CHAPTER 6

TRANSPORT OF NUTRIENTS
营养成分的运输

(version 2023-07-20)
6.1
Transport System in
Living Things
Transport System in Living Things 222
• Small single-cell organisms Food,
Water,
(amoeba) can directly conduct O2, CO2
exchange of materials (short
transport distance), which is
sufficient for it to live, they does not
need complex transport system.
• Multiple-cell organisms
(giraffe) conducts direct exchange of
material would be too slow. So they
needs transport system to speed up
the transportation (nutrients,
wastes, etc.).
- 222
Respiratory
• In human transport Digestive
system system
system, materials Food
dissolve in blood to O2
circulate to every Circulatory
CO2
part of body. system
Cells
• Circulatory system Nutrients Nutrients
cooperate with Waste
other system to
complete the
exchange of Urinary
materials system
Liquid waste
Feces (urea, uric acid)
SELF-TEST 223
1. If muscle cells need nutrients.
Which 2 systems work together?
A. digestive & respiratory
B. respiratory & circulatory
C. digestive & circulatory
D. circulatory & excretory
SELF-TEST 223
2. Exchange material from outside
of body always needs ________
system.
A. respiratory
B. digestive
C. excretory
D. circulatory
SELF-TEST 223
+
3. Which part in plants transports from root;
K
and sucrose (product of photosynthesis)?

A. xylem ; xylem
B. phloem ; phloem
C. xylem ; phloem
D. phloem ; xylem
6.2
Movement of blood
in body
Blood Components 225
• Blood is a specialized body fluid (connective tissue). Total blood volume for
males is 5-6 liters, females is 4-5 liters.

• Take some blood and put it in a test tube and put it slanted on a centrifuge so
that the heavy stuff is pushed to the bottom. It has 4 main components:
1 Plasma Liquid component.
Platelets
2 (Thrombocytes) Help in blood
clotting.
White blood Fight infections and
3 cells aid in the immune
Buffy
(Leukocytes) process.
coat

Red blood cells Carry O 2 & CO 2

4 (Erythrocytes) between lungs and
the rest of the body.
Blood Components 225

Blood has 4 main components:

Blood Components 225
• Blood transfusions (输血) are used for various
medical conditions to replace lost components of
the blood.

• Early transfusions used whole blood, but modern

medical practice commonly uses only
components of the blood, such as red blood cells,
white blood cells, plasma, clotting factors and
platelets.

• A blood donation occurs when a person

voluntarily has blood drawn and used for
transfusions and/or made into biopharmaceutical
medications by a process called fractionation
(separation of whole blood components).
Donation may be of whole blood, or of specific
components directly (apheresis 血浆分离术).
Plasma 225
• About 55% of our blood is plasma, and the remaining
45% are red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets
that are suspended in the plasma.

• The liquid component of blood is called plasma, a

mixture of water, sugar, fat, protein, and salts.

• The plasma also contains the coagulation factors (凝血因

子) and antibodies (抗体).

• The main job of the plasma is to transport blood cells

throughout your body along with nutrients, waste
products, antibodies, clotting proteins, chemical
messengers such as hormones, and proteins that help
maintain the body's fluid balance.
Red Blood Cells (RBC) / Erythrocytes 225
Shape:
• Bright red color.
• Increased surface area (biconcave disk with a flattened center; high
surface-area-to-volume ratio to facilitate diffusion of gases).
• Flexible (matured with no organelle: no nucleus, no mitochondrion,
etc.). It can easily change shape and bend (deformable), helping them
fit through various blood vessels in our body. The size of red blood cells
varies widely among vertebrate species; red blood cell width is on
average about 25% larger than capillary diameter.

