once the colloidal particle has acquired positive or,
negative charge by preferential adsorption or, selective adsorption of ions on its
surface, it attracts the counter ions from the dispersion medium forming a
double layer of charges. The combination of two layers of opposite charged ions
creates a potential difference and it is called electro kinetic potential or, Zeta
potential.
NO3 K+
Ag+ I-
NO3
Mobile layer K+
Ag I-
Ag + NO3 K+ I-
+ AgI AgI
Ag Ag+ I-
NO3 Fixed layer I-
+ Ag K+
NO3 I-
+
NO3 K+
K+
In other words, the combination of two layers of opposite charges around the
colloidal particle is called Helmholtz electrical double layer. The first layer of
ions is firmly held and is called fixed layer while the second layer of counter ions
is mobile and is called mobile layer or, diffused layer. Due to opposite charged
nature between fixed layer and diffused layer, a potential difference is created
and it is called Electro kinetic potential or, Zeta potential.
Electrophoresis:

The movement of colloidal particles either towards

(+) (-)
the cathode or, the anode under the influence of
electrical field is called electrophoresis. The
colloidal particles are electrically charged and carry
same type of charge; either positive or, negative.
The dispersion medium has an equal and opposite
charge making the system neutral as a whole.

Due to similar nature of charge carried by the colloidal particles, they repelled
one another and do not combined to form bigger particles. That is why colloidal
solutions are stable and colloidal particles not settle down.
Example. Gold sol, Silver sol, Sulphur sol etc. do not settle down.

Electro – osmosis: It is the phenomenon of movement of dispersion medium

towards oppositely charged electrodes provided the colloidal particles are not
allowed to move on placing the colloidal solution under the influence of
electrical field.

Page 99 of 101
Coagulation or, flocculation: The precipitation of colloids through induced
aggregation by addition of some suitable electrolyte is called coagulation or,
flocculation.
Presence of small concentration of appropriate electrolyte is necessary to
stabilise the colloidal solution. However, if the electrolytes are present in higher
concentration, then the ions of the electrolyte neutralised the charge of the
colloidal particles. These neutral colloidal particles may unite together to form
bigger size particles which are then precipitated out.
Coagulation value or, flocculation value: The minimum concentration of the
electrolyte in milimoles that must be added to one litre of the sol. So as to bring
about complete coagulation or, flocculation is called coagulation value or,
flocculation value. For different electrolytes, they have different coagulation
value and smaller the coagulation value of the electrolyte, larger is coagulating
power.
Coagulating behaviour of various electrolytes were studied by Hardy and Schulze
and proposed a rule which is called Hardy – Schulze Rule.
Hardy – Schulze Rule: This rule states that,
(i) The ions carrying charge opposite to that of the sol particles are effective in
carrying out the coagulation of the sol. Such ions are called flocculating ions or,
active ions.
(ii) The coagulating power of the electrolyte is directly proportional to the
valency of the active ions. This implies that greater the valency of the active ions,
larger is the coagulating power to cause precipitation. For example, coagulating
power of (a) Na+ < Mg2+ < Aℓ3+ and (b) Br- < SO42- < PO33-.
Protection of colloids: (How do lyophilic colloids acts as a protective colloid?)
Lyophilic sols are more stable than lyophobic sols. This is due to the fact that
lyophilic colloids are extensively solvated (?), that is, colloidal particles are
covered by a sheath of the liquid in which they are dispersed. Lyophilic colloids
have a unique property of protecting lyophobic colloids. When a lyophilic sol is
added to the lyophobic sol, the lyophilic particles forms a layer around the
lyophobic particles and thus protecting the latter from electrolytes. Lyophilic
colloids used for this purpose is called protective colloids.
*** Solvation of colloidal particles is due to greater attractive force between
dispersed phase and dispersion medium.

Page 100 of 101

Gold number: The number of milligrams of the protective colloid which
requires just to prevent coagulation of 10 ml of standard gold sol when 1ml of
10% solution of NaCℓ is added to it is called gold number.
For example, Protective colloids Gold number

(i) Haemoglobin 0.03 mg

(ii) Sodium oleate 0.4mg

(iii) Potato starch 25mg

(iv) Gelatine 0.005 – 0.01mg

Emulsions: Emulsions are colloidal solutions in which dispersed phase and

dispersion medium both are liquids. They can be classified as follows:
(i) Oil in water emulsion (o/w type): In this case, water acts as the dispersion
medium and oil acts as the dispersed phase. For example. Milk, Vanishing cream
etc.
(ii) Water in oil emulsion (w/o type): In this case, oil is the dispersion medium
and water is the dispersed phase. For example. Cold cream. Butter, Cod liver oil
etc.
Preparation of emulsion: Process of making an emulsion is called emulsification.
It can be carried out by vigorously agitating a mixture of both the liquid
components. It gives an unstable emulsion and when shaking stops, they are
separated into different layers. To stabilise the emulsion, addition of a third
substance is required and it is called as emulsifying agent or, emulsifier. For
example: Soaps and detergents.
For w/o emulsion, emulsifying agent like heavy metal salt of fatty acid, long
chain of alcohols, lamp black etc.
For o/w emulsion, gum, natural and synthetic soap.
Demulsification: The decomposition of an emulsion into its liquid components is
called Demulsification. It can be carried out by freezing, boiling, filtration,
centrifugation, electrostatic precipitation, chemical methods which can destroy
the emulsifying agent.

Page 101 of 101

 A Complete Note
Chap - 1 on Physics for
Electric Charge & Field Class 12

1.> Electric charge /Charge : The basic unit of charge is the charge of an
electron e = 1.6 × 10-19 C. (It is charge of an
It is the fundamental property of matter that electron or charge of a proton.)
gives rise to electric force between various
objects. Thus charge is discrete in nature.

 There are two types of charges:- i.e. charge of a body can never be fractional
value of e.
 +ve charge:
[Electric charge exists in discrete packets rather
It is the charge acquired by glass rod than in continuous amount. ]
when rubbed with silk cloth.
Note:
 -ve charge :
Quantization of electric charge can be
It is the charge acquired by plastic rod
ignored while dealing with macroscopic charges
when rubbed with wool.
because the basic charge ‘e’ is very small and ‘n’
 Charge is a scalar quantity. is very large, so q behaves as if it were
continuous.
 SI Unit of charge is COULOMB (C).
2.3 Conservation of Charge :
 Charge is represented by q or Q.
Total charge of an isolated system remains
 Fundamental law of electrostatics: constant.
Like charges repelled and unlinked charges
attract each other. i.e. Charge can neither be created nor
destroyed, but can be transferred from one body
2.> Basic Properties of Charge: to another.

Example 1.2 If 109 electrons move out of a body

2.1 Additive Property of Charges : to another body every second, how much time is
required to get a total charge of 1 C on the other
The net charge of a body is equal to the
body?
algebraic sum of all the electric charges
Hint
distributed on different parts of the body.

i.e.If a body/system contains n charges q1, q2, q3,  Charge transferred from the body per second
…, qn, then the net charge of the system =109 ×1.6 × 10-19 C

q = q1 + q2 + q3 + … + qn .  Time taken to transfer 1C of charge

= s
× . ×
 A body is said to be neutral if it contains
equal amount of +ve and –ve charges in it. Example 1.3 How much positive and negative
charge is there in a cup of water (250 g)?
2.2 Quantization of Electric Charges : Hint :

Total charge (q) of a body is an integral  No. of molecules in 18 g of water,

multiple of a basic unit of charge (e). = 6.023×1023

i.e. = ,  No. of molecules in 250 g of water

= × 6.023 × 10
where

= 0, ±1 ± 2 ± 3 … …  No. of protons and electrons in one molecule

of water = 10
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Class 12

 Magnitude of –ve and +ve charge in cup of 4.> Coulomb’s Law (Scalar Form):
water = × 10 × 1.6 × 10 C The electric force between two point charges
is
1.4 (a) Explain the meaning of the statement
‘electric charge of a body is quantised’. (i) inversely proportional to the square of the
(b) Why can one ignore quantisation of electric distance between the charges
charge when dealing with macroscopic i.e., large
scale charges? i.e. ∝
Hint:
(ii) directly proportional to the product of the
 (a) q = ne
magnitude of the two charges and acted along the
 (b) charge of a macroscopic charged body is line joining the two charges.
very large as compare to charge of an
i.e. ∝
electron. At this scale charge of a body can
take any value, hence continuous in nature. Let
1.5 When a glass rod is rubbed with a silk cloth, r = distance between the two point charges
charges appear on both. A similar phenomenon is q1 and q2.
observed with many other pairs of bodies.
Explain how this observation is consistent with ∴ The magnitude of the electric force (F)
the law of conservation of charge. between them is given by
Hint:
∝
 Charges on the pair of bodies are of equal
magnitude but opposite in nature.
Thus net charge of the pair of bodies = 0 ∴ =k ....... (1)
i.e. It is mere transferring of charges from
one body to another. There is no creation nor Here
does destroying of charges take place.
k = Coulomb’s constant
1.11 A polythene piece rubbed with wool is
found to have a negative charge of 3×10–7 C. = electrostatic force constant
(a) Estimate the number of electrons transferred
(from which to which?) Value of k depends upon the medium in
(b) Is there a transfer of mass from wool to which the charges are placed.
polythene?
Hint:  If F is –ve, then force is attractive.

 (a) q = 3×10–7 C  If F is +ve, then force is repulsive.

e = 1.6 × 10-19 C
No. of electron transferred = 5.> Coulomb’s Force Constant (k) :
In S I Unit, when the two charges are placed
 (b) me = 9.1×10-31 kg in vacuum
Mass transferred = me × n kg
1
3.> Point Charge : =
4
= 9 × 10
A charged body is said to be a point charge if
the dimension of the charged body is very small Here,
as compare to distance between the charges.
= Absolute permittivity of free space or
vacuum.

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 A Complete Note
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[ It describes the level of opposition provided by a 1nano coulomb = 1nC = 10-9C

medium for a pair of point charges to interact with
1 pico coulomb = 1pC = 10-12C
each other.]
 CGS unit of charge is state coulomb (electro
In SI Unit, static unit or e.s.u.)

= 8.85 × 10 1 = 3 × 10 state coulomb.

Thus Coulomb’s Law can be written as 8.> Coulomb’s Law in Vector Form:
= Y
r̂12 F12

When the charges are placed in medium other
F21

r1 q1

than vacuum, the Coulomb’s force is
q2 r̂21
r2

=
O X
Here,
Let
= absolute permittivity of the medium.
= p.v. of point charge q1 w.r.t O.
6.> Relative Permittivity (Di–Electric
Constant (K)) of a Medium: = p.v. of point charge q2 w.r.t. O.

It is defined as the ratio of Coulomb’s force ̂ = p. v. of charge q2 w.r.t q1.

between two point charges placed in vacuum to
the Coulomb’s force between the same pair of ̂ = p. v. of charge q1 w.r.t q2.
charges when placed in the medium at the same
= distance between q1 and q2.
distance apart.
According Coulomb’s law, force acting on
i.e. = = = charge q1 due to charge q2 is

 It is a unitless quantity. = ̂ ...... (1)

7.> Unit of Charge: Similarly,

If = = 1 C are placed in vacuum Force acting on charge q2 due to charge q1
separated by distance of = 1m, then the
Coulomb’s force between the point charges is = r
= 9 × 10 N.
But
SI Unit (1C):
̂ =− ̂
1C is that charge which will repel a similar
and equal charge with a force of 9 × 109N when ∴ =− ..... (3) [ by eqn. 1 and 2.]
placed at a distance of 1m apart in vacuum.
Notes:
1 milli Coulomb = 1 mC = 10-3 C

1 micro Coulomb = 1μC = 10-6C

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 A Complete Note
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1.> Thus force acted on each other by two Example 1.4 Coulomb’s law for electrostatic
point charges are equal in magnitude but force between two point charges and Newton’s
directed in opposite direction. law for gravitational force between two
stationary point masses, both have inverse-square
Coulomb’s law in vector form gives the dependence on the distance between the
direction of force. charges/masses.
(a) Compare the strength of these forces by
2.> Coulomb’s force acts on the line joining determining the ratio of their magnitudes
the two charges, thus it is a central force. (i) for an electron and a proton and
(ii) for two protons.
3.> As coulomb’s force depends upon the (b) Estimate the accelerations of electron and
position of two charges, thus it is conservative proton due to the electrical force of their mutual
force. attraction when they are 1 Å (= 10-10 m) apart?
(mp = 1.67 ×10–27 kg, me = 9.11 × 10–31 kg)
4.> Coulomb’s force obeys Newton’s third
Hint :
law of motion.

5.> Variation of force (F) with distance (r):  (a) =k

F F
 =G

 (b) =

1 Example 1.5 A charged metallic sphere A is

suspended by a nylon thread. Another charged
r metallic sphere B held by an insulating handle is
9.> Superposition Principle of Electrostatics brought close to A such that the distance between
Force: their centres is 10 cm. The resulting repulsion of
A is noted (for example, by shining a beam of
light and measuring the deflection of its shadow
on a screen). Spheres A and B are touched by
uncharged spheres C and D respectively and are
then removed and B is brought closer to A to a
distance of 5.0 cm between their centres. What is
the expected repulsion of A on the basis of
Coulomb’s law? Spheres A and C and spheres B
and D have identical sizes. Ignore the sizes of A
and B in comparison to the separation between
their centres.
It states that electrostatic force on any charge
due to a number of other charges is the vector Hint:
sum of all the forces acting on that charge due to
the other charges, taken one at a time.  q = original charge of A
= original charge on B
i.e. Force on the charge q0 due to charges q1, q2,
q3,....qn is Force between the A and B
=k
′

= + + + …….+
 Due to charge redistribution, charges on A
Note: and C is q/2.
Similarly charges on B and D is ⁄2.
The above eqn. asserts that force acting on
one charge due to another charge is independent
of presence of other charges.

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 Force between 10– C placed 30 cm apart in air?

= Hint:
′

Example 1.6 Consider three charges q1, q2, q3  =k

each equal to q at the vertices of an equilateral
triangle of side l. What is the force on a charge Q 1.2 The electrostatic force on a small sphere of
(with the same sign as q) placed at the centroid charge 0.4 μC due to another small sphere of
of the triangle? charge – 0.8 μC in air is 0.2 N.
Hint:
Aq = q (a) What is the distance between the two
1
spheres?

(b) What is the force on the second sphere due to

Q the first?
G Hint:
B C
q2 = q q3 = q  =k
 A centroid is equidistant from the vertices of
the equilateral triangle  =−
= = = sin 60
1.6 Four point charges qA = 2 μC, qB = –5 μC,
qC = 2 μC, and qD = –5 μC are located at the
 F1 = F2 = F3 corners of a square ABCD of side 10 cm. What is
the force on a charge of 1 μC placed at the centre
 + = − By parallelogram law of of the square?
vector addition. Hint:
Example 1.7 Consider the charges q, q, and –q
placed at the vertices of an equilateral triangle, as  OA = OB = OC = OD =
√
shown in Fig. 1.10. What is the force on each
charge?
C q3 = - q
 =−
Hint :
 =−

 =0

A B 1.12 (a) Two insulated charged copper spheres A

q1 = q q2 = q and B have their centres separated by a distance
of 50 cm. What is the mutual force of
 F12 = F21 = F31 = F32 electrostatic repulsion if the charge on each is
6.5 × 10– C? The radii of A and B are
 + = negligible compared to the distance of
separation.
 + =
(b) What is the force of repulsion if each sphere
 + = is charged double the above amount, and the
distance between them is halved?
 + =− Hint :

1.1 What is the force between two small charged  (a) =k

spheres having charges of 2 × 10– C and 3 ×
 (b) = , =

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 =K  S I Unit of electric field is

1.13 Suppose the spheres A and B in Exercise NC-1 or Vm-1.

1.12 have identical sizes. A third sphere of the
same size but uncharged is brought in contact  Electric field is vector quantity.
with the first, then brought in contact with the
Direction of electric field is given by the
second, and finally removed from both. What is
direction in which a unit +ve test charge would
the new force of repulsion between A and B?
move if allowed to freely move.
Hint:
The test charge is made vanishingly small
 Charge on A when contacted with the third
so that it does not disturb the distribution of
sphere C = charge(s) of the source charge and the electric
field which is intended to be measured.
 Charge on B when contacted with C
⁄
= =
∴ = lim ..... (2)
→
 Force between A and B
=K  The force experienced by a charge q when
placed in the electric field due to another
10.> Electric Field: charge is given by

[The term field in physics generally refers to a = ..... (3)

quantity that is defined at every point in space
and may vary from point to point.] If charge is +ve , direction of and
are in the same direction.
Electric field is said to exist at point in the
space around a point charge if an electric force If charge is –ve, direction of and are
acts on another charge placed at that point. in opposite direction.

10.1 Electric Field Intensity/Electric Field Each point is associated with a unique
Strength/Electric Field: , thus electric field is a set of infinite vectors.

The electric field due to a charge Q at a point Note:

in space is defined as the force that a unit Charge of an electron is very small as
positive charge would experience if placed at that compare to the charge of a body, thus electron
point. can be taken as a test charge.

It is denoted by . 11.> Electric Field Intensity Due to a Point

Charge:
Let
F

rˆ
Q q0
= small test charge placed a point in the O r p
electric field due to source charge Q.

F = force experienced by the test charge. [* =

∴ The electric field intensity at the point due * = ̂ ]

charge Q is
Let,
= ...... (1)
Q = charge placed at the point O.

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 A Complete Note
on Physics for
Class 12

= test charge paced at point P Or

r = distance of the point P from the point O.

=
The electric force experience by the test
charge q0 due to the charge Q is Thus dielectric constant of medium can
be defines as the ratio of electric field due to a
point charge placed in vacuum to the electric
= ̂ ....... (1)
field due to the point charge when placed in the
medium.
∴ The electric field at the point P due to charge
Q is v) Electric field due to point charge has
radial symmetry.
= = ̂ vi) if Q > 0 (i.e. + ve), then field is radially
directed outward.
∴ = ̂ ...... (2) vii) if Q < 0 (i.e. - ve), then field is radially
directed inward.
Note :
The graph between electric field and distance
i) ∝ is as in the figures below : -
E E
ii) ∝

iii) E is independent of the test charge q0.

iv) E depends up on the medium in which the

charge is placed: 1

= Absolute permittivity of the intervening r

medium. 12.> Superposition Principle of Electric
Field:
∴ The electric field
The net electric field a point due to a group
= of charges is equal to the vector sum of all the
electric field intensity produced by the individual
But the dielectric constant of the medium charges at that point.

= Let , , ........ be the electric field

intensity at a point due to charges q1, q2, q3, ...,
qn.
∴ =K 0
The net electric field intensity at that point
∴ = is

Let = + + + ⋯+

E0 = electric field due to the charge in Note:

vacuum
Superposition principle of electric field
∴ = asserts that the electric field intensity at a point
due to a charge is independent of all the charges
present around it.
∴ =
Prepared by: Kh.O.Dh. Dept. of Physics SSI Chap:1:: 7 of 24
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Example 1.8 An electron falls through a distance  (B) = Electric field at B due to charge q1
of 1.5 cm in a uniform electric field of magnitude = directed along AB.
2.0 × 104 N C–1 Fig.(a). The direction of the field
is reversed keeping its magnitude unchanged and = Electric field at B due to charge q2
a proton falls through the same distance Fig.(b). = , directed along BA.
Compute the time of fall in each case. Contrast = + , which is directed along
the situation with that of ‘free fall under gravity’.
.
- - - + + +
 (C) = Electric field at C due to charge q1
-e +e = directed along AC.
= Electric field at C due to charge q2
= , directed along CA.
+ + + - - - = + which is directed along .
(a) (b)
Hint:  Angle between and is 1200

 = ; = 1.8 Two point charges qA = 3 μC and qB = –3 μC

are located 20 cm apart in vacuum.

 = = ; = = (a) What is the electric field at the midpoint O of

the line AB joining the two charges?

(b) If a negative test charge of magnitude 1.5 ×

10–9 C is placed at this point, what is the force
 ∝ ∝√ ; which is opposite to experienced by the test charge?
gravity. Hint :

Example 1.9 Two point charges and , of  (a) =

magnitude +10–8 C and –10–8 C, respectively, are
placed 0.1 m apart. Calculate the electric fields at  = in the same direction of
points A, B and C shown in Fig. below.
C1  = +
C C
 (b) =
C2

13.> Electric Dipole:

0.1 m 0.1 m
It is a pair of equal and opposite charges
q1 q2 + q and - q, separated by a small distance 2 .
B A A1
⊕ ⊝
B2 A2
B1 Distance between the charges is known as
0.05 m 0.05 m length of dipole ( ).
0.05 m
Hint: The net charge of the electric dipole is zero.

 (A) = Electric field at A due to charge q1 [As the charge + q and – q are separated by
= , which directed along some distance, the electric fields due to them,
= Electric field at A due to charge q2 when added, do not exactly cancel out.]
= , which directed along
= + which is directed along .

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13.1 Electric Dipole Moment ( ): Electric field intensity at the point C due to +
q charge is
-q O +q
= , directed along B to C.
( )
A 2a B
i.e. = ( )
..... ..... ..... (1)
It is defined as the product of magnitude of
either charges, and the separation between the Electric field intensity at the point C due to
charges (length of dipole). – q charge is

i.e. = ×2 = ( )
, directed along C to A

 It is vector quantity, directed from – q to + q i.e. = ( )

..... ...... ..... (2)
along the line joining the two charges.
∴ Electric field at C due to the dipole is
 Its S I Unit is Cm. directed along B to C.
 It is used to measure the strength of an
electric dipole. = +

Note: i.e. = ( )
− ( )

1.> Net charge of an electric dipole is zero.

i.e. = ( )
−( )
2.> An ideal dipole is the dipole in which the
charge becomes larger and larger and the i.e. = ( ) ( )
separation becomes smaller and smaller.

14.> Electric Field Intensity at a Point on the ∴ = ( )

... (3)
Axial Line of an Electric Dipole:
[∵ ]
E E =2
 
-q O +q
C In vector form,
A 2a B
r
= ( )
..... (4)
[* =2 along A to B
Thus electric field line at any point along the
* = along B to C axial line of an electric dipole is directed in the
( ) same direction of dipole moment.
* = ( )
along C to A If the point of observation is at larger distance
as compare to the length of dipole, a2 can be
* = + ] neglected as compare to r2.

Let
∴ = .... .... (5)
2 = Length of dipole AB.
Notes :
r = distance of point C from the centre of
dipole. (1). E ∝P

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(2). ∝ ∴ = ( )
.............. (3)

i.e. Strength of electric field due to an electric ∴ Net electric field at he point C due to the
dipole rapidly decreases as the distance of the dipole is
point of observation increases.
[When r >> a, two charges can be considered to = +
be at a point together.]
i.e. = + +2 cos 2
15.> Electric Field Intensity at a Point on the
Equatorial Line of an Electric Dipole : i.e. = 2 +2 cos 2
E

i.e. = 2 (1 + cos 2 )
2 C
E i.e. = 4


i.e. =2
r
A B ∴ = ( )
-q O +q
From the △ AOC
2a
[* =2 = =
√

* = from B to C ∴ = ( )√

* = from C to A i.e. =
( )

* = + ]
∴ = , along B to A.
( )
Let,

2 = length of dipole AB. In vector form,

= distance of point C on the equatorial

line from the centre O of the dipole.
=−
( )

∴ Dipole moment is Thus the direction of electric field at C is

directed opposite to the direction of dipole
=2 .... ...... (1) moment of the dipole.
Electric field at the point C due to + q, is For short dipole, >> ,

= , along B to C can be neglected as compare to .

∴ = .............. (2) 1
( ) ∴ =−
4 0
3
Electric field at C due to – q is
If the point of observation lies on
= , along C to A midpoint of the dipole,

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1 And (b) a point Q, 15 cm away from O on a line

=− passing through O and normal to the axis of the
4 0
3
dipole, as shown in Fig.
16.> Comparison Between EAX and Eeq : P

If r >> a, then

Electric field at point on the axial line is A O B

-10 μC +10 μC
1 2p Hint :
Eax  .... .... (1)
4 0 r 3
 (a) = 41 2
3 [∵ a << r]
Electric field at a point on the equatorial line is 0

1
E eq 
1 p .... ..... (2)  (b) =− [∵ a << r]
4  0 r3 4 0
3

1.9 A system has two charges qA = 2.5 × 10–7 C

∴ = and qB = –2.5 × 10–7 C located at points A: (0, 0,
–15 cm) and B: (0,0, +15 cm), respectively.
∴ =2 What are the total charge and electric dipole
moment of the system?
Hint :
Note:
 qtot = q+ + q- = 0
Electric force acting on a charge by an
electric dipole of dipole moment is  P = q2a
= ∝
17.> Electric Field Lines (Electric line of
16.2 Comparison between Electric field due force) :
to dipole and Point charge:

Electric field due to a point charge

Electric field due to a dipole is Electric field lines are curved or straight
imaginary lines in the electric field such that the
∝ tangent at any point on the line gives the
direction of net electric field at that point.
Thus electric field intensity due to electric
dipole decreases at larger rate as compared to
that of point charge with increase in distance.

Example 1.10 Two charges ±10 μC are placed

5.0 mm apart. Determine the electric field at
(a) a point P on the axis of the dipole 15 cm Length / size of arrow is directly proportional to
away from its centre O on the side of the positive the strength of electric field.
charge, as shown in Fig.

A O B P
-10 μC +10 μC

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17.1. Electric Field Lines for +Ve Point 17.4. Electric Field Lines due to Two Equal
Charge : and Opposite Charges (electric dipole):

q>0 +q -q ⊖

Electric field lines are directed radially

outward from the +ve charge

17.2 Electric Field Lines for –Ve Point

Charge: Electric field lines originate from + ve charge
and terminate at – ve charge.

17.5. Uniform Electric Field :

⊝ + -
+ -
q<0 + -
+ -
Electric field lines are directed radially + -
inward towards the –ve point charge. + -
+ -
17.3. Electric Field Lines for Two Equal [ Electric field is said to uniform in a given
+Ve Charges : space if it intensity and direction is same at every
point of in the space.]

Uniform electric field is represented by

+ N equispaced parallel field lines as in the fig.
+
e.g. Electric field between two oppositely
charged infinitely thin plane sheet.

N represents the neutral point where the net 18.> Properties of Electric Field Lines:
electric field intensity is zero. It lies exactly in
the middle of the distance between the two 1. The electric lines of force are imaginary
charges. lines.

Note: 2. A unit positive charge placed in the electric

field tends to follow a path along the field
The neutral point for two similar but un line if it is free to do so.
equal charges lies in between the charges on the
line joining the two charges and closer to the 3. The electric field lines starts from a positive
charge of smaller magnitude. charge and terminate on a negative charge.

4. The tangent to an electric field line at any

point gives the direction of the electric field
at that point.

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5. Two electric lines of force can never cross particle moved along the electric field line if the
each other. charged particle starts moving from rest; and not
always if the charged particle was in motion.
If they do, then at the point of
intersection, there will be two tangents. It 1.7 (a) An electrostatic field line is a continuous
means there are two values of the electric curve. That is, a field line cannot have sudden
field at that point, which is not possible. breaks. Why not?
[Further, electric field being a vector (b) Explain why two field lines never cross each
quantity, there can be only one resultant field other at any point?
at the given point, represented by one tangent Hint :
at the given point for the given line of force.]
 (a) Property no. 3.
6. The magnitude of intensity of electric field in
a region is proportional to the number of field  (b) Property no. 5.
lines per unit cross sectional area
perpendicular to the field. 1.26 Which among the curves shown in Fig.
1.below cannot possibly represent electrostatic
i.e. Electric lines of force are closer field lines?
(crowded) where the electric field is stronger
and the lines spread out where the electric
field is weaker.

7. Electric lines of force are perpendicular to the

surface of charged bodies.

8. Electric field lines are perpendicular the

surface of conductor on which charges is in
equilibrium.

If the electric field lines are not

perpendicular to the surface of conductor, the
component of parallel to the surface would
cause the electrons to move and would set up
an electric current on the surface. But no
current flows in equilibrium condition.

9. In a charge-free region, electric field lines

can be taken to be continuous curves without
any breaks.

10. Electric field lines do not appear in closed

loop.

11. Electric lines of force contract lengthwise to

represent attraction between two unlike
charges.

12. Electric lines of force exert lateral (sideways)

pressure to represent repulsion between two
like charges.

Notes :

Electric field line gives the direction of

acceleration not of velocity, so the charge
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19.> Electric Dipole in External Uniform = ×

Electric Field :
E


A +q FA


θ
p


Direction of torque is given by Right handed

FB

-q B C cork screw rule. Here it is directed inward
and perpendicular to the plane containing and
[ * =
.

Notes :
* =−
(i) When and are in same direction (parallel)
* τ = F × perp. distance between the forces.]
i.e. = 0 ,
Let,
=0
2 = length of dipole AB.
(ii) When and are directed in opposite
∴ =2 direction (ant parallel),
= External uniform electric field in which i.e. = 180
the dipole is placed.
∴ =0
θ = angle between the and .
(iii)When and are perpendicular,
∴ Force experienced by the charge at A is
i.e. = 90
FA  qE ..... .... (1)
 
∴ =
Similarly force experienced by the charge at i.e. maximum torque acts on the dipole.
B is
(iv) Thus dipole moment of an electric dipole is
FB   qE ..... .... (2) said to be 1Cm if a torque of 1Nm acts on the
 
dipole when placed at right angle to the external
[As two equal and opposite forces of different uniform electric field of 1NC-1.

line of action produces a torque] (v) Net force acting on the dipole is

∴ The torque acting on the dipole is = + = − =0

= × Thus the dipole does not undergo

translational motion.
= × 2 sin
Due to the torque acting on the dipole, dipole
i.e. = sin undergo rotational motion

In vector form  Torque acting on the dipole tends to align the

dipole so that its dipole moment ( ) is

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parallel to the direction of electric field ( ) Here

so as attain stable equilibrium condition.
ΔA = area of the area element.
1.10 An electric dipole with dipole moment
4 × 10–9 C m is aligned at 30° with the direction Δq = charge of the area element.
of a uniform electric field of magnitude
5 × 104 NC–1. [[ Area vector : Area of a given surface can be
Calculate the magnitude of the torque acting on pseudo vector. It can be taken as vector quantity.
the dipole. The direction of area vector is taken as the
Hint: direction of the outward normal from the surface.

 = sin

1.27 (Adnal ex.) In a certain region of space,

electric field is along the z-direction throughout.
The magnitude of electric field is, however, not
constant but increases uniformly along the ]]
positive z-direction, at the rate of 105 NC–1 per
metre. What are the force and torque experienced  Volume Charge Density (ρ) :
by a system having a total dipole moment equal
to 10–7 Cm in the negative z-direction? It is defined as charge per unit volume of a
Hint: charged body.
∆
 For short dipole, pz = qdz i.e. = Cm-3
∆

 = 10 Here,

 = . = = ΔV = Volume of the volume element.

Δq = charge of the volume element

 = sin 180 = 0
21.> Electric Flux ( E)
20.> Continuous Charge Distribution:
 Linear charge density (λ):
θ
It is defined as the charge per unit length of
the line charge.
∆
i .e. = Cm-1
∆
The electric flux through a surface held
Here. inside an electric field is defined as the total
number of electric field lines passing normally
Δl = length of a line element. through the surface.
Δq = charge of the line element.
= . (Nm2C-1)
 Surface Charge Density (σ) :
i.e. =
It is defined as the charge per unit charged
surface area. ∴ is a scalar quantity.

∆
i.e. = Cm-2
∆

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22.> Gauss’ Law in Electrostatics : If the medium surrounding charge has

di-electric constant ‘K’, then
Total electric flux through the closed surface
‘S’ in vacuum is times the total charge ‘Q’ =
enclosed by the surface.
Here,

i.e. =  E.dS = ε = absolute permittivity of the medium.

 
S

i.e. = [∵ = ]
[[Gaussian Surface:
This is an imaginary surface drawn to find Note :
the flux through a given surface. The surface
 Electric flux through any closed surface is
much passes through the point where electric
independent of the size and shape of the
field is to be determined.
Gaussian surface.
Gaussian surface should be taken in
 Charges outside the Gaussian surface do not
accordance to symmetry if there is symmetry of
contribute to the net electric flux through the
electric field. ]] surface.
Charges outside the Gaussian surface do not  Gauss’ theorem is base on dependence on
contribute to the net electric flux over the Inverse square of distance in Coulomb’s law.
surface. Thus it is applicable to any field obeying
inverse square law. It will not hold in case of
Notes :- departure from inverse square law.
(a) Electric flux contributed by a +ve point Example 1.11 The electric field components in
charge is taken as + ve (i.e. outward electric flux
= , = = 0, in which
/
Fig. are
is taken as +ve.)
= 800 N/C m1/2. Calculate (a) the flux
(b) Inward electric flux is taken as –ve. Thus through the cube, and (b) the charge within the
electric flux contributed by a – ve point charge is cube. Assume that a = 0.1 m.
taken – ve. Y
If the closed surface encloses discrete
distribute charges.

Let q1, q2, q3, ...., qn be the discrete charges a a

closed surface, then the net charge enclosed in
the closed surface is X
a a
a
= + + + ⋯+
Z
∴ =
Hint :
If the closed surface contains equal number
of charges of equal magnitude but opposite in  (a) = =0 [∵ θ = ± π/2]
sign, then the net charge enclosed,
 EL = αa1/2
Qnet = + q – q = 0
 = . = . cos 180 = − .
∴ = =0

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 ER = α(2a)1/2 (c)

 = . = . cos 0 = + .  = +

 = + (d)

 (b) =  =

Example 1.12 An electric field is uniform, and 1.15 Consider a uniform electric field
in the positive X direction for positive x, and = 3 × 10 î N/C.
uniform with the same magnitude but in the
negative x direction for negative x. It is given (a) What is the flux of this field through a square
that = 200 ̂ N/C for x > 0 and of 10 cm on a side whose plane is parallel to the
yz plane?
= – 200 ̂ / for x < 0. A right circular
cylinder of length 20 cm and radius 5 cm has its (b) What is the flux through the same square if
centre at the origin and its axis along the x-axis the normal to its plane makes a 60° angle with
so that one face is at x = +10 cm and the other is the x-axis?
at x = –10 cm as n the Fig. Hint :
(a) What is the net outward flux through each flat
face?  (a) = . = . cos 0 = + .
(b) What is the flux through the side of the
cylinder?
 (b) = . = . cos 60 = + .
(c) What is the net outward flux through the
cylinder? 1.16 What is the net flux of the uniform electric
field of Exercise 1.15 through a cube of side 20
(d) What is the net charge inside the cylinder? cm oriented so that its faces are parallel to the
coordinate planes?
Y Hint :

 = . = . cos 180 = − .
5 cm
 = . = . cos 0 = + .
X
 = + =0
Hint : 1.17 Careful measurement of the electric field at
the surface of a black box indicates that the net
(a)
outward flux through the surface of the box is
8.0 × 10 Nm2/C.
 = – 200 ̂ /
(a) What is the net charge inside the box?
(b) If the net outward flux through the surface of
 = . = . cos 180 = − .
the box were zero, could you conclude that there
were no charges inside the box? Why or Why
 = +200 ̂ / not?
Hint:
 = . = . cos 0 = + .

(b)  (a) =

 ⊥  (b) No, only that the net charge inside is

zero.
 =0 i.e. (∑q = 0)

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1.18 A point charge +10 μC is a distance 5 cm 23.1 > Electric Field Intensity due to an
directly above the centre of a square of side 10 Infinitely Long Straight Uniform
cm, as shown in Fig. What is the magnitude of Charge Wire :
the electric flux through the square? (Hint: Think
of the square as one face of a cube with edge 10
ds

cm.)

+ + + + + + + + + + + +
E

1
5 cm
2
E

P

10 cm 3 E

10 cm
Hint: ds


 Taking the point charge to be at the centre of [ * Cylindrical Gaussian Surface.

a cube, flux through the cube
* Q = λl
 =
* .
 Flux through a square face is =
* =  E.dS =  . cos
 

1.19 A point charge of 2.0 μC is at the centre of a S S

cubic Gaussian surface 9.0 cm on edge. What is

the net electric flux through the surface?
Hint:
* = 
S1
. + 
S2
. + 
S3
. ]

 = Let

λ = linear charge density.

1.20 A point charge causes an electric flux of
– 1.0 × 10 Nm2/C to pass through a spherical E = electric field at point P.
Gaussian surface of 10.0 cm radius centred on
the charge. r = perpendicular distance point ‘p’
(a) If the radius of the Gaussian surface were from line charge.
doubled, how much flux would pass through the
surface? A cylindrical Gaussian surface of radius ‘r’
(b) What is the value of the point charge? and length ‘l’ with line charge as its axis is
Hint: drawn passing through the point P.

 
∴ Charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface
 (a) = . = = .4
Q = λl .... .... .... (1)
S S

 (b) =
Let
23. Application of Gauss’ Law dS = Area of area element.

According to Gauss’ theorem,

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23.2.> Electric Field Due to a Uniformly

 E.ds  
1
Q
 
S 0 Charged Infinite Plane Sheet.:
i.e.  E.ds  l
  1
S
0 + d
But +
d d

+ + + + + + +
+ + + + + + +
(2)
 E.ds   E .ds   E.ds   .ds
E
       
p
S S1 S2 S3 (3) (1)
+ r
   .ds  l ... ... (2)
  1
∴ E.ds  E.ds  E +
   
S1 S2 S3
0

For the surface S1 and S3 [ * Cylindrical Gaussian Surface.

⊥ * Q = σS

∴ E.ds  0 * .

For surface S2 *  E.ds  E.ds cos 

 
S
∥

∴ E .d s  E .ds
  * = 
S1
. + 
S2
. + 
S3
. ]

 E.ds   E.ds  
1 Let
∴ l
 

= Perpendicular distance of point P from

S2 S2 0

a uniformly charged infinite plane sheet.

i.e. E  ds 
1
l
S2
0 σ = surface charge density of the plane
sheet.
i.e. E .2 lr  1  l
0 = Electric field at the point P.

A cylindrical Gaussian surface of is drawn

∴ = .... .... ... (3) passing through the point P is drawn as in the fig.

In vector form, = Area of the circular faces of the

Gaussian surface

= ̂ .... .... (4) ∴ The charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface

is

OR = ̂= ̂ Q = σS s... (1)

Let
1.23 An infinite line charge produces a field of
9 × 104 N/C at a distance of 2 cm. Calculate the ds = Area of area element.
linear charge density.
Hint: According to Gauss’ theorem,

 =

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23.2.1 For Finitely Thick Sheet.

 E.ds  
1
Q
 

{
0


S

1 Taking the front and the back surfaces as

E .d s  S
 
i.e.
0 independent infinitely thin plane sheets, }
S

For finitely thick plane sheet electric field at

But
a point is due to the electric field of the back and
 E .d s   E . d s   E .d s   E . d s
        the front surfaces.

∴ The net electric field at the point

S S1 S2 S3

∴
  
1
E .d s  E .d s  E .d s   S ... (2)
     
0
= +
S1 S2 S3

For the surface

=> = +
E ∥ dS
∴ =
∴ . =

For surface S2
23.2.2 > Electric Field Between Two Thin
⊥ Charge Sheets :

(3) (2)
∴ . =0 σ2 (1)
σ1
+ +
 
 E .d s  E .d s 
1
S + +
+ +
E1 E2
   
+ +
 
0 PE

+ + P
+ +
S1 S3
1
 E  ds  E  ds 
1 + +
S E2

+ +
0 + + + +
S1 S3
+ +
 ES  ES 
1
S + +
0
1
 2 ES  S
0
Let
∴ = .... (3)
 1 = surface charge density of surface S1
In vector form,
 2 = surface charge density of surface S2
= E1 = electric field at P due to S1.


Where
E 2 = electric field at P due to S2.


= unit vector normal and outward to the

surface. ∴ = ...... (1)

Note: And
Electric field at a point due to an infinite = .... ... (2)
plane sheet is independent of the distance of the
point from the sheet.
At the point P between the two plates,

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= + And

i.e. = + = ... .... ...(2)

i.e. = − [∵ =− ] At the point P between the two plates,

= +
∴ = ( − )
=> = +
Magnitude wise,
=> = + [∵ =−
= ( − )

∴ = ( + )
If =

E=0 Magnitude wise,

If the point P is outside the plates (i.e. in the = ( + )

region (1) and (3)
If = =
= ( + )
=
If = =
If the point P is outside the plates (i.e. in the
= region (1) and (3)

23.2.3 > Electric Field due to Two Thin = ( − )

Unlike charge Sheets :
If = =
(3) (2)
σ2 (1) =0
σ1
+ -
+ - 1.24 Two large, thin metal plates are parallel and
E1

+ + - -
E close to each other. On their inner faces, the

+ P 1 - P
+ - plates have surface charge densities of opposite
+ -
E2

+ E2 - signs and of magnitude 17.0 ×10–22 C/m2. What

+ + - -
+ - is :
+ - (a) in the outer region of the first plate,
(b) in the outer region of the second plate, and
Let (c) between the plates?
Hint:
 1 = surface charge density of surface S1
(a)
 2 = surface charge density of surface S2  =

E1 = electric field at P due to S1.


 =−

E 2 = electric field at P due to S2.


 = + =0

∴ = ...... (1) (b)

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 = A spherical Gaussian surface ‘S’ of radius ‘r’

is drawn passing through the point P.
 =− Let,

 = + =0 = area of the area element on the

Gaussian surface.
(c)
∴ Charge enclosed by Gaussian surface
 =
= 4
 = According to Gauss’ theorem,

 = + =2  .dS = ε Q
  1
E
0

23.3.> Electric Field Due to a Uniformly

S

Charged Spherical Shell: But ∥

[* Spherical Gaussian Surface. ∴ . = .

∴  E.dS = ε
1
* Q = σS Q
0
S

* .
 dS
1

 .ds  E.ds cos 

i.e. = Q
* E ] ε0
 
S
S
Let, i.e. 4 = Q

= Surface charge density of a charged

spherical shell. ∴ = ..... .... (1)
= Radius of the spherical shell.
The above expression is same as that of
= Distance of the point P from the centre. electric field at point produced by a point charge
placed at the centre O.
= electric field at P.
Thus for points outside the shell, the field due
(i) For the field outside the sphere. to a uniformly charged shell is as if the entire
charge of the shell is concentrated at its centre.

P (ii) Electric field on the surface of the shell:

R r

O R P

r
O

Let the point P lie outside the charged

spherical shell. i.e when the point P lies on the surface of the
charged shell,

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The Gaussian surface just encloses the 3.> Maximum value of electric charge that can
charged spherical shell. be given to a spherical conductor without
discharging is 10% of K of the surrounding
Thus enclosed charge is = .4 medium.

And 1.21 A conducting sphere of radius 10 cm has an

unknown charge. If the electric field 20 cm from
r=R the centre of the sphere is 1.5 × 103 N/C and
points radially inward, what is the net charge on
∴ = the sphere?
.

Hint :

∴ = ... ... ... (2)  =

(iii) Electric field inside the shell: 1.22 A uniformly charged conducting sphere of
2.4 m diameter has a surface charge density of
i.e. when point P lies inside the shell. 80.0 μC/m2. (a) Find the charge on the sphere.

(b) What is the total electric flux leaving the

R surface of the sphere?
Hint :
P
r
O  (a) =

 (b) =

The total charge enclosed by the Gaussian [ Motion of charged particle in uniform
surface is electric field:
Q=0
+ + + + +
∴ E=0
Y
(0,0)
Thus, the field due to a uniformly charged
thin shell is zero at all points inside the shell. P X
(x,y)
Note:

1> Electric field intensity is maximum at the

point on the surface of the charged shell. - - - -
2> Variation of electric field with distance from = charged of a particle moving in a uniform
the centre of the shell is as shown bellow. electric field.
E
= initial velocity of the particle.
Emax = uniform electric field in which the particle
moves.

( , ) = co-ordinate of a point at any instant of

time t.
r<Rr=R r>R
∴ = = constant

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∴ = ....... (1)

And

= 0, as the particle was moving along

X – axis.

∴ =

i.e. =

∴ = ..... (2)

Above equation is an equation of parabola line.

Hence inside uniform electric field charged

particles follow parabolic paths. ]

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Chap: 2
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Electrostatic Potential & Capacitance
Class 12

1.0 Line Integral of Electric Field (Work moving a unit positive charge from one point to
Done by Electric Field): another against the electrostatic forces.

Negative Line Integral of Electric Field i.e. = − = = ∆V

represents the work done by the electric field on
a unit positive charge in moving it from one
point to another in the electric field.  It is a scalar quantity.

i.e. = = . =− .  S I Unit is volt (V)

Note: Potential difference between two points in an

electric field is said to be 1 volt if 1 joule of work
1. The line integral of electric field is path is done in moving a positive charge of 1 C from
independent.
one point to other against the electrostatic forces.
2. Line integral of electric field over a closed
path is zero. Note:

3. Therefore, electric field is ‘conservative Work done in moving a charge ‘q’ through a
field’. potential difference of ‘ΔV’,

2.0 Electric Potential (V) : = .Δ

[Electric potential is a physical quantity 4.0 Potential due to Point Charge :

which determines the flow of charges from one
body to another.] Q

It is defined as the amount of work done in O P B A

r q0
taking a unit positive charge from infinity to that
point against the electrostatic forces.
x
i.e. V = ∞
WP
[ * VP 
q0
 It is a scalar quantity.
* WP   dW
P

 S I Unit is volt (V)



Electric potential at a point in an electric * dW  F .d x

 

field is said to be 1 volt if 1 joule of work is done 1 Qq0

* F ]

in moving a positive charge of 1 C from infinity 4 0 x 2
to that point against the electrostatic forces.

