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Lecture 14 Quality Control and Acceptance Sampling (Autosaved)

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CLO-4.

Implement quantity control measures

➢ 25.5 Quality Control

➢ 25.6 Acceptance Sampling

Advanced Engineering Mathematics by Erwin Kreyzig


Quality Control
• No production process is so perfect that all the products are completely
alike. There is always a small variation that is caused by a great number of
small, uncontrollable factors and must therefore be regarded as a chance
variation.
• It is important to make sure that the products have required values (for
example, length, strength, or whatever property may be essential in a
particular case).
• For this purpose one makes a test of the hypothesis that the products have
the required property, say, where is a required value.
• If this is done after an entire lot has been produced (for example, a lot of
100,000 screws), the test will tell us how good or how bad the products
are, but it it obviously too late to alter undesirable results.
Quality Control
• It is much better to test during the production run. This is done at
regular intervals of time (for example, every hour or half-hour) and is
called quality control.
• Each time a sample of the same size is taken, in practice 3 to 10 times.
• If the hypothesis is rejected, we stop the production and look for the
cause of the trouble
Quality Control
• If we stop the production process even though it is progressing
properly, we make a Type I error.
• If we do not stop the process even though something is not in order,
we make a Type II error.
• The result of each test is marked in graphical form on what is called a
control chart.
Quality Control
• If we choose control limits that are too loose, we shall not detect
process shifts.
• On the other hand, if we choose control limits that are too tight, we
shall be unable to run the process because of frequent searches for
nonexistent trouble.
Quality Control
The usual significance level is 𝛼 = 1% . we see that in the case of the
normal distribution the corresponding control limits for the mean are

• Here σ is assumed to be known.


• If σ is unknown, we may compute the standard deviations of the first 20 or 30 samples and take their
arithmetic mean as an approximation of σ
Control Chart for the Mean
Control Chart for the Mean
• An illustration and example of a control
chart is given in the upper part of Fig. 537.
• This control chart for the mean shows the
lower control limit LCL, the center control
line CL, and the upper control limit UCL.
• The two control limits correspond to the
critical values c1 and c2 in case (c) of
Example 2 in Sec. 25.4. As soon as a
sample mean falls outside the range
between the control limits, we reject the
hypothesis and assert that the
Control Chart for the Mean
• An illustration and example of a control
chart is given in the upper part of Fig. 537.
• This control chart for the mean shows the
lower control limit LCL, the center control
line CL, and the upper control limit UCL.
• The two control limits correspond to the
critical values c1 and c2 in case (c) of
Example 2 in Sec. 25.4. As soon as a
sample mean falls outside the range
between the control limits, we reject the
hypothesis and assert that the
Control Chart for the Mean
Control Chart for Variance
• To set up a control chart for the variance in the case of a normal
distribution, we may employ
𝜎02 𝑌 2 𝜎02 𝜒2
𝑠2 = =
𝑛−1 𝑛−1

• the random variable Y has a chi-square distribution with degrees of


freedom. Hence the desired control limit is
𝜎2𝑐
𝑈𝐶𝐿 =
𝑛−1
Control Chart for the Variance
Control Chart for Variance
• where c is obtained from the equation that is, and the table of the
chi-square distribution (Table A10 in App. 5) with degrees of freedom;

𝑃 𝑌 > 𝑐 = 𝛼, 𝑃 𝑌 ≤ 𝑐 =1 − 𝑎
here is the probability that in a properly running process an observed
value of is greater than the upper control limit.
Control Chart for the Variance
Control Chart for Variance
• If we wanted a control chart for the variance with both an upper
control limit UCL and a lower control limit LCL, these where and are

𝜎 2 𝑐1 𝜎 2 𝑐2
L𝐶𝐿 = and 𝑈𝐶𝐿 =
𝑛−1 𝑛−1

obtained from Table A10 with d.f. and the equations limits would be

𝛼 𝛼
𝑃 𝑌 ≤ 𝑐1 = , 𝑃 𝑌 ≤ 𝑐2 =1−
2 2
Acceptance Sampling
• Acceptance sampling is usually done when products leave the factory
(or in some cases even within the factory).
• The standard situation in acceptance sampling is that a producer
supplies to a consumer (a buyer or wholesaler) a lot of N items (a
carton of screws, for instance). The decision to accept or reject the lot
is made by determining the number x of defectives defective items)
in a sample of size n from the lot.
• The lot is accepted if where c is called the acceptance number, giving
the allowable number of defectives. If the consumer rejects the lot.
Clearly, producer and consumer must agree on a certain sampling
plan giving n and c.
Acceptance Sampling
• From the hypergeometric distribution we see that the event A: “Accept the lot” has probability

where M is the number of defectives in a lot of N items. In terms of the fraction defective
we can write (1) as

1 2 3 𝑁
𝑃(𝐴; 𝜃)can assume n+1 values corresponding 𝜃 = 0, , , , … . . to here, n and c are fixed. A
𝑁 𝑁 𝑁 𝑁
monotone smooth curve through these points is called the operating characteristic curve (OC
curve) of the sampling plan considered.
Acceptance Sampling
• E X A M P L E 1 Sampling Plan
• Suppose that certain tool bits are packaged 20 to a box, and the
following sampling plan is used. A sample of two tool bits is drawn,
and the corresponding box is accepted if and only if both bits in the
sample are good.
Acceptance Sampling
• In most practical cases will be small (less than Then if we take small
samples compared to N, we can approximate (2) by the Poisson
distribution
Errors in Acceptance Sampling
• The producer wants the probability
𝛼 of rejecting an acceptable lot (a
lot for which 𝜃 does not exceed a
certain number 𝜽𝒐 on which the
two parties agree) to be small. 𝜽𝒐 is
called the acceptable quality level
(AQL).
• α is called producer’s risk.
corresponds to a Type I error
Errors in Acceptance Sampling
• Similarly, the consumer (the buyer)
wants the probability β of accepting
an unacceptable lot (a lot for which
θ is greater than or equal to some
θ1 to be small. θ1 is called the lot
tolerance percent defective (LTPD)
or the rejectable quality level
(RQL).
• β is called consumer’s risk and
corresponds to a Type II error.
Rectification
• Rectification of a rejected lot means that the lot is
inspected item by item and all defectives are
removed and replaced by nondefective items.
• (This may be too expensive if the lot is cheap; in this
case the lot may be sold at a cut-rate price or
scrapped.)
Rectification
• If a production turns out 100𝜽% defectives, then in K
lots of size N each, KN𝜽 of the KN items are
defectives.
• Now 𝑲𝑷(𝑨; 𝜽)of these lots are accepted. These
contain defectives, 𝑲𝑷𝑵𝜽 whereas the rejected and
rectified lots contain no defectives, because of the
rectification.

• Hence after the rectification the fraction defective in


𝑲𝑷𝑵𝜽
all K lots equals This is called the average
𝑲𝑵
outgoing quality (AOQ); thus

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