Function:
• It carry oxygen from the lungs to the rest of the body and then returns
carbon dioxide from the body to the lungs so it can be exhaled. A single
red blood cell can carry 1 billion oxygen molecules.
• It has no nucleus (anucleate), to accommodate maximum space for
hemoglobin.
• It has Hemoglobin, an iron-containing biomolecule that can bind oxygen
and is responsible for the red color of the cells and the blood.
• Red blood cells, nevertheless, play a key role in the CO2 transport
process.
Red Blood Cells (RBC) / Erythrocytes 225
Others:
• Most abundant cell in the blood (44% in blood).
• The cells develop in the bone marrow. The red blood cell survives on average
only 120 days. Recycle in liver and spleen (by phagocytic macrophages, a 脾
type of white blood cell).
• Because of the lack of nuclei and organelles, mature red blood cells do not
contain DNA and cannot synthesize any RNA, and consequently cannot
divide and have limited repair capabilities.
• As a result of not containing mitochondria, red blood cells use none of the
oxygen they transport; instead they produce the energy carrier ATP by the
glycolysis of glucose and lactic acid fermentation on the resulting pyruvate.
• The red blood cell membrane comprises a typical lipid bilayer, similar to what
can be found in virtually all human cells.
• Anemias (贫血) are diseases characterized by low oxygen transport capacity
of the blood, because of low red cell count or some abnormality of the red
blood cells or the hemoglobin.
White blood cells (WBC) / leukocytes 225
Shape:
• They are bigger than red blood cells.
• They have nuclei and do not contain hemoglobin.

Functions:
• Primarily involved in the immune response to identify and
target pathogens, such as invading bacteria, viruses, and
other foreign organisms.

Others:
• It make up less than 1% of blood content.
• The number of white blood cells in a microliter of blood
usually ranges from 3,700–10,500. 2 Types of white blood cells:
• White blood cells are formed continually; some only live • Granulocytes contain granules in
for hours or days, but some live for years. their cytoplasm.
• Agranulocytes are so named
• Higher or lower levels of white blood cells can indicate because of the lack of granules in
disease. their cytoplasm.
Platelets / Thrombocytes 225
Shape:
• They are small, colorless cell fragments in our blood whose
main function is to stick to the lining of blood vessels and
help stop or prevent bleeding.

Functions:
• Blood must clot to heal wounds and prevent excess blood
loss.
• The platelets collect at a wound site in conjunction with
other clotting factors, such as fibrinogen (a water-soluble
protein present in blood), to form a fibrin clot (platelet plug)
that prevents blood loss and allows the wound to heal.

Other:
• Platelets are formed from large cells called megakaryocytes.
The megakaryocyte breaks up into thousands of fragments
that become platelets.
• They contain many small vesicles but do not contain a
nucleus.
Where are blood cells made? -
• The bone marrow is the spongy material in the center of
the bones that makes all types of blood cells
(hematopoiesis 造血作用).
• Start out as stem cells (or hematopoietic stem cell 造血干
细胞) is the first phase of all blood cells. As the stem cell
matures, several distinct cells evolve. These include red
blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. Immature
blood cells are also called blasts. Some blasts stay in the
marrow to mature. Others travel to other parts of the
body to develop into mature, functioning blood cells.
• There are other organs and systems in our bodies that
help regulate blood cells. The lymph nodes, spleen, and Bone marrow is soft, fatty
liver help regulate the production, destruction, and tissue inside of the bones.
It has cells that produce
function of cells. blood cells and platelets,
it's responsible for making
billions of new blood cells
each day.
Functions of blood 225
1) Transporting oxygen and nutrients to the
lungs and tissues.

2) Forming blood clots to prevent excess blood

loss.

3) Carrying cells and antibodies that fight

infection.

4) Bringing waste products to the kidneys and

liver, which filter and clean the blood.

5) Regulating body temperature.

 ADDITIONAL KNOWLEDGE 226
Carbon Monoxide Poisoning
When carbon monoxide builds up in your bloodstream.
When too much carbon monoxide is in the air, your body
replaces the oxygen in your red blood cells with carbon
monoxide (Carbon monoxide primarily causes adverse
effects by combining with hemoglobin to form
carboxyhemoglobin (HbCO)). This can lead to serious
tissue damage, or even death.

Carbon monoxide is a colorless, odorless, tasteless gas

produced by burning gasoline, wood, propane, charcoal
or other fuel. Improperly ventilated appliances and
engines, particularly in a tightly sealed or enclosed space,
may allow carbon monoxide to accumulate to dangerous
levels.
SELF-TEST -
1. Which of the followings is incorrect
to red blood cell (RBC)?
A. RBC undergo cell division called mitosis
B. RBC produced from stem cells
C. RBC are produced in bone marrow
D. RBC are specialized cells
Blood Vessels
Blood Vessel (血管) 226
• There are 3 types of 1. Artery 3. Vein
blood vessels:
2. Capillary
I. Artery (动脉)
II. Capillary (毛细血管)
III. Vein (静脉)