3.0 (Electrostatic) Potential Difference Let,

(V≡∆V): = potential at point P due to charge Q at O.

+q +q0
= Distance of point P from O.
O B A
= Distance of point A from O.
Potential difference between two points in an
electric field is the amount of work done in ∴ Force acting on the test charge q0 placed at A

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= (iv) Electric potential due to a point charge has

spherical symmetry.
Let,
i.e. V depends only on distance not on direction
= small displacement of test charge from of observation.
A to B against the electrostatic force.
 Variation of ‘V’ And ‘E’ with Distance :
∴ Work done in taking q0 from A to B
∝
= .

∴ =− . ∝

∴ Total work done in moving the charge q0 r

from infinity to point P
5.0 Superposition Principle:
=
Electric potential at a point due to charges
i.e. =− . around it is the algebraic sum of all the
individual electric potential at that point.
=− .

= .

= . −

∴ = .

∴ Electric potential at P i.e. VP = V1±V2±V3±.....±Vn

= Example 2.1
(a) Calculate the potential at a point P due to a
charge of 4×10–7C located 9 cm away.
= (b) Hence obtain the work done in bringing a
charge of 2×10–9 C from infinity to the point P.
Does the answer depend on the path along which
Note: the charge is brought?
Hint :
(i) ∝
 (a) =
(ii) Electric potential at infinity is taken as zero
(0).  (b) W = qV
No, work done will be path independent. Any
(iii) If Q >0 , V is +ve arbitrary infinitesimal path can be resolved
into two perpendicular displacements: One
If Q < 0, V is –ve along and another perpendicular to . The

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work done corresponding to the 2.13 A cube of side b has a charge q at each of its
perpendicular to displacement will be zero. vertices. Determine the potential and electric
field due to this charge array at the centre of the
Example 2.2 Two charges +3×10–8 C and cube.
–2×10–8 C are located 15 cm apart. At what Hint :
point on the line joining the two charges is the
electric potential zero? Take the potential at  =
infinity to be zero.
Hint :  VP = V1±V2±V3±.....±Vn
 =  = ̂

 = , = 15 −
 = + + + ⋯+
 VP = V1+V2 = 0
2.14 Two tiny spheres carrying charges 1.5 µC
2.1 Two charges 5×10–8C and –3×10–8 C are and 2.5 µC are located 30 cm apart. Find the
located 16 cm apart. At what point(s) on the line potential and electric field:
joining the two charges is the electric potential (a) at the mid-point of the line joining the two
zero? Take the potential at infinity to be zero. charges, and
Hint : (b) at a point 10 cm from this midpoint in a plane
normal to the line and passing through the
mid-point.
 =
Hint :
 = , = 16 −
 =
 VP = V1+V2 = 0
 VP = V1±V2±V3±.....±Vn
2.2 A regular hexagon of side 10 cm has a charge
5 μC at each of its vertices. Calculate the  = ̂
potential at the centre of the hexagon.
Hint:  = + + + ⋯+
 Diagonal = side of hexagon = r.
6.0 Electric Potential at a Point on the Axial
Line of a Dipole :
 =
2a
 VP = V1±V2±V3±.....±Vn -q O +q C
2.12 A charge of 8 mC is located at the origin. - +
A B
Calculate the work done in taking a small charge r
of –2 ×10–9 C from a point P (0, 0, 3 cm) to a
point Q (0, 4 cm, 0), via a point R (0, 6 cm, 9
cm). [ * p = q.2a
Hint : 1 q
* V 
4 0 AC
 =
1 q
* V 
4 0 BC
 = −
* V V V ]

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Let,  Electric Potential at a Point on the

Equatorial Line of a Dipole :
2 = Length of dipole AB.
C
= distance of point C from centre O of the
dipole.
∴ Dipole moment of the dipole.
r
= .2
A - + B
-q O +q
Electric potential at C due to – q charge
2a
1 q
V 
4 0 AC
And electric potential at C due + q charge
[ * p = q.2a
1 q
1 q * V 
V  4 0 AC
4 0 BC
1 q
∴ Electric potential at C due to the dipole is * V 
4 0 BC
= + * V V V ]
= − Let,

2 = length of dipole AB.

= ( )
− ( )
= distance of point C from centre O of
= −( the dipole.
( ) )
∴ Dipole moment of the dipole.
( ) ( )
=
= .2
= Electric potential at C due to – q charge

1 q
∴ = V 
4 0 AC

For short dipole, And electric potential at C due + q charge

1 q
V 
>> 4 0 BC
∴ can be neglected Electric potential at C due to the dipole

∴ = V V V
1 q 1 q
 
4 0 BC 4 0 AC
But

AC = BC

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∴ V=0 = .2

Thus the net electrostatic potential at a point ∴ Electric potential at C due to – q charge
in the electric field due to an electric dipole at
any point on the equatorial line is zero. 1 q
V 
4 0 r1
Note :
And electric potential at C due + q charge
Work done in moving a charge
1 q
along equatorial line V 
4 0 r2
= × =0
∴ Electric potential at C due to the dipole
i.e. No work is done in moving a charge from
one point to another on the equatorial line of a V V V
dipole.
1 q 1 q
 Electric Potential at any Point from an  
4 0 r2 4 0 r1
Electric Dipole :
q 1 1
C    
4 0  r2 r1 

r1 
q r1  r2 
D 4 0 r1r2
r2
r
θ As >> 2
-q +q
A O B [ ∵ BD ⊥ AC & BD ⊥ BC ]
2a
r1  r2   AD  2a cos
[ * = .2
r1 r2  r 2
1 q
* V 
4 0 r1 ∴ =

1 q
* V  ∴ =
4 0 r2

* V V V ]  In vector form,

1 . 1 . ̂
Let, = =
4 4
2 = length of dipole AB.
Notes :
= distance of point C from centre O of the
dipole. 1> When C lies on the axial line

∴ Dipole moment f the dipole. i.e. θ = 00 or 1800.

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V 
1 p * = . ]
4 0 r 2
Let,
2.> When C lies on equatorial line
dr = a very small distance between
i.e. θ = 900 point A and B.

V=0 = constant electric field between A

and B due to point charge + q at O.
7.0 Difference between Electric potential due
dV = potential difference between A
to point charge and dipole: and B.
i.> Potential due to point charge depends only The electric force acting on the test charge q0
on r, whereas potential due to dipole depends on placed at A
r as well as angle between position vector and
dipole moment. =

ii.> Potential due to point charge has spherical ∴ Work done by the external force to move q0
symmetry, whereas potential due to dipole has from A to B (without acceleration) against is
cylindrical symmetry about its axis.
= . = 180 = −
1
iii.> For point charge, V  .
r ∴ Potential difference between A and B is
1
For dipole, V  2
r = = −E. dr
V

∴ =− (volt/ metre i.e. V/m)

∝
i.e. The electric field at any point is equal to
∝ the negative of the potential gradient at that
point.
r
Notes:
8.0 Equipotential Surfaces :
i.> Electric field is directed in the direction in
It is a surface with a constant value of which the potential decreases steepest.
potential at all points on the surface.
ii.> Its magnitude is given by the change in the
 Relation between E and V : magnitude of potential per unit displacement
normal to the equipotential surface at the point.

+q VA = V iii> When E = 0,
VB =V + dV
B A
O
=0

[ * = V = constant

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i.e. V is not always zero, but V = constant. 4.> Electric field lines are normal to
equipotential surface at that point.
 Properties of Equipotential Surface :
If the field were not normal to the
1.> No two equipotential surfaces can intersect equipotential surface, it would have non-zero
each other. component along the surface. To move a unit test
charge against the direction of the component of
If they intersect, at the point intersection
the field, work would have to be done. But this is
there will be two values of electric potential,
in contradiction to the definition of an
which is impossible.
equipotential surface (there is no potential
2.> Equipotential surfaces are closer together in difference between any two points on the surface
the region of stronger electric field and farther and no work is required to move a test charge on
apart in the region of weak electric field. the surface). Hence electric must normal to the
surface.
We have,

=−
[ Work done in moving a charge q through a
small displacement of on an equipotential
i.e. =− surface in the electric field is

= .
∴ ∝
But work done in moving the charge q over
Thus spacing between the equipotential
surfaces will be smaller in the regions stronger equipotential surface is zero.
electric field as compare to weaker electric field
regions. i.e. dW = 0

3.> No work is done in moving a test charge ∴ E. dr = 0

over an equipotential surface.
i.e. E ⊥ dr
Let
Hence electric field is perpendicular to
dr = small distance between two point on an equipotential surface. ]
equipotential surface.
 Equipotential Surfaces of Charge Systems:
dV = potential difference between the two
points. (i) For a + ve point charge.:

Dotted lines represent equipotential surfaces.

∴ Work done in moving a test charge q0
between the two points

= .

But,

dV = 0 [Being equipotential surface.]

∴ dW = 0 Here, dotted lines represent equipotential

surfaces.
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(ii) For a –ve point charge: (vi) Equipotential surface of uniform electric
field:

Here, dotted lines represent equipotential

surfaces. Here, planes represent equipotential surfaces.
(iii) For a dipole: 2.34 Describe schematically the equipotential
surfaces corresponding to
(a) a constant electric field in the z-direction,
(b) a field that uniformly increases in magnitude
+ - but remains in a constant (say, z) direction,
(c) a single positive charge at the origin, and
(d) a uniform grid consisting of long equally
spaced parallel charged wires in a plane.
Hint:
Here, dotted lines represent equipotential
 (a) Equi-spaced planes parallel to XY plane.
surfaces.
 (b)Planes parallel to XY plane, spaced
(iv) For a pair of like charges of unequal between the successive planes decreases
magnitude:
moving along +ve Z-axis.

 (c) Concentric spherical surfaces with centre

at the origin.

q1+ +q  Equipotential surfaces shapes changes

N 2
periodically near the grid. Shape of the
equipotential surfaces is plane at far off
distances from the grid.

q1 > q2 9.> Electric potential due to a uniformly

Here, dotted lines represent equipotential charged thin spherical shell :
surfaces.

(v) For a pair of equal and like charges :

R
0666666
6666666 P
O r
6666666

+ +
N
Let,

= charge of the spherical shell.

Here, dotted lines represent equipotential = radius of the shell.

surfaces.
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= distance of a point P from centre of the  Variation of potential due to charged

shell. spherical shell is as shown:
V
= potential at the point P due to the shell.

(i) When the point P lies outside the shell:

Total charge of the shell seems to be

concentrated at the centre of the shell. Hence r
electric potential at the point P O R
2.3 Two charges 2 μC and –2 μC are placed at
= points A and B 6 cm apart.
(a) Identify an equipotential surface of the
[∴ dV = - Edr system.
(b) What is the direction of the electric field at
every point on this surface?
= −
∞ Hint:
= − . ∞  (a)
B A
=− . − -
∞ - 2 μC + 2 μC
∴ = . ]
(ii) When the point P lies on the surface of the  (b) Normal to the plane in the direction AB.
shell:
2.16 (a) Show that the normal component of
= electrostatic field has a discontinuity from one
side of a charged surface to another given by
∴ =
− . = , where is a unit vector
(iii) When the point P lies inside the shell : normal to the surface at a point and σ is the
surface charge density at that point. (The
Here, direction of is from side 1 to side 2.)
Hence show that just outside a conductor, the
dV electric field is .
E
dr (b) Show that the tangential component of
electrostatic field is continuous from one side of
Electric field inside the shell is zero.
a charged surface to another.
i.e. E=0 [Hint: For (a), use Gauss’s law. For, (b) use the
fact that work done by electrostatic field on a
∴ dV = 0 closed loop is zero.]
Hint :
i.e V = Constant (= potential on the surface) (a)
∴ =

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 =− As there is no electric field at the point A, no

work is done in bringing the charge q1 to A from
infinity.
 =
i.e. = 0
 − . = − (− ) =
Let
 (b) Inside the conductor = Distance of point B from A.
=0
∴ −0 = = . Electric potential at B due to charge q1 is

1 q1
 Work done in taking a unit positive charge V1  .
along a closed path over the surface of the 4 0 r
charged surface.
∴ Work done to bring q2 to B from infinity
2.17 A long charged cylinder of linear charged
density λ is surrounded by a hollow co-axial W2  V1.q2
conducting cylinder. What is the electric field in
the space between the two cylinders? 1 q1.q2
 .
Hint: 4 0 r
 For a point outside the cylinder, entire charge
∴ Total work done in assembling the system of
of the cylinder seems to be concentrated at its
charges is
axis.
W = W 1 + W2
 Electric field be due to outer cylinder in its
interior is zero.
∴ =0+ . = .
 Electric field a point between the two
cylinders is This work done is stored as potential energy
= , U of the system

= distance of the point from the common ∴ = .

axis.
 Potential Energy of System of Three Point
10.0 Potential Energy of System of Point Charges:
Charges in absence of external electric
A q1
field:

The electric potential energy of a system of

point charges is defined as the amount of work r12 r13
done in bringing the charges from infinity to
assemble them at their locations.
Bq C
r23 q3
 Potential Energy of System of two Point
2

Charges:
Let,
A B
q1 r q2 = AB = distance between q1 and q2.

=AC = distance between q1 and q3.

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=BC = distance between q2 and q3. Notes:

As there is no electric field at A, potential at (i) The potential energy is characteristic of

A is zero. the present state of configuration, and not the
way the state is achieved.
Hence no work is done in bringing q1 from
infinity to A. i.e. Potential energy of a system of charges is
independent of the manner in which the charges
i.e. W1 = 0 are assembled. This is due to the fact that
electrostatic force is a conservative force.
Let
(ii) The potential energy of system of like charges
= potential at B due to q1. is positive (e.g. that of two positive charges)

∴ . (iii) If the potential energy of the system of

charges is –ve (e.g. a system of two unlike
∴ Work done in bringing q2 from infinity to B charges), then +ve work has to be done to take
is the charges to the infinity.

1 q1q2  Potential Energy Difference (∆U) :

W21  q2V1 
4 0 r12 Q q

Let O i f

= potential at C due to charges q1 Let the charge q moves from initial position
and q2. (i) to final position (f).

1  q1 q2  Let
∴ V1, 2    
4 0  r12 r23 
= position vector of ‘i’ w.r.t O.
∴ Work done in bringing q3 from infinity to C = position vector of ‘f’ w.r.t O.
1  q1q3 q2 q3 
W31, 2   q3V1, 2    
4 0  r13 r23  ∴ Potential energy of q at i

= .
∴ Total work done in assembling the system of
charges is
i.e. =
W  W1  W21  W31, 2 
Potential energy of q at f
1 q1q2 1  q1q3 q2 q3 
W  0     =
4 0 r12 4 0  r12 r23 
∴ The potential energy difference of q between
∴ = + + positions ‘i’ and ‘f’ is

This work done is stored as the potential ∆ = −

energy U of the system.
∴ ∆ = . −
∴ = + +

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Notes :  Sub Units of eV :

1. Work done in moving the charge from initial 1. 1m eV(milli) = 10-3 eV = 1.6 × 10-22 J
position to final position is
2. 1k eV(kilo) = 103 eV = 1.6 × 10-16 J
= ∆
3. 1M eV(mega) = 106 eV = 1.6 × 10-13 J
2. Work done in moving the charge from final
to initial against the electrostatic force is 4. 1G eV (giga) = 109 eV = 1.6 × 10-10 J

= −∆ 5. 1T eV (tera) = 1012 eV = 1.6 × 10-7 J

 Potential Energy of System of Two

11.0 Potential Energy in an External Field : Separated Point Charges in an External
Potential energy of charge q at a point in the Field :
electric field is the work done by the external A B
force in bringing the charge q from infinity to q1 r q2
that point.
Let,
Let,
r = distance between the charges q1 and q2.
V = potential at a point in an external
electric V1 = Electric potential of electric field at A.
field.
V2 = Electric potential of electric field at B.
∴ The amount of work done in moving a charge
q from infinity to the point against the field is Thus potential energy of the system is

U = P.E. of q1 when placed at A + P.E. of q1

= when placed at A + P.E. due to interaction
between q1 and q2.
This work done is stored as the potential
energy of the charge q.
∴ = + +
i.e. =
Example 2.3
i.e. = Fig (a) and (b) show the field lines of a positive
and negative point charge respectively.
Thus electric potential at a given point in an
external electric field can be defined as the
potential energy of a unit positive charge at that
point.

 Electron volt (eV):

It is the potential energy gained or lost by an

electron in moving through a potential difference (a) Give the signs of the potential difference
of 1 volt. VP – VQ; VB – VA.
(b) Give the sign of the potential energy
i.e. 1 1.6 × 10 difference of a small negative charge between the
points Q and P; A and B.
(c) Give the sign of the work done by the field in

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moving a small positive charge from Q to P. (a) Find the work required to put together this
(d) Give the sign of the work done by the arrangement.
external agency in moving a small negative (b) A charge q0 is brought to the centre
charge from B to A. E of the square, the four charges being held fixed
(e) Does the kinetic energy of a small negative at its corners. How much extra work is needed to
charge increase or decrease in going from B to do this?
A? Hint:
Hint:
 (a) (i) Work needed to bring charge +q to A
 (a) As ∝ , VP > VQ. when no charge is present elsewhere = 0
(zero).
Thus (VP – VQ) is positive.
 (ii) Work needed to bring –q to B when +q is
 Also VB is less negative than VA.
at A = (charge at B) × (electrostatic potential
Thus, VB > VA or (VB – VA) is positive.
at B due to charge +q at A)
 (b) A small negative charge will be attracted
 (iii) Work needed to bring charge +q to C
towards positive charge. The negative charge
when +q is at A and –q is at B
moves from higher potential energy to lower
potential energy. Therefore the sign of = (charge at C)× (potential at C due to
potential energy difference of a small charges at A and B)
negative charge between Q and P is positive.
 (iv)Work needed to bring –q to D when +q at
Similarly, (P.E.)A > (P.E.)B and hence sign
A, –q at B, and +q at C
of potential energy differences is positive.
= (charge at D) × (potential at D due to
 (c) In moving a small positive charge from Q charges at A, B and C)
to P, work has to be done by an external
 The total work required = Add the work done
agency against the electric field. Therefore,
in steps (i), (ii), (iii) and (iv).
work done by the field is negative.
 The work done depends only on the
 (d) In moving a small negative charge from
arrangement of the charges, and not how they
B to A work has to be done by the external
are assembled. By definition, this is the total
agency. It is positive.
electrostatic energy of the charges.
 (e) Due to force of repulsion on the negative
 (b) The extra work necessary to bring a
charge, velocity decreases and hence the
charge q0 to the point E when the four
kinetic energy decreases in going from B to
charges are at A, B, C and D
A.
= q0 × (electrostatic potential at E due to the
Example 2.4 Four charges are arranged at the charges at A, B, C and D).
corners of a square ABCD of side d, as shown in
 The electrostatic potential at E = 0 (zero)
fig.
+q -q  Hence no work is required to bring any
A charge to point E.
B
Example 2.5
q0 a) Determine the electrostatic potential energy of
a system consisting of two charges 7 μC and
E –2 μC (and with no external field) placed at (–9
cm, 0, 0) and (9 cm, 0, 0) respectively.
(b) How much work is required to separate the
-q +q two charges infinitely away from each other?
D C (c) Suppose that the same system of charges is

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now placed in an external electric field  Minimum work required = 0 – U

E = A (1/r 2); A = 9×105 C m–2. What would the
electrostatic energy of the configuration be? 2.19 If one of the two electrons of a H2 molecule
Hint : is removed, we get a hydrogen molecular ion .
In the ground state of a , the two protons are
 (a) = = – 0.7 J. separated by roughly 1.5 Å, and the electron is
roughly 1 Å from each proton. Determine the
potential energy of the system. Specify your
 (b) W = U2 – U1 = 0.7 J.
choice of the zero of potential energy.
 (c) The mutual interaction energy of the two Hint:
charges remains unchanged. In addition, qe
there is the energy of interaction of the two
1Ao
charges with the external electric field.

 V = Er qp qp
1.5Ao
 = ( )+ ( )+ = 49.3 J
 = + +
2.18 In a hydrogen atom, the electron and proton
 Zero of potential is taken at infinity.
are bound at a distance of about 0.53 Å:
(a) Estimate the potential energy of the system in  Potential Energy of a Dipole in a Uniform
eV, taking the zero of the potential energy at Electric Field :
infinite separation of the electron from proton.
(b) What is the minimum work required to free
+q
the electron, given that its kinetic energy in the +
orbit is half the magnitude of potential energy
obtained in (a)? 2a
θ
(c) What are the answers to (a) and (b) above if
the zero of potential energy is taken at 1.06 Å
separation? − − -q
Hint:

 (a) =
[* = .2
 (b) =
* =
 E = EK +EP
* = .
 Minimum work required
= E∞ - E * = = ]
 (c) If the zero of potential energy is not taken
Let,
at infinity,
= − 2 = length of the dipole.
( ) ( )

= uniform electric field in which the

When the electron is taken from its initial
dipole is placed.
position 0.53 Å to 1.06 Å, with the minimum
required work being done, its kinetic energy is ∴ Dipole moment of the dipole.
zero.
= 2

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Let A dipole is said to be in equilibrium if the net

force and net torque acting on the dipole is zero.
θ = angle between the p and E
A dipole is said to be stable if it posses
∴ The torque acting on the dipole minimum potential energy.
= When, =0
Small work done in rotating the dipole
∴ =− . 0 =− .
through a small angle dθ against the torque
acting on it Thus when the dipole moment of the dipole is
placed parallel to the external electric field, the
= . dipole is said to in stable equilibrium.

∴ The total work done in rotating the dipole 2.> Position for equilibrium but unstable :
from an angle θ0 to angle
When, θ = 1800
=
∴ =− . 180 = + .

= . Thus when the dipole moment of the dipole is

placed anti parallel to the external electric field
=− the dipole is said to be in unstable equilibrium.

3.> Position for zero potential energy:

∴ = −
When, θ = 900
This work done is stored as potential energy
of the dipole. ∴ =− . 90 = 0

∴ = cos − cos Thus when the dipole moment of the dipole is

placed perpendicular to the external electric
When field the dipole posses zero potential energy(but
not the minimum PE).
θ0 = 900 and = , potential energy of the
Example 2.6
dipole
A molecule of a substance has a permanent
electric dipole moment of magnitude 10–29 C m.
= ( 90 − )
A mole of this substance is polarised (at low
temperature) by applying a strong electrostatic
∴ =− cos field of magnitude106 V m–1. The direction of the
field is suddenly changed by an angle of 60º.
In vector form Estimate the heat released by the substance in
aligning its dipoles along the new direction of the
field. For simplicity, assume 100% polarization
∴ =− . of the sample.
Hint.
Notes:
 θi = 00
1.> Position for stable equilibrium :

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=− cos 12.0 Electrostatics of Conductors:

 = 60

=− cos
-  +
 ∆U = Uf – Ui = heat generated - E ind +
2.21 Two charges – q and +q are located at - +
points (0, 0, –a) and (0, 0, a), respectively. - E0 +


E ext

What is the electrostatic potential at the points
(0, 0, z) and (x, y, 0)? Obtain the dependence of
- +
potential on the distance r of a point from the
origin when r/a >> 1. Due to the external electric field free
How much work is done in moving a small test electrons in the conductor moved opposite to
charge from the point (5, 0, 0) to (–7, 0, 0) along , thus negative charges get induced on the
the x-axis? Does the answer change if the path of
left side and positive charges on the right side of
the test charge between the same points is not
along the x-axis? the conductor. This process continues till the
Hint : induced electric field due to the induced
charges inside the conductor become equal to
 (a) The point lies on the axial line of the
but directed in opposite direction. Thus the
dipole.
net electric field inside the conductor is
∴ V=± ( ) = + =0

+ if the point is closer to + q.  Electric Field is Perpendicular to the

Surface of the Conductor at Every Point:
- if the point is closer to – q.
If were not normal to the surface, it would
r = z = distance of the point from the centre of have some non-zero component along the
the dipole. surface. Free charges on the surface of the
conductor would then experience force and
= ̂+ ̂+ move, which not possible in the static situation

= dipole moment of the dipole. ∴ should have no tangential component.

 (b) When r/a >>1 Thus electrostatic field at the surface of a

i.e. r >>> a charged conductor must be normal to the surface
at every point.
V=±
 Electric potential is constant within and on
i.e. ∝ the surface of the conductor:

 (c) The point lies on the equatorial line of the We have,

dipole.
∴ Potential at the point, V = 0 =− ,
∴ = Δ
where the symbols have their usual meaning.
 No, because work done by electrostatic field
between two points is independent of the path But inside the conductor = 0;
connecting the two points.

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And has no tangential component along the Let

surface.
Q = charge of a conductor.
=0
S = surface area of a Gaussian surface drawn
inside the conductor.
∴ = .
According to Gauss’ theorem,
Hence electric potential is constant
throughout the volume of the conductor. =∮ . =
Thus the surface of the conductor is an
equipotential surface. As electric field inside the conductor,

=0
[ As has no tangential component on the
surface of the conductor, no electric force acts on =0
the test charge as it moves on the surface.

i.e. q0.E = 0 ∴ =0

∴ Work done in moving a test charge against Thus no excess charge inside the conductor
electrostatic force on the surface through a and excess charge Q must lies on the surface of
the conductor.
distance is zero
 Electric Field at the Surface of a Charged
i.e. = = =0
Conductor is =
∴ V = constant ]
Note :

Surface charge distribution may be different

at different points.

=
+ +
+ Let,
σmin + + σmax
+ = surface charge density of the conductor.
+ +
= electric field a point on the surface.
Every conductor is an equipotential volume
(three- dimensional) rather than just an A cylindrical Gaussian surface is drawn
equipotential surface (two- dimensional). passing through the point as in the fig.
 The Net Charge in the Interior of a Let
Conductor is Zero and any Excess Charge
Resides on its Surface. :
= Cross sectional area of the Gaussian
S surface.
E=0 ∴ Charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface,

= . .

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According to Gaussian theorem surface. What is the electric field

(a) inside the sphere
= . = (b) just outside the sphere
(c) at a point 18 cm from the centre of the
sphere?
∴ . =
σ.
Hint

Here  (a) Apply gauss’ theorem.

(b) & (c)

∥
 Entire charge of the conducting sphere lies at
. =
σ.
its centre.

 =
∴ =
σ

2.15 A spherical conducting shell of inner radius

In vector form, r1 and outer radius r2 has a charge Q.
(a) A charge q is placed at the centre of the shell.
= What is the surface charge density on the inner
and outer surfaces of the shell?
Here,
(b) Is the electric field inside a cavity (with no
charge) zero, even if the shell is not spherical,
= Unit vector along the normal in outward
but has any irregular shape? Explain.
direction. Hint :
 Electrostatic Shielding: (a) Inner surface

As no excess charge resides in the cavity in a  Charge induced in the inner surface by ‘q’
conductor, hence no electric field exists inside charge is – q.
the cavity.
 Net charge on inner surface is– q.
The phenomenon of making a region free
 Surface charge density is =
from any electric field is called electrostatic
shielding.
Outer surface
Application :
 Charge induced in the outer surface by ‘q’
charge is + q.
(i) It can be used to shield and protect sensitive
electronic devices from external electric field.  Net charge on inner surface is Q + q.

(ii) During lightening it is safe to stay inside car  Surface charge density is =
or bus, as the metallic body provides electrostatic
shielding from lightening. (b) By Gauss’s law, the net charge on the inner
surface enclosing the cavity (not having any
(iii) The outer covering in coaxial cables charge) must be zero. For a cavity of arbitrary
connected to ground provides electrostatic shape, this is not enough to claim that the electric
shielding to the signal carried in by the cable. field inside must be zero. The cavity may have
positive and negative charges with total charge
2.4 A spherical conductor of radius 12 cm has a zero. To dispose of this possibility, take a closed
charge of 1.6×10–7C distributed uniformly on its loop, part of which is inside the cavity along a

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field line and the rest inside the conductor. Since (ii) Non Polar dielectrics:
field inside the conductor is zero, this gives a net
work done by the field in carrying a test charge
over a closed loop. We know this is impossible
for an electrostatic field. Hence, there are no
field lines inside the cavity (i.e., no field), and no
charge on the inner surface of the conductor,
whatever be its shape.

14.0 Dielectrics : In non polar molecule, the centre of positive

charges coincides with the centre of negative
Dielectrics are the non conducting materials charges of a molecule.
in which induced charges are produced on their
faces on the application of electric fields. Polarisation of non polar dielectrics :

 Types of Dielectrics:

(i) Polar dielectrics:

In polar molecules, the centre of positive

charges does not coincide with the centre of
negative charges.
When electric field is applied, the positive
Each molecule has a dipole moment. charges are pushed in the direction of electric
The net dipole moment of the dipole is not zero. field and the electrons are pulled in the direction
opposite to the electric field. Due to separation
Polarisation of polar dielectric:
of effective centres of positive and negative
charges, dipole is formed.

Polarisation ( ) :

It is defined as the dipole moment per unit

volume.

i.e. =
In the absence of any external field, the
different permanent dipoles are oriented
randomly due to thermal agitation; so the total
dipole moment is zero.

In the presence of external field, the

individual dipole moments tend to align with the
field (though not complete). Thus the net dipole
moment is directed along the external field, i.e.,
the dielectric is polarised.

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A rectangular dielectric slab placed in a  Dielectric Strength:

uniform external field parallel to two of its
Dielectric strength is the maximum value of
faces. The field causes a uniform polarisation
the electric field intensity that can be applied to
of the dielectric. Inside the dielectric positive
the dielectric without breaking down its
charge of one dipole gets cancelled with negative
insulation.
charge of adjacent dipole. However, at the
surface, there are uncancelled positive charges on S I Unit is Vm-1 or common unit is kVmm-1.
right face and uncancelled negative charges on
left face of the slab called surface charges. Since Example 2.7(a) A comb run through one’s dry
the slab as whole is neutral, the uncancelled + ve hair attracts small bits of paper. Why?
and – ve charges at the surface are of equal What happens if the hair is wet or if it is a rainy
magnitude. day? (Remember, a paper does not conduct
electricity.)
Thus the polarised dielectric is equivalent to
two charged surfaces with induced charged (b) Ordinary rubber is an insulator. But special
density, say + and − . rubber tyres of aircraft are made slightly
conducting. Why is this necessary?
Electric field E produced by these surface
charges opposes the external field . Thus the (c) Vehicles carrying inflammable materials
net electric field in the dielectric is usually have metallic ropes touching the ground
during motion. Why?
= + , and directed along .
(d) A bird perches on a bare high power line, and
i.e. = − nothing happens to the bird. A man standing on
the ground touches the same line and gets a fatal
i.e. Electric field is reduced when a dielectric shock. Why?
slab is introduced. Hint:

 Di-electric Constant (K) or Relative  (a) This is because the comb gets charged by
Permitivity ( r) : friction. The molecules in the paper gets
polarised by the charged comb, resulting in a
It is defined as the ratio of original electric net force of attraction. If the hair is wet, or if
field to the reduced electric field. it is rainy day, friction between hair and the
comb reduces. The comb does not get
i.e. = = = = = charged and thus it will not attract small bits
of paper.

[ K for vacuum is unity. ]  (b) To enable them to conduct charge

(produced by friction) to the ground; as too
 Electric Susceptibility ( ) : much of static electricity accumulated may
result in spark and result in fire.
A polar or non-polar, dielectric develops a
net dipole moment in the presence of an external  (c) Reason similar to (b).
field.
 (d) Current passes only when there is
= difference in potential.

Here,

is a constant and a characteristic property

of the dielectric, and is known as the electric
susceptibility of the dielectric medium.

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14.0 Electrical Capacitance: S I Unit of capacitance is Farad (F)

It is the measure of the ability of a conductor  1F (farad) :

to store charge.
Capacitance is said to be 1F when 1 coulomb
of charge raises the potential difference between
[ When a large charge is given to an insulated the conductors by 1 volt.
conductor, its potential becomes very high. Thus
the electric field associated with the charged Sub units of F:
conductor become very high (E = σ/ε0), atoms
and molecules of surrounding air get ionised. 1millifarad = 1mF = 10-3F
Insulation of the conductor breaks down and
hence charges from the conductor leaks away. ] 1microfarad = 1μF = 10-6F

 Capacitor : 1nanofarad = 1nF = 10-9F

A capacitor is an arrangement of two 1picofarad = 1pF = 10-12F

conductors separated by an insulating medium
that is used to store electric charge.
 Variation of charge with potential in
A capacitor is denoted by capacitors:

Q
A variable conductor is represented by

Slope = C

Let
V
Q = charge given to a conductor of a
capacitor.  Parallel Plate Capacitor :

Parallel plate capacitor is an arrangement of

V = increased in potential difference between
two parallel conducting plates of equal area
the conductors.
separated by air medium or any other insulating
Then
medium.
Q∝V
Principle:
i.e. Q=CV
Capacitance of a conductor is greatly
Here increased by bringing near it an uncharged
earthed conductor.
C = Capacitance of the capacitor.
+ -
∴ = + -
+  -
[ ]
E
Thus 1F = 1CV-1 + 0
-
+ -
Hence capacitance of a capacitor may be + -
defined as the charge required to increase the
potential difference between the conductors by d
unit amount.

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q 4. > As the charge developed on two plates of

[ *C  capacitor of equal magnitude but opposite in
V
* q   .A sign, net charge is zero (0).

 Parallel Plate Capacitor with Dielectric

* V  E.d
Completely Filling the Space Between the
Plates:
* E  E  E
 + - + -
* E  E  ]
2 0 + -
- +
+ -
Let + - + -
+ -
A = area of each plate. + - + -
d = distance between the plates d

 0.A
σ = surface charge density of each plate. [ * C0 
d
∴ Charge on each plate is
q
*C 
= . ..... (1) V
* q   .A
Electric field in the region between the plates
* V  E.d
= + =
E0
∴ Potential difference between the plates *E 
K

= . * E0  ]
0
= . .... (2)
Let
∴ Capacitance of the capacitor is A = area of each plate.
= d = distance between the plates

=
. K = dielectric constant of the medium.
.
σ = surface charge density of each plate.
.
∴ = ∴ Charge on each plate

Notes : = . .... (1)

1.> C∝A Electric field in the region between the plates

2.> C ∝ ε0 (absolute permittivity of the =

medium)
Here,
3.> ∝

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= Electric field between the plates when  Parallel Plate Capacitor with Dielectric
filled with vacuum. Partially Filling the Space Between the
Plates :
= t
+ - + -
Symbols have their usual meaning.
+ -
E
∴ = + -
E0 - + E0
+ -
∴ Potential difference between the plates + -
+ - + -
= .
d
= . .... (2)
q
[ * C0 
∴ Capacitance of the capacitor is V0

= q
*C 
V
.
=
. * V  E0 d  t   E.t
.
i.e. = E0
*E  ]
K
But capacitance of capacitor with vacuum
Let
.
=
A = area of each plate.
∴ Capacitance of the capacitor
d = distance between the plates
= . K = dielectric constant of the medium.

Note: t = thickness of the dielectric slab.

1.> Capacitance of a capacitor increases q = Charge on each plate.

when a di-electric medium is inserted between
the plates of the capacitor. = Electric field between the plates
without dielectric slab.
2.> Dielectric constant ‘K’ can be defined as
the ratio of capacitance of a capacitor completely = Potential difference between the plates
filled with the dielectric to the capacitance of the without dielectric slab.
capacitor with vacuum.
= .( − ) .... (1)

i.e. = ∴ Electric field between the plates when

completely filled with dielectric

= .... (2)

∴ Potential difference between the plates with

dielectric between them is
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= ( − )+ [ * dW = Vdq
= ( − )+ * =

= ( − )+ *W=U ]
Here, The moment charging of capacitor starts,
there is a potential difference between the plates.
=
Let,
∴ = ( − )+ .... (3) = potential difference between plates.

∴ Capacitance of the capacitor = the charge on the plates of the capacitor

at any instant of time.
=
∴ Small work done in taking ‘ ’ charges
against V is
=
( )
dW = dq. V = . dq
Here,
∴ Total work done in transferring ‘Q’ charges
= = Capacitance of the capacitor when is
filled with vacuum.
= = .
∴ =
( )
=

i.e. =
( ) ∴ =

 Energy Store in Capacitor: This work is stored as electrostatic potential

energy U in the capacitor.
[ The process of charging a capacitor is
equivalent to transferring of charges
from -ve plate to the +ve plate of the capacitor. ∴ = = =
The moment charging starts, there is a potential
difference between the plates. Therefore, to  Energy Density in Capacitor (u):
transfer charges against the potential difference
some work is to be done. ] Let

-q A = area of each plate of a capacitor.

+q

+ - d = distance between the plates.

+ - σ = surface charge density of each plate.

+ - = Electric field between the plates of the

capacitor.
+ -

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∴ Potential difference between the plates of the Reduces and becomes

capacitor
=
V = Ed .... (1)

Capacitance of the capacitor ∴ =

= (iv) Capacitance:
∴ Energy stored in the capacitor is Increases and becomes

=
=
= ( )
(v) Energy :

= . ε E . Ad Decreases and becomes

Here, = =
= volume of the capacitor
∴ =
∴ Energy density of the capacitor is

= =  Introduction of Dielectric while Connected

to a Battery :

∴ = .ε E (i) Potential difference :

Thus energy is stored in the region between As battery is connected potential difference
the plates in form of electric field energy. remains constant.

 Effect of Introduction of Dielectric into a (ii) Electric field :

Capacitor : As potential difference remains constant,
 Introduction of Dielectric after Battery is
Disconnected: =

(i) Charge: Therefore electric field decreases.

Charge on capacitor plates remains constant. (iii) Capacitance :

(ii) Electric field : Increases, becomes

C = K.C0
Reduces and becomes
(iv) Charge :
=
Increases, becomes

= = =

(iii) Potential difference: (v) Stored energy :

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Increases by K times, and becomes Here,

= = =

∴ = ∴ = .
ε
.V E

 [ Force on Two Plates of a Parallel plate Here,

Capacitor:
= C = Capacitance of the capacitor.
ε
Let

A = area of each plates of a capacitor. ∴ = . (CV)E

d = distance between the plates. And,

q = charge on each plates. =
V = potential difference between the plates. ∴ = . qE
E = electric field between the two plates
Note:
∴ Energy density of the capacitor
Electric field outside the conductor/ capacitor
is zero (0), inside the conductor/capacitor is ‘E’.
= .ε E .... (1)
Thus the average value of ‘E’ contributed to the
Let force is .Thus the factor arises in the
expression for force. ]
= force on each plates of the capacitor.
Example 2.8 A slab of material of dielectric
∴ Work done in increasing the separation constant K has the same area as the plates of a
between the plates by ∆x parallel-plate capacitor but has a thickness
(3/4)d, where d is the separation of the plates.
= .∆ How is the capacitance changed when the slab is
inserted between the plates?
This work done is stored as it’s increased in
potential energy. Hint:

∴ = .∆  =
( )

Here,
 =
Increased in potential energy = × increased in
volume 2.5 A parallel plate capacitor with air between
= × ∆ the plates has a capacitance of 8 pF (1pF = 10–12
F). What will be the capacitance if the distance
∴ × ∆ = .∆ between the plates is reduced by half, and the
space between them is filled with a substance of
i.e. = × dielectric constant 6?
Hint:
= .ε E
 ′
=
= . (ε E )E

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 ′
= between the conductors.]
Hint:
′

 = ′
 =
2.8 In a parallel plate capacitor with air between
the plates, each plate has an area of 6×10–3 m2 2.26 The plates of a parallel plate capacitor have
and the distance between the plates is 3 mm. an area of 90 cm2 each and are separated by 2.5
Calculate the capacitance of the capacitor. If this mm. The capacitor is charged by connecting it to
capacitor is connected to a 100 V supply, what is a 400 V supply.
the charge on each plate of the capacitor? (a) How much electrostatic energy is stored by
Hint: the capacitor?
(b) View this energy as stored in the electrostatic
 = field between the plates, and obtain the energy
per unit volume u. Hence arrive at a relation
 = , V = 100V between u and the magnitude of electric field E
between the plates.
2.9 Explain what would happen if in the Hint:
capacitor given in Exercise 2.8, a 3 mm thick
mica sheet (of dielectric constant = 6) were  (a) =
inserted between the plates,
(a) while the voltage supply remained connected.  =
(b) after the supply was disconnected.
Hint:  (b) refer to topic14.5
 (a) V=100V 2.28 Show that the force on each plate of a
parallel plate capacitor has a magnitude equal to
 C = K.C0
, where Q is the charge on the capacitor, and
 = E is the magnitude of electric field between the
plates. Explain the origin of the factor .
 (b) =
Hint
 C = K.C0
 Refer to force between the two plates of
capacitor.
 = , V0 = 100V
2.33 A parallel plate capacitor is to be designed
2.10 A 12pF capacitor is connected to a 50V with a voltage rating 1 kV, using a material of
battery. How much electrostatic energy is stored dielectric constant 3 and dielectric strength about
in the capacitor? 107 Vm–1. (Dielectric strength is the maximum
Hint: electric field a material can tolerate without
breakdown, i.e., without starting to conduct
 = electricity through partial ionisation.) For safety,
we should like the field never to exceed, say 10%
2.24 What is the area of the plates of a 2 F of the dielectric strength. What minimum area of
parallel plate capacitor, given that the separation the plates is required to have a capacitance of 50
between the plates is 0.5 cm? [You will realize pF?
from your answer why ordinary capacitors are in Hint:
the range of μF or less. However, electrolytic
capacitors do have a much larger capacitance  = 10% 10 = 10
(0.1 F) because of very minute separation
 =

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 = Thus net energy stored in the series

combination of capacitors is equal to the sum of
 Series Combination of Capacitors : energy stored in each capacitor in the
combination.
C1 C2 C3 CS
+ - + - + -  Parallel combination of Capacitors:
V1 V2 V3 V q1 C 1
≡ + - CP
+ - + − q2 C 2
V V + - V
C3 ≡
i) Charge is same in each capacitor. q3
+ -
+ −
ii) Potential is distributed in inverse proportion to V
capacitances + -
V
i.e. = , = and = i) Potential drop across each capacitor is same.

i.e. Potential drop across each capacitor = .

∴ Potential difference across the combination
ii) Charge is distributed in direct proportion to
= + + capacitances.
∴ = + + i.e. = , = and =

Let, ∴ Net charge stored in the combination

CS = equivalent capacitance of combination. = + +

∴ = ∴ = + +

Let,
∴ = + +
CP = equivalent capacitance of combination.
∴ = + + ∴ =

Note: ∴ = + +

The effective capacitance in series ∴ = + +

combination is less than the least of all the
individual capacitances. Note:
 Energy Store in Series Combination The effective capacitance in parallel
combination is larger than the largest of all the
= individual capacitances.

 Energy stored in parallel combination of

= + + capacitors

= + + =

∴ = + + = ( + + )

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= + + ∴ ′
=

And
∴ = + +
′
=
Thus net energy stored in the parallel
combination of capacitors is equal to the sum of By the conservation of charge,
energy stored in each capacitor in the
combination. + = ′
+ ′

 Distribution of Charges Between + = +

Capacitors:
∴ Common Potential
(i) Charge distribution :

When the capacitors are connected with a = =

conductor (positive plate of one capacitor is
connected to positive plate of another, and vice ′
versa), charge flow from higher potential to ∴ ′ =
lower potential capacitor till their potential
becomes equal.
Thus after redistribution (under equilibrium
+ − condition), charges on the two capacitors /
+ −
conductors are in the ratio of their capacitance.
+ −
+ −
ii) Loss of Energy :
+ −
+ − Before Combination:
+ −
+ − Let,

Let = charge of capacitor C1, potential V1

= charge of capacitance C1, potentialV1. = charge of capacitor C2, potential V2

=charge of capacitance C2, potentialV2. Energy stored in the capacitors before

combination
∴ Total charge

= + = + = +

∴ Total capacitance After Distribution:

= + Total capacitance
After the distribution of charge let,
= +
′
= Charge on capacitor C1. Common potential difference
′
= Charge on capacitor C2.
= =
= common potential
Energy stored in the capacitors after combination

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As the potential drops across the capacitors

= ( + )
are equal, capacitors are connected in parallel.