• Each of these plays a very

specific role in the
circulation process.
Blood Vessel (血管) 226
Artery (动脉)
• Arteries carry oxygenated blood away from the heart to
whole body.
①Collagen (protein)
• Don’t need valves because the force of the blood coming
from your heart ensures the blood only goes in one
Lumen ②Involuntary muscle
direction. & elastic fibre
• Arteries get messages from your central nervous system ③Endothelium
to tighten or open up. This affects your blood pressure, (endothelial cells)
or the force of your blood moving through your arteries.
Arteries help keep your blood pressure steady. They also < 18mm
control blood flow. They do both by tightening or
loosening their muscle walls.
• Arteries has 3 layers.
1) Tunica intima (inner layer): Smooth interior layer of epithelial cells that allows blood to
flow easily.
2) Tunica media (middle layer): Elastic fiber; muscular that helps pump blood through the
body. The thickest layer in arteries.
3) Tunica adventitia (outer layer): Connective tissue, contains nerves.
Blood Vessel (血管) 226
Capillary (毛细血管)
• Capillaries consist of a single layer of
endothelial cells with a supporting
subendothelium consisting of a basement
Lumen
membrane and connective tissue. ①Endothelial cells

• Capillaries connect the arteries to veins.

5μm
• The arteries deliver the oxygen-rich blood to
the capillaries, where the actual exchange of
oxygen and carbon dioxide occurs.

• The capillaries then deliver the waste-rich

blood to the veins for transport back to the
lungs and heart.
Blood Vessel (血管) 226
Vein (静脉)
• Outer layer (tunica adventitia) is thickest layer
in veins.
①Collagen
• Veins carry the blood back to the heart.
They’re similar to arteries but not as strong or Lumen ②Involuntary muscle
& elastic fibre
as thick (blood vessel is only 1/10 compare to
blood pressure in arteries). ③Endothelium

• Veins contain valves (瓣膜), small pieces of

< 30mm
tissue which keep blood flowing in the right
direction. Leg veins have valves which prevent
backflow of the blood being pumped against Blood flows in
gravity by the surrounding muscles. one direction

Valve close to
• Arteries don’t require valves because pressure prevent back
from the heart is so strong that blood is only flow of blood
able to flow in one direction.
Blood Vessel (血管) 226
Comparison between 3 types of blood vessels
Artery Capillary Vein
send blood away from from arteries to vein send blood from
Function heart to tissues (materials exchange tissues to heart
between blood and
tissues)
• 3 layers • 1 layer • 3 layers
• thick • extremely thin • thin, stretchable
Wall • thickest middle layer (one-cell thick) • thickest outer layer
(lots of muscles & • small amount of
elastic fibre) muscles & elastic
fibre
Permeability no yes no
lumen diameter small extremely small big
valve no valves no valves has valves
blood pressure high low low
blood carries oxygenated blood both deoxygenated blood
(oxygen-rich blood) (oxygen-poor blood)
SELF-TEST -
I. Has an outer layer of collagen fibers.
II. Has a thick middle layer of smooth muscle and elastic
tissue.
III. Has an innermost layer of endothelial cells.
Type of blood vessel described is ____.

A. artery B. capillary
C. venule D. vein
SELF-TEST -
I. Walls of arteries near the heart contain elastic fibres, it can
stretch and recoil to maintain blood pressure.
II. Walls of the venules contain little muscle.
III. Walls of arteries contain a lot of muscle fibres to contract and
generate pressure in the blood.
Statement above is/are true?