∴ =
( ) ∴ = +

∴ Common potential difference

∴ Loss in energy
=
∆ = −

( )
= + −

∴ Energy stored in the combination

= .( )
. + −
2 =

= .( . + −2
)
= ( + )

∴ ∆ = .( )
.( − ) ,
( )
∴ = ( )
which is always positive. This loss in energy
goes in the form of heat due to flow of charges in ∴ Loss in energy due to flow of charges
the connecting wire.
∆ = −
[When the capacitors are connected with a
( )
conductor (positive plate of one capacitor is = + − ( )
connected to negative plate of another, and vice
versa), charge flow from higher potential to = .( . + +
)
lower potential capacitor till their potential
2
becomes equal.
+ − ∴ ∆ = .( .( + ) ]
+
)
−
+ −
Example 2.9 A network of four 10 μF capacitors
+ −
is connected to a 500 V supply, as shown in Fig.
− +
− + B C
− + C2
C1 C3
− +
C4
A D
As charges on +ve and –ve plates get
neutralized, total charge of the combination
500 V
= − Determine (a) the equivalent capacitance of
the network and (b) the charge on each capacitor.
= − (Note, the charge on a capacitor is the charge on
the plate with higher potential, equal and

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opposite to the charge on the plate with lower  (a) = + +

potential.)
Hint:
 (b) Potential difference across each capacitor
 (a) = + + =
′

2.7 Three capacitors of capacitances 2 pF, 3 pF

 = ′
+ and 4 pF are connected in parallel.
(a) What is the total capacitance of the
 (b) + + = 500 combination?
(b) Determine the charge on each capacitor if the
 = 500 combination is connected to a 100 V supply.
Hint:
Example 2.10. (a) A 900 pF capacitor is charged
by 100V battery. How much electrostatic energy  (a) = + +
is stored by the capacitor?
 (b) Potential difference across each capacitor
(b) The capacitor is disconnected from the
=V
battery and connected to another 900 pF
capacitor. What is the electrostatic energy stored  =
by the system?
2.11 A 600 pF capacitor is charged by a 200V
supply. It is then disconnected from the supply
C C and is connected to another uncharged 600 pF
capacitor. How much electrostatic energy is lost
C in the process?
Hint:
100 V
(a) (b)  ∆ = .( .( − )
)
Hint:
2.25 Obtain the equivalent capacitance of the
 (a) = network in Fig. For a 300 V supply, determine
the charge and voltage across each capacitor.
 =
100pF
 (b)
C1
 = = 200pF 200pF

 Charge stored in each capacitor, = C3

C2
300 V
 =2× 100pF

2.6 Three capacitors each of capacitance 9 pF are C4

connected in series. Hint:
(a) What is the total capacitance of the
combination?  = +
(b) What is the potential difference across each
capacitor if the combination is connected to a  = +
120 V supply?
Hint :  = +

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2.27 A 4 μF capacitor is charged by a 200 V Q. A parallel plate capacitor is made of two

supply. It is then disconnected from the supply, dielectric blocks in series. One of the block has a
and is connected to another uncharged 2 μF surface area of A1 and dielectric constant K1 and
capacitor. How much electrostatic energy of the the other has surface area A2 and dielectric
first capacitor is lost in the form of heat and constant K2 as shown in the figure.
electromagnetic radiation? A2 A1
Hint:
d K2 K1
 ∆ = .( )
.( − )

2.23 An electrical technician requires a (a) What is the capacitance of the capacitor?
capacitance of 2 μF in a circuit across a potential (b) If the two dielectrics are replaced by another
difference of 1 kV. A large number of 1 μF dielectric of surface area = ( + ), what is
capacitors are available to him each of which can the dielectric constant of the dielectric?
withstand a potential difference of not more than Hint:
400 V. Suggest a possible arrangement that (a) This is equivalent to two capacitors connected
requires the minimum number of capacitors. in parallel to each other.
Hint: =
=
 n = no. of capacitor in a row.
= +
 n400 = 1000
(b) =
 = , C = 1μF
Q. A parallel plate capacitor of area and plate
 m = no of rows separation of is filled with three dielectric
materials having dielectric constants K1, K2 and
 mCn = Cr, Cr = 2Μf K3 as shown in the figure.
A/2 A/2
Q. A parallel plate capacitor is made of two
dielectric blocks in series. One of the block has a d/2 K1 K2
thickness of d1 and dielectric constant K1 and the d/2 K3
other has thickness d2 and dielectric constant K2
as shown in the figure. (a) What is the capacitance of the capacitor?
d1 K1 (b) If the dielectrics are replaced by another
d2 dielectric of thickness = ( + ) and area =
K2
( + ) , what is the dielectric constant of the
(a) What is the capacitance of the capacitor? dielectric?
(b) If the two dielectrics are replaced by another Hint:
dielectric of thickness = ( + ), what is the (a) Here C1 and C2 are parallel.
dielectric constant of the dielectric? =
Hint:
(a) This is equivalent to two capacitors connected =
in series to each other. = +
=
and are in series
=
= +
= +
(b) = (b) =

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∴ = +
Q. Consider the arrangement of four conducting
plates of equal surface area and separation
between them as shown in the figure. = + … (1)

d
A As potential inside the conducting sphere is
B constant.
=
What is the net capacitance of this arrangement?
Hint: ∴ Total potential on the surface of the inner
Above arrangement is equivalent to three sphere
capacitors connected in parallel.
= Potential due to charge Q of shell
16.0 Potential Difference Between a Charged + potential due to charge q of inner sphere.
Conducting Shell and a Small sphere in
it :
∴ = +
+
+ +
Insulating = + … (2)
handle + +
+ +q Hence the potential difference is
+ r
+
+ + = −
+ R
= + − +
+ +
+ = −
Conductor
∴ = − ... (3)
[ * = +
As q is positive and V is independent of Q
* = + >0
* = − ]
i.e. Inner sphere always has higher potential than
Let, the outer sphere irrespective of charge given to
outer sphere.
= radius of a charged conducting shell.
∴ When the two spheres are connected by a
= charge of the shell. conductor charge q will flow from the inner
sphere to outer sphere irrespective of charge of
= radius of a small charged sphere at the outer sphere shell.
centre of the shell.
18.0 Corona Discharge:
= charge of the small sphere.
+ +
+
∴ Total potential on surface of the shell is
σmin + + σmax
+
= Potential due to its own charge Q + +
+ potential due to charge q of inner As the charge density at the pointed end of a
sphere. conductor is very large, electric field near the

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pointed end is very high which causes ionisation as a whole. The earth, however, does not get
of surrounding air. Like charges are repelled by discharged since thunderstorms and lightning
the charged pointed conductors causing occurring continually all over the globe pump an
discharging action known as Corona Discharge equal amount of negative charge on the earth.)
or Action of Points. The sprayed charges moving Hint:
with high speed cause electric wind.
 (a)Our body and the surface of earth are
2.36 A small sphere of radius r1 and charge q1 is conducting, thus when we step on the earth
enclosed by a spherical shell of radius r2 and surface forms an equipotenial surface.
charge q2. Show that if q1 is positive, charge will Therefore our body and the earth surface are
necessarily flow from the sphere to the shell in same potential. Because of this we do not
(when the two are connected by a wire) no matter get electric shock when we step out of house.
what the charge q2 on the shell is.
Hint:  (b) Discharging current of atmosphere
gradually charges rises voltage (potential) of
 As the potential of the small sphere is always the alluminium sheet. Thus the man will get a
higher than the outer spherical shell that shock when he touches the sheet next day.
encloses it, so charge will flow from the
small sphere to the shell no matter what the  (c) Atmosphere get discharged continuously
charge q2 on the shell is. due to small conductivity of air, but
atmosphere is also continuously charge by
2.37 Answer the following: the lightning and thunderstorms throughout
(a) The top of the atmosphere is at about 400 kV the globe.
with respect to the surface of the earth,
corresponding to an electric field that decreases  Light, heat and sound.
with altitude. Near the surface of the earth, the
field is about 100 Vm–1. Why then do we not get 19.0 Van de Graaff Generator :
an electric shock as we step out of our house into
the open? (Assume the house to It is an electrostatic generator capable of
be a steel cage so there is no field inside!) building up high potential differences of the
(b) A man fixes outside his house one evening a order of few million volts to accelerate charged
two metre high insulating slab carrying on its top particles.
a large aluminium sheet of area 1m2. Will he get
an electric shock if he touches the metal sheet Principle:
next morning?
(c) The discharging current in the atmosphere i) When charged conductor is placed inside
due to the small conductivity of air is known to a hollow charged conducting sphere connected
be 1800 A on an average over the globe. Why with a conductor, entire charge from the
then does the atmosphere not discharge itself conductor get transferred to the hollow sphere,
completely in due course and become electrically however high the potential of the hollow sphere
neutral? In other words, what keeps the may be.
atmosphere charged?
ii) Discharging action of sharp pointed ends of a
(d) What are the forms of energy into which the
charged conductor.
electrical energy of the atmosphere is dissipated
during a lightning?
(Hint: The earth has an electric field of about
100 Vm–1 at its surface in the downward
direction, corresponding to a surface charge
density σ = –10–9 C m–2. Due to the slight
conductivity of the atmosphere up to about 50
km (beyond which it is good conductor), about
+ 1800 C is pumped every second into the earth

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Construction : The comb (C2) is induced with the negative

charges (which are carried by conduction to
Metal sphere + inner surface of the collecting sphere (dome) ‘S’
S + Pulley through a metallic wire) which in turn induces
positive charges on the outer surface of the
+ dome.
C2 + + The comb (C2) being negatively charged
Insulating
+ causes electric wind by spraying negative
+ belt
+ charges due to action of points which neutralize
the positive charges on the belt. Therefore the
+ Insulating belt does not carry any charge back while
pillaar descending.
+ This process continues for a longer time to
C1
Motor driven store more and more charges on the sphere and
+ hence the potential of the sphere increases
pulley
considerably.

Uses:
HVR
Van de Graaff Generator is used to produce
very high potential difference (of the order of
several million volts) for accelerating charged
particles.
The beam of accelerated charged particles is
A large spherical conducting shell (of few used to trigger nuclear reactions.
metres radius) is supported at a height of several The beam is used to break atoms for various
meters above the ground on the insulating pillars. experiments in Physics.
A long narrow insulating belt is wound In medicine, such beams are used to treat
around two pulleys – one at ground level, one at cancer.
the centre of the shell. This belt is kept It is used for research purposes.
continuously moving by a motor driving the
lower pulley. Note :
Comb (C1) called spray comb, near the lower
pulley is connected to High Voltage Rectifier (Thus the principle of conservation of charge
(HVR) whose other end is earthed. Comb (C2) is obeyed.)
called collecting comb, near the upper pulley is
connected to the sphere (S) through a conducting 2.35 In a Van de Graaff type generator a
rod. spherical metal shell is to be a 15×106 V
To avoid the leakage of charges from the electrode. The dielectric strength of the gas
sphere, the generator is enclosed in the steel tank surrounding the electrode is 5×107 Vm–1. What
filled with air or nitrogen at very high pressure is the minimum radius of the spherical shell
(15 atm). required? (You will learn from this exercise why
one cannot build an electrostatic generator using
Working: a very small shell which requires a small charge
to acquire a high potential.)
Let the positive terminal of the High Voltage Hint:
Rectifier (HVR) be connected to the comb (C1).
Due to action of points, (electric wind is caused  Maxm. Electric field, E = 10% of dielectric
and) the positive charges are sprayed on to the strength.
belt. The belt is made ascending by electric
motor carrying these charges in the upward  =
direction. r = minimum radius of the Van de Graaff.

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 A Complete Note
Chap-3 on Physics for
Current Electricity Class 12

1.> Electric Current : Conventional current due to motion of

electrons is in the direction opposite to that of
The electric current is defined as the charge motion of electrons.
flowing through any section of the conductor in
unit time. Conventional current (I)
i.e. Electric current is the rate of flow of charge. - - -

3.1> Drift Velocity (

∆
i.e. = ):
∆

If the rate of flow of charge is steady then Drift velocity is defined as the average
velocity with which the free electrons get drifted
= towards the positive terminal under the effect of
the applied electric field.
If the rate of flow is varying with time
[ * =−
=
* =
S I Unit of current is ampere (A)
* = +
 1A:
∑
When a charge of 1C flows through a cross * =
section of a conductor in 1s, then electric current
is said to 1A. *∑ =0]

Note: Let
Electric current is a scalar quantity because = charge of an electron.
law of vector addition are not applicable but law
of ordinary algebra are used to add electric = mass of an electron.
current.
= total number of free electrons.
 Sub Units of Ampere:
= initial thermal velocity of the 1st electron.
1milli ampere = 1mA = 10-3 A
= Applied external electric field.
1micro ampere = 1μA = 10-6 A
∴ Force acting on the electron
2.> Electric Current in Conductors:
=−
Flow of free electrons in the conductor
constitutes electric current. ∴ Acceleration of the electron is

 Conventional Current: =− ...... (1)

Conventional current is directed along the
motion of positive charges under the action of Let,
electric field.
= time interval for which the electron gets
Conventional current (I) accelerated.(time interval between two
successive collision.)

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∴ The velocity attained by the electron iii) ∝

= + i.e. With increased in length of the conductor,
drift velocity decreases.
Similarly velocities of the other electrons are

= + iv) ∝ ∝

= + 3.2 > Mobility ( ):

.........................
= + Mobility of a charge carrier is the drift
velocity acquired by it in a unit electric field.
∴ The average velocity of the electrons is
∴ μ= =q
τ
⋯
=

⋯ ⋯
4.0 > Relation Between Drift Velocity and
= + Current :
Here,
l
⋯
= 0,
d - A
since all the free electrons are in random motion.

[
⋯
= * =

i.e. = Average time elapse between two * = × ×volume of conductor

successive collisions of an electron, called
relaxation time. * = ]
v = aτ
Let,

∴ =− .... (3) A = area of cross section of a conductor.

l = length of the conductor.

i.e. =
vd = drift velocity of free electron.
As e = charge of an electron.
=
n = number of free electrons per unit
volume.
∴ =
∴ Number of free electrons in the conductor is
Note: N = nAl
i) Motion of free electron inside the conductor ∴ Total charge contained in the conductor is
due to action of electric filed is parabolic in
nature. = .... (1)
ii) ∝

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Time taken by this q charge to pass through the Example 3.1 (a) Estimate the average drift speed
conductor is of conduction electrons in a copper wire of cross-
sectional area 1.0×10–7 m2 carrying a current of
= ..... (2) 1.5 A. Assume that each copper atom contributes
roughly one conduction electron. The density of
∴ Current copper is 9.0×103 kg/m3, and its atomic mass is
63.5 u.
= (b) Compare the drift speed obtained above with,
(i) thermal speeds of copper atoms at ordinary
temperatures,
= (ii) speed of propagation of electric field along
the conductor which causes the drift motion.
Hint:
∴ =
 (a) =
Note:
 = × 9.0 × 10
Drift velocity of free electron is very small it
is of the order of 10-3 m/s.
 (b) (i) =
As soon as switch is ON bulb glows
immediately because the electric field which
causes free electrons to move is established  (ii) An electric field travelling along the
throughout the circuit, almost instantly (with the conductor has a speed of an electromagnetic
speed of light 3.0×108 m s–1). Thus current wave, i.e. 3.0×108 ms–1.
established almost at the instant circuit is closed.
Example 3.2 (a) In Example 3.1, the electron
drift speed is estimated to be only a few mms–1
4.1 Current Density ( ): for currents in the range of a few amperes? How
then is current established almost the instant a
Current density at a point, within a
circuit is closed?
conductor, is the current through a unit area of
cross section of the conductor,( around that (b) The electron drift arises due to the force
point), when the area is held perpendicular to the experienced by electrons in the electric field
direction of flow of current at that point. inside the conductor. But force should cause
acceleration. Why then do the electrons acquire a
i.e. = = steady average drift speed?

In vector form (c) If the electron drift speed is so small, and the
electron’s charge is small, how can we still
=− obtain large amounts of current in a conductor?

(d) When electrons drift in a metal from lower to

i.e. =
higher potential, does it mean that all the ‘free’
electrons of the metal are moving in the same
Note: direction?
(i) Though electric current ‘I’ is a scalar
(e) Are the paths of electrons straight lines
quantity, current density ‘J’ is a vector quantity.
between successive collisions (with the positive
(ii) Electric current through a conductor remains ions of the metal) in the (i) absence of electric
constant for an applied voltage, but current field, (ii) presence of electric field?
density changes with change in area of cross- Hint:
section.

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 (a) Electric field which causes free electrons  Resistance :

to move is established throughout the circuit,
almost instantly (with the speed of light). It is the opposition offered by the conductor
Thus current established almost at the instant to the flow of electric current through it.
circuit is closed. However, it does take a little
while for the current to reach its steady value. It is given by the ratio of potential difference
applied across the conductor to the current
 (b) Each ‘free’ electron does accelerate, flowing through it.
increasing its drift speed until it collides with
a positive ion of the metal. It loses its drift i.e. R=
speed after collision but starts to accelerate
and increases its drift speed again only to
suffer a collision again and so on. On the S I Unit of resistance is ohm ( )
average, therefore, electrons acquire only a
drift speed.  1Ω:

Resistance of a conductor is said to be 1Ω if a

 (c) Simple, because the electron number
current of 1 A flows through it on applying a
density is enormous, ≈1029 m–3.
potential difference of 1 V across its ends.
 (d) No. The drift velocity is the
Notes:
superposition of large number of random
velocities of electrons. 1.> Its value is independent of V and I.
 (e) In the absence of electric field, the paths 2.> For given physical condition resistance of a
are straight lines; in the presence of electric conductor remains constant.
field, the paths are, in general, curved.
5.1> Resistance depends upon the nature of
5.> Ohm’s Law: the material:
The current flowing through a conductor is
directly proportional to the potential difference i) R ∝ l = length of the conductor.
applied across its ends when the temperature and
other physical conditions remain constant. ii) ∝

i.e. Potential difference ∝ current.

∴ ∝
∴ V∝ I
∴ =
∴ =
Here Here,

R =resistance of the conductor. = Resistivity of the material.

V It is defined as the resistance offered by a

conductor of unit length and unit area of cross
section.

Slope = resistance S I Unit is ohm metre ( m).

 Resistor :
I
Slope of the graph gives resistance of the Any material that has resistance are called
conductor. resistor.
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A fixed resistor
∴ =
Variable resistor
7.> Expression for Resistivity:
6.> Deduction of Ohm’s Law:
Comparing with =
[ * =

* = =

* =− Thus resistivity depends up on

* = ] i) ∝ ( )

Let, ii) ∝ ( )
A = area of cross section of a conductor.
iii) independent of dimension of the
l = length of the conductor. conductor.

n = Number of free electrons per unit Note :

volume.
Resistivity is independent of dimension of
V = Applied potential difference across its the conductor but depends up on the temperature
ends. and other physical conditions.

∴ The electric field in the conductor is Qsn:

3.6 A negligibly small current is passed through
= ..... (1) a wire of length 15 m and uniform cross-section
6.0×10–7 m2, and its resistance is measured to be
Electric current in the conductor is 5.0 Ω. What is the resistivity of the material at
the temperature of the experiment?
= Hint:

But,  =

= 3.16 Two wires of equal length, one of

aluminium and the other of copper have the same
= resistance. Which of the two wires is lighter?
Hence explain why aluminium wires are
preferred for overhead power cables.
∴ = (ρAl = 2.63×10–8 Ω m, ρCu = 1.72×10–8 Ω m,
Relative density of Al = 2.7, of Cu = 8.9.)
i.e. = Hint:

At constant temperature, e, n, m, l, A and τ  =

are constant.
 = .
∴ = =
 > , hence Al is preferred over Cu.

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8.> Temperature Dependence of Resistivity: − = 100 − 0 = 100

1.) Metals: = change in temp.

In metal number of free electron is almost 2.) Alloys used for making resistor
independent of temperature. As temperature
increases free electrons collide more frequently i) have high value of resistivity.
with the metal ions. Thus relaxation time (τ)
ii) are least affected by temperature.
decreases. Therefore resistivity, and hence
resistance increases with temperature. iii) have positive value of ‘α’.
The relation between resistivity (ρ) and iv) Linear relation between ρ and T :
temperature (T) is
ρ
= 1+ ( − )

Here,

= resistivity at temperature T0.

α = temperature coefficient of resistivity. T

( )
∴ = .( )
= . (0C-1) 3.) Semiconductor :

Thus temperature coefficient of resistivity can Relaxation time of semiconductor is almost

be defined as change in resistivity per unit independent of temperature. But the free electron
resistivity per unit change in temperature. density increases exponentially with increase in
temperature. Thus conductivity of semiconductor
For metals value for is very small and increases with increase in temperature. i.e.
variation of with temperature is non linear at Resistivity decreases with temperature.
low temperature.
9.> Some important terminology:
ρ
i) Conductivity ( ):

It is defined as the reciprocal of resistivity.

T i.e. = ( mho m-1)

Change of resistance with temperature is given
by ∴ =

= 1+ ( − )
ii) Conductance (G) :
Here,
It is defined as the reciprocal of resistance.
R0 = resistance at temperature T0.
i.e. = (mho)
α = temperature coefficient of resistance.
iii) Ohmic Material :
= ,
×
 These are the substances which obey ohm’s
Here, law.

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 V-I graph is straight line.

Colour Let- Num- Multi- Tolare-
iv) Non-Ohmic Material : ter ber plier nce

 These are the substances which do not obey Black B 0 100 --

ohm’s law.
Brown B 1 101 ±1%
 V-I graph is non linear.
Red R 2 102 ±2%
10.> Ohm’s Law in Vector Form:
Orange O 3 103 --
From Ohm’s law,
Yellow Y 4 104 --
V = IR
Green G 5 105 ±0.5%
But,
Blue B 6 106 ±0.25%
V = El, and =
Violet V 7 107 ±0.1%
∴ = Grey G 8 108 ±0.05%

i.e. = White W 9 109 --

Gold -- -- 10-1 ±5%

But
Silver -- -- 10-2 ±10%
=
No 4th -- -- -- ±20%
∴ = band
In vector form Memory Aid:
B B ROY Goes to Bombay Via Gate Way to
= buy Gold and Silver.

Or Example 3.3 An electric toaster uses nichrome

for its heating element. When a negligibly small
= current passes through it, its resistance at room
temperature (27.0 °C) is found to be 75.3 Ω.
When the toaster is connected to a 230 V supply,
= [∵ = ] the current settles, after a few seconds, to a
steady value of 2.68 A. What is the steady
11.> Colour Code of Carbon Resistors: temperature of the nichrome element? The
temperature coefficient of resistance of nichrome
1st significant fig. Decimal multiplier averaged over the temperature range involved, is
1.70×10–4 0C–1.
Hint:

 R=

2nd significant fig. Tolerance  = 1+ ( − )

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Example 3.4 The resistance of the platinum wire

of a platinum resistance thermometer at the ice Current Voltage Current Voltage
point is 5 Ω and at steam point is 5.23 Ω. When A V A V
the thermometer is inserted in a hot bath, the
resistance of the platinum wire is 5.795 Ω. 0.2 3.9 3.0 59.2
Calculate the temperature of the bath.
Hint: 0.4 7.8 4.0 78.8

 = 1+ ( − ) 0.6 11.8 5.0 98.6

0.8 15.7 6.0 118.5

 =
×
1.0 19.7 7.0 138.2
 = 5.23 Ω
2.0 39.4 8.0 158.0
 = 5.0 Ω
Hint:
3.5 At room temperature (27.0 °C) the resistance
 Ratio, remains almost constant.
of a heating element is 100 Ω. What is the
temperature of the element if the resistance is
found to be 117 Ω, given that the temperature  i.e. resistance is constant and hence obeys
coefficient of the material of the resistor is Ohm’s law.
1.70×10–4 °C–1?
 Also, resistivity remains constant and is
Hint:
independent of temperature.
 = 1+ ( − )
3.19 Choose the correct alternative:
3.7 A silver wire has a resistance of 2.1 Ω at (a) Alloys of metals usually have (greater/less)
27.5 °C, and a resistance of 2.7 Ω at 100 °C. resistivity than that of their constituent metals.
Determine the temperature coefficient of (b) Alloys usually have much (lower/higher)
resistivity of silver. temperature coefficients of resistance than pure
Hint: metals.
(c) The resistivity of the alloy manganin is nearly
 = 1+ ( − ) independent of/ increases rapidly with increase
of temperature.
3.8 A heating element using nichrome connected (d) The resistivity of a typical insulator (e.g.,
to a 230 V supply draws an initial current of 3.2 amber) is greater than that of a metal by a factor
A which settles after a few seconds to a steady of the order of (1022/103).
value of 2.8 A. What is the steady temperature of Hint:
the heating element if the room temperature is
27.0 °C? Temperature coefficient of resistance of  (a) greater,
nichrome averaged over the temperature range
involved is 1.70×10–4 °C–1.  (b) lower,
Hint:
 (c) nearly independent of,
 =  (d) 1022.

 = 1+ ( − )

3.17 What conclusion can you draw from the

following observations on a resistor made of
alloy manganin?

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12.> Combination of Resistors: (2). As the current through each resistor is

same
12.1.> Series Combination :
R2 R3 = =
R1

V1 V2 V3 I 12.2.> Parallel Combination :

I1 R1

V
R2
(i) Current through each of the resistor is same. I2

(ii) Total potential drop = sum of the potential I I3 R3 I

drops across the individual resistors.

Let,

R1, R2 and R3 be three resistors connected in V

series. (i) Potential drop across each resistor is same.

V = Potential difference maintained across (ii) Total current = sum of currents through
the combination. individual resistors.

I = electric current in the circuit. Let,

∴ = + + R1, R2 and R3 be three resistors connected in

parallel.
By ohm’s law
V = Potential difference maintained across
= + + the combination.

Let ∴ Total current in the circuit,

RS = equivalent resistance of the = + +

combination.
By ohm’s law
∴ =
= + +
∴ = + +
Let,
∴ = + +
RP = Equivalent resistance of the
Thus, the equivalent resistance in series combination.
combination is greater than the individual
resistance. ∴ =
Note:
∴ = + +
(1). If n resistors are of equal value

= ∴ = + +

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Thus, the equivalent resistance in parallel (c) Determine the equivalent resistance of
combination is less than the smallest individual networks shown in Fig. below.
resistance.
1Ω 1Ω
1Ω 1Ω 1Ω
Notes:

(1) If n resistances are of equal value 2Ω 2Ω 2Ω

2Ω 2Ω
= (a)
R

(2) = =⋯= = R

3.3 (a) Three resistors 1 Ω, 2 Ω, and 3 Ω are R

combined in series. What is the total resistance of R
the combination?
(b) If the combination is connected to a battery of R
emf 12 V and negligible internal resistance,
obtain the potential drop across each resistor. (b)
Hint: Hint:

 (a) = + +  (a)(i) =
(ii) =
 (b) Current in the circuit
=  (b)(i) 1 Ω and 2 Ω in parallel, then 3 Ω in
series.
 = (ii) 2 Ω and 3 Ω in parallel, then 1 Ω in
series.
3.4 (a) Three resistors 2 Ω, 4 Ω and 5 Ω are (iii) 1 Ω, 2 Ω and 3 Ω in series.
combined in parallel. What is the total resistance (iv) 1 Ω, 2 Ω and 3 Ω in parallel.
of the combination?
 (c)
(b) If the combination is connected to a battery of 1Ω 1Ω 2Ω
(a)
emf 20 V and negligible internal resistance, =>
determine the current through each resistor, and 2Ω 4Ω
2Ω
the total current drawn from the battery.
Hint: (b) =5

 (a) = + + 13.> Heating Effect of Current :

 (b) = As the charge carriers (free electrons) move
through the conductor, due to collisions with ions
and atoms energy gained by the charges is shared
3.20 (a) Given ‘n’ resistors each of resistance R,
with the atoms. The atoms vibrate more
how will you combine them to get the (i)
vigorously, i.e., the conductor heats up.
maximum (ii) minimum effective resistance?
What is the ratio of the maximum to minimum The amount of energy dissipated by the
resistance? conductor in the form of heat in time t is
(b) Given the resistances of 1 Ω, 2 Ω, 3 Ω, how
will be combine them to get an equivalent
resistance of (i) (11/3) Ω (ii) (11/5) Ω, (iii) 6Ω, = = = joules
(iv) (6/11) Ω?

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The above expression is known as Joule’s proportional to the common area of the
law of heating. electrodes dipping in the electrolyte.

14.> Electric Power : iv) Temperature :

It is rate at which the energy is dissipated in It increases with decrease in temperature of

unit time. electrolyte.

v ) Nature of the electrodes (conductivity of the

i.e. = = = = watt (W) electrodes).

Note:
15.> Cell : The internal resistance of cell increases as
current is drawn from the cell.
 Emf:
 Comparison of EMF and P.D:
The electromotive force is the maximum
potential difference between the two electrodes EMF P.D
of the cell when no current is drawn from the
cell. 1. It is the maximum
p.d. between the two It is the difference of
Or potentials between
electrodes of the cell
when the circuit is any two points in a
It is the amount of work done in taking a unit closed circuit.
positive charge along a closed circuit. open.

 Internal Resistance of a cell: 2. It is independent of It is proportional to

the resistance of the the resistance between
The opposition offered by the electrolyte and circuit. the given points.
electrodes of a cell to the flow of electric current
through it is called the internal resistance of the
cell. However, p.d. is
3. It is greater than the
greater than emf when
p.d. between any two
 Factors affecting Internal Resistance of a the cell is being
points in a circuit.
cell: charged.

i) Separation:
16.> Relation Between Internal Resistance,
Larger the separation between the electrodes Emf & Terminal P.D. :
of the cell, more is the length of the electrolyte
R
through which current has to flow and
consequently a higher value of internal
resistance. I I

ii) Nature of electrolyte: r

Greater the conductivity of the electrolyte,

lesser is the internal resistance of the cell. i.e. Cell
internal resistance depends on the nature of the
electrolyte. [ * = + ′

iii) Common area of electrodes: * =

The internal resistance of a cell is inversely * ′

= ]

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Let, Note:

E = emf of a cell. i) When current is drawn from the cell

r = internal resistance of the cell. E>V

R = external resistor connected to the cell. ii) When the circuit is open.

I = current in the circuit. i.e. I = 0

By Ohm’s law, Vopen = E

The potential drop across the resistor R Thus potential difference across the terminals of
a cell is equal to its emf when no current is
V = IR ...... (1) drawn from the cell.

The potential drop across the internal resistor, r iii) During charging of cell,
′
= .... (2) = + ′

By the definition of emf ( Here charger acts as the external resistor

whose potential drop = V )
E = V + V′
Example 3.5 A network of resistors is connected
= IR + Ir to a 16 V battery with internal resistance of 1Ω,
as shown in Fig.
∴ E= I (R + r) (a) Compute the equivalent resistance of the
network.
Hence current in the circuit is
(b) Obtain the current in each resistor.
(c) Obtain the voltage drops VAB, VBC and VCD.
=( )

The terminal potential difference of the cell is

= ( )

i.e. = − ′
= − Hint:

From the above expressions internal  (a) = +

resistance of the cell is

=  = +

=  = +1+
/

( )
 (b) Current in the circuit
∴ = =

i.e. = −1  + =

 =
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 = conductor of non-uniform cross-section. Which

of these quantities is constant along the
3.21 Determine the current drawn from a 12V conductor: current, current density, electric field,
supply with internal resistance 0.5Ω by the drift speed?
infinite network shown in Fig. below. Each (b) Is Ohm’s law universally applicable for all
resistor has 1Ω resistance. conducting elements? If not, give examples of
elements which do not obey Ohm’s law.
1Ω 1Ω (c) A low voltage supply from which one needs
1Ω 1Ω high currents must have very low internal
resistance. Why?
1Ω 1Ω 1Ω (12V (d) A high tension (HT) supply of, say, 6 kV
0.5Ω) must have a very large internal resistance. Why?
Hint:
1Ω 1Ω 1Ω 1Ω  (a) Current as it is steady.
Hint: Other quantities vary inversely with area of
cross section.
 Let ‘x’ = equivalent resistance of the infinite
network of resistors.  (b) No. It is not applicable to non-ohmic
Addition of few 1Ω resistors will not change materials.
the equivalent resistance of the network.
1Ω  (c) = , I is maximum when R = 0.


 (d) = if ‘r’ is small, in case of short

x 1Ω
circuit as the supplied voltage is current I will
exceed the safety limit.
1Ω
17.> Series Combination of Cells :
 =

3.1 The storage battery of a car has an emf of 12 E1 r1 E2 r2 rS

I I
V. If the internal resistance of the battery is 0.4 ≡
Ω, what is the maximum current that can be A B C A ES C
drawn from the battery?
Hint: [ * = +

 = , I is maximum when R = 0. * = −

* = −
3.2 A battery of emf 10 V and internal resistance
3 Ω is connected to a resistor. If the current in the
circuit is 0.5 A, what is the resistance of the * = − ]
resistor? What is the terminal voltage of the
battery when the circuit is closed? In series connection of cells, positive
terminal of one cell is connected to negative
Hint:
terminal of other cell and so on.
 = Let,
 =
E1 = emf of cell 1.
3.18 Answer the following questions:
(a) A steady current flows in a metallic = Internal resistance of cell 1.

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= emf of cell 2. Note :

= internal resistance of cell 2. (i) If the cells E2, E4 and En-1 opposed the
combination, then
∴ Potential difference across the terminal of
cell 1 is = − + − …− +
= – .... (1) (ii) If all the cells are identical,
Potential difference across the cell 2.
=
= – .... (2)
=
∴ Potential difference across the terminals of
combination is When an external resistor R is connected to the
combination, current in the circuit is
= +
=
= (E1 – Ir1) + (E2 – Ir2)

∴ VAC = (E1 +E2) – (r1 +r2) .... (3) i.e. =

Let, (a) If R << nr,

ES = emf of equivalent cell of the combination.
then I = = current due to single cell.
rS = equivalent internal resistance of the
combination. (b) If nr << R, then I = n

∴ = − ..... (4) Hence when internal resistance is negligible

in comparison to the external resistance, then the
From eqn no.3 and 4. cells are connected in series to get maximum
current.
ES = E1 +E2

For n cells in combination 18.> Parallel Combination of Cells :

E1
= + + +⋯+ I1
r1 rP
Thus the emf of the battery is the sum of the I I
≡
individual emfs. A E2 B A EP B
And I2 r2

= + Cells are said to be connected in parallel

when they are joined positive to positive and
For n cells negative to negative such that current is divided
between the cells.
= + + + ⋯+
Let,
Thus the total internal resistance of the
battery is the sum of the individual internal = emf of cell 1.
resistances.
= internal resistance of cell 1.
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= current through cell 1.

= +
= emf of cell 2.
∴ = +
= internal resistance of cell 2.

= current through cell 2. For m cells

= Potential difference between A and B.

= + +⋯+
With respect to cell1
If negative terminal of E2 and Em-1 are
= – connected to the positive terminal of the
remaining cells then,
∴ =
= − +⋯− +
( )

Similarly ( )

Note:
=
If all the cells are identical,
∴ Current through the external circuit is
=
I = I1 + I2

= + =

When an external resistor of resistance R is

= + − +
connected to the combination, current in the
circuit is
= −
= =
∴ = − ..... (1)
(i) If R << r/m, then
Let,
= = m × current due to a single cell.
= emf of equivalent cell of the
combination. (ii) If r/m << R, then
= internal resistance equivalent cell.
= = Current due to a single cell.
∴ = − .....(2)
Thus when external resistance is
From eqn 1 and 2 negligible in comparison to the internal
resistance, then the cells are connected in parallel
= to get maximum current.

3.15 (a) Six lead-acid type of secondary cells

And each of emf 2.0 V and internal resistance 0.015 Ω
are joined in series to provide a supply to a
= resistance of 8.5 Ω. What are the current drawn
from the supply and its terminal voltage?

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(b) A secondary cell after long use has an emf of  It is base on conservation of energy:
1.9 V and a large internal resistance of 380 Ω.
What maximum current can be drawn from the In a closed loop, whatever energy is supplied
cell? Could the cell drive the starting motor of a by emf must be transferred into other forms by
car? devices in the loop, since there are no other ways
Hint: in which energy can be transferred into or out of
the circuit.
 (a) =
Sign Convention :
 = 1.> The emf is taken negative when the loop
traverses from positive to negative terminal of
 (b) = , = when R= 0 the cell through the electrolyte.

 Starting motor of a car requires 100 A for - +

few seconds.
V = -E
19.> Kirchhoff’s Rules : 2.> The emf is taken positive when the loop
traverses from negative to positive terminal of
(i) Junction Rule:
the cell through the electrolyte.
I1
O - +
I3
I2 V = +E
At any junction of circuit elements, the sum
of currents entering the junction must equal the 3.> When the loop traverses through a resistor in
sum of currents leaving it. the same direction of current, potential drop
across the resistor is taken as negative.
i.e. I1 + I2 – I3 = 0
I
Sign Convention:
= −
1.> The incoming currents towards the junction
are taken positive. 4.> When loop traverses through a resistor in the
opposite direction of current, potential drop
2.> The outgoing currents away from the across the resistor is taken as positive.
junction are taken negative.
I
 It is base on conservation of charge.

When currents in a circuit are steady, V = + IR

charges cannot accumulate at a junction. Thus Example:
charges that arrive at a junction in a given time
interval must be equal to charges that leave the A R1 I1
B
junction in the same time interval in accordance
with conservation of charges. E1
R2 I2
(ii) Loop Rule: G C
E2
The algebraic sum of all the emfs and potential I
drop across any element of a closed loop of an F
R3 D
electric circuit must be zero.

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At the junction C by junction rule, Hint:

I1 + I2 = I .... (1)  The paths AA′, AD and AB are obviously

symmetrically placed in the network. Thus,
Applying loop rule to closed loop ABCGA the current in each must be the same, say, ‘I’.
Further, at the corners A′, B and D, the
– I1R1 + E1 – E2 +I2R2 = 0 ..... (2) incoming current ‘I’ must split equally into
the two outgoing branches.
Applying loop rule to closed loop ABCDFGA
 Let current through AB, AD and ′
be ‘I’
– I1R1 + E1 – IR3 = 0 .... (3)

Solve eqn. 1,2 and 3, and find the value of I1, I2  Apply junction rule at A
and I3.
 Apply Kirchhoff’s loop rule and obtained
Example 3.7 Determine the current in each required no. of eqns.
branch of the network shown in Fig.
3.9 Determine the current in each branch of the
B network shown in fig.
B
2Ω
4Ω 10Ω 5Ω
1Ω
A C 5V
10 V A C
5Ω
4Ω 2Ω
5Ω 10Ω
D D
Hint :

 Apply junction rule at A 10Ω 10 V

E
Hint:
 Apply Kirchhoff’s loop rule and obtained
required no. of eqns.  Apply junction rule at A
Example 3.6 A battery of 10 V and negligible  Apply Kirchhoff’s loop rule and obtained
internal resistance is connected across the required no. of eqns.
diagonally opposite corners of a cubical network
consisting of 12 resistors each of resistance 1 Ω Example 3.8
as in the Fig. given below. Determine the B
equivalent resistance of the network and the I1- Ig
current along each edge of the cube. 100Ω
10Ω
D′ Ig
C ′ I1
A C
A ′ 15Ω
B′ I2

60Ω 5
I I
D C I2+ Ig
D
10 V
A
B 10 V E

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The four arms of a Wheatstone bridge I the fig. = variable resistor

given below have the following resistances: AB
= 100Ω, BC = 10Ω, CD = 5Ω, and DA = 60Ω. A Applying Kirchhoff’s loop rule to closed
galvanometer of 15Ω resistance is connected loop ABDA
across BD. Calculate the current through the
galvanometer when a potential difference of 10 − I1P – IgG + I2R = 0 ..... (1)
V is maintained across AC.
Hint: Applying Kirchhoff’s loop rule to closed
loop BCDB
 Considering the mesh BADB, apply
− (I1−Ig)Q +( I2+ Ig)S +IgG = 0 .... (2)
Kirchhoff’s Rule
The resistance R is adjusted so that the
 Considering the mesh BCDB, apply
galvanometer shows no deflection and the bridge
Kirchhoff’s Rule
is said to be in balanced state.
 Considering the mesh ADCEA, apply
i.e. When the bridge is balanced
Kirchhoff’s Rule
Ig = 0
20.> Wheatstone Bridge :
Eqn. (1) becomes
It is an arrangement of four resistors P, Q, R
and S as arms of a quadrilateral to determine − I1P + I2R = 0
one of these resistances from the remaining
resistances. i.e. I1P = I2R ..... (3)

 Wheatstone bridge principle: And

When the Wheatstone bridge is balanced Eqn. (2) becomes

= −I1Q + I2S = 0

B i.e. I1Q = I2S .... (4)

I1- Ig
P Ig Q Dividing eqn eqn. (3) by eqn.(4)

I1 =
A C
G
I2 Note :

R S I (1) The bridge is said to be in balance state when

I the galvanometer shows no deflection.
I2+ Ig
D
(2) When the bridge is balanced, interchanging
the position of the galvanometer and battery does
not affect the balanced state of the bridge.
E
Let 21.> Metre Bridge or Slide Wire Bridge:
= unknown resistance. It is a practical application of Wheatstone
bridge to measure an unknown resistance.
= resistance of galvanometer.

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Principle: Note:

It is based on the principle of Wheatstone i) The connection between the resistors in a

bridge to measure an unknown resistance. metre bridge is made of thick metallic strips to
(R.B) minimise the resistances of the connecting
R S metallic strips which are not accounted in the
formula.

ii) To minimise the error in determining the

G value of unknown resistance null point is to be
obtained at or near the middle of metre bridge
A J B wire.
l 100 − l
iii) Jockey must be lightly slide over the wire so
that area of cross section remains constant.

Example 3.9 In a metre bridge as in fig below,

the null point is found at a distance of 33.7 cm
Construction:
from A. If now a resistance of 12Ω is connected
It consists of a wire of length 1m (100 cm) in parallel with S, the null point occurs at 51.9
and of uniform cross sectional area stretched and cm. Determine the values of R and S.
clamped between two thick metallic strips bent at R S
right angles, as in the fig. Metallic strip has two
gaps across which resistors can be connected.
G
Working :
A J B
l 100 − l
When the galvanometer current is made zero
by adjusting the jockey position on the metre Hint:
bridge wire for the given values of known and
unknown resistances,  From the 1st balance point
.
=
= .

 After S is connected in parallel with a

Let resistance of 12Ω , the resistance across the
gap changes from S to Seq, where
= resistance per unit length of the wire.
=
∴ =
 From the new condition of balance point
= (100 − ) .
=
.

∴ = ( ) 3.10 (a) In a metre bridge Fig. given below, the

balance point is found to be at 39.5 cm from the
i.e. =( end A, when the resistor Y is of 12.5 Ω.
)
Determine the resistance of X. Why are the
connections between resistors in a Wheatstone or
( )
∴ = meter bridge made of thick copper strips?
(b) Determine the balance point of the bridge
above if X and Y are interchanged.
Thus knowing the value of l and R, the value (c) What happens if the galvanometer and cell
of unknown resistance S can be determined.

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are interchanged at the balance point of the composition where a constant current is passed
bridge? Would the galvanometer show any through it with the help of driver battery.
current?
X Y Principle :

Let
G A = Uniform area of cross-section.
A J B ρ = resistivity of the wire
l 100 − l
l = length of ‘BJ” portion of the wire.

∴ Resistance of BJ
Hint:
=
 (a)
( )
= .
Potential drop across BJ
 The connections between resistors in a meter
bridge are made of thick copper strips to V = IR
minimize the resistance of these connections
whose resistance is accounted in the above ∴ =
formula.
If the constant current flows through the
 (b) When X and Y are interchanged potentiometer wire of uniform cross sectional
=
( )
. area (A) and uniform composition of material
(ρ), then
 (c) With the iinterchanging of the
galvanometer and cell the condition for = =
balanced bridge is still satisfied, hence the
balance point of the bridge remains ∴ =
unchanged.
∴ ∝
22.> Potentiometer:
Hence the potential drop across any length of
It is a device to compare or measure emfs a wire of uniform cross-section and uniform
and potential differences. composition is proportional to its length when a
constant current flows through it.
C
Rh J
V
K
Slope = k
B V
l
Potential gradient (k):
Construction :
It is potential drop per unit length of the
A potentiometer consists of a long wire of potentiometer wire.
uniform cross sectional area and uniform
∴ = = Vm-1

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Note: 24.> Determination of Internal Resistance of

a Cell Using Potentiometer:
Potential drop along the length of the
potential metre wire is maintained by the driver B
battery only. J1 J2
Rh
23.> Comparision of emfs of two Primary K
A
Cells Using Potentiometer : E
B k1 G
Rh J1 J2 k2
R RS
K
A Let,
E2
k2 G k = potential gradient of the potentiometer.
k1 R s E = emf of a cell.
E1
r = internal resistance of the cell.
Let,
When the key k1 is closed with key k2 open cell
k = potential gradient of the potentiometer. is connected to the circuit.
E1= emf of cell 1. Let
E2 = emf of cell 2. J1 = null point for the cell.
When the key k1 is closed with k2 open, the l1 = AJ1
cell of emf E1 is connected to the circuit.
∴ E = kl1 ..... (1)
Let,
When the key k2 along with k1 is closed,
J1 = Null point for cell 1. resistance ‘R’ from resistance box is introduced
in the circuit.
l1 = AJ1 = length of null point for cell 1.
Let
∴ E1 = kl1 ..... (1)
J2 = null point for potential drop across the
When the key k2 is closed with k1 open, the
resistance R.
cell of emf E1 is connected to the circuit.
l2 = AJ2
Let
∴ Potential drop across R
J2 = Null point for cell 2.
V = kl2 ..... (2)
l2 = AJ2 = length of null point for cell 2.
From eqn 1 and 2.
∴ E2 = kl2 ..... (2)

From eqn (1) and (2). =

Internal resistance of a cell is

=
= −1

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∴ Internal resistance of the cell is (ii) with decreasing the current flowing in it.