A. I, II, III B. I, II
C. II, III D. I
Blood Flow
Blood Flow 227
3 types of blood circulation in human body
CARDIOVASCULAR
Circulation of blood in SYSTEM
Coronary
the blood vessels that
1 circulation
supply the heart muscle
(冠状循环)
(myocardium 心肌).
Pulmonary Circulation of blood
2 circulation between the heart and
(肺循环) the lungs.
Systemic Provides the functional
3 circulation blood supply to all body
(体循环) tissue.
* The circulatory system consists of the heart and
blood vessels (arteries, capillary, veins) that
convey blood throughout the body.
Heart Anatomy 233
Heart Pulmonary artery Aorta
• The heart is often described as slightly (To lungs) (To body)
larger than the size of a fist. Pulmonary
Vena vein
cava (From
• The heart is a muscular organ in most (From lungs)
animals. This organ pumps blood through body) ① ③
the blood vessels of the circulatory system.
valve 1 valve 3
• 4 chambers: (Tricuspid
valve)
(Mitral
valve)
I. 2 upper atria (receiving chambers) ④
II. 2 lower ventricles (discharging ②
chambers). valve 2 valve 4
(Pulmonary (Aortic
valve) valve)
• 4 valves: Which separate its chambers. One
valve lies between each atrium and Septum
ventricle, and one valve rests at the exit of
each ventricle. ①right atrium ③left atrium
②right ventricle ④left ventricle
Heart Anatomy 233
Aorta
(To body)
• Superior vena cava Pulmonary artery (肺动脉)
• Inferior vena cava (To lungs)
(Collects deoxygenated blood
from the body) Pulmonary vein (肺静脉)
(From lungs)

Right atrium ③ Left atrium

(Receiving chamber) (Receiving chamber)
①
Tricuspid valve
Mitral valve
④
Pulmonary valve ②
Aortic valve
Right ventricle
(Discharging chamber)
Septum Left ventricle
(Discharging chamber)
(Dividing wall between right & left sides of heart)
6.3
Heartbeat
Heartbeat 233
• Contraction of the heart is myogenic (meaning that ① SA node
signal for cardiac compression arises within the heart (Primary pacemaker)
tissue itself, rather than from brain signals).
• Sinoatrial node (SA node) is a group of cells known
as pacemaker cells, heart muscle cells right left
(cardiomyocytes), located in the wall of the right atrium atrium
atrium of the heart.
• These cells produce electrical impulses (action
potential) that travel through the electrical
conduction system of the heart, causing it to left
contract. Primary pacemaker (controlling the rate at ② AV node
ventricle
right
which the heart beats, roughly 60 – 100 cardiac (Secondary ventricle
contractions per minute (normal sinus rhythm)). pacemaker)

• Atrioventricular node (AV node) & Purkinje fibers

can also initiate action potentials; however, they do
so at a slower rate and therefore, if the SA node is ③ Buddle of His
functioning properly, its action potentials usually (Tertiary pacemaker) ④ Purkinje fiber
override those that would be produced by other
tissues.
Heartbeat 233
The electrical conduction of a heart beat occurs ① SA node
according to the following events: (Primary pacemaker)

I. SA node sends out an electrical impulse that

stimulates contraction of the myocardium (heart
muscle tissue). right
atrium
left
atrium
II. This impulse directly causes the atria to contract
and stimulates AV node.
III. AV node sends signals down the septum via a
nerve bundle (Bundle of His), innervates nerve
left
fibres (Purkinje fibres) in the ventricular wall, ventricle
causing ventricular contraction. ② AV node right
(Secondary ventricle
pacemaker)
IV. This sequence of events ensures there is a delay
between atrial and ventricular contractions,
resulting in two heart sounds.
V. This delay allows time for the ventricles to fill with
③ Buddle of His
blood following atrial contractions so as to (Tertiary pacemaker) ④ Purkinje fiber
maximise blood flow.
Heart Rate -
Basal heart rate is determined within the heart by the pacemaker, it can be regulated by external signals (nerve &
hormones).
Nerve Signalling: The pacemaker is under autonomic (involuntary) control from the brain, specifically the medulla
oblongata (brain stem), 2 nerves:
• Sympathetic nerve releases the neurotransmitter noradrenaline (a.k.a. norepinephrine) to increase heart rate
• Parasympathetic nerve (vagus nerve) releases the neurotransmitter acetylcholine to decrease heart rate
Hormonal Signalling: Chemical messengers released into the bloodstream that act specifically on distant target sites
(like the heart). Heart rate can undergo a sustained increase in response to hormonal signalling in order to prepare
for vigorous physical activity.
• Hormone adrenaline (epinephrine) is released from adrenal glands (located above kidneys), increases heart rate.
Cardiac Cycle -
• Cardiac cycle
describes the
series of events 1 2
that take place in
the heart over the Left
duration of a
single heart beat.
• It is comprised of
a period of
contraction 3 4
(systole) and
relaxation
(diastole).
• Every single
heartbeat includes
3 major stages:
I. Atrial systole 5 6
II. Ventricular
systole
III. Complete
cardiac
diastole
ECG -
An electrocardiogram (ECG) is a simple test that can be used to check your heart's rhythm and electrical activity.
SA
node
The ECG is a
graphical
representation of
the electrical activity AV
node
across the heart.
It is comprised of a
series of waves that
represent
depolarization and
troughs that
represent
repolarization.