Example 3.10 A resistance of R Ω draws current

= −1
1
from a potentiometer. The potentiometer has a
2 total resistance R0 Ω as in the Fig. given below.
A voltage V is supplied to the potentiometer.
Note: Derive an expression for the voltage across R
when the sliding contact is in the middle of the
i) The balance point (null point) will not be
potentiometer.
obtained on the potentiometer wire if the fall of
V
potential along the potentiometer wire is less
than the emf of the cell to be measured. R0
A C
i.e. If EDB < E, null point will not be obtained B
1Ω
with the length of the potentiometer wire.

ii) The working of the potentiometer is based on R

Hint:
null deflection method. So the resistance of the
potentiometer wire becomes infinite. Thus  Resistance between A and B
potentiometer can be regarded as an ideal
voltmeter. = +
 Resistance between A and C
iii) Voltmeter draws a small current from a cell,
so it measures the terminal potential difference = +
of the cell not the emf. Whereas potentiometer  Current though the potentiometer
uses null deflection method and hence does not =
draw any current from the cell. Thus it measures
emf. Hence potentiometer is preferred over  Potential drop across R
voltmeter to measure emf.
′
=

3.22
25.> Sensitivity of a Potentiometer:
It is the smallest value of potential difference
that can be accurately measured by a
potentiometer.

 Thus a potentiometer is sensitive if

(i) it is capable of measuring very small

potential differences, and

(ii) it shows a significant change in the balancing The above fig. shows a potentiometer with a cell
point for a small change in the potential of 2.0 V and internal resistance 0.40 Ω
difference being measured. maintaining a potential drop across the resistor
wire AB. A standard cell which maintains a
 Smaller the potential gradient (k), greater is constant emf of 1.02 V (for very moderate
the sensitivity of the potentiometer. currents up to a few mA) gives a balance point at
67.3 cm length of the wire. To ensure very low
Hence for a given potential difference, the currents drawn from the standard cell, a very
sensitivity of the potentiometer increases high resistance of 600 kΩ is put in series with it,
which is shorted close to the balance point. The
(i) with increase in length of the potentiometer
standard cell is then replaced by a cell of
wire.
unknown emf ‘E’ and the balance point found

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 A Complete Note
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similarly, turns out to be at 82.3 cm length of the

wire.
(a) What is the value E ?
(b) What purpose does the high resistance of
600 kΩ have?
(c) Is the balance point affected by this high
resistance?
(d) Is the balance point affected by the internal
resistance of the driver cell?
(e) Would the method work in the above Hint:
situation if the driver cell of the potentiometer
had an emf of 1.0V instead of 2.0V?  When current ‘I’ flows through the
(f ) Would the circuit work well for determining potentiometer wire,
an extremely small emf, say of the order of a few =
mV (such as the typical emf of a thermo- =
couple)? If not, how will you modify the circuit?  =
Hint: =
 If there is no balance point, it means potential
 (a) = drops across R or X are greater than the
potential drop across the potentiometer wire
 (b) To protect galvanometer by reducing AB. The obvious thing to do is to reduce
current through the galvanometer when the current in the R and X (and hence potential
movable contact is far from the balance drops across R and X) suitably by putting a
point. series resistor to R and X.
 (c) No current flows through the standard cell  Or a cell of smaller emf ε be used.
at the balanced point.
 Or increase the potential drop across the
 (d) Internal resistance of the driver cell potentiometer wire by increasing driver
affects the current through the potentiometer, battery voltage.
thereby changes the potential gradient and
hence affects the balanced point. 3.24 Figure below shows a 2.0 V potentiometer
 (e) If ‘E’ is greater than the emf of the driver used for the determination of internal resistance
battery, balance point will not be obtained of a
within length of the potentiometer wire. 1.5 V cell. The balance point of the cell in open
 (f) The circuit, as it is, would be unsuitable, circuit is 76.3 cm. When a resistor of 9.5 Ω is
because the balance point (for ε of the order used in the external circuit of the cell, the
of a few mV) will be very close to the end A balance point shifts to 64.8 cm length of the
and the percentage error in measurement will potentiometer wire. Determine the internal
be very large. The circuit is modified by resistance of the cell.
putting a suitable resistor R in series with the
wire AB so that potential drop across AB is
only slightly greater than the emf to be
measured. Then, the balance point will be at
larger length of the wire and the percentage
error will be much smaller.

3.23 Figure 3.34 shows a potentiometer circuit

for comparison of two resistances. The balance
point with a standard resistor R = 10.0 Ω is found
to be 58.3 cm, while that with the unknown
Hint:
resistance X is 68.5 cm. Determine the value of
X. What might you do if you failed to find a
balance point with the given cell of emf ε?  =

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 Chap: 4 A Complete Note
Magnetic Effect of Current on Physics for
Class 12

1.> Magnetic Field ( ): i.e. dB∝ dl

(iii). directly proportional to the sin θ,
Magnetic field is said to exists at a point in
where θ is the angle between dl and r.
space around a magnet if its influence can be felt
by another magnet placed at that point. i.e. dB∝ sin

 S.I.Unit of magnetic field is tesla (T) (iv). inversely proportional to the square of the
distance (r2) .
 Superposition Principle of magnetic field: i.e. ∝
Magnetic field at a point due to several
. .
sources is the vector addition of magnetic field ∴ ∝
of each individual source.
. .
∴ =
2.> Magnetic Effect of Current :
Where
When current is allowed to flow through a
wire placed parallel to the axis of a magnetic = = 10 TmA-1
needle kept directly below the wire, the needle
was found to deflect from its normal position. And
0 = permeability of vacuum.
 Ampere’s Swimming Rule:
. .
Imagining a man who swims in the direction Hence =
of current from south to north facing a magnetic
needle kept under him such that current enters
his feet then the North pole of the needle will In vector form
deflect towards his left hand.
×
3.> Biot - Savart Law : =

I
Y Direction of is given by right hand rule.
P
 Right Hand Thumb Rule or Curl Rule:
θ If a current carrying conductor is
imagined to be held in the right hand such
that the thumb points in the direction of the
current, then the tips of the fingers
I encircling the conductor will give the
X
direction of the magnetic field.
According to Biot – Savart law, the strength Note :
of magnetic field dB due to a small current
element is (i) dB is perpendicular the plane that contains
dl and r .
 
(i). directly proportional to the current I through
the conductor. ⨀ represents the magnetic field emerging
i.e. dB∝ I (coming out) perpendicular to the plane of
paper at P.
(ii). directly proportional to the length of the
current element dl.

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⨂ represents magnetic field entering ∴ =

perpendicular to the plane of paper at P.
= 10 ×
(ii) Current element ( ) is a vector quantity ×
whose magnitude is the vector product of
current and length of small element having the ∴ =( )
×
direction of the flow of current.
But
4.> Comparison Between Biot - Savart and
Coulomb’s Law : 3 × 10 = speed of light in vacuum = C

Similarities : ∴ =
i) Both the field depends inversely on the
square of the distance of point of observation
from the source.
6.> Magnetic Field due to a Current
Carrying Circular Loop at its Centre:
ii) Both are long range fields.
iii) Both obey superposition principle.
Differences: O I

i) Magnetic field is produced by a vector

source ( ). Where as electric field is produced
by the scalar source (charge). I

ii) Magnetic field is directed perpendicular the [* =

. .

plane that contains and . Where as electric

field is directed along the line that joints source * = 90
and point of observation.
* dB of all the current elements at O are in same
iii) For a straight conductor, if the point P lies
direction.
along the length of the straight wire then, angle
made with , * =∮ ]
= 0 or = 180
Let
∴ B=0
a = radius of the circular loop.
Thus magnetic field at any point along the
length of a wire due to the current in the wire is I = current in the loop.
zero.
dl = length of a current element of the wire.
5.> Relation between 0 and :
∴ Magnetic field at O due to current element
We have,
=
= 9 × 10 Nm2C-2
As ⊥ ,
And
θ = 900
= 10 TmA-1

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∴ = 8.> Magnetic Field due to a Current

Carrying Circular Loop :
=
C dB cosϕ
Magnetic field at O due to all the current
elements is directed inward perpendicular to
XY
ϕ
I a ϕ P dB sinϕ
plane of paper. x
O ϕ
∴ The net magnetic field at O due to current ϕ
carrying loop is
X Y
D
=∮ = . ∮

= . .2 [ * =
. .

* = 90
∴ = 2
* ⊥
Or
* of diametrically opposite elements
ℎ cancelled out
= ×
4 ℎ ℎ
* → directed in same direction
i.e. =
* =∮ ]
If the circular loop as N turns, then
Let
= a = radius of current loop.

i.e. =2 I = steady current in the loop.

 Variation of magnetic field: x = distance of point P on the axial line from

the centre of the loop.
B
dl = length of a current element XY.

= Position vector of P w.r.t. current

element at XY.

By Biot – Savart law, the magnetic field at P

a due to the current element is

∵ ⊥ ,

θ = 900

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∴ = Note :

(i) If x >> a
The field lies in a plane perpendicular to
the plane formed by and . is resolved =
in to two rectangular components
Or
i) sin along the axis of the loop.
=
ii) cos perpendicular the axis of the loop.
Here,
For every current element XY there is a
diametrically opposite current element a2 = A = area of the loop.
whose component of perpendicular to the
axial line is equal but opposite to that of XY and ∴ =
hence cancelled out. But the axial components of
these elements are in same direction.
(ii) Here,
∴ Total magnetic field at P due to the circular NIA = m
loop
= magnetic moment of the loop.
= , directed along the axis.
= product of (ampere turns) current in
.
= each turns and area of the loop.

Here ∴ =

= =
.
= (iii) Variation of magnetic field of a current
carrying circular loop is
= B

= 2

Here, O Distance
=( + ) / (iv) Determination of Polarity:

∴ = ( ) /

If the coil consists of ‘N’ turn

If the current round the face of the coil

∴ = ( ) / facing us is in anticlockwise direction, it behaves
like a north pole.

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sin θ = a / r = cos

i.e. r = a / cos
And
If the current round the face of the coil
facing us is in clockwise direction, it behaves tan =l/a
like a south pole.
i.e. l = a tan
8.> Magnetic Field due to a Long Striaght ∴ dl = a sec2 d
Current Carrying Wire :
∴ =

=
I
2
a According to right hand rule magnetic field
Q P
1 at P due to all the current elements will be
l directed inward normal to plane of paper.
x θ
O ∴ The total magnetic field at P due to entire
y
wire is

[ * =
. .
= =

* = =
= ]
* =
= − (− )]
* = . ]
Thus magnetic field at a point which is at a
Let perpendicular distance of ‘a’ from a long current
I = current in a long wire. carrying conductor carrying a current ‘I’ ,
subtending angle of ϕ1 and ϕ2 by the two ends
a = perpendicular distance of point P from with the perpendicular distance from the
the wire. conductor is
dl = length of a current element AB.
= + ]
= position vector of P w.r.t. current
element.
Note :
= angle between and .
i) If the point P lies on the perpendicular
As shown in the fig. bisector of the conductor with length L, then

∴ Magnetic field at P due to current element is = =

= ∴ = 2 ϕ

From ∆ OPQ Here,

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ϕ=
/
 Same magnitude of but opposite in
direction to that of (b).

∴ = Example 4.7 Consider a tightly wound 100 turn

√ coil of radius 10 cm, carrying a current of 1A.
What is the magnitude of the magnetic field at
Example 4.5 An element = ̂ is placed at the centre of the coil?
the origin and carries a large current I = 10 A.
Hint:
What is the magnetic field on the Y - axis at a
distance of 0.5 m. Δx = 1 cm.  = 2
Hint:
. . 4.1 A circular coil of wire consisting of 100
 turns, each of radius 8.0 cm carries a current of
0.40 A. What is the magnitude of the magnetic
 = 90 field B at the centre of the coil?
Hint:

Example 4.6 A straight wire carrying a current  = 2

of 12 A is bent into a semi-circular arc of radius
2.0 cm as shown in Fig. (a). Consider the 4.14 Two concentric circular coils X and Y of
magnetic field at the centre of the arc. radii 16 cm and 10 cm, respectively, lie in the
(a) What is the magnetic field due to the straight same vertical plane containing the north to south
segments? direction. Coil X has 20 turns and carries a
current of 16 A; coil Y has 25 turns and carries a
(b) In what way the contribution to from the
current of 18 A. The sense of the current in X is
semicircle differs from that of a circular loop
anticlockwise, and clockwise in Y, for an
and in what way does it resemble?
observer looking at the coils facing west. Give
(c) Would your answer be different if the wire
the magnitude and direction of the net magnetic
were bent into a semi-circular arc of the same
field due to the coils at their centre.
radius but in the opposite way as shown in
Fig.(b)? Hint:

 = 2

(a) (b) N
Hint: X
Y
 (a) B = 0
 (b) For all segments of the semicircular arc,
Axis
× are all parallel to each other (into the
plane of the paper). All such contributions
add up in magnitude. Hence direction of
for a semicircular arc is given by the right-
hand rule and magnitude is half that of a
circular loop.
 Direction is given by right-hand rule.
= ×
4.16 For a circular coil of radius R and N turns
( ℎ carrying current I, the magnitude of the magnetic
ℎ ℎ ) field at a point on its axis at a distance x from its
centre is given by,

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=  Properties of Magnetic field line:

( ) /
(i) Magnetic field ( ) is tangential to the
(a) Show that this reduces to the familiar result
magnetic field lines.
for field at the centre of the coil.
(ii) Magnetic field lines form a closed loop.
(b) Consider two parallel co-axial circular coils
of equal radius R, and number of turns N, (iii) No two magnetic field lines can intersect at
carrying equal currents in the same direction, a point.
and separated by a distance R. Show that the
field on the axis around the mid-point between  Magnetic field lines for a current loop.
the coils is uniform over a distance that is small
as compared to R, and is given by,
= 0.72 approximately.

[Such an arrangement to produce a nearly

uniform magnetic field over a small region is
known as Helmholtz coils.]
Hint:

 (a) Refer to topic 8 and

Refer to topic 7

 (b) 10.> Ampere’s Circuital Law:

R d R
C P The line integral of magnetic field for a
closed curve ∮ . is equal to μ0 times the
O1 R/2 R/2 O2
net current I threading through the area bounded
by the curve.
= ( ) /
i.e. ∮ . =
 = = +
Note :
 = = − i) The closed curve is known as Amperean
loop.
 (1 + ) = 1 + + ( − 1) +⋯
! ii) It is related to magnitude of magnetic field.
 can be neglected comparing to . iii) Ampere’s circuital law is valid only for
steady current.
 and are in same direction.
iv) Ampere’s circuital law can be derived from
 = + Boit–Savart law, so it is not independent of
Biot-Savart law.
9.> Magnetic Field line:
v) Both the laws are related to magnetic field
It is the path that would be followed by an due to current.
imaginary isolated north pole of a magnet if it is
free to do so.

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11.> Magnetic Field due to a Straight i.e. B.2πr = μ0I

Infinite Current-Carrying Wire :
∴ =
I
i.e. =
r
P Note:
i) B ∝ I
I ii) ∝

[ * Circular Amperean loop. iii) Variation f magnetic field due to straight

infinite current carrying wire :
* ∥ B

*∮ . = ]
Let
I = current in a straight infinite current
-r O +r
carrying wire.
12.> Magnetic Field of a Cylindrical
= magnetic field at P. Conductor Carrying Steady Current :
r = Perpendicular distance of P from the Let
wire.
a = radius of a cylindrical conductor.
A circular amperean loop of radius ‘r’ with
the wire as its axis is drawn passing through the I = steady current in the conductor.
point P.
 For the point ‘Q’ outside the conductor:
Let,
dl = length of an element of the loop. I

The magnitude of magnetic field at any point

on the loop is same and is directed tangential to a
the loop.

∴ Angle between and are in same Q

direction.
Let
i.e. θ = 00
r1 = distance of Q outside the conductor from
By Ampere’s circuital law, the axis of the conductor.
∮ . = = magnetic field at the point Q outside
the conductor.
i.e. ∮ = [∵ ∥ ]
An Amperean circular loop of radius r1
i.e. ∮ = (r1> a) with axis of the conductor as its is drawn
passing through the point Q.

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∴ Current enclosed by the Amperean loop is i.e. =

Ie = I
∴ ∝r
By ampere’s circuital law,
 Variation of magnetic field produced by a
thick cylindrical current carrying conductor.
∮ . =
B
As ∥
∝
∝
. = .

∴ .∮ =
r
i.e. .2 = a
4.2 A long straight wire carries a current of 35
∴ = A. What is the magnitude of the field at a
point 20 cm from the wire?
i.e. ∝ Hint:

 For the point ‘P’ inside the conductor:  =

4.3 A long straight wire in the horizontal plane

I carries a current of 50 A in north to south
direction. Give the magnitude and direction of
a P at a point 2.5 m east of the wire.
Hint:

Let  =

r2 = distance of P inside the conductor from  Direction of is given by right hand rule.
the axis of the conductor.
4.4 A horizontal overhead power line carries a
Bi = magnetic field at the point P current of 90 A in east to west direction. What is
An Amperean circular loop of radius r2 the magnitude and direction of the magnetic
(r2 < a) with axis of the conductor as its is drawn field due to the current 1.5 m below the line?
passing through the point P. Hint:

As current through the conductor is  =

uniformly distributed  Direction of is given by right hand rule.
∝
13.> Solenoid :
∴ Current enclosed by the Amperean loop

i.e. = .... (1)

By Ampere’s law

∮ =
A solenoid consists of a long insulated wire
i.e. 2 = wound in the form of a helix where the

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neighbouring turns are closely spaced and length ∥

is very large as compare to its radius.
∴ . = . .
Magnetic field lines of solenoid are shown
above. Along QR and SP
13.1 > Magnetic Field at the centre of a ⊥
Solenoid:
S R ∴ . = . =0

Along RS
P Q B=0

∴ Eqn. (2) becomes,

[ * Bout = 0 . =
* Bin = uniform
i.e. Bl = 0 nl.I
* Rect. Amperean loop.
∴ = .
* =
If the total number of turns in the solenoid is
* ∮ = ] N,
Let =
n = number of turns per unit length of a
solenoid.
∴ = 0.

I = current in (each turns of) the solenoid. Notes :

= magnetic field at a point inside the (i) Magnetic field at the ends of a solenoid is
solenoid. half of that is at the middle.

A rectangular Amperean loop PQRS of ∴ = .

length ‘l’ is drawn passing through the point, as
in the fig. (ii) Variation of magnetic field inside solenoid:
∴ Total current enclosed by the loop PQRS is B

= ..... (1)
By Ampere’s circuital law
B/2
∮ . = × (Total current through
the loop PQRS.)
end O end
i.e. ∮ . = ....... (2)
Example 4.9 A solenoid of length 0.5 m has a
Here, radius of 1 cm and is made up of 500 turns. It
carries a current of 5 A. What is the magnitude
∮ . = . + . + . + . of the magnetic field inside the solenoid?
Hint:
Along PQ

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 = .  Magnetic Field of Toroid:

4.8 A closely wound solenoid 80 cm long has 5

layers of windings of 400 turns each. The S
diameter of the solenoid is 1.8 cm. If the current
carried is 8.0 A, estimate the magnitude of B r2
inside the solenoid near its centre.
r3 r1
Hint:
Q P
 = .

4.15 A magnetic field of 100 G (1G = 10–4 T) is

required which is uniform in a region of linear
dimension about 10 cm and area of cross-section Let,
about 10–3 m2. The maximum current-carrying
capacity of a given coil of wire is 15 A and the I = current in the toroid.
number of turns per unit length that can be Ie = current enclosed by Amperean loop.
wound round a core is at most 1000 turns m–1.
Suggest some appropriate design particulars of a n = number of turns per unit length of the
solenoid for the required purpose. toroid.
Assume the core is not ferromagnetic.
Hint: 1.> For the point in open space inside toroid:

 = . Let

 Value for n < 1000, and I < 15 A B1 = magnetic field at pint Q in space inside
toroid.
 =
A circular Amperean loop of radius r1 is
 Area of cross section may be taken5 times its drawn passing through the point Q.
required value.
Current enclosed by Amperean loop is
14.> The Toroid : = 0
By Ampere’s circuital law

∮ . =

∴ B1 = 0.
Thus magnetic field at any point P in the
open space inside the toroid is zero.
2.> For the point inside toroid :

Toroid is a solenoid which is bent into a Let,

circular shape.
B = magnetic field at point S inside the toroid.

A circular Amperean loop of radius r2 is

drawn passing through the point S.
Current enclosed by Amperean loop is

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Ie = n.2πr2 I 15.> Force on Moving Charge in a Magnetic

Field:
By Ampere’s circuital law,
[ Discovered by Hendrik Antoon Lorentz, a
∮ . =
Dutch physicist ]
And ∥
When a positive charge ‘q’ moves with
i.e. ∮ = 0 2 2 velocity in a uniform magnetic field making
an angle of , it experiences a force such that
i.e. ∮ = 0 2 2 the force is
i.e. 2 2 = 0 2 2 i) proportional to the magnitude of the magnetic
field.
∴ =
i.e. ∝
3.> For the point outside toroid :
ii) proportional to the magnitude of the charge q.
Let,
i.e. ∝
The magnetic field outside the toroid is zero.
iii) Proportional to the component of the velocity
∴ B3 = 0 v perpendicular to the field.

Thus magnetic resides only inside the toroid i.e. ∝ .

and is given by
∴ ∝
∴ = 0 i.e. =

4.17 A toroid has a core (non-ferromagnetic) of Here,

inner radius 25 cm and outer radius 26 cm,
around which 3500 turns of a wire are wound. If k = constant of proportionality
the current in the wire is 11 A, what is the =1
magnetic field
(a) outside the toroid, ∴ = .
(b) inside the core of the toroid, and
(c) in the empty space surrounded by the toroid. In vector form
Hint:
= . ×
 (a) Magnetic field outside toroid = 0

 (b) = Direction of the force experienced by the

0
charged particle is given by right hand rule.
 =2 Z

 =

 (c) Magnetic field in empty space of toroid Y

=0 θ

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Notes: i.e. = ×
i) If the charge is at rest, i.e. v = 0, then Here,
F = 0.
∥ ×
i.e. A stationary charge in a magnetic field does
 Speed :
not experience magnetic force.
Speed of the charged particle remains
ii) If θ = 0°or 180°
constant (or work done by magnetic force on a
F = 0. moving charge is zero ):
i.e. if the charge moves parallel or anti-parallel
According to work energy theorem,
to the direction of the magnetic field does not
experience magnetic force. dEk = dW
iii) If θ = 90° = .
F(max) = q v B
= .
i.e. if the charge moves perpendicular to the
magnetic field, then the magnetic force is = 0 [∵ ⊥ ]
maximum.
i.e. EK = constant
iv) A –vely charged particle experiences a
But,
magnetic force that is directed opposite to the
force experienced by a +vely charged particle if
=
they were moving in the same direction.
∴ v = constant
15.1> S.I. Unit of magnetic field :
Hence speed of the charged particle moving
 1T : in uniform magnetic field remains constant.
Magnetic field at a point is said to be 1T
if a force of 1N acts on a charged particle of  Nature of path :
+1C moving with velocity 1ms-1 at right
angle to the direction of the magnetic field. (a) Due to parallel component of velocity:
Let
 Smaller Unit of Magnetic field is gauss (G)
1G = 10-4 T = component of along the direction of .
∥

16.> Motion of Charged Particle in a ∴ ∥ = .

Uniform Magnetic Field :
∴ Magnetic force due to the ∥
Let
= ∥ sin 0 = 0
= uniform magnetic field in a region.
i.e. There is no magnetic force acting on the
q = charge of a +vely charged particle. charged particle due to ∥ .
= velocity of the charged particle. ∴ ∥ = constant
= angle between and . Thus the charged particle covers linear
distance in the direction of magnetic field with a
∴ The force experienced by the charged particle constant speed of ∥ = . .
=

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(b) Due to perpendicular component of [Here,

velocity:
is known as specific charge.Charge of
As the force acting on the charged particle
does not change the magnitude of velocity same specific charge have same time period.]
(speed) but changes the direction of the
perpendicular component of velocity Hence the path of the charged particle is
continuously with time, hence the particle moves helical.
in a circular path due to the magnetic force Z
acting on it providing the necessary centripetal
force.
∥
Let
Y
m = mass of the charged particle.

= component ⊥ . X
∴ v⊥ = v.sin Notes :
= radius of the circular path described by (1) If the charge particle enters a region of
the charge particle. uniform magnetic field in direction (θ = 00) or
opposite to the direction of magnetic field
Magnetic force provides the necessary ( θ =1800), then it moves in linear path.
centripetal force
(2) If a charged particle enters a region of
∴ = uniform magnetic field perpendicular to the
magnetic field (θ = 900), the particle describes a
circular path of radius
∴ = ....... (1)
=
Angular frequency of the particle is

=
× × × ×
= × × × ×

× ×O × ×
∴ = ...... (2)
× × × ×
Frequency of revolution
Example 4.2 If the magnetic field is parallel to
=
the positive y-axis and the charged particle is
moving along the positive x-axis, which way
∴ = ....... (3) would the Lorentz force be for (a) an electron
(negative charge), (b) a proton (positive charge).
Time period of revolution Hint:

=  = ×

 Direction is given by right hand rule.

∴ = .... (4)
Example 4.3 What is the radius of the path of an
electron (mass 9×10-31 kg and charge 1.6×10–19

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C) moving at a speed of 3×107 m/s in a  =

magnetic field of 6×10–4 T perpendicular to it?
What is its frequency? Calculate its energy in  (a) Here ⊥ , magnetic force provides the
keV. (1 eV = 1.6×10–19 J). necessary centripetal force which makes the
Hint: electron move in circular path.
=
 =
 (b) = . , which is perpendicular to
 =
and makes the electron move in circular
path.
 =
 ∥ = . , which is directed along with
4.11 In a chamber, a uniform magnetic field of out acceleration.
6.5G (1G = 10–4 T) is maintained. An electron is
shot into the field with a speed of 4.8×106 m s–1  Due to and ∥ component of the velocity,
normal to the field. Explain why the path of the the electron moves in helical path.
electron is a circle. Determine the radius of the
circular orbit.  Radius of the helical path
(e = 1.6×10–19 C, me = 9.1×10–31 kg) =
Hint:

 Force acting on the electron 17.> Lorentz Force due combined and :
= Total force experienced by a charged
particle moving in a region where both electric
 is perpendicular and , which
field and magnetic field are present is Lorentz
continuously changes the direction of , and
force.
provides the necessary centripetal force for
circular motion.
∴ = + ×
 =
Notes :
4.12 In Q 4.11 obtain the frequency of
revolution of the electron in its circular orbit. i) If the force acting on a charged particle is
Does the answer depend on the speed of the independent of its velocity but depends upon
electron? Explain. strength of the field, then the field is electric
Hint: field.
ii) Magnetic force acting on a charged particle is
 = dependent on strength of the field, velocity, and
also the direction of magnetic field w.r.t.
 is independent of speed of charged velocity of the charged particles.
particle.
iii) If electric field, magnetic field and velocity of
4.19 An electron emitted by a heated cathode charge are collinear, then the force acting on
and accelerated through a potential difference of the charged particle is due to electric field only.
2.0 kV, enters a region with uniform magnetic
field of 0.15 T. Determine the trajectory of the iv) If the velocity of a charged particle is
electron if the field perpendicular to magnetic and electric field
(a) is transverse to its initial velocity, which are collinear, then the charged particle
(b) makes an angle of 30º with the initial describes a helical path where gap between two
velocity. consecutive turns increases with increases in
Hint: order of the turns.

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18.> Motion of Charge in Combined ∴ =

Electric and Magnetic field:
 Velocity Selector : Thus the above arrangement allows those
charged particles to pass through the slits if the
charged particles posses the velocity equal to
Deflection due to the ratio of electric field to magnetic field.
+ magnetic field
× × × × 4.18 Answer the following questions:
Undeflected (a) A magnetic field that varies in magnitude
× × × × charge from point to point but has a constant direction
(east to west) is set up in a chamber. A charged
- Deflection due to
particle enters the chamber and travels
electric field
undeflected along a straight path with constant
S1 S2 speed. What can you say about the initial
velocity of the particle?
It is an arrangement to select charged
(b) A charged particle enters an environment of
particles of particular velocity out of a beam of
a strong and non-uniform magnetic field varying
particles moving with different velocities.
from point to point both in magnitude and
Let direction, and comes out of it following a
complicated trajectory. Would its final speed
S1 and S2 = two narrow slits. equal the initial speed if it suffered no collisions
with the environment?
= Magnetic field directed inward (c) An electron travelling west to east enters a
perpendicular to plane of paper. chamber having a uniform electrostatic field in
north to south direction. Specify the direction in
= Electric field directed downward along which a uniform magnetic field should be set up
the plane of paper. to prevent the electron from deflecting from its
straight line path.
q = charge of the beam of charged particles.
Hint:
When the beam of charged particles passes
through perpendicular to this cross electric and  (a) If net magnetic force F = 0, the charge
magnetic field, the beam tends to deflect particle will move in straight line
downward due to electric force and deflect undeflected.
upward due to magnetic force. = ,
∴ = 0, i.e. θ = 0
Thus the net force acting on the charged  (b) Magnetic force acting on the charge
particles particle moving in magnetic field can only
change the direction but not the magnitude
= + of velocity.
 (c) Electrostatic force acting on the electron
Let, is directed along South.
‘ ’ = velocity of the charged particles which To prevent the electron from deflecting
moved undeflected when passed through from its normal path, the magnetic force
the cross fields. acting on the electron must balance the
electrostatic force.
Then
4.20 A magnetic field set up using Helmholtz
F B = FE coils (described in Q 4.16) is uniform in a small
region and has a magnitude of 0.75 T. In the
i.e. qvB = qE same region, a uniform electrostatic field is
maintained in a direction normal to the common

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axis of the coils. A narrow beam of (single Principle :

species) charged particles all accelerated through
15 kV enters this region in a direction A charged particle can be accelerated to
perpendicular to both the axis of the coils and very high energies by making it pass through a
the electrostatic field. If the beam remains moderate electric field a number of times with
undeflected when the electrostatic field is the help of a perpendicular magnetic field which
9.0×10–5 V m–1, make a simple guess as to what makes the charged particle to move in circular
the beam contains. Why is the answer not path.
unique?
Construction :
Hint:
A cyclotron consists of two hollow metallic
 = dees D1 and D2 which are mounted inside a
vacuum chamber between two poles of a
 Since the beam remains undeflected, powerful electro-magnet.
=
Dees are connected to a high frequency
 Find electric oscillator. A beam of charged particles
to be accelerated is injected in to the dees near
 Cyclotron : its centre.

Working:
N
Electric field Let D1 be positive and D2 be negative,
therefore the + vely charged particle kept at the
oscillator
centre and in the gap between the dees get
accelerated towards D2. Due to perpendicular
D2
magnetic field charged particle describes semi-
circular path.

D1 When the charged particle is about to leave

D2, with the help of oscillating electric field, D2
Target
B W becomes + ve and D1 becomes – ve. Therefore
the particle is again accelerated into D1 where it
S continues to describe semi-circular path of larger
radius. This process continues till the charge
traverses through the whole space in the dees
It was invented by E.O. Lawrence and M.S. and finally comes out with very high speed
Livingston in 1934 in California University. through the window (W).

[* = Theory:
Let
* A charged particle can be accelerated by
making it pass through electric field repeatedly, R = radius of the dees.
hence increased its velocity.
q = charge of the charged particle.
* Magnetic force on a moving charged particle
perpendicular to B- field provides necessary m = mass of the particle
centripetal force to move in circular path.
E = magnitude of electric field.
* = ] B = magnitude of the perpendicular
magnetic field.
It is a device used to accelerate charged
particles to very high energies.

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The magnetic force experienced by the Uses:

charged particle provides the necessary
centripetal force to describe a circular path. (i) To bombard nuclei and study the resulting
nuclear reactions.
Let,
(ii) To implant ions into solids and modify
r = radius of the path. their properties or even synthesise new
materials.
v = speed of the charged particle on the
path. (iii) To produce radioactive substances which
can be used in diagnosis and treatment.
∴ =
Limitation:
i.e. = ..... (1) (i) Cyclotron cannot be used for accelerating
neutral particles.
i.e. = ... (2)
(ii) Electrons cannot be accelerated because they
Time period of revolution gain speed very quickly due to their lighter mass
and go out of phase with oscillating electric field
= and get lost within the dees.

[ According to Einstein’s relation

∴ = ..... (3)
= /

Frequency of revolution
If frequency is varied in synchronisation
= = ...... (4)
with the variation of mass of the charged particle
Time period and hence frequency depends (by maintaining B as constant) to have
only on the magnetic field and m/q (or q/m) ratio resonance, then the cyclotron is called synchro–
and not on the speed of the charge or the radius cyclotron.
of the path. If magnetic field is varied in synchronisation
Frequency of electric field oscillator is kept with the variation of mass of the charged particle
exactly equal to the frequency of revolution of (by maintaining f as constant) to have resonance,
the charged particle. Thus every time the then the cyclotron is called isochronous–
charged particle reaches the gap between the cyclotron.]
dees it gets accelerated due to the electric field,
and the cyclotron is said to be in resonance. This Example 4.4 A cyclotron’s oscillator frequency
frequency is called cyclotron frequency ( fc). is 10 MHz. What should be the operating
magnetic field for accelerating protons? If the
radius of its ‘dees’ is 60 cm, what is the kinetic
∴ = = energy (in MeV) of the proton beam produced
by the accelerator.
Kinetic energy of the charged particle is (e =1.60×10–19 C, mp = 1.67×10–27 kg,
1 MeV = 1.6×10–13 J).
= = Hint:

Kinetic energy of the charged particle  =

becomes maximum when r = R (radius of D’s).
 = =2
∴ ( ) =  =

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20.> Force on a Current Carrying F = N. f

Conductor in a Magnetic Field : = . .
Z
But,
C
neAvd = I
O I
Y ∴ = ..... (1)
F
Thus magnitude of the magnetic force acting
X on a current carrying conductor

[ *q=e =
* = In vector form
* =
= ×
* =
Direction of force is given by Fleming’s Left
* = Hand Rule, which states that if the central
finger, fore finger and thumb of left hand are
* I = neAvd ] stretched mutually perpendicular to each other
and the central finger points to current, fore
Let
finger points to magnetic field, then thumb
l = length of a conductor. points in the direction of motion (force) on the
current carrying conductor.
A = area of cross section of the conductor.
I = current in the conductor.
n = number of free electrons per unit volume.
e = charge of an electron.
B = magnetic field in which the conductor is
placed.

= angle between and . Notes :

(i) When = 00 or 1800
e = charge of an electron.
When the free electrons get drifted with drift F = BIl sin 00 = 0
velocity vd in the conductor it experiences a i.e. A current carrying conductor placed parallel
magnetic force to the magnetic field does not experienced any
magnetic force.
=
(ii) When θ = 900
Total number of free electrons in the
conductor sin 900= 1 (maximum value of sine.)
N = n Al
=
∴ The net magnetic force acting on the free
electrons in the conductor is

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i.e. A current carrying conductor experiences is set up in the rod through the wires.
maximum magnetic force when placed (a) What magnetic field should be set up normal
perpendicular to magnetic field. to the conductor in order that the tension in the
wires is zero?
Example 4.1 A straight wire of mass 200 g and (b) What will be the total tension in the wires if
length 1.5 m carries a current of 2 A. It is the direction of current is reversed keeping the
suspended in mid-air by a uniform horizontal magnetic field same as before?
magnetic field . What is the magnitude of the (Ignore the mass of the wires.) g = 9.8 m s–2.
magnetic field? Hint:
Hint:

 =
I
Example 4.10 The horizontal component of the
earth’s magnetic field at a certain place is
3.0×10–5 T and the direction of the field is from FG
the geographic south to the geographic north. A
very long straight conductor is carrying a steady  (a) =
current of 1A. What is the force per unit length
on it when it is placed on a horizontal table and  (b) = +
the direction of the current is (a) east to west; (b)
south to north? 4.23 A uniform magnetic field of 1.5 T exists in
Hint: a cylindrical region of radius10.0 cm, its
direction parallel to the axis along east to west.
 Horizontal component of earth’s magnetic A wire carrying current of 7.0 A in the north to
field is directed along north to south. south direction passes through this region. What
is the magnitude and direction of the force on
 (a) = , and θ = 900. the wire if,
(a) the wire intersects the axis,
 (b) = , and θ = 00. (b) the wire is turned from N-S to northeast-
4.5 What is the magnitude of magnetic force per northwest direction,
unit length on a wire carrying a current of 8 A (c) the wire in the N-S direction is lowered from
and making an angle of 30º with the direction of the axis by a distance of 6.0 cm?
a uniform magnetic field of 0.15 T? Hint:
Hint:
 (a) = ; θ = 900
 L=1m
 (b) = ; θ = 450
 =
 (c) = 2
4.6 A 3.0 cm wire carrying a current of 10 A is
placed inside a solenoid perpendicular to its axis.
The magnetic field inside the solenoid is given
to be 0.27 T. What is the magnetic force on the x 6 cm
wire? 4 cm
Hint:

 =  = 10 − 6 = 4 × 16

 = 90  =

4.21 A straight horizontal conducting rod of 4.26 A solenoid 60 cm long and of radius 4.0 cm
length 0.45 m and mass 60 g is suspended by has 3 layers of windings of 300 turns each. A
two vertical wires at its ends. A current of 5.0 A 2.0 cm long wire of mass 2.5 g lies inside the

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solenoid (near its centre) normal to its axis; both Magnetic field at point on conductor ‘b’ due
the wire and the axis of the solenoid are in the to current ‘Ia’ in conductor ‘a’
horizontal plane. The wire is connected through
two leads parallel to the axis of the solenoid to =
an external battery which supplies a current of
6.0 A in the wire. What value of current (with Here,
appropriate sense of circulation) in the windings
of the solenoid can support the weight of the ⊥
wire? g = 9.8 m s–2.
∴ Magnetic Force acting on length ‘l ’ of
Hint:
conductor ‘b’ due to current ‘Ib’ is

⊗ I Fba = Ba Ib l sin900
= Ba Ib l

∴ =
 = .
According to Fleming’s Left Hand Rule, this
 = ,θ= 900 force is directed towards conductor ‘a’
perpendicular to conductor b.
21.> Force Between Two Parallel Current
∴ Force acting per unit length of conductor ‘b’
Carrying Conductors :
Ia Ib = .... (1)

Similarly, magnetic force acting per unit

length of the conductor ‘a’ due to the current ‘Ib’
in conductor ‘b’ is

= ..... (2)
d
Which directed towards conductor ‘b’
perpendicular to conductor ‘a’.
a b
∴ =−
[ * =
Thus the force between two parallel current
* = carrying conductors is attractive in nature and
magnitude of the force acting per unit length of
* ⊥ conductor is

*FL H rule ] ∴ =
Let
Then, if the current carrying conductors
d = distance between two parallel current are antiparallel, the nature of force is repulsive
carrying conductors a and b. in nature. Magnitude of force per unit length is

Ia = current in the conductor a. = .

Ib = current in the conductor b in the same
direction of Ia . [ Similarly magnetic field on conductor a due
to current Ia in conductor b.

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= As is a vector quantity, force acting

on is also vector quantity. Thus net magnetic
Here, force acting on the loop AC is equal to the force
acting on . Similarly force acting on the loop
⊥
CD is equal to force acting on . Thus net
∴ Force acting on length l of conductor a due magnetic force acting on the loop ACD is equal
to current Ia is to the force acting on the .
Fab = Bb Ia l sin900 Hence magnetic force acting on the loop ACD is
= BbIa l = BI. AD .

∴ =  Force on a current carrying circular coil

placed perpendicular to an external magnetic
∴ Force acting per unit length of conductor ‘a’ field:

= .... (2) = 2
X X X X
According to Fleming’s Left Hand Rule, this
force is directed towards conductor b X X X X
perpendicular to conductor ‘a’. ] A
O
C

Notes: X X X X
1.> Definition of Ampere : = 2
When Ia = Ib = 1 Ampere and d = 1m,
Thus the net force acting on the circular loop
then F = 2 × 10-7 N/m. is zero.

‘1A’ is the value of a steady current which,  Tension acting along the length of the
when maintained in each of the two very long, circular loop:
straight, parallel conductors of negligible cross-
For a small current element CD, angle made
section, and placed 1 m apart in vacuum, would
by the radius vector with diameter is very small
produce on each of these conductors a force
angle δθ.
equal to 2×10–7 N/m of length.
Tension acts along the length of wire.
2.> Definition of Coulomb :
When a steady current of ‘1A’ is set up in a = .2
conductor, the quantity of charge that flows ⊗ ⊗ T.cosδθ ⊗
through its cross-section in 1s is one coulomb T
(1C). T.sinδθ D
δθ = δθ
⊗A ⊗O ⊗
[ Force acting on a current carrying loop: δθ C = δθ
T.sinδθ E
X X X X T
⊗ ⊗ T.cosδθ ⊗
I D
C = .2
X X X X
A As the wire is in equilibrium
X X X X
. + . = . δθ + δθ

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i.e 2. . =2 . δθ * τ = F× perpendicular dist. between forces.

i.e. . = . δθ * m = NIA ]
As δθ is very small Let
≈ I = current in a rectangular loop PQRS.
∴ . = . δθ B = uniform magnetic field in which the
loop is placed.
∴ = ]
a = length of the loop.
4.7 Two long and parallel straight wires A and B
carrying currents of 8.0 A and 5.0 A in the same b = breadth of the loop.
direction are separated by a distance of 4.0 cm.
= angle between normal (n) and magnetic
Estimate the force on a 10 cm section of wire A.
field .
Hint:
Magnetic force acting on side QR
 =
= ×
 Force on the length l
= i.e. = (180 − )

 Nature of force. ∴ = .... (1)

4.22 The wires which connect the battery of an is directed upward along the axis of the
automobile to its starting motor carry a current loop.
of 300 A (for a short time). What is the force per
unit length between the wires if they are 70 cm Magnetic force acting on the side SP
long and 1.5 cm apart? Is the force attractive or
repulsive? = ×
Hint:
∴ = .... (2)
 =
is directed downward along the axis of the
loop.
22.> Torque on a Rectangular Current
Loop placed in a Uniform Magnetic and are equal in magnitude but
Field: opposite in direction hence cancel out each
other, and are acting along the same line of
R action (axis) and hence do not produce torque.

Q θ Magnetic force on the side PQ

= ×

∴ = 90
αS = ...... (3), directed outward
perpendicular to plane of paper.
P
Magnetic force on the side QR

[ * = × = ×

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∴ = 90
= ×
= ...... (4), directed inward
perpendicular to plane of paper. i.e. = ×
Forces and being equal in According to right hand rule, torque is
magnitude but opposite in direction cancel out directed along the axis of rotation.
each other and do not produce any translational
motion. Notes :
But they act along different lines of action
i) When θ = 00
and hence produce torque about the axis of the
coil. i.e. when the plane of the loop is perpendicular
to magnetic field.

M R =0
α α
θ θ ii) when θ = 900
Q
i.e. when the plane of the loop is parallel to
magnetic field.
=
∴ Torque acting on the coil
iii) Torque on a planar loop is independent of
= ×⊥ dist between and shape but depends up on area of the loop and
magnetic field.
i.e. = ×
(iv) Potential energy of a current carrying loop
= placed in a magnetic field is

= =− .
Here, Example 4.11 A 100 turn closely wound
circular coil of radius 10 cm carries a current of
ab = A = Area of the rectangular loop.
3.2 A.
∴ = (a) What is the field at the centre of the coil?
(b) What is the magnetic moment of this
If there are N number of turns in the loop coil?The coil is placed in a vertical plane and is
free to rotate about a horizontal axis which
= ...... (5)
coincides with its diameter. A uniform magnetic
field of 2T in the horizontal direction exists such
that initially the axis of the coil is in the
But direction of the field. The coil rotates through an
angle of 90º under the influence of the magnetic
NIA = m = magnetic dipole moment of the
field.
loop. (c) What are the magnitudes of the torques on
the coil in the initial and final position?
∴ = ...... (6) (d) What is the angular speed acquired by the
coil when it has rotated by 90º? The moment of
In vector form inertia of the coil is 0.1 kg m2.
Hint:

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 (a) = 2  (c) It assumes circular shape with its plane

normal to the field to maximize flux, since
 Direction is given by right hand rule. for a given perimeter, a circle encloses
greater area than any other shape.
 (b) =
4.9 A square coil of side 10 cm consists of 20
turns and carries a current of 12 A. The coil is
 Direction is given by right hand rule.
suspended vertically and the normal to the plane
of the coil makes an angle of 30º with the
 (c) =
direction of a uniform horizontal magnetic field
 = 0, = 90 of magnitude 0.80 T. What is the magnitude of
torque experienced by the coil?
Hint:
 (d) ℐ = , ℐ = moment of inertia
 = , θ = 300
 = = .
4.13 (a) A circular coil of 30 turns and radius 8.0
cm carrying a current of 6.0 A is suspended
 = vertically in a uniform horizontal magnetic field
ℐ
of magnitude 1.0 T. The field lines make an
Example 4.12 angle of 60º with the normal of the coil.
(a) A current-carrying circular loop lies on a Calculate the magnitude of the counter torque
smooth horizontal plane. Can a uniform that must be applied to prevent the coil from
magnetic field be set up in such a manner that turning.
the loop turns around itself (i.e., turns about the (b) Would your answer change, if the circular
vertical axis). coil in (a) were replaced by a planar coil of some
(b) A current-carrying circular loop is located in irregular shape that encloses the same area? (All
a uniform external magnetic field. If the loop is other particulars are also unaltered.)
free to turn, what is its orientation of stable Hint:
equilibrium? Show that in this orientation, the
flux of the total field (external field + field  (a) = , θ = 300
produced by the loop) is maximum.
 (b) Torque on a planar loop is independent of
(c) A loop of irregular shape carrying current is
shape but depends up on area of the loop and
located in an external magnetic field. If the wire
magnetic field.
is flexible, why does it change to a circular
shape? 4.24 A uniform magnetic field of 3000 G is
Hint: established along the positive z-direction. A
rectangular loop of sides 10 cm and 5 cm carries
 No, because that would require τ to be in the a current of 12 A. What is the torque on the loop
vertical direction. But = × , and in the different cases shown in Fig. 4.28? What
since of the horizontal loop is in the is the force on each case? Which case
vertical direction, would be in the plane of corresponds to stable equilibrium?
the loop for any .
z z
 (b) Orientation of stable equilibrium is one
where the area vector of the loop is in the B B
direction of external magnetic field. In this I
I
orientation, the magnetic field produced by
the loop is in the same direction as external y y
field, both normal to the plane of the loop, x x
thus giving rise to maximum flux of the total (a) (b)
field.