Activation of atra Activation of ventricles Recovery wave

• P wave • QRS complex • T wave
• Trigger SA node, then to AV • Trigger Ventricular systole • Ventricular diastole (Both
node (Ejection phase, Ventricular ventricles begin to relax)
• Atrial systole (Atria pressure rises and blood is
contraction, pushing blood intensively ejected to the
from atria into ventricles) arteries)
 SCIENCE - TECHNOLOGY - SOCIETY 234
Pacemaker
• Pacemakers are devices that can be
placed in your body, usually by surgery, to
support the electrical system in your Pulse generator
heart.
Pacing leads
• Your heart has its own electrical system,
which tells your heart’s chambers when Left atrium

it’s their turn to squeeze. When your Left ventricle

heart’s electrical system malfunctions,
your heart’s chambers may squeeze in
the wrong order or squeeze too weakly to
provide enough blood to your body.
Pacemakers use electrical impulses to
Pacemaker
correct these kinds of malfunctions.
for heart
SELF-TEST -
Lub-dub’ is sounds from the heartbeat, it is due to heart valves
closing. In ventricular systole, ‘lub’ sound can be heard.
What is happening?

A. semilunar valves opening, blood enters ventricles

B. semilunar valves closing, blood enters ventricles
C. atrio-ventricular valves opening, blood leaves ventricles
D. atrio-ventricular valves closing, blood leaves ventricles
6.4
Heart Diseases
Cardiovascular Disease (心血管疾病) 237
• Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) are
the leading cause of death globally.
• Most cardiovascular diseases can be
prevented by addressing behavioral
risk factors such as tobacco use,
unhealthy diet and obesity, physical
inactivity and harmful use of alcohol.
• It is important to detect
cardiovascular disease as early as
possible so that management with
counselling and medicines can begin.
Cardiovascular Disease (心血管疾病) 237
Hypertension (高血压)
• Blood pressure is the force exerted by circulating blood against
the walls of the body’s arteries, the major blood vessels in the
body. Hypertension is when blood pressure is too high.

• Hypertension is called a "silent killer". Most people with

hypertension are unaware of the problem because it may have
no warning signs or symptoms. For this reason, it is essential
that blood pressure is measured regularly.

• When symptoms do occur, they can include early morning

headaches, nosebleeds, irregular heart rhythms, vision
changes, and buzzing in the ears. Severe hypertension can
cause fatigue, nausea, vomiting, confusion, anxiety, chest pain,
and muscle tremors.
Cardiovascular Disease (心血管疾病) 237
Heart disease (心脏病)
• Heart disease describes a range
of conditions that affect your
heart.
• Heart diseases include:
➢ Blood vessel disease, such as
coronary artery disease
➢ Heart rhythm problems
(arrhythmias)
➢ Heart defects you're born with
(congenital heart defects)
➢ Heart valve disease Coronary heart disease (冠心病)
➢ Disease of the heart muscle
➢ Heart infection
 ADDITIONAL KNOWLEDGE 240
Coronary artery bypass surgery (心脏搭桥手术)
• Coronary bypass surgery redirects blood around a
section of a blocked or partially blocked artery in
your heart. The procedure involves taking a
healthy blood vessel from your leg, arm or chest
and connecting it below and above the blocked
arteries in your heart. With a new pathway, blood
flow to the heart muscle improves.

• Coronary bypass surgery doesn't cure the heart

disease that caused the blockages, such as
atherosclerosis or coronary artery disease.
However, it can ease symptoms, such as chest pain
and shortness of breath.
Cardiovascular Disease (心血管疾病) 237
Stroke (脑中风)
• An stroke occurs when the blood supply to part of the brain is interrupted
or reduced, preventing brain tissue from getting oxygen and nutrients. Brain
cells begin to die in minutes.

• A stroke is a medical emergency, and prompt treatment is crucial. Early

action can reduce brain damage and other complications.