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 (c) =
z z
 =
B B
23.> The Moving Coil Galvanometer :
I
I
It is device used to detect electric current in
y y the circuit.
x x 300
(c) (d)
z z Scale

B B
Pointer
Soft Iron
I y I y
core
x x
(e) (f)
Hint: SP
N S
 = ×

 =− .

 A magnetic dipole is in stable equilibrium Magnetic field

position if it is in translational and rotational [ * = NIBASin
equilibrium, and posses’ minimum potential
energy. * I∝I

 A magnetic dipole is in unstable equilibrium * rest =k ]

position if it is in translational and rotational
equilibrium, and if its potential energy is not Principle :
minimum. A current carrying coil placed in a magnetic
4.25 A circular coil of 20 turns and radius 10 cm field experienced a torque whose magnitude is
is placed in a uniform magnetic field of 0.10 T proportional to the strength of electric current.
normal to the plane of the coil. If the current in
the coil is 5.0 A, what is the Construction :
(a) total torque on the coil,
(b) total force on the coil, A MCG consists of
(c) average force on each electron in the coil due
1. a rectangular coil of insulated copper wire
to the magnetic field?
(The coil is made of copper wire of cross- wound over a cylindrical soft iron core.
sectional area 10–5 m2, and the free electron
2. the coil is mounted between two cylindrical
density in copper is given to be about 1029 m–3.)
Hint: pole pieces of permanent magnet.

 (a) = , θ = 00 3. A spring ‘SP’(usually made from phosphor

bronze), connected to the coil and the axle,
 (b) F = 0

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controls the motion of the coil by providing i.e. NIBA = k

counter torque.
∴ = ..... (3)
4. A light pointer is attached to the coil to
measure deflection.
i.e. =
Theory and Working :
∴ ∝I
Let
Thus deflection produced by the
I = electric current in the coil. galvanometer coil is proportional to the current.

A = area of the coil. Here,

N = number of turns of the coil. = = Galvanometer Constant.

= magnetic field. = Current Reducing factor.

As magnetic field is radial, normal to the coil

is always perpendicular to magnetic field.
i.e. = =

∴ = 900 Note:
∴ Torque (deflecting torque) acting on the coil is The combined effect of cylindrical pole
pieces of magnet and soft iron core makes the
= 90
magnetic field directed along the radii of a
= ... (1) circle, and is called radial field.

The spring SP produced a restoring torque The radial magnetic field enables for linear
( rest) to counter balanced the deflecting torque scalling (proportionate scalling).
‘ ’.
23.1> Sensitivity of Galvanometer :
Let
 Current Sensitivity (IS):
= Angle through which the coil gets
deflected It is defined as deflection per unit current
flowing through the galvanometer.
(= angle through which the spring gets
twisted).
i.e . = = =
∴ = .... (2)
 Voltage Sensitivity (Vs) :
Here,
It is defined as deflection per unit potential
= torsion constant of the spring. difference across galvanometer.
= torque required to produce unit twist.
i.e. = = =
At equilibrium,

Deflecting torque = Restoring torque Notes:

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(A) Sensitivity of galvanometer can be (i) Galvanometer is a very sensitive device, it

increased by gives full-scale deflection for a current of the
order of μA.
1. increasing magnetic field strength, which
can be done by using horse shoe magnet and by (ii) for measuring currents, the galvanometer has
using soft iron core in armature. to be connected in series. As it has a large
resistance, effective resistance of the circuit
2. decreasing the value of k (torsion constant of changes, which changes the value of the current
the spring), which is achieved by using quartz or in the circuit.
phosphor-bronze material.

3. increasing N; but has limitation:- rs

Increasing in N makes the resistance of the
(I – Ig)
galvanometer increase and hence may decrease
its (voltage) sensitivity. G
I Ig
4. increasing area A; but has limitation:- Ammeter
Increasing A will make the coil go out of radial
A galvanometer can be converted to an
magnetic field (thus linear scaling will not be ammeter by connecting a resistor of very low
possible); and also make the galvanometer bulky resistance called shunt resistor parallel to the
and difficult to handle. galvanometer.

(B) When N → N′ = 2N, Let

I → 2I RG = resistance of the galvanometer.

As Ig = the current that gives full scale

deflection of the galvanometer.
∝
rs = resistance of shunt resistor.
∝ =2 0 – I = required current range of the ammeter.
∴ =2 As shunt resistor is connected parallel to the
galvanometer
Thus
P.d across rs = P.d across galvanometer.
′
=
2
2
=
i.e. (I – Ig)rs = Ig RG
Hence, with increasing the number of turns
current sensitivity increases but voltage ∴ = R
sensitivity remains almost constant.

23.1> Conversion of Galvanometer into Resistance of ammeter is

Ammeter : = +R

A galvanometer cannot be used directly as

=
an ammeter because
 Thus resistance of an ammeter is very low.
 Resistance of an ideal ammeter is zero.

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 Higher the range of ammeter to be prepared galvanometer on a voltmeter, a high resistance in

from a given galvanometer lower is the value series is required.
of shunt resistor and vice versa.
(ii) An ammeter is used to measure current in
23.2 > Conversion of Galvanometer into circuit, hence it is connected in series with the
circuit. If an ammeter has very low resistance it
Voltmeter : will not affect the circuit - resistance and so
reading will be true. That is why while using a
A galvanometer can be converted to moving coil galvanometer as an ammeter, a
voltmeter by connecting a very high resistance shunt (small resistance in parallel) is used.
in series with it.
[* Conversion of Ammeter into Voltmeter:
R
Let
G
Ig
I = current that gives full scale deflection of
ammeter.
Voltmeter
Let RA = resistance of the ammeter.

RG = resistance of the galvanometer. 0− = range of voltmeter.

Ig = current that gives full scale deflection When the ammeter is to be converted to
of voltmeter, it acts like a galvanometer.
the galvanometer.
∴ I =I
R = resistance of series resistor.
R =R
0 – V = required voltage range of the voltmeter.
∴ The required resistance to be connected in
By Ohm’s law series with ammeter to convert to voltmeter is
V = Ig(R + RG) R= −R

∴ = −R
∴ = −

Resistance of voltmeter is ** Conversion of Voltmeter into Ammeter :

= + ≈ >> Let
 Resistance of voltmeter is very high. = voltage that gives full scale deflection
of voltmeter.
 Resistance of an ideal voltmeter is infinity.
= resistance of the voltmeter.
 Voltmeter of lower range has lower
resistance and vice versa. 0 − I = range of ammeter.
Notes : ∴ Current that gives full scale deflection of
voltmeter
(i) A voltmeter is used to measure p.d. across a
resistance in an electrical circuit. It is connected
I =
in parallel across the resistance. If a voltmeter
has very high resistance, it will not affect the
current of circuit, hence reading will be true. When the voltmeter is to be converted to
That is why while using a moving coil ammeter, it acts like a galvanometer.

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∴ I =I (The spring constants are identical for the two

meters).
R =R Determine the ratio of
∴ The required shunt resistor is (a) current sensitivity and

r = R b) voltage sensitivity of M2 and M1.

Hint:

∴ r = R ]  (a) =

Example 4.13 In the circuit diagram fig. below  (b) =

current is to be measured. What is the value of
the current if the ammeter 4.27 A galvanometer coil has a resistance of
12 Ω and the metre shows full scale deflection
(a) is a galvanometer with a resistance for a current of 3 mA. How will you convert the
RG = 60.00 Ω; metre into a voltmeter of range 0 to 18 V?
Hint:
(b) is a galvanometer described in (a) but
converted to an ammeter by a shunt resistance  = −
rs = 0.02 Ω;
(c) is an ideal ammeter with zero resistance? 4.28 A galvanometer coil has a resistance of
15 Ω and the metre shows full scale deflection
A for a current of 4 mA. How will you convert the
metre into an ammeter of range 0 to 6 A?
3.00 Ω Hint:

 =
3.00 V
Hint:
24.> The Magnetic Dipole of a Revolving
Electron :
 =3+ ; =

 (b) =

 =

 =3+ ; =

 (c) RA = 0; = [ * =

4.10 Two moving coil meters, M1 and M2 have * =

the following particulars:
* =
= 10 , = 30,
A1 = 3.6×10–3 m2, B1 = 0.25 T
*T = ]
R2 = 14 Ω, N2 = 42, Let

A2 = 1.8×10–3 m2, B2 = 0.50 T r = radius of electron orbit.

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e = charge of an electron. = Bohr’s magneton

= velocity of the electron. = 9.27 ×10-24Am2
∴ Time taken by an electron to complete one Thus Bohr’s magneton is the magnetic
revolution moment of an electron due to its orbital motion
in its 1st orbit of hydrogen atom.
T=
π

∴ The electric current due to flow of electron is

= =

∴ The orbital magnetic moment

= = .

∴ = ........ (1)

directed upward along the axis of the loop.

As the electron revolves in its orbits angular
of the electron is
l = mvr ..... (2)

∴ =

This is known gyro-magnetic ratio.

i.e. =

In vector form

=−

The –ve sign indicates that is directed

opposite to .
Orbit al magnetic moment is directed along
the axis of revolution in upward direction.
According to Bohr’s quantization

∴ =

When
n =1

= = constant

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Class 12

1. Magnet: (d) Two identical looking iron bars A and B are

given, one of which is definitely known to be
It is a substance that has attractive/repulsive magnetised. (We do not know which one.)
and directional property. How would one ascertain whether or not both
are magnetised? If only one is magnetised, how
2. Magnetic field (B) : does one ascertain which one? [Use nothing else
but the bars A and B.]
Magnetic field is said to exist at a point
Hint:
around a magnet if its influence can be felt at
that point by another magnet.  (a) In either case, one gets two magnets, each
with a north and south pole.
3.> Properties of Magnetic Field Lines:
 (b) No force if the field is uniform. The iron
It is the curve or straight line tangent to nail experiences a nonuniform field due to the
bar magnet. There is induced magnetic moment
which gives the direction of magnetic field at a
in the nail, therefore, it experiences both force
point. and torque. The net force is attractive because
the induced south pole (say) in the nail is closer
(i) The magnetic field lines of a magnet (or a
to the north pole of magnet than induced north
solenoid) form continuous closed loops. pole.
[This is unlike the electric dipole where these  (c) Not necessarily. True only if the source
field lines begin from a positive charge and end of the field has a net nonzero magnetic moment.
on the negative charge or escape to infinity.] This is not so for a toroid or even for a straight
infinite conductor.
(ii) The tangent to the field line at a given point  (d) Try to bring different ends of the bars
represents the direction of the net magnetic field closer. A repulsive force in some situation
at that point. establishes that both are magnetised. If it is
always attractive, then one of them is not
(iii) The larger the number of field lines crossing magnetised. In a bar magnet the intensity of the
per unit area, the stronger is the magnitude of the magnetic field is the strongest at the two ends
(poles) and weakest at the central region. This
magnetic field B.
fact may be used to determine whether A or B is
(iv) The magnetic field lines do not intersect, for the magnet. In this case, to see which one of the
two bars is a magnet, pick up one, (say, A) and
if they did, the direction of the magnetic field
lower one of its ends; first on one of the ends of
would not be unique at the point of intersection. the other (say, B), and then on the middle of B.
If you notice that in the middle of B, A
Example 5.3 (a) What happens if a bar magnet
experiences no force, then B is magnetised. If
is cut into two pieces: (i) transverse to its length, you do not notice any change from the end to the
(ii) along its length? middle of B, then A is magnetised.
(b) A magnetised needle in a uniform magnetic
field experiences a torque but no net force. An Example 5.6 Many of the diagrams given in Fig.
below show magnetic field lines (thick lines in
iron nail near a bar magnet, however,
the figure) wrongly. Point out what is wrong
experiences a force of attraction in addition to a with them. Some of them may describe
torque. Why? electrostatic field lines correctly. Point out
(c) Must every magnetic configuration have a which ones.
north pole and a south pole? What about the
field due to a toroid?

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* = ]
Let
m = magnetic moment of the dipole.
B = unifrom magnetic field in which the
dipole is placed.

= angle between and .

(a) ∴ The torque acting on the dipole

=
∴ Work done in rotating the dipole through
angle d

= .
∴ Total work done in rotating the dipole from
1 to 2 is

= .

=−

=− −
This work done is stored as the potential
Hint:
energy U of the dipole
 By the properties of magnetic field lines.
∴ =− −
4.> Solenoid as Bar Magnet:
Magnetic field lines of a solenoid is same as Taking
that of bar magnet. Thus solenoid is equivalent
to bar magnet. 1= 900

5. Potential Energy of a Magnetic Dipole 2 =

Placed in a Magnetic Field : =−

θ i.e. =− .
Example 5.2 A short bar magnet placed with its
axis at 30º with an external field of 800 G
experiences a torque of 0.016 Nm.
(a) What is the magnetic moment of the magnet?
[ * =
(b) What is the work done in moving it from its
most stable to most unstable position?
* = . (c) The bar magnet is replaced by a solenoid of

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cross-sectional area 2×10–4 m2 and 1000 turns,  =

but of the same magnetic moment. Determine
the current flowing through the solenoid. 5.7 A bar magnet of magnetic moment 1.5 JT–1
Hint: lies aligned with the direction of a uniform
magnetic field of 0.22 T.
 (a) = (a) What is the amount of work required by an
external torque to turn the magnet so as to align
 (b) 1= 00 to 2 = 1800 its magnetic moment:
(i) normal to the field direction,
 = −
(ii) opposite to the field direction?
 = (b) What is the torque on the magnet in cases (i)
and (ii)?
5.3 A short bar magnet placed with its axis at 30º Hint:
with a uniform external magnetic field of 0.25 T
experiences a torque of magnitude equal to  (a) (i) 1= 00 to 2 = 900
4.5×10–2J. What is the magnitude of magnetic
 (ii) 1= 00 to = 1800
moment of the magnet?
2

Hint:  = −
 =  (b) (i) = 900
5.4 A short bar magnet of magnetic moment  (ii) = 1800
m = 0.32 JT–1 is placed in a uniform magnetic
field of 0.15 T. If the bar is free to rotate in the  =
plane of the field, which orientation would
correspond to its 5.8 A closely wound solenoid of 2000 turns and
(a) stable, and (b) unstable equilibrium? What is area of cross-section 1.6×10–4 m2, carrying a
the potential energy of the magnet in each case? current of
Hint: 4.0 A, is suspended through its centre allowing it
to turn in a horizontal plane.
 (a) Stable, θ = 00 (a) What is the magnetic moment associated
with the solenoid?
 (b) Unstable equilibrium, θ = 1800 (b) What is the force and torque on the solenoid
if a uniform horizontal magnetic field of
 =−
7.5×10–2 T is set up at an angle of 30º with the
5.5 A closely wound solenoid of 800 turns and axis of the solenoid?
area of cross section 2.5×10–4 m2 carries a Hint:
current of 3.0 A. Explain the sense in which the
 (a) =
solenoid acts like a bar magnet. What is its
associated magnetic moment?  (b) =
Hint:
 As the magnetic field is uniform net force is
 = zero.
 The sense (magnetic polarity) is determined
by the direction of current. 6.> Determination of Magnetic Induction
5.6 If the solenoid in Exercise 5.5 is free to turn Using Compass Needle :
about the vertical direction and a uniform
horizontal magnetic field of 0.25 T is applied,
what is the magnitude of torque on the solenoid
when its axis makes an angle of 30° with the θ
direction of applied field?
Hint:

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[ * = ∴ =
* =
∴ =2
* For SHM,

∝ i.e. =

or =− ] Example 5.1 A magnetic needle has magnetic

moment 6.7×10–2 Am2 and moment of inertia
Let I = 7.5×10–6 kgm2. It performs 10 complete
oscillations in 6.70 s. What is the magnitude of
m = magnetic moment of the compass
the magnetic field?
needle. Hint:
B = uniform magnetic field in which the
.
compass is placed.  =
.
= angle between and .
 =
∴ The deflecting torque acting in the compass
needle is 5.9 A circular coil of 16 turns and radius 10 cm
= ...... (1) carrying a current of 0.75 A rests with its plane
normal to an external field of magnitude
And the restoring torque acting on the 5.0×10–2 T. The coil is free to turn about an axis
compass needle is in its plane perpendicular to the field direction.
When the coil is turned slightly and released, it
=− oscillates about its stable equilibrium with a
frequency of 2.0 s–1. What is the moment of
For small value of , sin ≈ inertia of the coil about its axis of rotation?
Hint:
∴ =− ..... (2)
 =
∴ =−
 =
i.e. =−
 =
This represents the equation of SHM.

Let [ Notes:
= angular frequency of the oscillating  Magnetic field obeys superposition principle.
compass needle.
 Magnetic field along the axial line of a
∴ = magnetic dipole:

i.e. = = ( )

Let
 When r >> a,
T = time period of oscillation
=

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 For a short magnetic dipole, magnetic field  =

along the equatorial line is
 =−
=−
5.12 A short bar magnet has a magnetic moment
 =2 ] of 0.48 J T–1. Give the direction and magnitude
of the magnetic field produced by the magnet at
a distance of 10 cm from the centre of the
Example 5.4 What is the magnitude of the
magnet on (a) the axis,(b) the equatorial lines
equatorial and axial fields due to a bar magnet of
(normal bisector) of the magnet.
length 5.0 cm at a distance of 50 cm from its
Hint:
mid-point? The magnetic moment of the bar
magnet is 0.40 A m2.
 =
Hint:
 =2
 =
7. Gauss’s Law of Magnetism :
 =−

Example 5.5 Figure 5.5 shows a small

magnetized needle P placed at a point O. The
arrow shows the direction of its magnetic
moment. The other arrows show different
positions (and orientations of the magnetic
moment) of another identical magnetised needle
Q. Q4

The net magnetic flux through any closed

Q1 Q2 surface is zero.
P Q3
∮ . =0
i.e. Isolated magnetic monopole does not exist.

Q6 Example 5.7
(a) In which configuration the system is not in (a) Magnetic field lines show the direction (at
equilibrium? every point) along which a small magnetised
(b) In which configuration is the system in (i) needle aligns (at the point). Do the magnetic
stable, and (ii) unstable equilibrium? field lines also represent the lines of force on a
(c) Which configuration corresponds to the moving charged particle at every point?
lowest potential energy among all the (b) Magnetic field lines can be entirely confined
configurations shown? within the core of a toroid, but not within a
Hint: straight solenoid. Why?
(c) If magnetic monopoles existed, how would
 = − . , for stable equilibrium, U should the Gauss’s law of magnetism be modified?
be minimum. (d) Does a bar magnet exert a torque on itself
i.e. ∥ due to its own field?
Does one element of a current-carrying wire
 For U to be in unstable equilibrium, U exert a force on another element of the same
should not be minimum. wire?
i.e. . (e) Magnetic field arises due to charges in

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motion. Can a system have magnetic moments The pole near the geographic north pole of
even though its net charge is zero? the earth is called the north magnetic pole. It is
Hint: located somewhere in north Canada. Likewise,
 No. The magnetic force is always normal to the pole near the geographic south pole is called
B (remember magnetic force = ( × the south magnetic pole. It is located in the
). It is misleading to call magnetic field Antarctica.
lines as lines of force.
Earth’s magnetic axis does not coincide with
 (b) If field lines were entirely confined the axis of rotation of the earth but is presently
between two ends of a straight solenoid, the titled by approximately 11.3º with respect to the
flux through the cross-section at each end later.
would be non-zero. But the flux of field B
through any closed surface must always be
zero. For a toroid, this difficulty is absent
because it has no ‘ends’.
 (c) Gauss’s law of magnetism states that the
flux of through any closed surface is
always zero i.e.  B .d s = 0
 
S
If monopoles existed, the right hand side
would be equal to the monopole (magnetic 9. Some Important Terms :
charge) qm enclosed by S. [Analogous to
Gauss’s law of electrostatics,  B .d s = μ ,  Magnetic Meridian :
 
S
where qm is the (monopole) magnetic charge It is the vertical plane passing through the
enclosed by S.] magnetic axis.
 (d) No. There is no force or torque on an
element due to the field produced by that NM
element itself. But there is a force (or torque)
on an element of the same wire. (For the
special case of a straight wire, this force is
zero.) Magnetic
 (e) Yes. The average of the charge in the meridian
system may be zero. Yet, the mean of the
magnetic moments due to various current
loops may not be zero. We will come across SM
such examples in connection with
paramagnetic material where atoms have net
dipole moment through their net charge is
[ It is the plane perpendicular the plane of
zero. compass needle containing the magnetic axis of
the needle.]
8. Origin of Earth’s Magnetic Field :
Magnetic
The core of earth is very hot and molten meridian
materials like iron, nickel etc, which are in the
form of ions are circulating. The circulating ions
in the highly conducting liquid region of earth’s
core form current loops and hence produce
magnetic field. It is of the order of (10-4 T).

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 Geographical Meridian :

It is the vertical plane passing through the Compass needle Horizontal

geographical axis. rotating about a I
vertical plane
NG
parallel to the
Geographical Earth’s magnetic
magnetic
meridian fiield
meridian.
NG
NM
Geographical
meridian

Magnetic
SG Variation of meridian
dip angle:
10.Elements of Earth’s Magnetic Field:
These are the parameters required to SM
SG
completely described earth’s magnetic field a
place.

 Magnetic Declination (D) :

It is the angle between the magnetic meridian

and geographical meridian at a place.

Geographical
meridian
It is zero at the equator and 90°at the poles.
D  Horizontal Component of Earth’s
Magnetic Field (BH):
or It is the component of earth’s magnetic field
at point along the horizontal line in the magnetic
meridian.

 Vertical Component of Earth’s Magnetic

Field (BV):
Magnetic
meridian It is the component of earth’s magnetic field
at a point perpendicular to the BH (it is directed
Note : towards the centre of earth along the radius).
Declination is greater at higher altitudes and
smaller near the equator. BH
N
BE I
 Magnetic Inclination or Angle of Dip (I) P
BV
It is the angle that the total magnetic field
of the earth makes with the (horizontal) C
surface of the earth.

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this location?
Hint:
Geographical
meridian  BH = BE cosI
5.1 Answer the following questions regarding
Magnetic BH D P earth’s magnetism:
meridian I (a) A vector needs three quantities for its
specification. Name the three independent
BV quantities conventionally used to specify the
BE
earth’s magnetic field.
(b) The angle of dip at a location in southern
India is about 18º.Would you expect a greater or
smaller dip angle in Britain?
To the centre of earth
 Relation Between Elements of Earth’s (c) If you made a map of magnetic field lines at
Magnetic Field : Melbourne in Australia, would the lines seem to
go into the ground or come out of the ground?
From the fig. (d) In which direction would a compass free to
move in the vertical plane point to, if located
BH = BE cosI ..... (1) right on the geomagnetic north or south pole?
(e) The earth’s field, it is claimed, roughly
BV = BE sinI ..... (2)
approximates the field due to a dipole of
magnetic moment 8×1022 J T–1 located at its
∴ = centre. Check the order of magnitude of this
number in some way.
And (f ) Geologists claim that besides the main
magnetic N-S poles, there are several local poles
on the earth’s surface oriented in different
= + directions. How is such a thing possible at all?
Hint:
Variation of BH :
 (a) Magnetic declination, angle of dip,
 1. > At equator, horizontal component of earth’s magnetic field.
I = 00
 (b) Greater in Britain (it is about 70º),
∴ BH = BE because Britain is closer to the magnetic north
pole.
 At the poles,
I = 900  (c) Field lines of B due to the earth’s
∴ BH = 0 magnetism would seem to come out of the
ground.
Example 5.8 The earth’s magnetic field at the
equator is approximately 0.4 G. Estimate the  (d) A compass is free to move in a horizontal
earth’s dipole moment. plane, while the earth’s field is exactly vertical at
Hint: the magnetic poles. So the compass can point in
any direction there.
 = =
 (e) Use the formula for field B on the normal
 r = radius of earth = 6.4×106 m. bisector of a dipole of magnetic moment m,
=
Example 5.9 In the magnetic meridian of a
certain place, the horizontal component of the Take m = 8×1022 J T–1, r = 6.4×106 m
earth’s magnetic field is 0.26G and the dip angle B = 0.3 G, which checks with the order of
is 60º. What is the magnetic field of the earth at magnitude of the observed field on the earth.

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 (f) Geologists claim are correct.The earth’s  (d) Earth’s magnetic field gets weakly
field is only approximately a dipole field. Local ‘recorded’ in certain rocks during solidification.
N-S poles may arise due to, for instance, Analysis of this rock magnetism offers clues to
magnetized mineral deposits. geomagnetic history.
5.2 Answer the following questions:  (e) At large distances, the field gets modified
(a) The earth’s magnetic field varies from point due to the field of ions in motion (in the earth’s
to point in space. Does it also change with time? ionosphere). The latter is sensitive to extra-
If so, on what time scale does it change terrestrial disturbances such as, the solar wind.
appreciably?
(b) The earth’s core is known to contain iron.  (f ) From the relation
Yet geologists do not regard this as a source of = =
the earth’s magnetism. Why? = , an extremely minute magnetic field
(c) The charged currents in the outer conducting
bends charged particles in a circle of very large
regions of the earth’s core are thought to be
radius. Over a small distance, the deflection due
responsible for earth’s magnetism. What might
to the circular orbit of such large R may not be
be the ‘battery’ (i.e., the source of energy) to
noticeable, but over the gigantic interstellar
sustain these currents?
distances, the deflection can significantly affect
(d) The earth may have even reversed the
the passage of charged particles, for example,
direction of its field several times during its
cosmic rays.
history of 4 to 5 billion years. How can
geologists know about the earth’s field in such 5.10 A magnetic needle free to rotate in a
distant past? vertical plane parallel to the magnetic meridian
(e) The earth’s field departs from its dipole has its north tip pointing down at 22º with the
shape substantially at large distances (greater horizontal. The horizontal component of the
than about 30,000 km). What agencies may be earth’s magnetic field at the place is known to be
responsible for this distortion? 0.35 G. Determine the magnitude of the earth’s
(f ) Interstellar space has an extremely weak magnetic field at the place.
magnetic field of the order of 10–12 T. Can such Hint:
a weak field be of any significant consequence?
Explain.  I = 220
[Note: Exercise 5.2 is meant mainly to arouse
your curiosity. Answers to some questions above  BH = BE cosI
are tentative or unknown. Brief answers 5.11 At a certain location in Africa, a compass
wherever possible are given at the end. For points 12º west of the geographic north. The
details, you should consult a good text on north tip of the magnetic needle of a dip circle
geomagnetism.] placed in the plane of magnetic meridian points
Hint: 60º above the horizontal. The horizontal
 (a) Yes, it does change with time. Time component of the earth’s field is measured to be
scale for appreciable change is roughly a few 0.16 G. Specify the direction and magnitude of
hundred years. But even on a much smaller scale the earth’s field at the location.
of a few years, its variations are not completely Hint:
negligible.  I = 600
 (b) Because molten iron (which is the phase  BH = BE cosI
of the iron at the high temperatures of the core)
is not ferromagnetic.  Directed 120 west of geographical north,
making an angle of 60º with the horizontal
 (c) One possibility is the radioactivity in the component of the earth’s magnetic field.
interior of the earth. But nobody really knows.
You should consult a good modern text on 11. Magnetisation and Magnetic Intensity:
geomagnetism for a proper view of the question.

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 (Absolute) Magnetic permeability ( ): Magnetic field at the centre of the same solenoid
when filled with soft iron is
Magnetic permeability of a medium is the
ability of a material to support formation of a =
magnetic field within itself.
Here,
 Relative (Magnetic) Permeability (μr) :
μ0 and μ represents the core material. Then
It is defined as the ratio of magnetic field in ‘nI’ represents the ability associated with
the medium to the magnetic field in vacuum. magnetic field (due to electric current) to
magnetise a substance placed in it, and is called
magnetising force of magnetic field. ]
Let
It is given by
B0 = magnetic field in the vacuum.
H = nI (Am-1)
B = magnetic field in the medium.
∴ =
∴ Relative Permeability of the medium is

= i.e. =

i.e. = Net magnetic field produced inside a

magnetic material is the resultant of magnetising
 Magnetisation (or Intensity of field B and the field B produced due to
Magnetisation) ( ) : magnetisation of the material.

It is the degree to which a substance is ∴ B = B0 + BM

magnetised when placed in a magnetic field.
It is defined as the magnetic dipole moment i.e. = ( + )
( ) developed of the per unit volume (V) of the
substance when placed in a magnetising filed Note:
(magnetic field).
1. Magnetic field at the centre of the same
∴ = (Am-1) solenoid when filled with soft iron is

Magnetic field produced by a magnetised = =

substance is
2. The magnetising current “IM” is the
BM = 0M additional current that needs to be passed
through the windings of the solenoid in the
 Magnetic Field Intensity or magnetising absence of the core which would give a B value
Force (H) : as in the presence of the core.
It is the degree or extent to which a magnetic
∴ = ( + )
field can magnetise a substance.

[ Magnetic field at the centre of a solenoid

=( − 1)
filled with vacuum is
 Magnetic susceptibility ( m) :
= It is the measure of how easily a given
substance can be magnetised when placed in
magnetic field.

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[Extent of magnetisation is given by the manetisation (2) Paramagnetic material

] (3) Ferromagnetic material
∴ M∝H
12.1> Diamagnetic Material :
or M = m.H
(i).> Diamagnetic substances are those
substances which are feebly repelled by a
∴ = magnet.
Eg. Antimony, Bismuth, Copper, Gold,
Silver, Quartz, Mercury, Alcohol, water,
 Relation Between 0 and m : hydrogen, Air, Argon, etc.

Magnetic field at the centre of solenoid (ii).>

filled with a magnetic material is

B= 0 (H + M)
And When placed in magnetic field, the lines of
B=μH force tend to avoid the substance.
(iii).> When placed in nonuniform magnetic
M= m.H field, it moves from stronger to weaker field
∴ μH= (H + (feeble repulsion).
0 m.H )

i.e. μ = (1+ (iv).> When a diamagnetic rod is freely

0 m)
suspended in a uniform magnetic field, it aligns
i.e. = 1+χ itself in a direction perpendicular to the field.
(v).>
Example 5.10 A solenoid has a core of a
material with relative permeability 400. The
windings of the solenoid are insulated from the
core and carry a current of 2A. If the number of
turns is 1000 per metre, calculate (a) H, (b) B,
If diamagnetic liquid taken in a wash glass is
(c) M and (d) the magnetising current Im.
placed in uniform magnetic field, it collects
Hint:
away from the centre when the magnetic poles
 (a) H = nI are closer and collects at the centre when the
magnetic poles are farther.
 (b) =

 (c) = ( + )
= ( − 1)
 =( − 1)
(vi).> When placed in external magnetic in
12. Magnetic Properties of Material : field, they are weakly magnetised opposite to the
direction of the external field.
Base on the magnetic properties, materials can
be classified as (vii).> Magnetic susceptibility ( ) and
magnetisation (M) has small and -ve value.
(1) Diamagnetic material

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(viii).> There is no effect on the susceptibility In diamagnetic substances electrons in orbit

( ) with change in temperature (except for exists in pairs having orbital motion in opposite
bismuth). direction with equal magnitude of angular
velocity.
 Electronic Theory of Diamagnetism:
Thus both the electrons have equal and
opposite magnetic moments, the net magnetic
X X X X -e X X moment is zero.
-e
X X X X X X Let
⨂ ⨀ = speed of the 1st electron in an orbit.
X X X X X X

X X X X X X = speed of the 2nd electron in the orbit.

In the Presence of the External Magnetic

[ * =− Field :
* = In the presence of external magnetic field
additional magnetic force acts on these electrons
* = ] resulting into decrease in the speed v1 and
increase in the speed .
[ 1st Electron :
As in the fig Magnetic moment of the 2nd
electron is more than the 1st electron.
and are in opposite direction.
And magnetic moment of 2nd electron is
∴ Fnet = Fe - Fm
directed opposite to the direction of applied
But magnetic field; while that of 1st electron is
directed in the direction of the applied magnetic
= field.
As the net magnetic dipole moment is
∴ decrease and hence = decreases.
directed against the applied magnetic field B,
∴ decreases. ] diamagnetic substances are weakly repelled by
the external magnetic field.
[ 2nd Electron :
12.2 Paramagnetic Material:
and are in same direction. These are materials which are weakly
∴ Fnet = Fe + Fm magnetised in the direction of the applied
magnetic field.
But
(i) Paramagnetic substances are those substances
which are feebly attracted by a magnet.
=
Eg. Aluminum, Chromium, Alkali and Alkaline
∴ increase and hence = increases. earth metals, Platinum, Oxygen, etc.

∴ increases. ] (ii)

In The Absence of External Magnetic

Field :

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The lines of force prefer to pass through the Thus in the absence of external magnetic field
substance rather than air. paramagnetic materials do not behave like a
magnet.
[ Magnetic field line get concentrated inside
In the presence of external magnetic field:
the material and hence field inside is enhanced.]
At low temperature, when a strong enough
(iii) When placed in non uniform magnetic field, external magnetic field is applied, atomic
it moves from weaker to stronger field (feeble dipoles try to align in the direction of the
attraction). applied magnetic field.
(iv) When a paramagnetic rod is freely At ordinary temperature these atomic
suspended in a uniform magnetic field, it aligns magnetic dipoles fail to attain perfect alignment
itself in a direction parallel to the field. with the external field, thus paramagnetic
(v) If paramagnetic liquid taken in a wash glass substances are weakly magnetized.
is placed in uniform magnetic field, it collects at  Effect of Temperature :
the centre when the magnetic poles are closer,
Curies Law:
It states that the magnetic susceptibility ( m)
of a paramagnetic substance is inversely
and collects away from the centre when the proportional to absolute temperature (T).
magnetic poles are farther.
i.e. ∝

[ Base on the experimental observation. ]

Magnetisation of a paramagnetic substance
at absolute temperature T is
(vi) When placed in external magnetic in field,
they are weakly magnetised in the direction of (i.) ∝
the external field.
(ii.) ∝
(vii) Magnetic susceptibility ( m) and
magnetisation (M) has small and +ve value.
∴ = …… (1)
(viii) Magnetic permeability is greater than
unity. Here

 Explanation for Paramagnetism : C = Curie’s constant

In the absence of external magnetic field : But

[ Due to net effect of orbital and spin motion B0 = μ0H

of electrons in the atoms, all the atoms of
∴ = …. (2)
paramagnetic material behave like magnetic
dipole. ] i.e. =
All the atoms of paramagnetic material
posses a permanent magnetic dipole moment. But
Due to thermal agitation atomic dipoles are in
=
random manner, and hence net magnetic
moment is zero.
∴ =

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∴ ∝ The lines of force tend to crowd into the

specimen.
(iii) When placed in nonuniform magnetic field,
it moves from weaker to stronger field (strong
attraction).

(v)
χ

If ferromagnetic liquid taken in a wash

Analysis : glass is placed in uniform magnetic field,
it collects at the centre when the magnetic
Thus, for a paramagnetic material both χm poles are closer and collects away from the
and μr depend not only on the material, but also centre when the magnetic poles are farther.
(in a simple fashion) on the sample temperature.
M (vi) When a feromagnetic rod is freely suspended
in a uniform magnetic field, it aligns itself in a
direction parallel to the field very quickly.
Ms
(vii) Magnetic susceptibility ( m) and
magnetisation (M) has large and +ve value.
(viii) Magnetic permeability is very large and
T H/T +ve.
With increase in magnetic field intensity (H) or
lowering of temperature (T), the magnetization [Exchange Coupling ≡ Co-operative effect:
(M) increases until it reaches the saturation value
Ms. Electron spin of one electron interacts with
the electron spin of another atom is known as
[ At this point all the atomic dipoles in the exchange coupling.
paramagnetic substance get aligned with the In a region of a substance, the up-spin of one
applied field. ] electron in the inside shell, which is making the
magnetism tends to make the conduction
Beyound Ms, Curie’s law cannot be applied. electrons which move around (outside the shell)
have the opposite spin.(This happens because
12.3 Ferromagnetic Material : the conduction electrons come into the same
region as the magnetic electrons).And the
These are the substances which get strongly
conduction electron makes the next magnetic
magnetised in the direction of the magnetic field
electron (electron that contributed to the
when placed in an external magnetic field.
magnetic moment of another atom) to have
(i) They are strongly attracted by a magnet. opposite spin. (By Pauli’s Exclusive Principle).
Thus magnetic moment of these magnetic
Eg. Iron, Cobalt, Nickel,Gadolinium, electrons and hence the magnetic moment of
Dysprosium, etc. their corresponding atoms aligned themselves in
a common direction over certain volume called
(ii)
Domains. ]

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 Explanation for Ferromagnetism: dipole moment of the domains will aligned in

In the absence of external magnetism: the direction of the applied field. ]
In the presence of external magnetic field
domains oriented themselves in the direction of
external magnetic field and hence size of the
domain oriented in the direction of the external
magnetic field increases. Thus ferromagnetic
Every atom in ferromagnetic material materials get strongly magnetized in the
possesses magnetic dipole moment. Due to direction of the applied magnetic field.
exchange coupling, magnetic dipole moment of
large number of atoms interacts with one another
and aligned themselves in a common direction
over a certain volume/region called domain.
Each domain has a strong net magnetic
dipole moment. (Thus behave like a strong  Types of Ferromagnetic Materials :
magnet). In the absence of external magnetic
field, magnetic moments of different domains  Soft Ferromagnetic material :
are randomly oriented so their net magnetic
These are the ferromagnetic materials in
dipole moment is zero.
which the magnetisations disappear on removal
In the presence of External Magnetic field: of the external magnetic field.

[ Two possible effects occurred in

Eg. Soft iron.
ferromaterials:  Hard Ferromagnetic material :
(i) Growth in size of domains: These are the ferromagnetic materials in
which the magnetisation persists even after the
removal of the external magnetic field.
Eg. Alnico (an alloy of iron, aluminum,
nickel, cobalt and copper)

Dipoles outside the walls of domains that  Effect of Temperature on Ferromagnetic

are aligned opposite to the field can Material :
rotate to alignment with the applied field.
With increase in temperature magnetization
i.e. Size of the domains in the direction of the of ferromagnetic material gradually decreases.
applied field grows in size at the expense of Above Curie’s Temperature, ferromagnetism
neighbouring domains(directed in different changes to paramagnetism.
direction w.r.t.B ) Curie’s Temperature (TC) :
(ii) Shift of the orientation of domain dipoles: It is the temperature of transition from
ferromagnetic to paramagnetism.
The susceptibility above the Curie
temperature, i.e., in the paramagnetic phase is
described by,

There is rotation in orientation of dipoles = ( > )

within a domain as a unit, so that the magnetic

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Example 5.11 A domain in ferromagnetic iron is magnetising field, no matter what the internal
in the form of a cube of side length 1μm. motion of the atoms is.
Estimate the number of iron atoms in the domain
and the maximum possible dipole moment and  (c) Slightly less, since bismuth is
magnetisation of the domain. The molecular diamagnetic.
mass of iron is 55 g/mole and its density is 7.9
 (d) No, as it evident from the magnetisation
g/cm3. Assume that each iron atom has a dipole
curve. From the slope of magnetisation curve, it
moment of 9.27×10–24 A m2.
is clear that m is greater for lower fields.
Hint:
 (e) Proof of this important fact (of much
 Mass of a domain = volume × density practical use) is based on boundary conditions of
NA = (6.023×1023) magnetic fields (B and H) at the interface of two
.× media. (When one of the media has μ >> 1, the
 = field lines meet this medium nearly normally.)
( )
Details are beyond the scope of this book.
 Maximum dipole moment
= × 9.27 × 10–  (f ) Yes. Apart from minor differences in
strength of the individual atomic dipoles of two
 Maximum magnetization different materials, a paramagnetic sample with
= saturated magnetisation will have the same order
of magnetisation. But of course, saturation
5.16 Answer the following questions: requires impractically high magnetising fields.
(a) Why does a paramagnetic sample display
greater magnetization (for the same magnetising  Hysteresis Loop or Magnetisation Curve:
field) when cooled?
(b) Why is diamagnetism, in contrast, almost [ Hysteresis loop represents the relation
independent of temperature? between the magnetic field ( ) of the
(c) If a toroid uses bismuth for its core, will the ferromagnetic material with the magnetic field
field in the core be (slightly) greater or (slightly) intensity or magnetising force (H) of the
less than when the core is empty? magnetising field.
(d) Is the permeability of a ferromagnetic
material independent of the magnetic field? If To study the relation between B and H a
not, is it more for lower or higher fields? ferromagnetic material (sample) is placed inside
(e) Magnetic field lines are always nearly normal a solenoid. With increase in current of the
to the surface of a ferromagnet at every point. solenoid (magnetic field intensity is increased)
(This fact is analogous to the static electric field magnetic field B or magnetisation M of the
lines being normal to the surface of a conductor sample is measured. ]
at every point.) Why?
(f ) Would the maximum possible magnetisation B
of a paramagnetic sample be of the same order
a
of magnitude as the magnetization of a b
ferromagnet?
Hint; c
O H
f
 (a) The tendency to disrupt the alignment of
dipoles (with the magnetising field) arising from
e
random thermal motion is reduced at lower d
temperatures.
 (b) The induced dipole moment in a 1.> With increased in the magnetic field
diamagnetic sample is always opposite to the intensity (H), magnetic field (B) in the sample
increase and saturates (in magnetisation) as
shown by the curve oa.

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[Here magnetic dipole moments of all the 5.> On reversing the magnetising force
magnetic domains in the sample get aligned in again, the curve closes to the point a completing
the direction of the magnetising field. ] a cycle following the curve defa.The cycle
repeats itself.
2.> On gradually reducing the value of H to Note :
zero, the magnetic field (B) inside sample
decreases as shown by the curve ab. From the curve it is clear that for a given
i.e. Even at; H = 0, B≠ 0 value of H, B is not unique but depends on
previous history of the sample.
[ Here the sample is not complete
demagnetised. Some magnetism ≡ ob is left in i.e. Magnetic substance remembers its previous
the sample.]
history.
It is observed that, when the sample is
subjected to cycle of magnetisation, magnetic
field (B) of the sample is lagging behind the
magnetic intensity (H).
 RETENTIVITY/ Remanence/ Residual  HYSTERESIS :
magnetism (of the material):
It is the phenomenon of lagging of magnetic
It is the value of magnetic field (B) left in the
field ( ) behind the magnetic intensijty (H)
sample when the magnetising force (H) is
when the sample is subjected to a cycle of
reduced to zero.
magnetisation.
3.> To bring magnetic field (B) to zero opposite The loop abcda is called hysteresis loop.
(-ve) magnetising force is applied, as shown by
the curve bc. This magnetising force (H) is Analysis Of Hysterisis Loop :
represented by oc.
 Retentivity = Intercept on the ( ) axis
[ Here current in the solenoid is reversed = ob = oe.
gradually till magnetic field (B) redues to zero.
 Coercivity = Intercept on the (H) axis
Here dipole moment of all the magnetic domains
= oc = of.
returned to their initial state again. ]
 Area of the loop under B-H curve
 Coercivity: = Loss of energy due to the cycle of
magnetisation and demagnetisation, and is
It is the value of opposite (-ve) magnetic
dissipated in the form of heat.
intensity (H) required to reduce the retentivity to
zero.
[ It due to the fact that when a ferromagnetic
4.> As the opposite magnetising force (H) sample is subjected to cycle of magnetisation
increases, once again saturation in magnetic and demagnetisation, the magnetic dipoles in the
field (B) is obtained at d as shown by the curve sample oriented and re-oriented time and again.
cd. This results in production of heat.]

[ Here reversed current in the solenoid is 13 Application of Ferromagnets :

gradually increased and magnetic field B reaches
saturation. Here dipole moment of all the  Permanent Magnets :
magnetic domains aligned in the direction of the
These are substances which retain their
applied magnetising force. ] ferromagnetic property for a long period of time

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at room temperature when the magnetising field The core material of transformer (used in
is removed. telephone diaphragms, chokes etc) goes through
an (alt. current) a.c. cycle of magnetization for
Permanent magnets can be made in variety long period, so core material must have
of ways :
(i) narrow hysteresis curve – so that energy
(i) Hold an iron rod in the north-south direction dissipated and hence heating effect will be small.
and hammer it repeatedly.
(ii) high resistivity - so that energy lost (in the
(ii) One can also hold a steel rod and stroke it form of heat) due to eddy current will be
with one end of a bar magnet a large number of decreased.
times,
 Soft iron is used for making core of
(iii) place a ferromagnetic rod in a solenoid and transformer as it has small area of hysteresis
pass a current. loop.
 Selection of Material: 5.17 Answer the following questions:
(a) Explain qualitatively on the basis of domain
The material must have
picture the irreversibility in the magnetisation
(i) high retentivity – so that the magnet (field of curve of a ferromagnet.
the material) is strong. (b) The hysteresis loop of a soft iron piece has a
much smaller area than that of a carbon steel
(ii) high coercivity – so that the magnetization piece. If the material is to go through repeated
is not erased by stray magnetic fields, cycles of magnetisation, which piece will
temperature, or minor mechanical damage dissipate greater heat energy?
(hitting or dropping). (c) ‘A system displaying a hysteresis loop such
as a ferromagnet, is a device for storing
(iii) high permeability – so that it can be easily memory?’ Explain the meaning of this
magnetized. statement.
 Steel has very high coercivity inspite of its (d) What kind of ferromagnetic material is used
lower rentenivity than soft iron, so steel is for coating magnetic tapes in a cassette player,
preferred over soft iron for making or for building ‘memory stores’ in a modern
permanent magnets. computer?
(e) A certain region of space is to be shielded
 Other materials commonly used for making from magnetic fields. Suggest a method.
permanent magnets are ALINICO (Al + Ni + Hint:
Co ),Cobalt-steel and TICONAL (Ti+Co+Al).
 (b) Carbon steel piece, because heat lost per
 Core of Electromagnets : cycle is proportional to the area of hysteresis
loop.
Materials used for making core of
electromagnets must have  (c) Magnetisation of a ferromagnet is not a
single-valued function of the magnetising field.
(i) high permeability – so that they can be Its value for a particular field depends both on
easily magnetized. (and behave like a magnet the field and also on history of magnetisation
when current is passed through the coil.) (i.e., how many cycles of magnetisation it has
gone through, etc.). In other words, the value of
(ii) low retentivity – so that magnetism of the
magnetisation is a record or memory of its cycles
material disappears as soon as electric current
of magnetisation. If information bits can be
is switch off.
made to correspond to these cycles, the system
Thus soft iron is suitable for making core of
displaying such a hysteresis loop can act as a
electromagnets.
device for storing information.
 Core of Transformer :

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 (d) Ceramics (specially treated barium iron

oxides) also called ferrites.
 (e) Surround the region by soft iron rings.
Magnetic field lines will be drawn into the rings,
and the enclosed space will be free of magnetic
field. But this shielding is only approximate,
unlike the perfect electric shielding of a cavity in
a conductor placed in an external electric field.

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Chap-6 on Physics for
Electromagnetic Induction Class 12

1.> Magnetic Flux ( ): 2.> Faraday & Henry Experiment :

Magnetic Flux through any surface is the (1) Electric current is generated in a coil when
number of magnetic lines of force passing there is relative motion between the coil and the
normally through that surface. magnet. Electric current disappears when there is
no relative motion between the coil and the
magnet.
θ (2) Faster motion produces a greater electric
current.

(3) Direction of electric current in the coil

It can also be defined as the product of the depends upon the pole of the magnet and also
area of the surface and the component of the the on the sense of motion (i.e. moving toward
magnetic field normal to that surface. or away from the coil)

i.e. = . = .

i.e. = . =

 Magneitic fljux is just number. Hence it is a

scalar quantity.

 Its SI Unit is weber (Wb) or (Tm2)

 Its CGS Unit is maxwell N S

1 maxwell = 10-8 Wb.

Notes :

(1) Positive Flux:

G
ϕB is +ve for 0° ≤ θ < 90°

(2) Zero Flux:

ϕB = 0 for θ = 90° (4)

(3) Negative Flux:

ϕB is -ve for 90°< θ

(4) Maximum flux :

when θ = 0° P
S
ϕB = B . A

Magnetic flux per unit area is called

flux density = = = Strength of Magnetic
G K
Field or Magnetic Induction (B).

 Thus unit of magnetic induction can also be Electric current is generated in the secondary
Wbm-2. coil ‘S’ if electric current in nearby primary coil

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‘P’ changes. Magnitude of the generated current |ℇ| =

depends upon the rate at which the current in the
primary coil changes, but not on the size of the If the number of turns of the coil is N
current.

Current in the secondary coil last as long as ℇ=

current in the primary coil changes.
Notes:
Current flows in the secondary coil when
there is relative motion between the primary and (1) Magnetic Flux across a coil can be changed
secondary coil. by changing:
 Induced current : a) the strength of the magnetic field B
It is the current generated in the coil.( when b) the area of cross section of the coil A
there is relative motion between the coil and
magnet.) c) the orientation of the coil with magnetic field
θ or
 Induced emf :
d) any of the combination of the above
It is the energy build up for electric current
to flow through the coil. 4. > Lenz’s Law :
According Faraday, emf is induced in the
coil due to the change in magnetic field lines [ Heinrich Friedrich Lenz put forward a law to
passing through it. i.e. due to change in determine the direction of the induced emf.
magnetic flux through the coil, emf is induced in
the coil. “An induced current in the circuit has a
direction such that the magnetic field due to the
 Elecromagnetic Induction (EMI) : induced current opposes the change in the
magnetic flux that induces the current.” ]
It is the phenomenon in which electric
current is induced in a coil by varying magnetic The polarity of induced emf is such that
fields linked with it. it tends to produce a current which opposes the
change in magnetic flux that produced it.
3.> Faraday’s Law of Elecrtomagnetic
Induction : Notes:

1st : 1. The polarity of induced emf such that

Whenever there is a change in the magnetic induced current produces a magnetic field that
flux linked with a circuit, an emf and hence a opposes the relative movement of the magnet
current is induced in the circuit. However, it w.r.t to the coil.
lasts only so long as the magnetic flux is
changing. 2. If the current is induced due to change in
current in the primary coil, then induced current
2nd: is such that it tends to stop the change (of
The magnitude of the induced emf in a electric current in the primary coil).
circuit is equal to the time rate of change of
magnetic flux passing through the circuit.  Thus Faraday’s law can be written as

Let ℇ = −N

ℇ = induced emf in the circuit.

-ve sign indicates that the induced current

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opposes the change in magnetic flux through the  (a) (i) Use a rod made of soft iron inside the
coil. coil C2, (ii) Connect the coil to a powerful
battery, and
If magnetic flux changes from ϕ1 to ϕ2 in (iii) Move the arrangement rapidly towards
time ‘t’, then the average induced emf the test coil C1.

ℇ=−  (b)Replace the galvanometer by a small bulb,

the kind one finds in a small torch light.
 Expression for Induced current:
6.3 A long solenoid with 15 turns per cm has a
small loop of area 2.0 cm2 placed inside the
= −
solenoid normal to its axis. If the current carried
by the solenoid changes steadily from 2.0 A to
 Expression for Charge: 4.0 A in 0.1 s, what is the induced emf in the
loop while the current is changing?
= − Hint:

∴ = −  ℇ=

Note:  = .

1. Induced emf does not depend on resistance  =

of the circuit where as the induced current and
induced charge depends on resistance.  =

2. Induced charge depends on the net change in  ℰ =7.5×10-6V

magnetic flux, but is independent of rate of
change of magnetic flux.  Lenz’s Law and Law of Conservation of
Energy:
Example 6.1
According to Lenz’s law, the induced emf
opposes the change in magnetic flux passing
through the coil. Mechanical work has to be
done against this opposition to change magnetic
flux passing through the coil. This mechanical
energy is converted into electrical energy. Thus,
C1 C2 Lenz’s law is in accordance with the law of
conservation of energy.

[ If, however, the reverse would happen (i.e.

the induced emf does not oppose but aids the
K
G change), then a little change in magnetic flux
would produce an induced current which would
In an experiment when the coil C2 moves
help the change of flux further thereby
relative to the coil C1, electric current is induced
producing more current. The increased emf
in the coil C1.
would then cause further change of flux and it
(a) What would you do to obtain a large
would further increase the current and so on.
deflection of the galvanometer?
This would create energy out of nothing which
(b) How would you demonstrate the presence of
would violate the law of conservation of
an induced current in the absence of a
galvanometer? energy.]
Hint:

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5.> Fleming’s Right Hand Rule :

The direction of induced current can also be
determined with the help of Fleming’s right
hand rule which states that –

If the central finger, fore finger and thumb

of right hand are stretched mutually
perpendicular to each other and the fore finger
points to magnetic field, thumb points in the
direction of motion (force), then central finger
points to the direction of induced current in the
conductor.

(f )
Q. 6.1 Predict the direction of induced current in
the situations described by the following Figs. Hint:
(a) to (f ).
 (a) By Lenz’s law.
Direction of induced current is ‘qrpq’.

 (b) By Lenz’s law.

Direction of induced current is ‘prq’ in left
coil
and yzx in right coil.

 (c) By Lenz’s law.

Direction of induced current is ‘yzx’.

 (d) By Lenz’s law.

Direction of induced current is ‘yxz’.

 (e) By Lenz’s law.

Direction of induced current is ‘xry’.

 (f) Magnetic field lines of the current

carrying wire are parallel to the plane of the
coil. Thus no flux passes through the plane
of the coil, hence magnetic flux through the
coil do not change when the current in the
wire decreases. Hence no current is induced
in the coil.

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6.> Methods of Producing Induced emf: i.e. =

 Motional emf of a moving metallic rod : ∴ =

{ Existence of electric field confirms that there

X X+ P X X X
is p.d. between P and Q.}
X X X X X Let

X X X X X ℇ = potential difference between P and Q.

= induced emf across the conductor.

X X − QX X X
ℇ
∴ = = potential gradient along the
[ * = × length of PQ.

* = ∴ ℇ=

*In equilibrium. + =0 This emf induced across the ends of a

conductor due to its motion in a magnetic field is
* = =
ℇ
] called motional emf.

Let  Induced emf across a Conductor Moving

in a Uniform Magnetic Field :
l = length of a metallic rod PQ (From Faraday’s law)
I
= uniform magnetic field in which PQ is XS X X X X N
moving. P
X X X X X
= velocity of PQ l
X X X X Q X
∴ Magnetic force experienced by a free
electron I M
XR X X X X
x
=− × , which is directed
towards Q.

∴ + ve charges are collected at P whereas – ve

[* ℇ = −
charges are collected at Q.
* ϕB = BA cosθ ]
Thus an electric field ‘E’ is set up in the
conductor directing along P to Q. PQ is conductor moving uniformly over a
rectangular frame MNRS placed in uniform
∴ Electrostatic force acting on the free magnetic field B as in the fig.
electron
Let
=− , Which is directed towards P.
l = length of PQ
In equilibrium condition
= velocity of PQ.
=−
x = distance of PQ from RS at the time t.

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∴ Magnetic flux passing through the closed Magnetic force acting on the free electrons
loop PQRS as PQ moves through magnetic field with
velocity ‘v’ is
ϕB = BA = Blx
=
∴ The induced emf across the conductor PQ
∴ Work done in moving the charge q from Q to
ℇ= P is

W =Fl
=
= qvB.l
∴ ℇ=
[∵ emf is the work done per unit charge from
= one electrode to another of a cell.]

∴ The induced emf across the ends of the

Here
conductor PQ
=
ℇ = =

∴ ℇ= ∴ ℇ=
 Induced emf across a Conductor Moving Let
in a Uniform Magnetic Field:
(From Lorentz Force) : R = resistance of the loop.
+ P
∴ Electric current in the loop is

ℇ
= =

 By Changing the Area of the Coil

available in Magnetic Field:
− Q
Magnetic flux can be changed by changing
[ *ℇ = the area of the loop which is acted upon by the
magnetic field B and hence emf can be induced
* W = F.S in the circuit.

* F = qvB ] [Induced emf due to loop moving in / out of

region of uniform magnetic field]
Let
X X X X
l = length of conductor PQ.
X X X X
= uniform magnetic field in which PQ is X X X X
moving. l
X X X X
= uniform velocity of PQ. X X X X
x
q = charge of conductor PQ due to free X X X X
electrons present in it.

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[ *ℇ = − region of a magnetic field which is directed

normal to the plane of the loop away from the
* ϕB = BA cosθ reader. Determine the direction of induced
current in each loop using Lenz’s law.
= ] b

Let a X X X X X X X
l = length of a rectangular loop moving a X X cX X X X X
(i) a
uniform magnetic field.
X d X X X X X X (ii)
v = velocity of the loop
X X X X X X X b
a b
B = uniform magnetic field in which the loop
X X X X X Xc X
moves.
X X X X X X X
When the inner side of the loop is at a
distance of x from the edge of the magnetic field X X X X X X X
d
region, magnetic flux passing through the loop is X X X X X X X
= c
(iii)
Here, Hint:
A = area of the loop in the magnetic field  (i) The magnetic flux through the
rectangular loop abcd increases, due to the
=
motion of the loop into the region of
magnetic field, The induced current must
∴ =
flow along the path bcdab so that it opposes
∴ Rate of change of magnetic flux passing the increasing flux.
through the loop
 (ii) Due to the outward motion, magnetic
flux through the triangular loop abc
= decreases due to which the induced current
flows along bacb, so as to oppose the change
= in flux.

Here  (iii) As the magnetic flux decreases due to

motion of the irregular shaped loop abcd out
= of the region of magnetic field, the induced
current flows along cdabc, so as to oppose
change in flux.
∴ = Note that there are no induced current as
long as the loops are completely inside or
∴ induced emf across the loop outside the region of the magnetic field.

ℇ= Example 6.5.
(a) A closed loop is held stationary in the
magnetic field between the north and south poles
i.e. ℇ= of two permanent magnets held fix. Can electric
current be generated in the coil by sing very
Example 6.4. As shown in fig. below planar
strong magnets? Justify your answer.
loops of different shapes moving out of or into a

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(b) A closed loop moves normal to the constant  (d)The polarity of plate ‘A’ will be positive
electric field between the plates of a large with respect to plate ‘B’ in the capacitor.
capacitor. Is electric current induced in the loop
(i) when it is wholly inside the region between 6.2 Use Lenz’s law to determine the
the capacitor plates? direction of induced current in the situations
(ii) when it is partially outside the region described by Fig. given below:
between the plates of the capacitor? (a) A wire of irregular shape turning into a
The electric field is normal to the plane of the circular shape;
loop. Give reason for your answer.
(c) A rectangular loop and a circular loop are (b) A circular loop being deformed into a narrow
moving out of a uniform magnetic field region straight wire.
to a field-free region with a constant velocity v
as in the fig. given below. In which loop do you
expect the induced emf to be constant during the
passage out of the field region? The field is
normal to the loops.
X X X X X
X X X X X
X X X X X
Hint:
X X X X X
 (a) By Lenz’s law.
X X X X X Direction of induced current is ‘adcba’.
X X X X X  (b) By Lenz’s law.
X X X X X Direction of induced current is ‘a’d’c’b’a’’.

X X X X X 6.4. A rectangular wire loop of sides 8 cm and 2

cm with a small cut is moving out of a region of
(d) Two bar magnets arc quickly moved towards uniform magnetic field of magnitude 0.3 T
a metallic loop connected across a capacitor 'C' directed normal to the loop. What is the emf
as shown in the figure. Predict the polarity of the developed across the cut if the velocity of the
capacitor. loop is 1 cm s–1 in a direction normal to the (a)
longer side, (b) shorter side of the loop?
a
C For how long does the induced voltage last in
b each case?
S N S N Hint:
X X X
Hint X X X
l
 No. However strong the magnet may be, X X X
current can be induced only by changing the
X X X
magnetic flux through the loop.
b
 (b) No current is induced in either case. (a)
Current can not be induced by changing the  (a) ℇ =
electric flux.
 Time for which emf last
 (c) ℇ = = =
of square is constant, but not for circle.

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 (b) 6.3 Induced emf developed across a

l Metallic rod revolving over a circular frame
X X X X
placed in Uniform Magnetic Field directed
X X X X along the Axis of Rotation :
b
X X X X X X X X X
Q
X X X X Metallic ring
(b) X X RX X X
ω = ωt
 ℇ= X X O X XP X

 = X X X X X

6.7 A horizontal straight wire 10 m long X X X X X

extending from east to west is falling with a
speed of 5.0 m s–1, at right angles to the [ * ℇ=
horizontal component of the earth’s magnetic
field, 0.30×10–4 Wb m–2.
* ϕB = BA cos θ
(a) `What is the instantaneous value of the emf
induced in the wire? *A = area of sector POQ.
(b) What is the direction of the emf?
(c) Which end of the wire is at the higher
= Area of sectorial angle =
electrical potential?
Hint:
* = ]
 (a) ℇ =
Let
 (b) BH is directed from N to S. By Fleming’s
right hand rule induced current is directed R = radius of circular frame = length of the
from est to west, therefore induced emf is rotating metallic rod
directed from west to east.
= uniform magnetic field directed along
 (c) West the axis of the rotation of the metallic
rod.
6.10 A jet plane is travelling towards west at a
speed of 1800 km/h. What is the voltage = angular frequency of rotation.
difference developed between the ends of the
wing having a span of 25 m, if the Earth’s = angle subtended by the sector POQ at O
magnetic field at the location has a magnitude of at time t.
5×10–4 T and the dip angle is 30°.
Hint: ∴ Area enclosed by the sector POQ at time t is

 Bv is cut across by the horizontal wing. =

 = ∴ Magnetic flux passing through the sector is
 ℇ=
= = .

The magnitude of induced emf

ℇ=

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= . Q. A bicycle rim is rotated with uniform angular

frequency of ‘ω’ in a uniform magnetic field
. directed along the axis of the rim.
= . (a) What is the potential difference developed
across the ends of a spoke of the rim?
But (b) What is the relation between the emf
developed across the spokes?
=
6.5 A 1.0 m long metallic rod is rotated with an
angular frequency of 400 rad s–1 about an axis
∴ ℇ= . normal to the rod passing through its one end.
The other end of the rod is in contact with a
Example 6.6 A metallic rod of 1 m length is circular metallic ring. A constant and uniform
rotated with a frequency of 50 rev/s, with one magnetic field of 0.5 T parallel to the axis exists
end hinged at the centre and the other end at the everywhere. Calculate the emf developed
circumference of a circular metallic ring of between the centre and the ring.Does the
radius 1 m, about an axis passing through the magnitude of induced emf depend upon the
centre and perpendicular to the plane of the ring position of the rod w.r.t the circular frame?
as in the fig. below. A constant and uniform Hint:
magnetic field of 1 T parallel to the axis is
present everywhere. What is the emf between  ℇ= .
the centre and the metallic ring?
 No; ℇ depends on ‘ω’.
X X X X X
Q
X X RX
Metallic ring
X X 6.4 By changing Magnetic Field B:
ω = ωt
X X Magnetic flux can be changed by
O X XP X
changing the magnetic field B and hence emf
X X X X X can be induced in the circuit (as done in
Faraday’s Experiments).
X X X X X
Example 6.2 A square loop of side 10 cm and
Hint: resistance 0.5 Ω is placed vertically in the east-
west plane. A uniform magnetic field of 0.10 T
 ℇ= . is set up across the plane in the north-east
direction. The magnetic field is decreased to
Examples 6.7. A wheel with 10 metallic spokes zero in 0.70 s at a steady rate.
each 0.5 m long is rotated with a speed of 120 (i) Determine the magnitudes of induced emf
rev/min in a plane normal to the horizontal and current during this time-interval.
component of earth’s magnetic field HE at a (ii) Determined the magnitude of the induced
place. If HE = 0.4 G at the place, what is the emf due to the earth’s magnetic field passing
induced emf between the axle and the rim of the through the square loop.
wheel? Hint:
Note that 1 G = 10–4 T.
Hint:  (i) =
ϕmin = 0
 ℇ= . ∆
 ℇ=
∆
 The number of spokes is immaterial because
ℇ
the emf’s across the spokes are in parallel.  =

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 (ii) As earth magnetic field remains constant magnetic field along +ve Z axis, so current s
there is no change in flux passing through anti clock wise.
the square loop. Hence induced emf due to
earth’s magnetic field is zero.  Induced emf due to change in magnetic field
with time:
6.11 A rectangular wire loop of sides 8 cm and 2 ℇ = =
cm with a small cut is held stationary but the
Induced current due to ℇt is to increase
current feeding the electromagnet that produces
magnetic field along +ve Z axis, so current s
the magnetic field is gradually reduced so that
anti clock wise.
the field decreases from its initial value of 0.3 T
at the rate of 0.02 T s–1. If the cut is joined and
 ℇ=ℇ +ℇ
the loop has a resistance of
1.6 Ω, how much power is dissipated by the loop ℇ
 = directed anticlockwise.
as heat? What is the source of this power?
Hint:
6.15 An air-cored solenoid with length 30 cm,
 = area of cross-section 25 cm2 and number of turns
500, carries a current of 2.5 A. The current is
 ℇ= suddenly switched off in a brief time of 10–3 s.
How much is the average back emf induced
ℇ across the ends of the open switch in the circuit?
 = Ignore the variation in magnetic field near the
ends of the solenoid.
 = Hint:
6.12 A square loop of side 12 cm with its sides  =
parallel to X and Y axes is moved with a
velocity of 8 cm s–1 in the positive x-direction in  =
an environment containing a magnetic field in
the positive z-direction.The field is neither  ℇ=
∆

uniform in space nor constant in time. It has a ∆

gradient of 10–3 T cm–1 along the negative x-  Time Varying Magnetic Field Generates
direction (that is it increases by 10–3Tcm–1 as one Electric Field:
moves in the negative x-direction), and it is
decreasing in time at the rate of 10–3T s–1. An emf is induced across the ends of a
Determine the direction and magnitude of the stationary conductor held in a region of
induced current in the loop if its resistance is changing magnetic field with time.
4.50 mΩ.
Hint: ∴ The changing magnetic field with time
makes the charges (free electrons) in the
Z
conductor to move.
Y
i.e. charges experience a force.

Force acting on a charge in the conductor is

X = + ×
 Induced emf due to change in magnetic field As the conductor is at rest,
with position along x axis:
ℇ = = = = = 0
Induced current due to ℇx is to increase
∴ =

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Thus any force acting on the charges in the 6.13 It is desired to measure the magnitude of
conductor must be due to electric field only. field between the poles of a powerful loud
speaker magnet. A small flat search coil of area
∴ Time varying magnetic field produces 2 cm2 with 25 closely wound turns, is positioned
electric field. normal to the field direction, and then quickly
snatched out of the field region. Equivalently,
[ ℇ= = one can give it a quick 90° turn to bring its plane
parallel to the field direction). The total charge
. flown in the coil (measured by a ballistic
i.e. =
galvanometer connected to coil) is 7.5 mC. The
combined resistance of the coil and the
i.e. = . galvanometer is 0.50 Ω. Estimate the field
strength of magnet.
Thus intensity of electric field produced by Hint:
varying magnetic field depends upon the rate of
change of magnetic flux; where as electric field  =
intensity due to a point charge is directly  ℇ=−
∆

proportional to the magnitude of charge and ∆

inversely proportional to square of the distance =

∆
of the point of observation from the charge. =
Thus these two electric fields are not same. ]
∆ ∆
=

6.5 By Changing the Orientation of the  A.C. Generator (A.C. Dynamo) :

Coil ( ) in Magnetic Field:
B C
Magnetic flux can be changed by changing
the relative orientation of the loop (θ) with the
magnetic field and hence emf can be induced
in the circuit. N S

Example 6.3 A circular coil of radius 10 cm,

500 turns and resistance 2 Ω is placed with its
plane perpendicular to the horizontal component
of the earth’s magnetic field. It is rotated about A D
its vertical diameter through 180° in 0.25 s. R1
Estimate the magnitudes of the emf and current B1
induced in the coil. Horizontal component of the
earth’s magnetic field at the place is 3.0×10–5 T. R2
B2
Hint:

 =

 ℇ=
∆
An ac generator is a device which converts
∆
mechanical energy into electrical energy.
ℇ
 = Principle :

 Value of ℇ and I are not constant, but When a coil is rotated in a magnetic field ,
depends up speed of rotation at a particular an induced emf is produced across the ends of
position. the coil.

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Construction : *θ = ωt ]
Main components of ac generator are : Let
(i) Strong Magnetic Field Source : N = total number of turns of the coil.
A permanent horse shoe magnet gives a A = area of the coil directed along n.
strong magnetic field.
B = magnetic field in which the coil rotates.
(ii) Armature :
= constant angular frequency (speed) of
It consist of large number of turns of rotation of the coil.
insulated copper wire wound over a soft iron
core.
∴ The angle between B and A at any instant of
(iii) Slip Rings : time ‘t’ is given by

Two ends of the armature is connected to =

two slip ringsR1 and R2 which also rotated along
∴ Magnetic flux passing through the coil is
with armature coil.
=
(iv) Carbon Brushes :

Two carbon brushes B1 and B2 are pressed =

against R1 and R2. They are connected to a
∴ The induced emf is
resistor through which out put is obtained.

Working : ℇ=−

When the armature coil ABCD rotates in the =−

magnetic field, magnetic flux passing through
the coil changes and hence emf is set up across
=−
the ends of the coil.

Polarity of the induced emf changes for ∴ ℇ= .

every half revolution. Thus the induced emf and
induced current hence produced is alternating in When,
nature.
= ±1,
Theory :
Induced emf has maximum value = ℇ

∴ ℇ =
θ S
N ∴ ℇ=ℇ .

If

= frequency of revolution of the coil, then

[ *ℇ = −
=2
* =
∴ ℇ=ℇ . 2

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Thus the emf of the ac generator changes its Examples 6.11 Kamala peddles a stationary
polarity periodically with time. bicycle the pedals of the bicycle are attached to a
100 turn coil of area
0.10 m2. The coil rotates at half a revolution per
second and it is placed in a uniform magnetic
field of 0.01 T perpendiculars to the axis of
rotation of the coil. What is the maximum
voltage generated in the coil?
Hint:

 ℇ =
ℇ
 =
i.e. induced emf continuously changes its
6.6 A circular coil of radius 8.0 cm and 20 turns
magnitude and periodically changes its direction.
is rotated about its vertical diameter with an
Let angular speed of 50 rad s–1 in a uniform
horizontal magnetic field of magnitude 3.0×10–2
R = resistance of the coil T. Obtain the maximum and average emf
induced in the coil. If the coil forms a closed
∴ Induced current in the coil loop of resistance 10 Ω, calculate the maximum
value of current in the coil. Calculate the average
=
ℇ power loss due to Joule heating. Where does this
power come from?
ℇ Hint:
i.e. = .
 ℇ =
Here,
 〈ℇ〉 = 〈 . 〉
〈 〉
ℇ
= As =0
∴ Over a complete cycle, the average emf
∴ = . induced in the coil is zero.

∴ The direction of induced current changes  =

ℇ

periodically and hence is called alternating

current (ac).It is sinusoidal in nature.
 =〈 . 〉
As 〈 〉=
+i0 ∴ = ℇ

 The induced current causes a torque

t
opposing the rotation of the coil. An external
-i0
agent (rotor) must supply torque (and do
work) to counter this torque in order to keep
the coil rotating uniformly. Thus, the source
of the power dissipated as heat in the coil is
Note : the external rotor.
Alt. emf and hence alt. current can be
expressed in term of sine or cos function.

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Q. A stiff wire bent into a semicircle of radius * Pel = I2R ]

‘a’ is rotated with frequency ‘f’ in a uniform
magnetic field B as in the fig. PQ is conductor freely movable on a
rectangular frame placed in a uniform magnetic
X X X X
field B directed inward perpendicular to the
a
plane of paper as in the fig.
X X X X
Let
X X X X
= length of rod PQ.
R
X X X X
= speed of PQ.
What is
= resistance of PQ.
(i)the frequency and
(resistane of remaining arms is
(ii) the amplitude of the emf induced in the loop negligible.)

(iii) amplitude of current flowing through the ∴ Induced emf across PQ

resistor R?
ℇ=
Hint:

 (i) f ∴ Induced current in PQ

ℇ
 = = = …….(1)

 (ii) Amplitude = ℇ = [For mechanical energy:]

6.6 Relation Between Faraday’s Law of EMI As PQ caries of current ⊥ B, it experienced a
andConservation of Energy : magnetic force

( A relation between the mechanical energy ∴ Magnetic force acting on the rod PQ
used for production of motional emf and
electrical energy generated by the motion emf. ) Fm = Bil

XS X I X P X = =

X X X X ∴ Mechanical power required to move PQ with

uniform velocity is
X X X X
Pmech = Fm.v
R I Q
X X X X
= .

[ *ℇ =
= …… (2)
ℇ
* =
[Electrical Energy:]
* =
As current flows through the rod PQ, heat is
* Pmech = Fm v dissipated from the rod PQ.

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∴ Power dissipated from PQ in the form joules  Induced emf in the circuit PQRS
heat ℇ=− =− 0≤x<b
= ℇ=0 b ≤ x < 2b

 Current in the circuit when ℇ ≠ 0

= =

∴ = … (3)  Force required to keep PQ with constant

motion
From eqn. (2) and (3) = = 0≤x<b
F=0 b ≤ x < 2b
= =
 is directed against velocity .
Thus, mechanical energy supplied to  Joules heat lost
move the arm PQ is converted into electrical = 0≤x<b
energy (the induced emf) and then to thermal H=0 b ≤ x < 2b
energy.
OUTWARD INWARD
Example 6.8 As in the fig below, the arm PQ of
the rectangular conductor is moved from x = 0, K L M K L
outwards. The uniform magnetic field is
perpendicular to the plane and extends from = Blb
0 to = and is zero for > . Only the
arm PQ possesses substantial resistance r.
Flu

Consider the situation when the arm PQ is pulled

outwards from x = 0 to x = 2b, and is then +Blv
moved back to = 0 with constant speed v.
Obtain expressions for the flux, the induced emf,
emf

the force necessary to pull the arm and the power -Blv
dissipated as Joule heat. Sketch the variation of
these quantities with distance. x= 0 b 2b b 0
K L M
P OUTWARD INWARD
S
K L M L

l
Force

R
Q x = 2b
x=0 x=b
Hint:

 Flux linked with the circuit PQRS

Power

= 0≤x<b
= b ≤ x < 2b
x= 0 b 2b b 0

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 A Complete Note
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Q(rh/781). As in fig. a rectangular loop of Reason :

resistance R, length ‘l’ and width ‘b’ is pulled at
a constant speed v through a region of thickness Magnetic flux passing through the plate
‘d’ in which a uniform magnetic field keeps on changing as the plate moves in and out
perpendicular to the plane of the loop is set up of the magnetic field in the region between
by a magnet. As a function of right - hand edge magnetic poles. The flux change induces eddy
of the loop, plot the variation of currents in the plate. Directions of eddy currents
(a) the magnetic flux passing through the loop. are to oppose the motion of the plate. Direction
(b) induced current in the loop. of eddy current is opposite when the plate
(c) induced emf in the loop. swings into the region between the poles and
(d) rate of heat (electrical power) produced. when it swings out of the region.

Reducing of Damping Effect :

d
Hint:

 Same as above.
Narrow rectangular slots are cut across the
7.> Eddy Current (Foucault Currents) : copper plate. These slots make paths for
electrons much larger, offering more resistance
The induced circulating (looping) currents
to the flow of electrons and so steady currents
produced in a solid metal due to change in
are reduced to a great extend. Hence damping
magnetic flux (magnetic field) in the metal are
effect is greatly reduced.
called eddy currents.
 Advantages of Eddy Currents :
Eg.1.
(i) Magnetic braking in trains:
When a copper plate is allowed to swing like
a simple pendulum between the pole pieces of a When the strong electromagnets situated
strong magnet, motion of the copper plate is above the rail are activated, the eddy currents
damped and a little while the plate comes to a induced in the rails oppose the motion of the
halt in the magnetic field. train. As there are no mechanical linkages, the
braking effect is smooth.

(ii) Electromagnetic damping:

In galvanometers have a fixed core made of

nonmagnetic metallic material ( like in dead beat
galvanometer) eddy currents generated in the
core when it oscillates in the magnetic field
opposes the motion and bring the coil to rest
quickly.

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(iii) Induction furnace: currents opposed the change in magnetic flux,

i.e., the motion of the magnet is opposed. The
A high frequency alternating current is retarding force due to the eddy currents inhibits
passed through a coil which surrounds the the motion of the magnet.
metals to be melted. Eddy currents generated in
the metals produce high temperatures sufficient 8. Inductance:
to melt them.
 Self Induction :
(iv) Electric power meters:
This is a phenomenon in which an emf is
In the shiny metal disc in the electric power induced in an isolated coil due to change of
meter (analogue type) eddy current are produced magnetic flux through the coil produced by the
by the changing magnetic fields produced by varying the current through the same coil.
sinusoidally varying currents in a coil and causes
it to rotate. Thus enable to measure power Let
consumed.
I = Current in the coil.
 Disadvantages of Eddy Currents :

(i) Damping effect on electric motor :

[ Magnetic field produced by a turn of a coil is

B∝ I
Electromagnetic damping effect produced
by eddy current on the metallic core of electric
motor is undesirable. B = BA∝ I ]
(ii) Heating effect in the core of transformer and Magnetic flux linked with coil
electric motor:
∝
Eddy currents in the core of transformer and
electric motor and such device are undesirable ∴ =
since they heat up the core and dissipate
electrical energy in the form of heat. Here
 Ways to Reduce Eddy Current: L = constant of proportionality.
Eddy currents are minimised = self inductance of the coil.
(i) by using laminations of metal to make a = coefficient of self induction of the coil.
metal core.
∴ =
(ii) by separating the laminations by insulating
from one another with insulating material like
But
lacquer.

(iii) by arranging the plane of the laminations ℇ=−

parallel to the magnetic field, so that they cut
across the eddy current paths. ∴ ℇ=−
 A Magnet falling through a Aluminum
pipe slowed down :  –ve sign indicates that the induced emf
opposes the growth or decay of current in the
When the magnet approaches the aluminum coil and hence delays the current to acquire
pipe magnetic flux linked with the pipe changes the maximum value.
and hence eddy currents are produced. Eddy

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 A Complete Note
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 Self induction is also called inertia of [ *ϕB = LI

electricity as it opposes any change (growth
or decay) of current. * ϕB =BA

 The self induced emf opposes any change in * B = μ0nI ]

current in a circuit (coil), hence it is also
called back emf. Let

 Self Inductance : I = current in a solenoid.

When, I=1 A = area of cross-section of the solenoid.

= N = number of turns of the solenoid.

Thus self inductance can be defined as the l = length of the solenoid.

magnetic flux linked with a coil when unit
current flows through it. ∴ Number of turns per unit length of the
solenoid
 SI unit of self inductance is henry (H).
=
= (H ≡ wbA-1)
Magnetic field due to solenoid
Self inductance of a coil is said to be 1H
when 1 A current in a coil links magnetic flux of B = μ0nI
1 wb with it.
∴ =
Or
Magnetic flux linked with solenoid
When
=
=1
= . .
ℇ=

Thus, self inductance of a coil can also be ∴ = .

defined as the induced emf set up in the coil
through which the rate of change of current is And
unity.
=
1H :
∴ Self inductance of the solenoid
Self inductance of a coil is said to be 1 H
when rate of change of current of 1 As-1 induces = =
emf of 1V in the coil.

 It is scalar quantity. Notes :

 Self inductance of Solenoid (coil) : Self inductance L depend upon

(i) Number of turns :

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 A Complete Note
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(ii) Area of cross section : ℇ=−

L∝ A
[ To drive current through the inductor
(iii) Permeabilty of the core material : against the induced emf (as it opposes the
change I current),an external emf, equal in
∝ magnitude but opposite in polarity to that of
induced emf, ℇ′ has to be applied.
(iv) Shape of the inductor
i.e. ℇ′ = −ℇ ]
6.8 Current in a circuit falls from 5.0 A to 0.0 A
in 0.1 s. If an average emf of 200 V induced, ∴ To establish a current ‘ ’ at any instant in
give an estimate of the self-inductance of the the circuit, rate of work done (i.e power
circuit. required) against the back emf ( ) is
Hint:
=ℇ
 = −
=
 ℇ=−
i.e. = .
Q. 6.15 An air-cored solenoid with length 30
cm, area of cross-section 25 cm2 and number of ∴ Total work done in establishing the current I
turns 500, carries a current of 2.5 A. The current
is suddenly switched off in a brief time of 10–3 s. = = .
How much is the average back emf induced
across the ends of the open switch in the circuit? = .
Ignore the variation in magnetic field near the
ends of the solenoid.
i.e. =
Hint:

 = − This work done in increasing the current in

the inductor is stored as it energy in the form of
magnetic field energy.
 =
∴ =
 ℇ=−

 Energy Stored in an Inductor : This energy is known as magnetic energy.

 Energy Density :
[ Inductor : It is a coil with large number
of turns. It is passive elements of a cicuit. It is the energy stored per unit volume of an
inductor.
It is represented by ]
Let
Let
= length of an inductor.
L = Self inductance of an inductor.
= area of cross section of the inductor.
i = current flowing through the inductor at
any instant of time. ∴ Energy density

When the current in the inductor changes the =

induced emf,

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 A Complete Note
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change in current in a near by coil (primary

= coil).
.

But When current I flows in the coil Sp magnetic

flux through Ss is
=
B∝ I
∴ =
. ∴ B = MI … (1)

i.e. = Here,

M = mutual inductance
But
Thus
=
When = 1
∴ =
2 =M

 Thus, mutual inductance is (defined as)

∴ = numerically equal to the magnetic flux linked
with the secondary coil when unit current
Thus energy is stored in the magnetic field flows through the primary coil.
inside the inductor (in core material by
magetising the core material ).  S I Unit is Henry (H).:

Example 1H:
(36.4rh) A coil has an inductance of 53mH and
resistance of 0.35Ω. If a 12V emf is applied, Mutual inductance is said to be 1H when 1 A
how much energy is stored in the magnetic field current in the primary coil links magnetic flux of
after the current has build up to its maximum 1 across the secondary coil.
value?
Due to change in electric current I in primary
Hint:
coil, rate of change of magnetic flux linked with
ℇ secondary coil
 =
=
 =
∴ Induced emf in secondary coil
8.2. Mutual Induction :
ℇ=−

∴ ℇ=−
Sp Ss G
The – ve sign indicates that induced emf in
secondary coil opposes changes in current in
Rh
primary coil.

If
Mutual Induction is the phenomenon of
inducing emf in a coil (secondary coil) due to
=1

Prepared by: Kh.O.Dh. Dept. Physics SSI Chap: 6 :: 21 of 24

 A Complete Note
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ℇ = ∴ Magnetic field due to S1

 Thus, mutual inductance is (defined as) B1 = μ0n1I1

numerically equal to the induced emf set up in
the secondary coil when the rate of change of ∴ Magnetic flux through S2
current in primary coil is unity.
= . .
 Mutual inductance is said to be 1 H when
Here
rate of change of current 1 As-1 in primary
coil induces emf of 1 V in the secondary coil. = area of cross section of S2.
 Mutual Inductance of Co -Axial Solenoid :
=

∴ = . .

i.e. = . . …(2)

From eqn.1 and 2.

= . . …. (3)

[ * = When current I2 flows in the coil S2 magnetic

flux through S1 is
* =
∝
* = ] ∴ = …. (4)
Let
[ Area of cross section of S1 through which the
S1 and S2 be two co-axial solenoids magnetic field due to current I2 in S2 passed
through is π . ]
l = length of both the solenoids.
∴ Magnetic flux linked with S1 due to current
I2= current in S2. I2 in S2 is
n1 = number of turns per unit length of S1. = . . …. (5)
n2 = number of turns per unit length of S2. From eqn. 4 and 5
r1 = radius of S1.
= . . … (6)
r2 = radius of S2.
From eqn.3 and 6.
When the current I1 flows in S1, magnetic
=
flux through S2 is

∝ ∴ = . .

∴ = …. (1)
i.e. = . .
Here

= Mutual inductance of S2 w.r.t. S1.

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 A Complete Note
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Notes : [ * ϕB = M12 I2
(i) ∝ . * ϕB = B2.A1
(ii) M ∝ A
* =
(iii) If the two solenoids are wound over a
material of relative permeability ‘ ’ then * = ]
= . . Let
(iv) Mutual inductance of a pair of solenoid r1 and r2 = radius of two concentric circular
depends up on their separation. coils such that r1 < r2.
Larger the separation between the solenoids, I1 = electric current in the coil of radius r1.
smaller is the mutual inductance.
I2 = electric current in the coil of radius r2.
[∵ Magnetic flux linked with the secondary coil
decreases with increased in separation between M12 = mutual inductance of coil 1 w.r.t. coil
2.
the coils. ]
M21 = mutual inductance of coil 2 w.r.t. coil
(v) Mutual Inductance depends on relative 1.
orientation.
P P ∴ Magnetic flux linked with coil 1 due to
current I2 in coil 2.
Fig 1 Maximum M
ϕ1= M12 I2 … (1)

S S ∴ Magnetic field due to current in coil 2

=
Fig 2
∴ Magnetic flux linked with coil 1 is

= .

.
Fig 3 i.e. = ….(2)

From eqn. 1and 2

Minimum M .
=
 Mutual Inductance of Co -Axial of
circular Coils: As the coils are co-axial

=
r2
∴ Mutual inductance of two co axial coils is
r1
O .
=

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 A Complete Note
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8.3 Induced emf when Current Flows

Simultaneously in two nearby Coils. :

Let

I1 = current in the coil 1.

I2 = current in the coil 2.

L1 = self inductance of coil 1.

M12 = mutual inductance of coil 1 w.r.t coil

2.

L2 = self inductance of coil 2.

M21 = mutual inductance of coil 1 w.r.t coil

1.
Magnetic flux linked with coil 1 is

= flux due to current I1 in coil 1 itself

+ flux due current I2 in coil 2.

∴ = +

∴ The induced emf in coil 1 due simultaneous

change in current in the two coils.

ℇ =

∴ ℇ =− −

Similarly, induced emf in coil 2 due to

simultaneous change in current in the two coils

ℇ =− −

Q. 6.9 A pair of adjacent coils has a mutual

inductance of 1.5 H. If the current in one coil
changes from 0 to 20 A in 0.5 s, what is the
change of flux linkage with the other coil?
Hint:

 = −

 =

Prepared by: Kh.O.Dh. Dept. Physics SSI Chap: 6 :: 24 of 24

 Dear Cadets,
Welcome to New Session
(2023-24)

English Core (301)

CLASS-XII
Introduction to Syllabus:
Section - A (Reading Skills)
22 Marks (12 x 10)

Reading Comprehension: This section is divided into two types of passages.

(i) Factual passage, Descriptive passage, Discursive passage & Literary passage.
(ii) Case Based Factual passage.

Reading is a skill that can be acquired. Anyone can learn to read better and faster and thereby
comprehend in lesser time. Reading comprehension tests the ability to comprehend or make meaning
out of a written passage. Traditionally, it only entailed the application of a set of isolated skills such
as identifying words, searching for the main idea, identifying cause and effect relationships, comparing
and contrasting, and sequencing the events as they occurred. But recent research has proven reading
comprehension to be a complex and active process of constructing meaning and not solely skill
application. Reading, which many people feel to be a simple effortless activity actually, consists of a
set of highly complex, well-developed, and well-practiced skills and abilities.

Reading comprehension (RC) is the ability to actively read the information (mostly passages) provided
and assimilate the information to answer a given set of questions. So, to solve the reading
comprehension questions, one must be able to: -

✓ Understand the crux of the passage.

✓ Answer questions based on the text provided
✓ Develop a perspective on the tone and tenor of the given passage
✓ The most followed rule in the R section is to understand what you read. It will prove a boon for
you if you are able to rad fast. Nevertheless, speed is always secondary to understanding.
Below are some tips for exam-preparation.

You must answer these questions before starting your preparation for RC:

✓ What are the types of questions that are asked in a comprehension?

✓ What should be the strategy to follow for answering comprehension?
✓ What skills can be tested in Comprehension?
✓ How should one improve in Comprehension?

The length of the passage or the vocabulary used in the passages might appear to be complicated
for a candidate but when he/she starts reading the passage, understanding it as well as answering it
becomes easier.

Scoring in the passage questions is not difficult because the answers are straightforward and hidden
in the passage. Candidates must ensure that they practices more and more comprehension questions
to get the hang of how to scan the passage and answer the related questions, without much time.

Page 1 of 25
Descriptive / Factual / Discursive / Literary passage:
It’s a kind of passage often based on a person’s opinion which is generally argumentative, persuasive
or interpretative. These types of passages help develop the student’s grasp of the difference between
opinions and reality or to distinguish between the literal and the figurative meanings. After reading
such a passage, students need to arrive at a conclusion through reasoning and intuition rather than
through deciphering straightforward facts. The purpose of such passages is to make students evolve
into independent thinkers.

Case Based Factual passage:

A case based factual passage contains information about a particular subject in a clear,
straightforward and direct manner. It is usually a passage with verbal/visual inputs like statistical data,
charts, images, graphs etc, which the students need to study and interpret clues, decipher them, and
answer the questions given. It focuses completely on details or facts and helps students develop their
skills of scanning for details and skimming for the main ideas. It gives a comprehensive view on the
main ideas. It gives a comprehensive view on the information provided and may include instructions
to do something, a report about new findings or a description of something. Moreover, it gives students
relevant exposure to technical language and ensures their comprehension around the same.

How to go about it?

Comprehension means the mind’s capability to grasp the meaning of a given passage. In order to be
able to comprehend a given passage and to answer the related questions in a clear and effective
manner, students are advised to keep the following suggestions in their mind.