• Symptoms of stroke:
➢ Trouble speaking & understanding
➢ Paralysis or numbness of the face, 出缺血性脑中风
arm or leg.
➢ Problems seeing in one or both
eyes. 缺血性脑中风
➢ Headache.
➢ Trouble walking 缺血性脑中风
Diet -
Arteries blockage and food
1. Saturated fat is a main dietary culprit in the buildup of plaque
in the arteries. Cholesterol, along with other substances, such
as fat and calcium, builds up in plaques on the walls of arteries
(atherosclerosis). Over time, this narrows and harden the blood
vessels and can lead to complications, including stroke and
heart attack.

2. Diabetes: High sugar intake also a major culprit. Even people

who have elevated sugars not yet at the level of diabetes, such
as seen in metabolic syndrome, also have increased risk of
plaque formation.
Methods to resolve heart problem -
1. Lifestyle changes. A healthy lifestyle is essential for the management of arterial plaque
and treatment of clogged arteries. This includes: Eating a diet low in saturated fats and
cholesterol, with less sugars and simple carbohydrates, and rich in fruits and
vegetables, Maintaining a healthy body weight, Not smoking, Exercising regularly.
2. Medications. A number of medications may help control some of the factors that
contribute to the accumulation of arterial plaque. These include: Cholesterol-lowering
drugs, Blood pressure-lowering drugs, Aspirin and other blood-thinning drugs, which
reduce the likelihood of dangerous blood clot formation.
3. Heart transplant is a procedure that’s performed in very serious of circumstances when
a heart is irreversibly damaged. The procedure involves removing a diseased heart and
replacing it with a healthy one from an organ donor.
4. Radiofrequency ablation is used to treat a variety of heart rhythm problems when
drugs are ineffective. It involves a catheter (导管) with an electrode at its tip being
guided through the veins to the heart muscle. The catheter is placed at the exact site in
the heart where electrical signals stimulate the abnormal heart rhythm, and mild
radiofrequency energy is transmitted to the pathway, destroying selected cells in a very
small area.
6.5
Transportation in plants
Tissues in plant (植物的组织) 243
• Imagine that you’re holding a handful of
drinking straws and chopsticks with a rubber
band around them.
• The rubber band, the drinking straws, and the
chopsticks represent the three types of tissues
found in vascular plant stems.
➢ Rubber band symbolizes the dermal tissue
that covers the outside of plant stem, and
like our skin it acts as a protective layer.
Ideally the rubber band would completely
cover your makeshift stem bundle, so you’ll
just have to use your imagination.
➢ Chopsticks fill in the space between the rubber band and the drinking straws and
represent what is called ground tissue. Ground tissue is made up of cells that
provide structural support to the stem.
➢ Drinking straws represent the third tissue type, the vascular tissue. Depending
on the type of plant, the drinking straws might be arranged in the stem in a very
organized way or scattered throughout haphazardly.
Tissues in plant (植物的组织) 243
• Plants are multicellular eukaryotes with tissue systems made of various cell types that
carry out specific functions.
• Plants’ tissues can be classified into 3 types based on
its functions & structure:
• Covers the outside of a plant in a single
Dermal layer of cells called the epidermis.
1 Tissue
(保护组织) • It mediates most of the interactions
between a plant and its environment.
• Makes up much of interior of plant and
Ground carries out basic metabolic functions.
2 Tissue • In stems provides support and may store
(营养组织) food or water. Ground tissues in roots may
also store food.
• Transport of water and dissolved
Vascular substances inside the plant.
3 Tissue
(输导组织) • Xylem (木质部) & phloem (韧皮部) are the 3 major types of
conducting tissues. plant tissues:
Tissues in plant (植物的组织) 243
Vascular tissue is a complex conducting tissue, formed of more than one cell type, found
in vascular plants. The primary components of vascular tissue are the xylem & phloem.
Xylem (木质部) Phloem (韧皮部)
Function • water & mineral (roots to leave) • nutients (leaves to whole body)
• provides mechanical support
Structure tracheids & vessel sieve tube & companion cell
Tracheid Vessel Pitted end wall
Sieve tube
Companion cell
(living cell)

+ lateral
sieve area

Vessel Tracheid sieve tube

(wide & shorter) plate
(dead cell, narrow, hollow, and
elongated)
Tissues in plant (植物的组织) 243
Xylem VS Phloem:
Tissues in plant (植物的组织) 243
Phloem:
Companion Cell
• The companion cell though is smaller and
narrower than the sieve tube element.