• To read the passage quickly with full concentration to get the general idea.
• To read the questions in a focused manner.
• To try to understand the gist of the passage or what it is about and re-read the passage keeping
question in our mind.
• To make predictions and think ahead – While reading, we have to remember to think ahead in
order to understand the whole passage.
• To underline the main ideas and to pick the answers of the given questions.
• To try to understand the central idea of the passage in a clear manner.
• To try to comprehend the meaning of the difficult words and phrases.
• Not to get stuck up on minor details or lengthy examples.
• To see that questions normally progress from the first part of the passage – so may be the
answers.
• To try to locate the proper nouns to lead to the points.
• To write the answers in the corresponding tense of the questions.
• To try to derive the meaning of difficult words and phrases from the context in which they are
used.
• To write briefly and to the point.
• To use our own words instead of copying the language of the passage.
• Not to add any extra information.
• To watch for key words like causes, results etc.
• To make the language simple but correct.
• To focused on the overall structure of the passage.
• To remember that the correct option would come from inside the passage.
• To attempt the easier questions first.
• To revised the answers and examined them carefully to ensure that they are clear & complete.
• To correct all mistakes in spelling, grammar, punctuations etc.
• Not to assume anything because it might lead to wrong answer.
• To focus on the first and last passage carefully inorder to understand the passage clearly.
Page 2 of 25
 • And to practice often with various kinds of passages.

➢ Factual passage consists of set of facts, instructions, reports, newspapers and magazines,
reference books, encyclopedias, etc.
➢ Discursive passage may be of opinions, persuasive text, argumentative text, interpretative text,
etc.
➢ Literary passage may be of extracts from fiction, anthologies, drama, essay, biography, short
stories and other literary books.
➢ Case based factual passage is normally given with visual and verbal inputs of statistical data,
charts, graphs, newspaper reports, reference books, etc.

Thus, reading comprehension usually enables us to understand and find the main idea of the passage
besides the information directly specified in the passage. We can determine the meaning of the
unfamiliar words used in the passage and also to comprehend the author’s style, mood or point of
view.

Practice of Descriptive / Factual / Discursive / Literary passage:

Passage 01
1. Political independence came to Ceylon in a totally different manner than it did to Burma. In the case
of Ceylon there was no Japanese occupation, no revolutionary fervent and no sudden break with the
past. The colony did not even experience the sort of liberation struggle the Indian National Congress
organised. There was no civil disobedience or noncooperation and no imprisonment of national
leaders.

2. As there was no struggle in Ceylon, neither was there the usual concomitant of a struggle, the
hardening of national solidarity through national sacrifice. Ceylon emerged from colonial rule through
a process of peaceful negotiations, but this was not an altogether unmixed blessing. An essential
element in the explanation of the unique way in which Ceylon achieved political independence is the
fact that the process of Westernisation had gone further there than in other colonial territories. To
start with, Ceylon had experienced nearly four hundred and fifty years of colonial rule, first under the
Portuguese, then the Dutch, and finally the British. From schools founded and run by Christian
missions - and in the British era more and more modelled on British lines, even to the extent in some
cases of emulating English public schools - there emerged a thoroughly Anglicised upper class with
generally conservative political leanings. These Ceylonese were so much like their colonial masters
in outlook, manners, and social habits that they were often called “brown sahibs”, and negotiations
between them and the British were almost in the nature of dealings between gentlemen of the same
club.

3. After the First World War, this elite group formed a Ceylonese National Congress, which it hoped
would grow in strength like its Indian prototype. But it collapsed a few years before the country
achieved independence. During the period of British rule, Ceylonese leaders felt no inclination to
make any radical or egalitarian appeals for public support and nationalism struck no roots among the
masses. It is no wonder, then, that the British felt that such men could safely be entrusted with even
larger installments of political responsibility.

Based on your understanding of the passage, answer the questions given below: 10 x 1 = 10

(a) The character of liberation struggle of the Ceylonese people for achieving political independence
from the colonial masters resembled that of
(i) Burma
(ii) India

Page 3 of 25
(iii) Vietnam
(iv) None of these
Ans : (iv) None of these

(b) The Ceylonese struggle for freedom was characterised by

(i) civil disobedience
(ii) revolutionary fervent
(iii) terrorist activities on the part of the nationalists
(iv) peaceful negotiations
Ans : (iv) peaceful negotiations
(c) What, according to the author, is the usual concomitant of a liberation struggle?
(i) National solidarity is strengthened through national sacrifice.
(ii) It leaves much bitterness behind between the rulers and the ruled.
(iii) It accentuates divisive forces in the polity that emerges after the grant of independence.
(iv) People receive practical training in governance.
Ans : (i) National solidarity is strengthened through national sacrifice.
(d) Political independence came to Burma after this country had experienced
(i) Japanese occupation during Second World War
(ii) revolutionary fervent
(iii) both of these
(iv) neither of these
Ans : (iii) both of these
(e) Before achieving political independence, Ceylon had experienced colonial rule for
(i) nearly one hundred and fifty years
(ii) nearly four hundred and fifty years
(iii) exactly three hundred years
(iv) nearly a century
Ans : (ii) nearly four hundred and fifty years
(f) Which of the following had kept Ceylon under colonial rule?
(i) The Portuguese
(ii) The Dutch
(iii) The British
(iv) All of these
Ans : (iv) All of these
(g) The Anglicised upper class of Ceylon emerged
(i) from the successors of the erstwhile native rulers
(ii) from schools founded and run by Christian missions in Ceylon.
(iii) from the mixed breed of the British and the Ceylonese people
(iv) from the sons and daughters to the English officials and administrators who settled in Ceylon as
a matter of Convenience.
Ans : (ii) from schools founded and run by Christian missions in Ceylon.
(h) The Anglicised upper class of Ceylon formed for the purpose of political independence was
(i) Ceylonese National Congress
(ii) a radical party
(iii) Socialist Democratic Forum
(iv) Ceylonese Freedom Party
Ans : (i) Ceylonese National Congress
Page 4 of 25
(i) Why according to the author, did nationalism not strike any roots among the masses in Ceylon?
(i) Because the Ceylonese people were not politically conscious at all.
(ii) Because English education had so indoctrinated the minds of these Ceylonese people that they
thought it a sacrilege to think in terms of any opposition to their colonial masters
(iii) Because during the period of British rule, Ceylonese leaders felt no inclination to make any
radical or egalitarian appeals for public support
(iv) All of these
Ans : (iii) Because during the period of British rule, Ceylonese leaders felt no inclination to make any
radical or egalitarian appeals for public support
(j) Who were known as “brown sahibs”?
(i) The Englishmen serving in Ceylon
(ii) The native peasantry of Ceylon
(iii) The Anglicised upper class people of Ceylon who received education in school modelled on
British lines
(iv) Those who were born of inter-race marriages
Ans : (iii) The Anglicised upper class people of Ceylon who received education in school modelled
on British line.
Passage 02

The WannaCry ransomware attack raised perplexing questions, such as who was behind
it, how did it get unleashed, and why the code was configured the way it was. The malware
exploited vulnerabilities in Windows 7 that the US National Security Agency (NSA)
apparently knew about for a few years. At some point, these vulnerabilities were either
leaked or electronically stolen, and in March, an entity known as ShadowBrokers made
them public. Microsoft very soon released an update that removed the vulnerabilities.
Windows systems have the capability to automatically install updates, but in many
corporate setups, the auto-update is disabled to give IT departments more control over
company machines. This left many machines vulnerable to the attack.

This is where the discussion moves out of the realm of the purely technical and becomes
a matter of public debate. Despite the best efforts of software companies, their products
will have flaws, including security weaknesses. Rigorous testing would prevent many
exploits, but it takes too many resources to consider every possibility. So, independent
security researchers, commercial security companies and intelligence agencies such as
the NSA specialise in trying to find weaknesses that were missed. Some researchers
privately notify software makers when they find a vulnerability, but there are also
companies that sell them; selling can be lucrative. It is believed that the FBI paid $9,00,000
to a private company to access a locked iPhone. Intelligence agencies and even police
departments have been collecting vulnerabilities known as “zero-days”. Clearly, the
motivation is to protect national interest and public safety, yet it is worth asking what the
trade-off is. Security expert Bruce Schneier has criticised governments for hoarding zero-
days. He argues that it is better for the common good to disclose the vulnerabilities before
someone else uses them for ill. The WannaCry incident seems to bear this out.
Policymakers need to dig into the claims that zero-days are effective at preventing
terrorism and crime. Disclosing vulnerabilities doesn’t help much if the software creators
don’t take timely action. In general, large corporations such as Microsoft, Google or Apple
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have reacted quickly. They can do more to publicise vulnerabilities and fixes and highlight
the risk to customers if they do not update. Finally, a failure to update systems poses a
real issue. Those individuals and organisations that did not apply Microsoft’s update were
taking a risk; whether the reasons were cost, lack of attention or negligence, their actions
had an impact on others. The reasons for making computer software up to date are the
same as vaccinating a population against diseases. Policymakers may want computer
owners to take the same approach. One curious aspect of WannaCry is that once it enters
a computer, it tries to connect to a domain on the internet, and if it succeeds, it stops its
activity. An alert cybersecurity researcher created that domain and helped slow
WannaCry’s spread. Researchers are puzzled why this “killswitch” was left in the code.
What’s worrisome is that perhaps a future variant of ransomware will try to send contents
of the disk to a remote server before locking the computer, thereby stealing sensitive
health or financial details, embarrassing photos or vital state secrets. The targets may
react to the ransom part of the attack and fail to see the data theft. This may have already
happened. In response to an RTI, the RBI said that at least one bank was attacked by
ransomware last year. If data-stealing malware targets computers in a corporate or
government network, the real damage is not to the owners of the computers but the people
whose data is exposed. In the case of government secrets, the entire country may be
worse off. Since the attack, the government has downplayed the effects on Indian systems.
No private companies have disclosed that they were affected. However, there are many
cyber attacks on a global scale and it stretches credulity to believe that Indian systems are
somehow spared. The government wants to promote Digital India and internet companies
want Indians to use their services and spend money online. For that, they need to build
and keep the public’s trust. One way to do that is by being forthright and owning up to
mistakes or breaches. It would demonstrate a level of responsibility and sophistication that
people can respect.

Based on your understanding of the passage, answer the questions given below: 10 x 1 = 10

(1). Consider the following statements regarding the Ransomware:

1. It is a Malware.
2. It has exploited vulnerabilities in Windows 10.

Which of the following statements given above is/are correct?

(a) 2 only
(b) Both are correct
(c) None is correct
(d) 1 only (correct)

(2). How can Software companies prevent weaknesses in their softwares?

(a) By rigorous testing. (correct)
(b) By updating their softwares.

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(c) By consulting Security agencies.
(d) None of the above

(3). Which of the following statements given below is/are correct regarding the Microsoft
Windows system?
1. Windows systems have the capability to automatically install updates
2. Microsoft very soon released an update that removed the vulnerabilities(caused
because of Ransomware)
Select the correct option using the codes given below.
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 only
(c) Both are correct(correct)
(d) None is correct

(4). What are 'Zero Days'?

(a) The specific days of the year when Ransomware attacks computers.
(b) Software's Vulnerabilities.(correct)
(c) The specific days of the years when Security agencies around the world do rigorous
testings on Softwares.
(d) None of the above

(5). According to RBI, which Indian Bank has confirmed an attack by Ransomware last
year?
(a) Punjab National Bank
(b) State Bank of India
(c) Bank of Baroda
(d) Not mentioned in the Passage (correct)

(6). Choose the word which is MOST SIMILAR in meaning of the word printed in bold as
used in the passage
Perplexing
(a) Explicate
(b) Enlighten
(c) Clarify
(d) Baffle (correct)

(7). Choose the word which is MOST OPPOSITE in meaning of the word printed in bold
as used in the passage
Realm
(a) Scope
(b) Kingdom
(c) Range
(d) None of the above (correct)

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(8). Choose the word which is MOST SIMILAR in meaning of the word printed in bold as
used in the passage
Dig
(a) Cultivate
(b) Excavate
(c) Till
(d) All of the above (correct)

(9). Choose the word which is MOST OPPOSITE in meaning of the word printed in bold
as used in the passage
Domain
(a) Sphere
(b) Territory
(c) Department
(d) None of the above (correct)

(10). Choose the word which is MOST OPPOSITE in meaning of the word printed in bold
as used in the passage
Breaches
(a) Intrude
(b) Infract
(c) Violate
(d) Keep (correct)

Passage 03

The crucial question about how and where auditors should get access to GST data
continues to hang fire, even as hundreds of CAG auditors are being put through
specialised training in anticipation of the implementation of the new tax regime from July
1.Various government officials, including ministers, have been insisting that the proposed
tax ministers, have been insisting that the proposed tax regime will come into force as
scheduled. The GST Network (GSTN), which is the nationwide electronic backbone of the
tax regime, will go live for testing in early May. For full implementation of the GST regime,
to decide the compensation for States and to determine their revenue share, auditors of
the CAG (Comptroller and Auditor General) will require access to two different datasets,
which are proving difficult to come by. One of them is data pertaining to revenue that would
accrue to States from alcohol and petrochemicals, both of which are outside GST for now.
The second issue of where and how CAG auditors will get access to the GST data
continues to vex officials. Senior officials say the government needs to quickly settle it.
An official pointed out that the GSTN has refused to give the CAG access to its network,
saying it is only holding the data in a fiduciary capacity since the tax data originally belongs
to the Centre and States. Officials also pointed out that the GSTN is owned by a private
company, and thus cannot be audited by CAG. “The government will have to sort it out, or
we would have serious problem on our hands,” another senior official said.
The GSTN claims it is a private company as 51% stake in the company is held by private
Page 8 of 25
companies such as HDFC and ICICI Bank. The CAG has pointed out in official
communications in recent times that under the new Companies Act, GSTN can be counted
as government-controlled company since its strategic control will be with the government.
Like any PSU, the CAG could depute chartered accountants to audit GSTN. “But that is a
minor issue. The real issue is where would auditors get access to the data,” he said.
“We are not so much interested in auditing GSTN, but the real issue to be sorted out is
the massive tax data from all over the country that GSTN’s network will have,” he said.
Accessing the data at various points — point of manufacture, point of sale etc. —would
make the GST audit a complicated and almost impossible task, and will hamper other
functions, which would include CAG certification about the share of GST for States.
Centralised location “There is no way out, other than auditors getting access to the entire
GST data in a centralised location. Don’t forget the fact that all that tax data, whether it
belongs to States or Centre, is already available to CAG under existing constitutional
provisions,” the official said. Meanwhile, the auditors would be using data available from
individual States to assess their share of taxes earned from alcohol and petrochemicals,
which would be kept out of GST. Under the agreed terms, the States will be given full
compensation for the first five years for any shortfall in revenue because of GST. The
States’ revenue in 2015-16 will be used as the basis for calculating the compensation, with
an assumption of 14% revenue growth in the subsequent five years.The total revenue of
a State would be the total of income of States and local bodies from sales tax, value added
tax, purchase tax, central sales tax, octroi etc. (Source: The Hindu)
Based on your understanding of the passage, answer the questions given below: 10 x 1 = 10

(1). GSTN has refused to give the CAG access to its network because
(a) GSTN is owned by State Government.
(b) GSTN is owned by a private company. (correct)
(c) CAG wants to interfere in GSTN's matter in a wrong way.
(d) GSTN had won a case in Delhi High Court against sharing of its network with
government organizations.

(2). Why auditors of the CAG need access to GST data?

I. To decide the compensation for States.
II. To determine their revenue share.
Select the correct statement/statements using the code given below.
(a) None is Correct
(b) I only
(c) II only

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 (d) Both I and II (correct)

(3). Why CAG Auditors are going through specialised training?

(a) Due to notice given by senior CAG officers.
(b) Due to the implementation of new tax regime in India i.e. GST. (correct)
(c) Due to the request of private companies to understand new business rules.
(d) None is Correct

(4). CAG wants data of revenue of States accrued from

I. Alcohol
II. Pharmaceuticals
III. Petrochemicals
Select the correct option using the code given below.
(a) I and III only. (correct)
(b) All are Correct
(c) I and II only
(d) II and III only

(5). Which year will be used as the basis for calculating the compensation of States?
(a) 2015-2016 (correct)
(b) Not decided yet
(c) 2014-2015
(d) 2016-2017

(6). Choose the word which is Most Opposite to the word printed in bold in the passage.
Vex
(a) Disturb
(b) Assist (correct)
(c) Peeve
(d) Irk

(7). Choose the word which is Most Opposite to the word printed in bold in the passage.
Regime
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 (a) Disorder (correct)
(b) System
(c) Administration
(d) Fraction

(8). Choose the word which is Most Similar to the word printed in bold in the passage.
Sorted
(a) Unsolved
(b) One
(c) Solved (correct)
(d) Singled

(9). Choose the word which is Most Similar to the word printed in bold in the passage.
Octroi
(a) Tax (correct)
(b) Responsibility
(c) Onus
(d) None of the above

(10). Choose the word which is Most Similar to the word printed in bold in the passage.
Comptroller
(a) Governor
(b) Actuary
(c) Secretary
(d) Accountant (correct)
Passage 04
(1) Have you ever failed at something so miserably that the thought of attempting to do it again was
the last thing on your mind?
(2) If your answer is yes, then you should understand that you are not a robot. Unlike robots, we
human beings have feelings, emotions, and dreams. We are all meant to grow despite our
circumstances and limitations. Flourishing and trying to make our dreams come true feels great when
life goes our way. But what happens when it does not? What happens when you fail despite all your
hard work? Do you stay down and accept defeat or do you get up again? If you tend to persevere and
keep going, you have what experts call ‘grit’.
(3) Falling down or failing is one of the most agonising, embarrassing, and scary human experiences.
But it is also one of the most educational, empowering, and essential parts of living a successful and
fulfilling life. Did you know that perseverance (grit) is one of the seven qualities that has been
described as the key to personal success and betterment in society? The other six are curiosity,
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gratitude, optimism, self-control, social intelligence, and zest. Thomas Edison is an example of grit for
trying more than 1,000 times to invent the light bulb. If you are reading this with the lights on in your
room, you will realise the importance of his success. When asked why he kept going despite hundreds
of failures, he merely stated that they had not been failures, they were hundreds of attempts toward
creating the light bulb. This statement not only revealed his grit but also his optimism for looking at
the bright side.
(4) Grit can be learnt to help you become more successful. One of the techniques that help is
mindfulness. Mindfulness is a practice that makes an individual stay at the moment by bringing
awareness of his or her experience without judgement. This practice has been used to quieten the
noise of fears and doubts. Through this simple practice of mindfulness, individuals have the ability to
stop the self-sabotaging downward spiral of hopelessness, despair, and frustration.
(5) What did you do to overcome the negative and self-sabotaging feelings of failure? Reflect on
what you did, and try to use those same powerful resources to help you today.
Moral: Learn from your Mistakes
Source: CBSE Sample Paper 2018-2019
On the basis of your understanding of the passage, answer any ten questions from the twelve that
follow: 1 × 10 = 10
(i) The reason why you are not a robot is that:
(a) You fail miserably at tasks
(b) Failure and success can affect your emotions
(c) You work hard
(d) You have limitations

(ii) Choose the option that best captures the central idea of the passage from the given quotes.
“Failure should be our “A person who
“What is the point of teacher, not our never made a
being alive if you undertaker. Failure is mistake never
don’t at least try to do “Mistakes are delay, not defeat. It is a tried anything
something the portals of temporary detour, not a new.”
remarkable?” discovery.” dead end.” (4)
(1) (2) (3) —Albert
—John Green —James Joyce —Denis Waitley Einstein
(a) Option (1)
(b) Option (2)
(c) Option (3)
(d) Option (4)

(iii) What is the tone of the following context: “Falling down or failing is one of the most… educational,
empowering, and essential parts of living a successful and fulfilling life.”?
(a) Humorous
(b) Optimistic

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(c) Horrifying
(d) Solemn

(iv) Which of the following is relevant for the title of the passage?
(a) Dreams Always Come True
(b) Failure and Grit Go Hand in Hand
(c) Humans vs Robots
(d) Falling Down and Getting Up

(v) ……………… was created after many attempts.

(a) electricity
(b) light bulb
(c) current
(d) tube light

(vi) Which of the following sentences makes the correct use of “grit”, as used in the passage?
(a) Get rid of that grit in your shoes.
(b) She had a bit of grit in her eye.
(c) The road had been covered with grit.
(d) Her grit never made her give up.

(vii) To develop perseverance one must:

(a) become more aware
(b) work hard
(c) be in the moment and be aware without judgement
(d) seek guidance

(viii) How does mindfulness help?

(a) It creates awareness
(b) It quietens the noise of fears and doubts
(c) It helps one become successful
(d) It helps develop focus

(ix) What do you understand from this line, “Falling down or failing is one of the most agonising,
embarrassing, and scary human experiences.”?
(a) Falling down makes us angry.
(b) Failure can deeply affect our emotions
(c) Stay positive and be optimistic
(d) Self-control is empowering

(x) Choose the option that correctly states the meaning of ‘social intelligence’ as implied in the passage:
(a) Knowing others
(b) Knowing oneself and others

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(c) Knowing oneself
(d) Knowing one’s surroundings

(xi) The importance of perseverance and optimism for a successful and fulfilling life is explained using
the example of?
(a) Thomas Edison
(b) Flourishing
(c) Grit
(d) Limitations

(xii) What is the message conveyed in the last paragraph of the passage?
(a) Always aim for the best
(b) Live life king size
(c) Through mindfulness we can overcome the negative impact of failure
(d) Social intelligence is crucial for a successful life

ANSWER KEY
i – (b)
ii – (c)
iii – (b)
iv – (d)
v – (b)
vi – (d)
vii – (c)
viii – (b)
ix – (b)
x – (b)
xi – (a)
xii – (c)

Practice (Case based passage) – 1

(1) Dealing with nervousness can sometimes be a difficult thing to do. When you
feel nervous, you tend to lose control to some extent. You can start to shake and
tremble a bit or you can start to sweat and even get a bit dizzy. It may seem like a
bad thing but this feeling that you experience is your body’s way of telling you
something. Nervousness is a signal to your mind that you need to get ready. It can
sometimes be mixed with the feeling of excitement as well.
(2) There are many situations that can cause a person to feel nervous. It can be
a situation where you are about to make a speech, appear for an interview or
take an exam. All of these things can bring out that feeling of anxiety. It can cause
you to stumble on your words. It can cause you to make a fool out of yourself in
public. It can cause you to just plain freeze up.. It can even cause you to turn around
and go back the way you came from.
(3) However, there are ways and means by which you can learn to control
nervousness and use it to your advantage. The first thing you need to do is
understand the reason for your nervousness. Most of the times when you get
Page 14 of 25
anxious, it means that you aren’t as prepared as you think you should be. Often
when it’s our first time doing something that is outside of our comfort zone, we will
feel a bit nervous but after we have done it over and over, we feel more confident
about it. In other words, in order to feel less nervous about whatever is causing you
to feel that feeling of nervousness, you need more practice. There is a difference
between feeling nervous because you aren’t prepared and feeling excited because
you’re anxious to show what you can do.
(4) We often get nervous because we are afraid of what others might think of us.
You don’t have to worry about that because more often than not, people are too
concerned with their own selves to focus on your faults. According to a study
conducted on Americans, most of the people are afraid of ‘public speaking’. What
are you so afraid of?

The problem is that we are our own worst critics. American psychologist William
James believes, “Human beings by changing the inner attitudes of their minds,
can change the outer aspects of their lives.” Visualise yourself doing a great job..
Visualise yourself getting the results you want.. Visualise receiving praise and
appreciation. Visualisation and affirmations have the power of bringing about a
positive change in your thought patterns. Nervousness is something that can be
dealt with through practice as well as realizing that life is too short to spend too
much time worrying. If you want to do a good job, be prepared, think positive and
practice as much as you can.

On the basis of your understanding of the above passage, answer any ten questions from
the eleven given below: 1 × 10 = 10
(i) According to the passage, one of the reasons for feeling nervous is the:
(a) situation of taking an exam
(b) lack of physical strength in a person
(c) problem of mood swings
(d) lack of mental strength

(ii) Pick the option that lists the statements that are NOT TRUE according to the passage.
Page 15 of 25
 (I) There is only a single situation that can cause a person to feel nervous.
(II) The problem that makes us nervous is the fact that we are our own worst critics.
(III) Most of the people are afraid of ‘height’ according to a study conducted on Americans.
(IV) Nervousness is normal and it can happen while any important activity.
(a) (I) and (II) (b) ( II) and (IV )
(c) (I) and (III) (d) (III) and (IV)

(iii) The word ‘stumble’, as used in paragraph (2), means the same as:
(a) Fall (b) Stammer
(c) Skip (d) Misspell

(iv) Based on the graphical chart in the passage, choose the option that correctly
states the depiction of the most feared thing amongst the Americans.

(I) (II) (III) (IV )

(a) Option (I) (b) Option (II)

(c) Option (III) (d) Option (IV)

(v) “The problem is that we are our own worst critics…..” The idea of being own
worst critics, is mainly a reference to
(a) self criticism (b) self analyses
(c) self confidence (d) self interrogation

(vi) Based on the given graphical representation of data in the passage, choose
the option that lists the statements that are TRUE with respect to the fears of the
Americans.

(I) Heights are the second most feared things for Americans.
(II) Claustrophobia is the only phobia that makes it to the list of top fears.
(III) 20 % of the Americans are afraid of flying.
(IV) Same per cent of the Americans fear ghosts and drowning.
(a) (I) and (IV) (b) ( I) and (II )
(c) (III) and (IV) (d) ( II) and (IV )

(vii) Based on the graphical chart, pick the option that lists the people with the
fifth highest percentage.
(a) They are not afraid of bees.
(b) They are most scared of strangers.
(c) None of them is afraid of darkness.
(d) Majority of them are afraid of clowns.

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 (viii) In the chart, the people’s reaction towards fears depicts that they often get
............. .
(a) excited (b) nervous
(c) ecstatic (d) melancholic

(ix) Which of the following statements is NOT substantiated by the information

given for American psychologist William James belief?

(a) Human beings cannot change the outer aspects of their lives by changing
the inner attitudes of their minds.
(b) Human beings can change the outer aspects of their lives by changing the
inner attitudes of their minds.
(c) Human beings can change the outer aspects of their lives by being positive
about themselves.
(d) Human beings need to change the inner thoughts of their mind.

(x) According to the survey, which option depicts the highest and lowest feared
things in Americans?

fe ar s

highest
lowest
(I) bees & clown (II) public speaking (III) needl es & (IV) height &
& ghosts z ombies dr owning

(a) option (I) (b) option (II)

(c) option (III) (d) option (IV)
(xi) Arrange the given fears from being least frightening to the most frightening
as per the given data, from the following:

(I) drowning (II) clowns

(III) blood (IV) snakes
(a) (I), (II), (III), (IV) (b) ( II), (IV), (III), (I )
(c) (I), (IV), (II), (III) (d) ( II), (III), (I), (IV)

Answer key: -
1. (i) (a) situation of taking an exam
Explanation: According to the passage, a person may not feel nervous while being
physically weak, having mood swings or lacking mental strength but he
may feel nervous while taking an exam. Hence, (a) is the correct answer.
(ii) (c) ( I) & (III )
Explanation: According to the passage, there are multiple situations that can
cause a person to feel nervous so statement (I) is not true. Also, most of
the people are afraid of ‘public speaking’ according to a study conducted
on Americans which makes statement (III) untrue. Hence, (c) is the correct
answer.
(iii) (b) Stammer
Explanation: The word ‘stumble’ in paragraph 2 means to stammer. So, the correct answer
Page 17 of 25
 is (b)
(iv) (a) Option (I)
Explanation: The pie chart given in option (I) is correct as it shows that the
majority of the Americans fear ‘Public Speaking’. So, (a) is the correct answer.
(v) (a) self criticism
Explanation: Self criticism is a human quality that makes a person his own worst
critic whereas self analyses, self confidence & self interrogation does not
propagate the idea of being our own critics. Hence, the correct answer is
(a).
(vi) (b) ( I) and (II )
Explanation: In the given question, statements (I) & (II) are true as heights are the
second most feared things in Americans and no other phobia than
claustrophobia is included in the list. Whereas statements (III) & (IV) are
false as per the data given in the passage, Hence, (b) is the correct answer.
(vii) (b) They are most scared of strangers.
(viii) (b) nervous
Explanation: Excited, ecstatic & melancholic are not expressions depicted by the people while
being faced with their fears. Instead, they get nervous and scared. Hence, (b) is the
correct answer.
(ix) (a) Human beings cannot change the outer aspects of their lives by changing the inner attitudes of their minds.
(x) (b) option (II)
Explanation: According to the survey, the highest feared thing in Americans is public speaking while the
lowest feared thing is ghosts. Hence, (b) is the correct answer.
(xi) (d) ( II), (III), (I), (IV )
Practice (Case based passage) - 2
(1) I have often thought, it would be a blessing if each human being was stricken blind and deaf for a few
days at some time during his adult life. Darkness would make him more appreciative of sight, silence
would teach him the joy of sound.
(2) Now and then, I have tested my seeing friends to discover what they see. Recently, I asked a friend,
who had just returned from a long walk in the woods, what she has observed. "Nothing in particular,"
she replied. How was it possible, I asked myself, to walk for an hour through the woods and see
nothing worthy of note?
(3) I, who cannot see, find hundreds of things to interest me through mere touch. I feel the delicate
symmetry of a leaf. I pass my hands lovingly about the smooth skin of a silver birch or the rough,
shaggy bark of a pine. In spring, I touch the branches of trees hopefully in search of a bud, the first
sign of awakening nature after her winter's sleep. Occasionally, if I am fortunate and place my hand
gently on a small tree, I feel the happy quiver of a bird in full song.
(4) At times my heart cries out with longing to see all these things. If I can get so much pleasure from
mere touch, how much more beauty must be revealed by sight. I have imagined what I would like to
see, if I were given the use of my eyes, say, just for a few days. I would want to see the people, whose
kindness, and gentleness, and companionship has made my life worth living.

Page 18 of 25
On the basis of your understanding of the above passage, answer any ten questions from
the eleven given below: 1 × 10 = 10
(I) When the narrator said that, it would be a blessing if each human being was stricken blind and deaf for a few days at
some time during his adult life; the narrator intended
(a) Human beings to experience the absence of sensory organs.
(b) Human beings to respect the presence of sensory organs.
(c) Human beings to be grateful of their experiences through sensory organs.
(d) Human beings to feel the pain of people with the absence of sensory organs.

(II) Pick the options that lists statements that are NOT TRUE according to the passage and the timeline.
(i) Despite of loosing her ability to see and hear, Hellen Keller observed things minutely.
(ii) Anne Sullivan was the one who introduced Hellen Keller to Indian Sign Language.
(iii) Often Hellen Keller desired the ability to see and hear.
(iv) Hellen Keller received her first formal education in the year 1887.

(a) (iii) and (iv) (b) (i) and (iii)

(c) (i) and (ii) (d) (ii) and (iv)

(III) The word ‘longing’ used in paragraph 4, means same as:

(a) Wait (b) Desire
(c) Hungry (d) Believe

(IV) Looking at Helen Kellers’s achievements and works in the year 1904, 1924 and 1943, it can be said that she
(a) Worked for people with disability
(b) Acknowledged people with disabilities
(c) Encouraged people with disabilities
(d) Sympathized with people with disabilities

(V) “I would want to see the people, whose kindness, and gentleness, and companionship has made my life worth
living.” The phrase “life worth living” is mainly in reference to the
(a) Opportunity to travel overseas
(b) Inability to hear and see
(c) Education and achievements
(d) Qualities that helped her survive and overcome the difficulties that she faced due to her disabilities.

(VI) Based on the timeline of Helen Keller, choose the option that lists the statements that are TRUE.
(i) In 1909, Helen joined the Suffragist Movement, demanding the right to vote for the marginalized.
(ii) After two years from her birth, Helen lost her sight and hearing.

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 (iii) Helen visited blind, deaf and disabled soldiers of World War I in military.
(iv) In 1964 Helen received Presidential Medal of Freedom, the nation’s highest civilian honor.
(a) (ii) and (iv) (b) (i) and (II)
(c) (ii) and (iii) (d) (iii) and (iv)

(VII) Based on the timeline of Helen Keller, pick the year which signifies one of the biggest achievements of Helen in
reference to publication.
(a) 1887 (b) 1902 (c) 1904 (d) 1964

(VIII) In paragraph 2 of the passage, the reaction of Helen Keller’s friend to Helen’s question on what did she observe on
her walk in the woods was:
(a) Relieved Helen Keller (b) Enlightened Helen Keller
(c) Amazed Helen Keller (d) Collapsed Helen Keller

(IX) Which of the following statements is NOT substantiated by information in the timeline of Helen Keller?
(a) Anne Sullivan taught letters to Hellen Keller.
(b) Often Helen Keller desired to see the world using her eyes.
(c) Helen became a member of the freshmen class of 1904 at Radcliffe college.
(d) In 1924 Helen and Anne begin their work with the American foundation of Blind.

(X) According to your understanding of the above passage and the experiences of Hellen Keller, pick the option which
correctly displays the relationship between
(i) Her ability to see and hear and,
(ii) Her ability to feel the touch

(i) (ii) (i) (ii) (i) (ii) (i) ( ii )

(I) (II) (III) (IV)

(a) Option (I) (b) Option (II)

(c) Option (III) (d) Option (IV)

(XI) Based on your understanding of the passage and timeline, choose the option that lists the correct timeline of the events
in the life of Helen Keller.
(i) Helen became a member of the freshmen class at Radcliffe college.
(ii) With the help of the writer, Helen writes, ‘The story of my life’.
(iii) Helen and Anne begin their work with the American foundation of Blind.
(iv) Helen travels overseas and visits 37 nations.

(a) (i), (ii), (iv), (iii) (b) (ii), (i), (iii), (iv)
(c) (iv), (iii), (i), (ii) (d) (i), (iii), (ii), (iv)

Answer Key: -
(I) (c) Human beings to be grateful of their experiences through sensory organs.
Explanation: Above statement has a positive tone as the author uses the word ‘blessing’. So, (d) is not the answer.
Absence of sensory organs is a pain so (a) is not the answer. (b) could have been the answer but as the author
writes this as a pretext of the event where she tells that her friends with eyes were unable to enjoy the nature’s
beauty while she can. Hence, the answer is
( c ).
(II) (d) ( II) and (IV )
Explanation: (I) is true as she tells that she feels and enjoys nature. (II) is not true as Anne Sullivan taught her manual
sign language. (III) is also true. (IV) is not true as she received her formal education in the year 1889. So the
answer here is (d).
(III) (b) Desire
Page 20 of 25
 Explanation: Helen Keller in paragraph 4 of the passage expresses how she wants to see people and hear sounds. She
expresses her desire in these lines. So, (a) is the answer.
(IV) (c) Encouraged people with disabilities
Explanation: According to the timeline, Helen Keller graduated in 1904, in 1924 she joined the blind school and in 1943
she visited the blind, deaf and dumb soldiers of the World War II. All these activities encouraged the people with
disabilities. Hence, (c) is the correct answer.
(V) (d) Qualities that helped her survive and overcome the difficulties that she faced due to her disabilities.
Explanation: Due to her disabilities Helen Keller’s life would have become hell, if she didn’t have people who understand
her and help her. She wouldn’t have been able to survive as the sense of sight and hearing are very important
to live in this world and she had lost both. Travelling overseas or education and achievements are not required
for survival. Inability to see and hear make survival almost next to impossible. So, (a), (b) & (c) are not the
answers. The answer here is (d).
(VI) (a) ( II) and (IV )
Explanation: (I) is not true as Helen demanded the right to vote for women. (II) is true (III) is not true as she visited soldiers
of World War II (IV) is true Hence, the answer here is (a).

(VII) (b) 1902

(VIII) (c) Amazed Helen Keller
Explanation: Helen Keller’s friend’s answer to her question was “nothing much ''. Helen Keller was not relieved as this
experience made her pray to God to grant sightlessness to adults at least for some time. Rather Helen was
amazed (c) as Helen herself could feel the immense beauty and joy of nature as she walked through the woods.
So, (c) is the correct answer.
(IX) (b) Often Helen Keller desired to see the world using her eyes.
(X) (c) Option (III)
Explanation: Helen couldn’t at all see or hear but she had a wonderful sense of touch through which she could see and
hear many things that even the normal human beings couldn’t experience. Hence, the answer here is (c).

(XI) (b) ( II), (I), (III), (IV )

Explanation: 1904—Helen became a member of the freshmen class at Radcliffe college.
1902—With the help of the writer, Helen writes, ‘The story of my life’.
1924—Helen and Anne begin their work with the American foundation of Blind.
1930—Helen travels overseas and visits 37 nations.

So, the answer is (b).

Practice (Case based passage) – 3

(1) Quitting smoking is extremely important ― the biggest reason is that smoking affects nearly every organ of your body. But
now, you have an even more immediate reason to kick the habit – COVID-19. While the novel Coronavirus can infect anyone, smokers,
in particular, are more prone to fall victim to it. It causes extensive damage to various vital organs and systems of the human body.
However, the lungs continue to remain one of the most affected organs. In smokers, the lung function is already impaired, which makes
it more difficult for the body to fight off the coronaviruses. Also, as per the newspaper reports “the act of smoking involves contact of
fingers and lips and sharing of smoking products, which facilitates the transmission of the virus. So, even those who smoke sparingly
are at risk of contracting COVID-19”.

(2) While it’s crucial that everyone is saved from contracting Covid-19 in the first place, it’s equally important that we do all we
can to keep our lungs healthy in order to avoid the worst effects of the pandemic. For smokers, quitting smoking is an important part of
this effort. Once you quit smoking, your body begins to repair the damage, and over time, the risk of life-threatening health problems
attacking you reduces dramatically.

(3) However, for best results, this should be done in a safe and effective manner. For this, the World Health Organization (WHO)
and the United States Food and Drug Administration (USFDA) have recommended using proven interventions such as Nicotine
Replacement Therapy (NRT). To help smokers quit using the Nicotine Replacement Therapy, over-the counter NRTs are easily
available. And in India, Nicotex is one of the biggest brands in this category.

(4) Cigarette smoking and Covid-19 may be a deadly combination. In smokers, the above mentioned health problems, coupled
with COVID-19, may result in more serious health outcomes. The lung function in smokers is already impaired, and so, as a lung
infection, Covid-19 aggressively attacks their lungs, making the situation worse or even resulting in a fatality.

(5) As per WHO, “compared to non-smokers, patients who are smokers tend to need more intensive care and ventilation”. Also,
fatality rates due to COVID-19 are higher amongst people with chronic respiratory disease. (Source: The Economic Times)

(6) A cross-sectional study was conducted to evaluate whether the rate of daily smokers in patients with COVID-19 was different
to that in the French population. The participants were COVID-19-infected in- and outpatients in a large French university hospital
Page 21 of 25
between February 28, 2020 and March 30, 2020 for outpatients and from March 23, till April 9, 2020 for inpatients. The participants
were interviewed on their smoking status, use of cigarette and nicotinic substitutes.

(7) The findings of the study revealed that the inpatient group was composed of 340 patients, median age 66 years: 203 men
(59.7%, median age 66 years) and 137 women (40.3%, median age 66 years), with a rate of daily smokers of 4.1% CI95% [2.3 – 6.9]
(5.4% of men and 2.2% of women). The outpatient group was composed of 139 patients, median age 44 years: 62 men (44.6%, median
age 43 years, and 77 women (55.4 %, median age 44 years). The daily smokers’ rate was 6.1 % CI95% [2.7 - 11.6] (5.1% of men and
6.8 % of women). In the French population, the daily smokers’ rate was 25.4% (28.2% of men and 22.9% of women)

(8) The rate of daily smokers was significantly lower in COVID-19 patients, as compared to that in the French
general population after standardization by age and sex. The cross - sectional study in both COVID-19 out- and
inpatients shows that daily smokers rate in patients with symptomatic COVID-19 is lower as compared to the general
population.

On the basis of your understanding of the above passage, answer any ten questions from the eleven given
below: 1 × 10 = 10
(I) According to the passage, one should quit smoking during the times of Corona virus, because
(a) Smoking damages all vital body organs.
(b) Smoking makes it difficult for body to fight corona virus.
(c) Smoking involves contact of body parts and sharing of products.
(d) Smoking is injurious to health.

(II) Pick the options that lists statements that are NOT TRUE according to the passage.
(i) Quitting smoking is suggested to keep our lungs healthy in order to avoid the worst effects of the
pandemic.
(ii) Once you quit smoking, body begins to repair life-threatening health problems.
(iii) Fatality rates due to COVID-19 are lower among people with chronic respiratory disease.
(iv) Cigarette smoking and Covid-19 may be a deadly combination.
(a) (i) and (ii) (b) (ii) and (iii)
(c) (iii) and (iv) (d) (iv) and (i)
(III) The word ‘intervention’ as used in paragraph 3, means the same as,
(a) Medication (b) Rejuvenation
(c) Meditation (d) Mediation

Page 22 of 25
(IV) Based on the data given in Table 1 of the passage, choose the pie representation that correctly states the
depiction of smoking status of currently active male inpatients with currently active female inpatients.

Male Female
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv)

(a) Option (i) (b) Option (ii)

(c) Option (iii) (d) Option (iv)

(V) The act of smoking requires the contact of body parts and sharing of smoking products, which facilitates the
transmission of virus, because Coronavirus
(a) is transmitted through smoking (b) is communicable
(c) is life-threatening (d) damages the lungs

(VI) Based on the information in paragraph 6, choose the option that lists the statements that are true with respect to
the cross-sectional research conducted to evaluate the rate of daily smokers in patients with COVID-19 and regular French
population.

(i) The study was conducted with the COVID-19 in-patients in the month of February and out-patients
in the month of March.
(ii) In the findings, the rate of daily smokers was significantly higher in COVID-19 patients, as compared
to that in the French general population after standardization by age and sex.
(iii) The participants were interviewed on their smoking status, use of cigarette and nicotinic substitutes.
(iv) After the research the participants decided to quit smoking.
(a) (ii) and (iii) (b) (ii) and (iv)
(c) (i) and (iii) (d) (i) and (iv)

(VII) Based on data representation in Table 1, among inpatients, who are the maximum number of
COVID- 19 patients? The ones

(a) who actively smoke cigarette (b) who occasionally smoke cigarette
(c) who never smoked cigarette (d) who were former cigarette smokers

(VIII) The response of participants in the cross-sectional study shows that the
(a) The rate of daily smokers was significantly high in COVID-19 patients in the month of February.
(b) The rate of daily smokers was significantly higher in COVID-19.
(c) The two constant variables in the research were age and experience.
(d) The rate of daily smokers was significantly lower in COVID-19 patients.

(IX) Which of the following statements is NOT substantiated by information in paragraph 7 ?

(a) Fatality rates due to COVID-19 are higher amongst people with chronic respiratory disease.
(b) Inpatient group was composed of 340 patients, however, outpatient group composed of 139 patients.
(c) Male inpatients are more in number than male outpatients.
(d) The rate of daily smokers is more in out-patients than in in-patients.

(X) According to the cross-sectional study conducted, which graph represents the correct number of former
smokers.
(i) Outpatients
(ii) In-patients

Page 23 of 25
 .110 .110 .110 .110
.90 .90 .90 .90
.60 .60 .60 .60
.30 .30 .30 .30

(i) (ii) (i) (ii) (i) (ii) (i) (ii)

(i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
(a) Option (i) (b) Option (ii)
(c) Option (iii) (d) Option (iv)

(XI) Based on your understanding of the passage, choose the option that lists the correct sequence of the
information delivered to the reader.
(i) So, even those who smoke sparingly are at risk of contracting COVID-19.
(ii) To help smokers quit using Nicotine Replacement Therapy, over-the-counter NRTs are easily
available.
(iii) Once you quit smoking, your body begins to repair the damage, and over time, the risk of life-threatening
health problems attacking you reduces dramatically.
(iv) While the novel Coronavirus can infect anyone, smokers, in particular, are more prone to fall
victim to it.
(v) Fatality rates due to COVID-19 are higher amongst people with chronic respiratory disease
(a) (iv), (i), (ii), (iii), (v) (b) (i), (iv), (ii), (iii), (v)
(c) (I), (iv), (iii), (v), (ii) (d) (iv), (i), (iii), (ii), (v)

Answer Key: -
(I) (c) Smoking involves contact of body parts and sharing of products.
Explanation: Smoking has always been injurious to health and damages vital body organs. As our vital organs
are damaged we can not fight against any kind of disease. But in case of COVID-19, it is extremely
dangerous to continue smoking because the virus spreads through contact with an infected person
and smokers share their smoking products and there is a contact between the fingers and lips. Due to
this the virus can easily enter our body through our lips and we can get infected. Hence, (c) is the
correct answer.
(II) (b) (ii) and (iii)
Explanation: (I) is true as smoking and corona virus both affect our lungs. (ii) is incorrect as after quitting, your
body starts to heal and the chances of attack of fatal disease is reduced and not that the already
prevalent diseases are cured. (iii) is also incorrect as the data shows that fatality rate in chronic
respiratory patients is high. Hence, (b) is the correct answer.
(III) (a) Medication
Explanation: In the above paragraph intervention has been used to mean action taken to improve a medical
disorder. It doesn’t imply rejuvenating (refreshing), Meditation (going inwards in search of peace and
tranquility) or mediation (to interrupt or resolve a situation for the benefits of others.) Here it means
medication which is used to improve some medical conditions. Hence, (a) is the correct answer.
(IV) (b) Option (II)
Explanation: There are 11 active male inpatients and 3 female inpatients according to the table. This accounts
to 78.5% males and nearly 21.5% women. Hence, the answer here will be (b)
(V) (b) is communicable
Explanation: Any disease that is transmitted on contact with the infected person is called communicable. Hence (b) is
the correct answer.
(VI) (c) (i) and (ii )
Explanation: The study was conducted for the outpatients in the month of February and March. Hence
(i) is correct. The rate of daily smokers was less in COVID-19 patients. Hence, (ii) is incorrect. (iii) is
also correct. Hence, (c) is the correct answer.
(VII) (c) who never smoked cigarette
(VIII) (d) The rate of daily smokers was significantly lower in COVID-19 patients.
(IX) (a) Fatality rates due to COVID-19 are higher amongst people with chronic respiratory disease.
(X) (a) Option (i)
Page 24 of 25
 Explanation: Former smokers in outpatients were 41 and 111 in in-patients. Hence, the answer here will
be (a).
(XI) (d) (iv), (i), (iii), (ii), (v)
Explanation: The writer starts the passage with the information regarding the risk of coronavirus in
smokers (iv). Then he tells that as smoking involves sharing of smoking products so occasional
smokers are also at risk (i). Then he tells the benefits of quitting smoking (iii) and also how to quit (ii).
In paragraph 7 he discusses the fatality rate of chronic respiratory patients (v). Hence, (d) is the correct
answer.

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 PREPARED BY:
TAPAN KANTI NATH
PGT(MATHS) SS IMPHAL
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We know that: 𝐴. (𝑎𝑑𝑗𝐴) = 𝐴 𝐼 = (𝑎𝑑𝑗𝐴). 𝐴
Pre Multiplying 𝐴−1 on both side of first two:
We get 𝐴−1 𝐴. (𝑎𝑑𝑗𝐴) = 𝐴−1 . 𝐴 𝐼
⇒ 𝐼(𝑎𝑑𝑗𝐴) = 𝐴−1 𝐼|𝐴|
⇒ 𝑎𝑑𝑗𝐴 = 𝐴−1 𝐴

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 Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants
Pre­Fertilisation Events
● Several hormonal and structural changes result in the
development of a flower.
● Inflorescences bear the flower buds, and then the flowers.
● Flowers are the reproductive parts of a plant.
● In the flowers, the androecium (male reproductive part) and
the gynoecium (female reproductive part) develop.

Androecium
● The androecium consists of whorls of stamen.
● The stamen consists of the f​
ilament ​
(long and slender
stalk) and ​
anther​
(bilobed structure).
● Filament is attached to the thalamus or to the petal.
● Anther​
:
○ A typical anther is bilobed and each lobe is dithecous
(consists of two theca).
○ Theca are separated by a longitudinal groove running
lengthwise.
 ○ The microsporangia are located at the corners, two in
each theca. They further develop to form pollen sacs,
which contain the pollen grains.

● Structure of microsporangium
○ The microsporangium is surrounded by four wall layers
(epidermis, endothecium, middle layers, and tapetum).
○ The outer three layers are protective and help in
dehiscence of anther to release the pollen grains. The
tapetum provides nourishment to the developing pollen
grains.
○ In the young anther, the sporogenous tissue forms the
centre of each microsporangium.
Microsporogenesis
● It is the process of formation of microspore from PMC (Pollen
Mother Cells).
● As development occurs in the anther, the sporogenous
tissue undergoes meiosis to form microspore tetrad.
● Each cell of sporogenous tissue has capacity to give rise to a
tetrad. Hence, each cell is a potential pollen or PMC.
● As the anther matures, the microspores get detached from
each other and develop into pollen grains.
Pollen grains
● Represent the male gamete and are spherical, having a
two­layered wall:
○ Exine (outer) − Hard layer made of sporopollenin,
which is extremely resistant and can withstand high
temperatures, acidic and alkaline conditions, and
enzymes
○ Intine (inner) − Thin and continuous layer made up of
cellulose and pectin
● Mature pollen grain contains two cells:
 ○ Vegetative cell − Large with irregular nucleus, contains
food reserves
○ Generative cell − Small and floats in the cytoplasm of
the vegetative cell

● In 60% of the angiosperms, pollen grains are shed at

2­celled stage while in others generative cell undergoes
mitosis to form two male gametes (3­celled stage).
● The viability of pollen grains after they are shed depends
upon temperature and humidity. It ranges from 30 minutes
to few months.
Gynoecium and Formation of Female Gametophyte
● The gynoecium represents the female reproductive part of a
flower.
● It may be mono­carpellary (one pistil) or multi­carpellary
(many pistils). In multi­carpellary, the pistils may be fused
in one (syncarpous) or free (apocarpous).
● Each pistil consists of:
○ Stigma​
− Receives the pollen grains
○ Style​
− Elongated, slender part below the stigma
○ Ovary​
− Bulged basal part containing the placenta,
which is located inside the ovarian locule (cavity)
○ The placenta contains the megasporangia or ovules.
Megasporangium
● The ovule is attached to the placenta by the f​
unicle​
. The
junction of the ovule and the funicle is called ​
hilum​
.
● Each ovule has one or two protective layers, called
integuments​
, which cover the rest of the ovule, except for
a small opening called m
​ icropyle​
.
● The ​
chalaza​
lying on the opposite side of the micropyle end
represents the basal part of the ovule.
● Nucellus​
is present within the integuments and contains
reserved food. The ​
embryo sac​
or female gametophyte is
located within the nucellus.
Megasporogenesis
● The ​
megaspore mother cell​
(MMC) gets converted into
megaspores by the process of megasporogenesis.
● The MMC is large and contains a dense cytoplasm and a
prominent nucleus. It undergoes meiosis to produce four
megaspores.
Female Gametophyte
● In most flowering plants, only one megaspore is functional
while the other three degenerate.
● The single functional megaspore develops into the female
gametophyte. This kind of development is called monosporic
development.
● The nucleus of the functional megaspore divides mitotically
to form 2 nuclei, which move towards the opposite ends,
forming a 2­nucleate embryo sac. Two more mitotic divisions
ensue, leading to the formation of 4­nucleate and 8­nucleate
embryo sacs.
● After the 8­nucleate stage, the cell walls are laid down and
the typical female gametophyte (embryo sac) gets
 organised.
● Six of the 8­nuclei get surrounded by the cell wall and the
remaining two, called p
​olar nuclei​
, are situated below the
egg apparatus in the large c
​entral cell​
.
● Three of the six cells are placed at the micropylar end and
constitute the ​
egg apparatus (​
2​synergids​
+1​
egg cell​
).
● The synergids have special thickenings at the micropylar
end. These are together called the ​
filiform apparatus​
. It
helps in leading the pollen tubes into the synergids.
● Three cells are at the chalazal end, and are called ​
antipodal
cells​
.
● A typical angiosperm female gametophyte is 7­celled and
8­nucleated at maturity.

Pollination
● It is the process of transfer of pollen grains from the anther
to the stigma.
● Depending on the source of pollen, pollination can be divided
as follows:
○ Autogamy ​
− It is the transfer of pollen grains from the
anther to the stigma of the same flower. Autogamy
 requires the anther and the stigma to lie close. It also
requires synchrony in the pollen release and stigma
receptivity.
Plants like V
​iola​
,​
Oxalis​
, etc., produce two kinds of
flowers—​
chasmogamous flowers​
(with exposed
anther and stigma) and ​
cleistogamous flowers
(which do not open at all and only autogamy occurs).
○ Geitonogamy​
− It is the transfer of pollens from the
anther of one flower to the stigma of another flower in
the same plant. Genetically, it is similar to autogamy,
but it requires pollinating agents.
○ Xenogamy​
− It is the transfer of pollen grains from
the anther to the stigma of a different plant. Pollination
causes genetically different types of pollens to be
brought to a plant.
Agents of Pollination
● Plants use air, water (abiotic agents) and animals (biotic
agents) for pollination.
● Pollination by wind
○ It is the most common form of abiotic pollination.
○ Plants possess well­exposed stamens and large,
feathery stigma.
○ Pollens should be light and non­sticky to be carried
easily by winds.
○ Wind­pollinated flowers often have single ovule in the
ovary and numerous flowers packed in an
inflorescence.
 ○ It is common in grass.
● Pollination by water
○ It is rare in flowering plants, except for some aquatic
plants like ​
Vallisneria​
and ​
Hydrilla.​
○ In most water­pollinated plants, the pollen grains are
long and ribbon­like, and are protected from wetting by
mucilaginous covering.
○ In a majority of water plants like water hyacinth and
water lily, flowers emerge above the water level and
are pollinated by insects.
● Pollination by animals
○ Majority of flowering plants use butterflies, bees, wasps
etc., for pollination.
○ Most of the insect­pollinated flowers are large,
colourful, fragrant, and contain nectar to attract the
animal pollinators. These are called floral rewards.
○ Floral reward can be in the form of providing safe
places to lay eggs (example: the tallest flower,
Amorphophallus​
)
○ A symbiotic relationship exists between the plant,
Yucca​
and its pollinator moth. The moth is dependent
on the plant since the moth deposits its eggs in the
locule of the ovary of the plant, and in return, the plant
is pollinated by the moth.
○ The pollen grains are sticky and get stuck to the body
of the pollinator.
Out Breeding Devices
 ● Repeated self pollination leads to inbreeding depression.
● Plants have developed methods to prevent self pollination.
Autogamy is prevented by following ways:
○ Pollen release and stigma receptivity not coordinated
○ Different positioning of the anther and the stigma
○ Production of unisexual flowers
● Ways to prevent both autogamy and geitonogamy:
○ Presence of male and female flowers on different
plants, such that each plant is either male or female
(dioecy).
○ This mechanism is present in several species of papaya.
Pollen−Pistil Interactions
● Pollination does not always ensure the transfer of compatible
pollens.
● Hence, the pistil has the ability to recognise the right type of
pollen to promote post­ pollination events.
● If the pollen is of the wrong type, the pistil prevents pollen
germination.
● This interaction is mediated by chemical components of the
pollen and the pistil.
● Pollen−pistil interaction is a dynamic process involving
pollen recognition, followed by promotion or inhibition of the
pollen.
● The pollen tube reaches the ovary and enters the ovule
through the micropyle. Then, through the filiform apparatus,
it reaches synergids. In this way, the pollen tube grows.
Artificial Hybridisation & Double Fertilisation
Artificial Hybridisation
● It is a method to improve crop yield.
● In this method, it is essential to ensure that the right kinds
of pollen grains are used, and the stigma is protected from
unwanted pollen grains. It is achieved by:
○ Emasculation − The anther is removed from the bud if
the female parent bears bisexual flowers.
○ Bagging − The emasculated flower is covered by a bag
so as not to allow contamination of the stigma by
unwanted pollen grains.
● When the stigma of the bagged flower becomes receptive,
the collected pollen grains are dusted onto the stigma, and
then the flower is rebagged.
● If the female parent is unisexual, emasculation is not
necessary. In this case, the female bud is directly bagged,
and when the stigma turns receptive, suitable pollen grains
are dusted onto it so as to allow germination.
Double Fertilisation
● When the pollen grains fall on the stigma, the pollen tube
enters one of the synergids and releases two male gametes.
● One of the male gametes moves towards the egg cell and
fuses with it to complete the s
​yngamy​
to form the z
​ygote​
.
● The other male gamete fuses with the two polar nuclei and
forms triploid ​
primary endosperm nucleus (PEN)​
. This is
termed as ​
triple fusion​
.
 ● Since two kinds of fusion—syngamy and triple fusion—take
place, the process is known as double fertilisation, and is
characteristic of flowering plants.
● After triple fusion, the central cell becomes the primary
endosperm cell (PEC).
● The primary endosperm nucleus gives rise to the
endosperm, while the zygote develops into the embryo.

Post­Fertilisation Events
It includes development of endosperm and embryo, and
maturation of ovules into seeds and ovaries into fruits.
Formation of Endosperm
● The endosperm develops before the embryo because the
cells of the endosperm provide nutrition to the developing
embryo.
● The primary endosperm nucleus repeatedly divides to give
rise to free nuclei. This stage of development is called free
nuclear endosperm.
● Cell wall formation occurs next, resulting in a cellular
 endosperm.
● The endosperm may be either fully consumed by the
growing embryo (as in pea and beans) or retained in the
mature seed (as in coconut and castor).
Development of Embryo
● The embryo develops at the micropylar end of the embryo
sac where the zygote is situated.
● The zygote gives rise first to the pro­embryo, and then to
the globular, heart­shaped, mature embryo.
● A typical ​
dicot embryo​
consists of an embryonal axis and
two cotyledons.
● The portion of the embryonal axis above the level of
cotyledons is called epicotyl. It contains the plumule (shoot
tip). The portion below the axis is called hypocotyl. It
contains the radicle (root tip). The root tip is covered by the
root cap.

● In a ​
monocot embryo​
, there is only one cotyledon. In
grass, it is known as the scutellum, and is situated at one
side of the embryonal axis. At its lower end, the embryonal
axis has the radicle and the root cap enclosed in the
 coleorrhiza.
● The epicotyl lies above the level of the scutellum, and has
the shoot apex and leaf primordia enclosed in hollow
structures called coleoptiles.

Seeds and Fruits

Development of Seeds

● It is the last stage of sexual reproduction in angiosperms.

● Seeds are the fertilised ovules that are developed inside a
fruit.
● A seed consists of:
○ Seed coat
○ Cotyledons
○ Embryonal axis
● Seeds may be ​
albuminous​
(endosperm present; as in
wheat and maize) or ​
non­albuminous​
(endosperm absent;
 since it is consumed by the growing embryo; as in pea and
beans).
● Some seeds such as black pepper and wheat have remnants
of nucellus known as ​
perisperm​
.
● The integuments of ovules harden to form the seed coat,
and the micropyle facilitates the entry of oxygen and water
into the seed.
● As it loses moisture, the seed may enter dormancy, or if
favourable conditions exist, it germinates.
Development of Fruits
● The ovary of a flower develops into a fruit.
● The walls of the ovary transform into the walls of the fruit
(pericarp).
● Fruits may be fleshy, as in mango and orange, or can be
dry, as in groundnut and mustard.
● In some plants, floral parts other than the ovary take part in
fruit formation, as in apple and strawberry. In these, the
thalamus contributes to fruit formation. Such fruits are
called ​
false fruits​
. Fruits that develop from the ovary are
called ​
true fruits​
.
● Some fruits develop without fertilisation, and are known as
parthenocarpic fruits​
(example: banana).
Apomixis and Polyembryony
● Some plants produce seeds without fertilisation. This process
of seed formation is known as apomixis.
● Apomixis is a form of asexual reproduction mimicking sexual
reproduction.
● In some species, apomixis occurs as the diploid egg cell is
formed without meiosis, and develops into embryo without
fertilisation.
● In some varieties of citrus and mango, the nucellus cells
divide and protrude into the embryo sac to develop into
embryos. In such cases, each ovule may contain several
embryos and this condition is called polyembryony.
● Apomixis is important for producing hybrid varieties of fruits
and vegetables, and also for increasing crop yield multifold.
 Human Reproduction
Male and Female Reproductive Systems
● Human beings reproduce sexually and are viviparous.
● In humans, the reproductive phase starts after puberty.
● It involves:
○ Gametogenesis
○ Insemination
○ Fertilisation
○ Implantation
○ Gestation
○ Parturition
The Male Reproductive System

● It is located in the pelvic region.

● It consists of:
○ A pair of testes
○ Accessory glands and ducts
○ External genitalia
Testes
● Situated within the ​
scrotum​
, which protects the testes and
also helps in maintaining the temperature.
● Each testis is 4 to 5 cm in length, and 2 to 3 cm in width,
and has about 250 compartments called t​
esticular lobules​
.
● Testicular lobules have ​
seminiferous tubules​
which are the
sites of sperm formation.
● Seminiferous tubules are lined by two types of cells:
○ Male germ cells​
− They undergo meiosis to form
sperms.
○ Sertoli cells​
− They provide nourishment to the germ
cells.
● Region outside the seminiferous tubules is called the
interstitial space, which contains ​
Leydig cells​
(interstitial
cells). The Leydig cells produce androgens.
Accessory Ducts and Glands
● Accessory ducts include:
○ Rete testis
○ Vasa efferentia
○ Epididymis
○ Vas deferens
● The seminiferous tubules open into the vasa efferentia
through the ​
rete testis​
.
● The vasa efferentia open into the ​
epididymis​
, which leads
to the ​
vas deferens​
. The vas deferens opens into the
urethra along with a duct from the seminal vesicle called the
ejaculatory duct​
.
 ● The ejaculatory duct stores the sperms and transports them
to the outside
● The urethra starts from the urinary bladder, extends through
the penis and opens via the ​
urethral meatus​
.
● Accessory glands include:
○ A pair of seminal vesicles
○ Prostate gland
○ A pair of bulbourethral glands
● The secretions of these glands make up the seminal plasma,
and provide nutrition and a medium of motility to the
sperms.
The Female Reproductive System

● It is located in the pelvic region:

● It includes:
○ A pair of ovaries
○ A pair of oviducts
○ Uterus
○ Cervix
○ Vagina
 ○ External genitalia
○ Mammary glands (not part of the reproductive system,
but aids in child care)
Ovaries
● They are the primary female sex organs. They produce the
ovum and other ovarian hormones.
● They are located in the lower abdomen, and are 2 to 4 cm in
length.
● They are connected by ligaments to the pelvic walls and to
the uterus.
● Each ovary is covered by epithelium, and contains the
ovarian stroma.
● The ovarian stroma is made up of:
○ Peripheral cortex
○ Inner medulla

Oviducts
● They are also called f​
allopian tubes​
.
● They are 10 to 12 cm long, and extend from the ovary to
the uterus.
● The part of each oviduct lying towards the ovary is funnel
shaped, and is called ​
infundibulum​
. It has finger­like
projections called f​
imbriae​
.
● The infundibulum leads to the ampulla, and then to the
isthmus, which has a narrow lumen opening into the uterus.
Uterus
 ● It is also called w
​omb​
, and is ​
pear shaped​
.
● It is connected to the pelvic walls by ligaments.
● The uterine wall consists of:
○ External perimetrium
○ Middle myometrium
○ Internal endometrium, which lines the uterine cavity
● The endometrium undergoes changes during the menstrual
cycle.
Cervix and Vagina
● The cervix connects the uterus to the vagina.
● The cervix and the vagina constitute the birth canal.
External Genitalia
● Consists of:
○ Mons pubis − Fatty tissue covered by skin and pubic
hair
○ Labia majora − Extends from mons pubis and
surrounds the vaginal opening
○ Labia minora − Fold of skin beneath the labia majora
○ Hymen − Partially covers the vaginal opening
○ Clitoris − Lies at the junction of labia minora
Mammary Glands
● Present in all female mammals
● It is ​
paired ​
and is ​
glandular​
.
● Each breast contains 15 to 20 mammary lobes with a
​lveoli
which secrete milk.
● The alveoli open into the mammary tubules, which unite to
 form a mammary duct.
● Many mammary ducts constitute the mammary ampulla,
which is connected to the l​
actiferous duct​
.
Gametogenesis
The testis and ovary produce the male and female gametes
respectively by gametogenesis (spermatogenesis in males and
oogenesis in females).
Spermatogenesis

● In males, sperms are produced by the ​

spermatogonia
(immature germ cells), which are present in the inner walls
of the seminiferous tubules.
● Spermatogonia increase in number by mitosis. These are
diploid.
● Some of the spermatogonia called p
​rimary spermatocytes
periodically undergo meiosis.
 ● After the first meiotic division, two haploid and equal
secondary spermatocytes​
are formed.
● These further undergo meiosis to give rise to four haploid
spermatids.
● These spermatids are converted into sperms by
spermiogenesis.
● The sperm head gets embedded in the Sertoli cells after
spermiogenesis and is released from the seminiferous
tubules by ​
spermiation.
● Spermatogenesis starts at puberty by the action of the
gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH), which in turn
causes the release of two gonadotropins called Luteinizing
Hormone (LH) and Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH).
● LH acts on Leydig cells and causes them to release
androgens, which stimulate the process of spermatogenesis
while the FSH acts on the Sertoli cells, which help in
spermiogenesis.
Structure of a Sperm
 ● A mature sperm consists of:
○ Head
○ Neck
○ Middle piece
○ Tail
● The whole sperm is enclosed in a plasma membrane.
● The head consists of a haploid nucleus and a cap­like
acrosome​
, which contains enzymes that aid in fertilisation.
● The middle piece contains several mitochondria, which
produce energy for the motility of the sperm.
● Sperms released by the seminiferous tubules are
transported by the accessory ducts.
● Secretions of epididymis, vas deferens, seminal vesicles, and
prostate are essential for maturation and motility of sperms.
Oogenesis
 ● The ovum is formed by the process of oogenesis.
● It starts during embryonic growth and millions of gamete
mother cells (​
oogonia​
) are formed in the foetal ovary.
● These cells undergo meiosis, but get temporarily arrested at
the prophase and are called ​
primary oocytes​
.
● Before reaching puberty, a large number of primary oocytes
degenerate and the remaining ones get surrounded by
layers of granulosa cells and new theca and are called
secondary follicles​
.
● The secondary follicles are then converted into ​
tertiary
follicles​
that have characteristic fluid­filled cavity called
antrum. At this stage, the primary oocyte present within the
tertiary follicle completes meiosis, which results in the
formation of haploid secondary oocyte and a tiny polar body.
● This tertiary follicle further changes into the ​
Graafian
follicle​
. The secondary oocyte is surrounded by the zone
pellucida.
● Then the Graafian follicle ruptures to release the ovum by
ovulation.
Menstrual Cycle & Fertilisation
● Menstrual cycle is the reproductive cycle in all primates and
begins at puberty (menarche).
● In human females, menstruation occurs once in 28 to 29
days. The cycle of events starting from one menstruation till
the next one is called the ​
menstrual cycle​
.
● During the middle of the menstrual cycle, one ovum is
released (ovulation).
● The cycle starts with the m
​ enstrual flow ​
(3 to 5 days),
caused due to the breakdown of the endometrium of the
uterus. Blood vessels in liquid state are discharged, but this
occurs only when the ovum is not fertilised.
● It is followed by the ​
follicular phase​
.In this phase, the
primary follicles mature into the Graffian follicles. This
causes the regeneration of the endometrium.
 These changes are brought about by ovarian and pituitary
hormones. In this phase, the release of gonadotropins (LH
and FSH) increases. This causes follicular growth and the
growing follicles produce oestrogen.
● The LH and FSH are at their peak in the middle of the cycle
(14​
th​
day), and cause the rupture of the Graffian follicles to
release ovum. This phase is called the ​
ovulatory phase​
.
● The remains of the Graffian follicles get converted into the
corpus luteum, which secretes progesterone for the
maintenance of the endometrium.
● In the absence of fertilisation, the corpus luteum
degenerates, thereby causing the disintegration of the
endometrium and the start of a new cycle.
● In humans, the menstrual cycle ceases to operate at the age
of 50 years. This phase is known as the ​
menopause​
.
Fertilisation and Implantation
● During coitus, the semen is released into the vagina, passes
through the cervix of the uterus and reaches the
ampullary­isthmic junction of the fallopian tube.
● The ovum is also released into the junction for fertilisation to
occur.
● The process of fusion of the sperm and the ovum is known
as fertilisation.
● During fertilisation, the sperm induces changes in the z
​ona
pellucida​
and blocks the entry of other sperms. This
ensures that only one sperm fertilises an ovum.
● The enzymatic secretions of the acrosomes help the sperm
 enter the cytoplasm of the ovum.
● This causes the completion of meiotic division of the
secondary oocyte, resulting in the formation of a haploid
ovum (ootid) and a secondary polar body.
● Then, the haploid sperm nucleus fuses with the haploid
nucleus of the ovum to form a diploid z
​ygote​
.
● Mitosis starts as the zygote moves through the isthmus of
the oviduct (cleavage) and forms 2, 4, 8, 16 daughter cells
called ​
blastomeres​
.
● The 8−16 cell embryo is called a ​
morula​
, which continues to
divide to form the b
​lastocyst​
. The morula moves further
into the uterus.
● The cells in the blastocyst are arranged into an outer
trophoblast ​
and an ​
inner cell mass​
.
● The trophoblast gets attached to the uterine endometrium,
and the process is called implantation. This leads to
pregnancy.
● The inner cell mass gets differentiated to form the embryo.
Pregnancy, Parturition and Lactation

Pregnancy
● After implantation, the trophoblast forms finger­like
projections called chorionic villi, surrounded by the uterine
tissue and maternal blood.
● The chorionic villi and the uterine tissue get integrated to
form the ​
placenta​
, which helps in supplying the developing
embryo with oxygen and nutrients, and is also involved in
 the removal of wastes.
● The placenta is connected to the embryo by the u
​mbilical
cord​
. The placenta acts as an endocrine gland, and
produces the human chorionic gonadotropins, human
placental lactogen, oestrogen, progesterone and relaxin
(later stages of pregnancy).
● These hormones support foetal growth and help in the
maintenance of pregnancy. Hormones like oestrogen,
progestogen, cortisol, prolactin, etc., are increased several
folds in the maternal blood.
● Immediately after implantation, the inner cell mass
(embryo) gets differentiated into the ectoderm, mesoderm
and endoderm, which give rise to the different tissues. This
ability of the inner cell mass is due to the presence of
multi­potent cells called s
​tem cells​
.
● Most of the major organs are formed at the end of 12 weeks
of pregnancy; during the 5​
th​
month, the limbs and body hair
are formed; by the 24​
th​
week, the eyelids separate and
eyelashes are formed. At the end of nine months, the foetus
is fully formed.
Parturition and Lactation
● Human pregnancy has the duration of 9 months. This
duration is called the ​
gestation period​
.
● At the end of this period, vigorous uterine contractions lead
to the delivery of the foetus. This process is called
parturition​
.
● Parturition is a neuro­endocrine mechanism, and is started
 by the signals from the developed foetus and the placenta,
which produce the ​
foetal ejection reflex​
.
● This causes the release of oxytocin from the pituitary, which
causes stronger uterine contractions.
● This leads to the expulsion of the baby along with the
placenta.
● During pregnancy, the mammary glands undergo
differentiation, and milk is produced during the end of
pregnancy.
● The milk produced during the first few days of lactation is
known as ​
colostrums​
.It contains several antibodies that aid
the newborn to develop resistance.
 CLASS XII (2023-24) (THEORY)
Time: 03 Hours Max. Marks: 70

Unit Title Marks

VI Reproduction 16
VII Genetics and Evolution 20
VIII Biology and Human Welfare 12
IX Biotechnology and its Applications 12
X Ecology and Environment 10
Total 70

Unit-VI Reproduction

Chapter-2: Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants

Flower structure; development of male and female gametophytes; pollination - types, agencies and
examples; out breeding devices; pollen-pistil interaction; double fertilization; post fertilization
events - development of endosperm and embryo, development of seed and formation of fruit;
special modes- apomixis, parthenocarpy, polyembryony; Significance of seed dispersal and fruit
formation.

Chapter-3: Human Reproduction

Male and female reproductive systems; microscopic anatomy of testis and ovary; gametogenesis
-spermatogenesis and oogenesis; menstrual cycle; fertilisation, embryo development upto
blastocyst formation, implantation; pregnancy and placenta formation (elementary idea);
parturition (elementary idea); lactation (elementary idea).

Chapter-4: Reproductive Health

Need for reproductive health and prevention of Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs); birth
control - need and methods, contraception and medical termination of pregnancy (MTP);
amniocentesis; infertility and assisted reproductive technologies - IVF, ZIFT, GIFT (elementary
idea for general awareness).

Unit-VII Genetics and Evolution

Chapter-5: Principles of Inheritance and Variation

Heredity and variation: Mendelian inheritance; deviations from Mendelism incomplete
dominance, co-dominance, multiple alleles and inheritance of blood groups, pleiotropy;
elementary idea of polygenic inheritance; chromosome theory of inheritance; chromosomes and
genes; Sex determination - in humans, birds and honey bee; linkage and crossing over; sex linked
inheritance - haemophilia, colour blindness; Mendelian disorders in humans - thalassemia;
chromosomal disorders in humans; Down's syndrome, Turner's and Klinefelter's syndromes.

Chapter-6: Molecular Basis of Inheritance

Search for genetic material and DNA as genetic material; Structure of DNA and RNA; DNA
packaging; DNA replication; Central Dogma; transcription, genetic code, translation; gene
7
expression and regulation - lac operon; Genome, Human and rice genome projects; DNA
fingerprinting.

Chapter-7: Evolution
Origin of life; biological evolution and evidences for biological evolution (paleontology,
comparative anatomy, embryology and molecular evidences); Darwin's contribution, modern
synthetic theory of evolution; mechanism of evolution - variation (mutation and recombination)
and natural selection with examples, types of natural selection; Gene flow and genetic drift; Hardy
- Weinberg's principle; adaptive radiation; human evolution.

Unit-VIII Biology and Human Welfare

Chapter-8: Human Health and Diseases

Pathogens; parasites causing human diseases (malaria, dengue, chikungunya, filariasis,
ascariasis, typhoid, pneumonia, common cold, amoebiasis, ring worm) and their control; Basic
concepts of immunology - vaccines; cancer, HIV and AIDS; Adolescence - drug and alcohol
abuse.

Chapter-10: Microbes in Human Welfare

Microbes in food processing, industrial production, sewage treatment, energy generation
and microbes as bio-control agents and bio-fertilizers. Antibiotics; production and
judicioususe.

Unit-IX Biotechnology and its Applications

Chapter-11: Biotechnology - Principles and Processes

Genetic Engineering (Recombinant DNA Technology).

Chapter-12: Biotechnology and its Applications

Application of biotechnology in health and agriculture: Human insulin and vaccine production,
stem cell technology, gene therapy; genetically modified organisms - Bt crops; transgenic animals;
biosafety issues, biopiracy and patents.

Unit-X Ecology and Environment

Chapter-13: Organisms and Populations

Population interactions - mutualism, competition, predation, parasitism; population attributes -
growth, birth rate and death rate, age distribution. (Topics excluded: Organism and its
Environment, Major Aboitic Factors, Responses to Abioitic Factors, Adaptations)

8
 Chapter-14: Ecosystem
Ecosystems: Patterns, components; productivity and decomposition; energy flow; pyramids of
number, biomass, energy (Topics excluded: Ecological Succession and Nutrient Cycles).

Chapter-15: Biodiversity and its Conservation

Biodiversity-Concept, patterns, importance; loss of biodiversity; biodiversity conservation;
hotspots, endangered organisms, extinction, Red Data Book, Sacred Groves, biosphere reserves,
national parks, wildlife, sanctuaries and Ramsar sites.

PRACTICALS
Time allowed: 3 Hours Max. Marks: 30

Evaluation Scheme Marks

One Major Experiment 5 5

One Minor Experiment 2 & 3 4
Slide Preparation 1& 4 5
Spotting 7
Practical Record + Viva Voce 4
(Credit to the student s work over
Investigatory Project and its 5
the academic session may be
Project Record + Viva Voce given)
Total 30

A. List of Experiments

1. Prepare a temporary mount to observe pollen germination.

2. Study the plant population density by quadrat method.
3. Study the plant population frequency by quadrat method.
4. Prepare a temporary mount of onion root tip to study mitosis.
5. Isolate DNA from available plant material such as spinach, green pea seeds, papaya, etc.

B. Study and observer the following (Spotting):

1. Flowers adapted to pollination by different agencies (wind, insects, birds).

2. Pollen germination on stigma through a permanent slide or scanning electron micrograph.
3. Identification of stages of gamete development, i.e., T.S. of testis and T.S. of ovary through
permanent slides (from grasshopper/mice).
4. Meiosis in onion bud cell or grasshopper testis through permanent slides.
5. T.S. of blastula through permanent slides (Mammalian).
6. Mendelian inheritance using seeds of different colour/sizes of any plant.
7. Prepared pedigree charts of any one of the genetic traits such as rolling of tongue, blood
groups, ear lobes, widow's peak and colour blindness.
8. Controlled pollination - emasculation, tagging andbagging.
9. Common disease causing organisms like Ascaris, Entamoeba, Plasmodium, any fungus
causing ringworm through permanent slides, models or virtual images or specimens.
Comment on symptoms of diseases that they cause.
9
 3. Detection of Nitrogen in the given organic compound.
4. Detection of Halogen in the given organic compound.
Note: The above practicals may be carried out in an experiential manner rather than recording observations.
Prescribed Books:
1. Chemistry Part I, Class-XI, Published by NCERT.
2. Chemistry Part II, Class-XI, Published by NCERT.

CLASS XII (2023-24) (THEORY)

Time : 3 Hours 70 Marks

S.No. Title No. of Marks

Periods
1 Solutions 10 7
2 Electrochemistry 12 9
3 Chemical Kinetics 10 7
4 d -and f -Block Elements 12 7
5 Coordination Compounds 12 7
6 Haloalkanes and Haloarenes 10 6
7 Alcohols, Phenols and Ethers 10 6
8 Aldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids 10 8
9 Amines 10 6
10 Biomolecules 12 7
Total 70

Unit II: Solutions 10 Periods

Types of solutions, expression of concentration of solutions of solids in liquids, solubility of gases in

liquids, solid solutions, Raoult's law, colligative properties - relative lowering of vapour pressure,
elevation of boiling point, depression of freezing point, osmotic pressure, determination of molecular
masses using colligative properties, abnormal molecular mass, Van't Hoff factor.

Unit III: Electrochemistry 12 Periods

Redox reactions, EMF of a cell, standard electrode potential, Nernst equation and its application to
chemical cells, Relation between Gibbs energy change and EMF of a cell, conductance in electrolytic
solutions, specific and molar conductivity, variations of conductivity with concentration, Kohlrausch's
Law, electrolysis and law of electrolysis (elementary idea), dry cell-electrolytic cells and Galvanic cells,
lead accumulator, fuel cells, corrosion.
Unit IV: Chemical Kinetics 10 Periods

Rate of a reaction (Average and instantaneous), factors affecting rate of reaction: concentration,
temperature, catalyst; order and molecularity of a reaction, rate law and specific rate constant,
integrated rate equations and half-life (only for zero and first order reactions), concept of collision
theory (elementary idea, no mathematical treatment), activation energy, Arrhenius equation.

Unit VIII: d and f Block Elements 12 Periods

General introduction, electronic configuration, occurrence and characteristics of transition metals,

general trends in properties of the first row transition metals metallic character, ionization enthalpy,
oxidation states, ionic radii, colour, catalytic property, magnetic properties, interstitial compounds,
alloy formation, preparation and properties of K2Cr2O7 and KMnO4.

Lanthanoids - Electronic configuration, oxidation states, chemical reactivity and lanthanoid

contraction and its consequences.

Actinoids - Electronic configuration, oxidation states and comparison with lanthanoids.

Unit IX: Coordination Compounds 12 Periods

Coordination compounds - Introduction, ligands, coordination number, colour, magnetic properties

and shapes, IUPAC nomenclature of mononuclear coordination compounds. Bonding, Werner's
theory, VBT, and CFT; structure and stereoisomerism, importance of coordination compounds (in
qualitative analysis, extraction of metals and biological system).

Unit X: Haloalkanes and Haloarenes. 10 Periods

Haloalkanes: Nomenclature, nature of C X bond, physical and chemical properties, optical rotation
mechanism of substitution reactions.

Haloarenes: Nature of C X bond, substitution reactions (Directive influence of halogen in

monosubstituted compounds only).

Uses and environmental effects of - dichloromethane, trichloromethane, tetrachloromethane,

iodoform, freons, DDT.

Unit XI: Alcohols, Phenols and Ethers 10 Periods

Alcohols: Nomenclature, methods of preparation, physical and chemical properties (of primary
alcohols only), identification of primary, secondary and tertiary alcohols, mechanism of dehydration,
uses with special reference to methanol and ethanol.

Phenols: Nomenclature, methods of preparation, physical and chemical properties, acidic nature of
phenol, electrophillic substitution reactions, uses of phenols.

Ethers: Nomenclature, methods of preparation, physical and chemical properties, uses.

 Unit XII: Aldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids 10 Periods

Aldehydes and Ketones: Nomenclature, nature of carbonyl group, methods of preparation, physical
and chemical properties, mechanism of nucleophilic addition, reactivity of alpha hydrogen in
aldehydes, uses.

Carboxylic Acids: Nomenclature, acidic nature, methods of preparation, physical and chemical
properties; uses.

Unit XIII: Amines 10 Periods

Amines: Nomenclature, classification, structure, methods of preparation, physical and chemical

properties, uses, identification of primary, secondary and tertiary amines.

Diazonium salts: Preparation, chemical reactions and importance in synthetic organic chemistry.

Unit XIV: Biomolecules 12 Periods

Carbohydrates - Classification (aldoses and ketoses), monosaccahrides (glucose and fructose), D-L
configuration oligosaccharides (sucrose, lactose, maltose), polysaccharides (starch, cellulose,
glycogen); Importance of carbohydrates.

Proteins -Elementary idea of - amino acids, peptide bond, polypeptides, proteins, structure of proteins
- primary, secondary, tertiary structure and quaternary structures (qualitative idea only), denaturation
of proteins; enzymes. Hormones - Elementary idea excluding structure.

Vitamins - Classification and functions.

Nucleic Acids: DNA and RNA.

PRACTICALS

Evaluation Scheme for Examination Marks

Volumetric Analysis 08

Salt Analysis 08

Content Based Experiment 06

Project Work 04

Class record and viva 04

Total 30

PRACTICAL SYLLABUS 60Periods

Micro-chemical methods are available for several of the practical experiments. Wherever
possible, such techniques should be used.
 ENGLISH CORE
CODE NO. 301
CLASS XII
2023-24

Section A 22 Marks
Reading Skills

I Reading Comprehension through Unseen Passage (12+10 = 22 Marks)

1. One unseen passage to assess comprehension, interpretation, analysis and inference.

Vocabulary assessment will also be assessed via inference. The passage may be
factual, descriptive or literary.
2. One unseen case-based factual passage with verbal/visual inputs like statistical data,
charts etc. to assess comprehension, interpretation, analysis, inference and evaluation.

Note: The combined word limit for both the passages will be 700-750 words.

Multiple Choice Questions / Objective Type Questions and Short Answer type Questions
(to be answered in 40-50 words) will be asked.

Section B 18 Marks
Creative Writing Skills
II. Creative Writing Skills
3.Notice, up to 50 words. One out of the two given questions to be answered.(4 Marks:
Format : 1 / Content : 2 / Accuracy of Spelling and Grammar : 1 ).
4. Formal/Informal Invitation and Reply, up to 50 words. One out of the two given questions to
be answered. (4 Marks: Format : 1 / Content : 2 / Accuracy of Spelling and Grammar :1 ).
5. Letters based on verbal/visual input, to be answered in approximately 120-150 words.
Letter types include application for a job with bio data or resume. Letters to the editor (giving
suggestions or opinion on issues of public interest) . One out of the two given questions to
be answered . (5 Marks: Format : 1 / Organisation of Ideas: 1/Content : 2 / Accuracy of
Spelling and Grammar :1 ).
6. Article/ Report Writing, descriptive and analytical in nature, based on verbal inputs, to be
answered in 120-150 words. One out of the two given questions to be answered . (5 Marks:
Format : 1 / Organisation of Ideas: 1/Content : 2 / Accuracy of Spelling and Grammar :1 ).

Section C 40 Marks
Literature Text Book and Supplementary Reading Text

This section will have variety of assessment items including Multiple Choice
Questions, Objective Type Questions, Short Answer Type Questions and Long
Answer Type Questions to assess comprehension, interpretation, analysis, evaluation
and extrapolation beyond the text.
7. One Poetry extract out of two, from the book Flamingo, to assess comprehension,
interpretation, analysis, inference and appreciation. (6x1=6 Marks)

8. One Prose extract out of two, from the book Vistas, to assess comprehension,
interpretation, analysis, evaluation and appreciation. (4x1=4 Marks)

9. One prose extract out of two from the book Flamingo, to assess comprehension,
interpretation, analysis, inference and evaluation. (6x1=6Marks)

10. Short answer type questions (from Prose and Poetry from the book Flamingo), to
be answered in 40-50 words each. Questions should elicit inferential responses
through critical thinking. Five questions out of the six given, are to be answered.
(5x2=10 Marks)

11. Short answer type questions, from Prose (Vistas), to be answered in 40- 50 words
each. Questions should elicit inferential responses through critical thinking. Any two
out of three questions to be done. (2x2=4 Marks)

12. One Long answer type question, from Prose/Poetry (Flamingo), to be answered in
120-150 words. Questions can be based on incident / theme / passage / extract / event
as reference points to assess extrapolation beyond and across the text. The question
will elicit analytical and evaluative response from the student. Any one out of two
questions to be done. (1x5=5 Marks)

13. One Long answer type question, based on the chapters from the book Vistas, to be
answered in 120-150 words, to assess global comprehension and extrapolation beyond
the text. Questions to provide analytical and evaluative responses using incidents,
events, themes, as reference points. Any one out of two questions to be done.
(1x5=5 Marks)
 Prescribed Books

1. Flamingo: English Reader published by National Council of Education Research

and Training,New Delhi
(Prose)
The Last Lesson
Lost Spring
Deep Water
The Rattrap
Indigo
Poets and Pancakes
The Interview
Going Places
(Poetry)
My Mother at Sixty-Six
Keeping Quiet
A Thing of Beauty
A Roadside Stand
Aunt Tigers

2. Vistas: Supplementary Reader published by National Council of Education

Research andTraining, New Delhi

The Third Level

The Tiger King
Journey to the End of the Earth
The Enemy
On the Face of It
Memories of Childhood
The Cutting of My Long Hair
We Too are Human Beings

INTERNAL ASSESSMENT

Assessment of Listening Skills - 05 marks.

Assessment of Speaking Skills 05 Marks
Project Work - 10 Marks
 CLASS-XII
(2023-24)
2023---24
2023 24
One Paper Max Marks: 80
No. Units No. of Periods Marks
I. Relations and Functions 30 08
II. Algebra 50
10
III. Calculus 80
35
IV. Vectors and Three - Dimensional Geometry 30
14
V. Linear Programming 20
05
VI. Probability 30
08
Total 240
80
Internal Assessment
20

Unit-I: Relations and Functions

1. Relations and Functions 15 Periods

Types of relations: reflexive, symmetric, transitive and equivalence relations. One to one and onto
functions.

2. Inverse Trigonometric Functions 15 Periods

Definition, range, domain, principal value branch. Graphs of inverse trigonometric functions.

Unit-II: Algebra

1. Matrices 25 Periods

Concept, notation, order, equality, types of matrices, zero and identity matrix, transpose of a matrix,
symmetric and skew symmetric matrices. Operations on matrices: Addition and multiplication and
multiplication with a scalar. Simple properties of addition, multiplication and scalar multiplication. Non-
commutativity of multiplication of matrices and existence of non-zero matrices whose product is the
zero matrix (restrict to square matrices of order 2). Invertible matrices and proof of the uniqueness of
inverse, if it exists; (Here all matrices will have real entries).

2. Determinants 25 Periods
Determinant of a square matrix (up to 3 x 3 matrices), minors, co-factors and applications of
determinants in finding the area of a triangle. Adjoint and inverse of a square matrix. Consistency,
inconsistency and number of solutions of system of linear equations by examples, solving system of
linear equations in two or three variables (having unique solution) using inverse of a matrix.

Unit-III: Calculus
1. Continuity and Differentiability 20 Periods

Continuity and differentiability, chain rule, derivative of inverse trigonometric functions,

, derivative of implicit functions. Concept of exponential and logarithmic
functions.
Derivatives of logarithmic and exponential functions. Logarithmic differentiation, derivative of functions
expressed in parametric forms. Second order derivatives.
2. Applications of Derivatives 10 Periods
Applications of derivatives: rate of change of quantities, increasing/decreasing functions, maxima and
minima (first derivative test motivated geometrically and second derivative test given as a provable
tool). Simple problems (that illustrate basic principles and understanding of the subject as well as real-
life situations).
3. Integrals 20 Periods
Integration as inverse process of differentiation. Integration of a variety of functions by substitution, by
partial fractions and by parts, Evaluation of simple integrals of the following types and problems based
on them.

Fundamental Theorem of Calculus (without proof). Basic properties of definite integrals and evaluation
of definite integrals.
4. Applications of the Integrals 15 Periods

Applications in finding the area under simple curves, especially lines, circles/ parabolas/ellipses (in
standard form only)

5. Differential Equations 15 Periods

Definition, order and degree, general and particular solutions of a differential equation. Solution of
differential equations by method of separation of variables, solutions of homogeneous differential
equations of first order and first degree. Solutions of linear differential equation of the type:
Unit-IV: Vectors and Three-Dimensional Geometry
1. Vectors 15 Periods
Vectors and scalars, magnitude and direction of a vector. Direction cosines and direction ratios of a
vector. Types of vectors (equal, unit, zero, parallel and collinear vectors), position vector of a point,
negative of a vector, components of a vector, addition of vectors, multiplication of a vector by a scalar,
position vector of a point dividing a line segment in a given ratio. Definition, Geometrical Interpretation,
properties and application of scalar (dot) product of vectors, vector (cross) product of vectors.
2. Three - dimensional Geometry 15 Periods
Direction cosines and direction ratios of a line joining two points. Cartesian equation and vector equation
of a line, skew lines, shortest distance between two lines. Angle between two lines.

Unit-V: Linear Programming

1. Linear Programming 20 Periods

Introduction, related terminology such as constraints, objective function, optimization, graphical method
of solution for problems in two variables, feasible and infeasible regions (bounded or unbounded),
feasible and infeasible solutions, optimal feasible solutions (up to three non-trivial constraints).

Unit-VI: Probability

1. Probability 30 Periods
Conditional probability, multiplication theorem on probability, independent events, total probability,
Random variable and its probability distribution, mean of random variable.