• Contains many mitochondrion to provide

energy for translocation of sugars in
phloem.

• Both companion cells and sieve tube

elements are living to allow active process.
It regulates the activities of a sieve cell.
Sieve cells lack nucleus and are therefore
dependent on adjacent companion cells.
Also, companion cells take part in the
loading and unloading of sucrose into sieve Mass Transport
elements. of Sugar
Tissues in plant (植物的组织) 243
Phloem:
Sieve tube elements
• Sieve tube element has limited
cytoplasm, very few organelles
and no nucleus, so there is no
resistance for the sugar solution
to pass through (ease of flow).

• Their end walls form sieve plates.

These have large pores which
enable the movement of material
from one cell to another. which
allow the sap (which includes the
sugars) to flow.
Mass Transport
of Sugar
6.6
Transportation in plants
Guttation (吐水现象) & Bleeding (伤流现象) 248
Guttation
• Plants secreting liquid from the tips of its leaves so that a
balance between the water and nutrients in the plant's
vascular system is created.
• Guttation only happen in small vascular plants.
• Guttation process relies on pressure to push water upward
through the plant's stem and leaves, it cannot occur in
larger plants such as trees because the required amount of
pressure would be much too demanding.

Bleeding
• Occurs due to the pressure of sap within the tissues that
conduct water and sugars around the plant.
• In late winter to early spring, sap starts to rise, delivering
water and sugar to the new leaf buds as they swell in
readiness for spring.
• These plants are particularly vulnerable to bleeding if
pruned (修剪), as the rising sap spills out from the pruning
cut.
3 forces responsible for upward movement 249
3 forces responsible for upward movement of sap in plants
• Loss of water vapour through evaporation from a plant’s
surface.
Transpiration • It happens through gaps in the leaf (stomata), which need
(蒸腾作用) to open during the daytime to allow gas exchange.
• Once water is in the xylem, it travels upwards.
• Tension is a ‘sucking force’ which is created when water
evaporates from leaves (transpiration), pulling more
water into the leaf.
• Cohesion describes how water molecules are attracted
towards each other. The strong hydrogen bonds between
Capillary water molecules causes them to ‘stick’ together, creating
action a column of water. This means that when tension pulls
(毛细管作 water up the xylem, the whole column of water moves
用) upwards.
• Adhesion describes the attraction of water to non-water
Water flow
molecules (xylem walls).
• Water moves from soil into root hair cells by osmosis.
• There will always be a higher concentration in the soil
Root Pressure compared to the plant because water is constantly being
(根压) lost through the leaves in transpiration.
• Water moves into root hair cells then travels through the
Xylem Cortex root cortex and the endodermis before reaching the
Endodermis xylem.
Pressure-Flow or Mass Flow Hypothesis 249
Pressure flow (压力流)
• In 1930, German plant scientist Ernst
Munch introduced this theory.
• Unlike animals, plants lack a metabolically
active pump like the heart to move fluid in
their vascular system.
• The mass flow hypothesis states that a
never-ending flow of water plus dissolved
nutrients between the source (where
sugars are created) and sink causes the
translocation of glucose and other sugars
inside phloem (where sugars are utilized).
• A potential is created from the source to
the sink within the sieve tubes, in which
the solution flows.
Pressure-Flow or Mass Flow Hypothesis 249
Pressure flow (压力流) Negative pressures drive water and mineral flow
via the xylem, positive hydrostatic pressure drives
movement through the phloem. This is known as
translocation, and it is carried out by a mechanism
known as phloem loading or unloading.
• A sieve-tube element is “loaded” by cells in a
sugar source by actively transferring solute
molecules into it. By osmosis, water enters the
sieve-tube element from xylem, creating
pressure that forces the sap down the tube.
• Cells aggressively transport solutes out from
sieve-tube elements in sugar sinks, causing the
exact opposite effect. The pressure-flow
through the sieve tube toward the sink is
caused by the gradient of sugar from source to
sink.
Soil Factors Influencing Water Absorption Rate by Roots -
Factor 1: Concentration of the External Soil Solution
• Absorption of water, in general, depend upon the
difference between the osmotic concentration in
the cell sap and the external soil solution.

• Thus an increase in the concentration of the

external water medium, must reduce the difference
between the osmotic concentration in the external
solution and the root hair cell sap at least for some
time, thereby reducing the rate of water
absorption.

• Such reductions are actually observed in the plants

growing in normal water culture solutions, where
an addition of 1 % NaCl or some other salt
immediately brings about a decrease in the rate of
water absorption.
Soil Factors Influencing Water Absorption Rate by Roots -

Factor 2: Soil Temperature

• In general, the rate of water absorption by
roots increases with rise in temperature
of external medium, but at 35° C. or above
in most species of plants the water intake
is greatly reduced and soon replaced by
withdrawal.

• The withdrawal of water from the cell sap

may be due to the effect of high
temperature on the cell organisation,
particularly the plasma membrane of the
cell which most probably loses its
semipermeable nature.
Soil Factors Influencing Water Absorption Rate by Roots -
Factor 3: Aeration of the Soil
• In general, absorption of water by root systems of most
species of plants certainly proceeds much more rapidly in
well-aerated soil than those which are poorly aerated.

• Poor aeration actually results in a reduced water

absorption most probably due to a deficiency of oxygen in
the neighbourhood of roots or due to an accumulation of
carbon dioxide which results from anaerobic respiration of
the root cells under such conditions.

• The growth of hydrophytes in water-saturated soils with

scarcely any oxygen, however, can take place only because
these plants have well developed and continuous air
passages from the leaves down to the roots which store
large amounts of oxygen in their intercellular spaces which
is available for the normal respiration of root cells.
Soil Factors Influencing Water Absorption Rate by Roots -
Factor 4: Some Substances Present in the Soil
• Some substances, occurring in the soil,
affect the absorption of water on account
of their chemical nature quite apart from
their osmotic properties.

• One of them is humus acid, which retards

water absorption in bog soils, owing to the
chemical nature of the compound which
probably is toxic to the plasma membrane
of the root cells.

• Bog soils are oxygen- and nutrient-poor,

and are much more acidic than other soils.
Watery bogs become choked with living
and decaying plants.
EXPERIMENT 6-2 251
(蒸腾作用)
Factors Affecting Rates of Transpiration
• The factors affecting the rate of
transpiration can be categorized into
two groups (Environmental Factors and
Internal Factors).
• Environmental factors:
I. Atmospheric Humidity
II. Temperature
III. Light
IV. Wind Velocity
V. Soil Water Content
VI. Atmospheric Pressure
VII. Carbon Dioxide Concentration
Factors which affect the rate of transpiration -
1. Light
• Plants transpire more rapidly
in the light than in the dark.
• This is largely because light
stimulates the opening of the
stomata (a mechanism).
• Light also speeds up
transpiration by warming the
leaf.
Factors which affect the rate of transpiration -
2. Temperature
• Plants transpire more rapidly
at higher temperatures
because water evaporates
more rapidly as the
temperature rises.
• At 30°C, a leaf may transpire
three times as fast as it does
at 20°C.
Factors which affect the rate of transpiration -
3. Humidity
• The rate of diffusion of any
substance increases as the
difference in concentration of
the substances in the two
regions increases.
• When the surrounding air is
dry, diffusion of water out of
the leaf goes on more rapidly.
Factors which affect the rate of transpiration -
4. Wind
• When there is no breeze, the
air surrounding a leaf
becomes increasingly humid
thus reducing the rate of
transpiration.
• When a breeze is present, the
humid air is carried away and
replaced by drier air.
Factors which affect the rate of transpiration -
5. Soil water
• A plant cannot continue to transpire
rapidly if its water loss is not made up
by replacement from the soil. When
absorption of water by the roots fails to
keep up with the rate of transpiration,
loss of turgor occurs, and the stomata
close.
• This immediately reduces the rate of
transpiration (as well as of
photosynthesis).
• If the loss of turgor extends to the rest
of the leaf and stem, the plant wilts.
Importance of Transpiration -
Mention the two ways in which
transpiration helps the plants?
It has two main functions:
I. Cooling the plant
II. Pumping water and minerals to
the leaves for photosynthesis.
(Transpiration process in plants
creates a suction pressure which
pulls up water from the xylem of
the roots to the stem and then to
the leaves).
SELF-TEST 252
1. During high temperature and
high humidity, guttation (吐水现
象) is form from ___.
A. Capillary action from
transpiration
B. Result of function from root
system
C. Too much water in the soil
D. Too much water in the air
The End