IM No.

: 03, EE 6-2SEM-2022-2023
DEGREE Bachelor of COURSE NO. EE 6
PROGRAM Science in
Electrical
Engineering
SPECIALIZATION COURSE TITLE Feedback Control System
YEAR LEVEL 3rd Year TIME FRAME 6 Hrs WK NO. 2 to 3 IM NO. 03

I. UNIT TITLE/CHAPTER TITLE

Introduction to system modeling and the transfer function

II. LESSON TITLE
a. Electric network transfer function
b. Translational mechanical system
c. Rotational mechanical system
d. Rotational mechanical system with gears

III. LESSON OVERVIEW

One of the most important tasks in the analysis and design of control systems is mathematical
modeling of the systems. The two most common methods of modeling linear systems are the
transfer function method and the state-variable method. The transfer function is valid only for linear
time-invariant systems, whereas the state equations can be applied to linear as well as nonlinear
systems.
In this chapter, we review basic properties of these systems, otherwise known as dynamic systems.
Using the basic modeling principles such as Newton's second law of motion or Kirchhoff's law, the
models of these dynamic systems are represented by differential equations. It is not difficult to
understand that the analytical and computer simulation of any system is only as good as the model
used to describe it.

IV. DESIRED LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:

1. Learn how to find mathematical model, called the transfer function.
2. Find the transfer function for linear, time-invariant electrical networks.
3. Find the transfer function for linear, time-invariant translational mechanical systems.
4. Find the transfer function for linear, time-invariant rotational mechanical systems.
5. Find the transfer functions for gear systems with no loss and for gear systems with loss.

V. LESSON CONTENT

Week 2

In studying control systems, the reader must be able to model dynamic systems and analyze
dynamic characteristics. A mathematical model of a dynamic system is defined as a set of
equations that represents the dynamics of the system accurately or, at least, fairly well. Note that a
mathematical model is not unique to a given system. A system may be represented in many
different ways and, therefore, may have many mathematical models, depending on one's
perspective.
The dynamics of many systems, whether they are mechanical, electrical, thermal, economic,
biological, and so on, may be described in terms of differential equations. Such differential
equations may be obtained by using physical laws governing a particular system, for example,
Newton's laws for mechanical systems and Kirchhoff's laws for electrical systems. We must always
keep in mind that deriving reasonable mathematical models is the most important part of the entire
analysis of control systems
Mathematical models may assume many different forms. Depending on the particular system and
the particular circumstances, one mathematical model may be better suited than other models.
In obtaining a mathematical model, we must make a compromise between the simplicity of the
model and the accuracy of the results of the analysis. In deriving a reasonably simplified
mathematical model, we frequently find it necessary to ignore certain inherent physical properties of
the system.
In general, in solving a new problem, it is desirable to build a simplified model so that we can get a
general feeling for the solution. A more complete mathematical model may I. then be built and used
for a more accurate analysis.

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Linear Systems. A system is called linear if the principle of superposition applies. The principle of
superposition states that the response produced by the simultaneous application of two different
forcing functions is the sum of the two individual responses. Hence, for the linear system, the
response to several inputs can be calculated by treating one input at a time and adding the results.
It is this principle that allows one to build up complicated solutions to the linear differential equation
from simple solutions.

Linear Time-Invariant Systems and Linear Time-Varying Systems. A differential equation is

linear if the coefficients are constants or functions only of the independent variable. Dynamic
systems that are composed of linear time-invariant lumped-parameter components may be
described by linear time-invariant (constant coefficient) differential equations. Such systems are
called linear time-invariant (or linear constant-coefficient) systems. Systems that are represented by
differential equations whose coefficients are functions of time are called linear time-varying systems

Transfer Function. The transfer function of a linear, time-invariant, differential equation system is
defined as the ratio of the Laplace transform of the output (response function) to the Laplace
transform of the input (driving function) under the assumption that all initial conditions are zero.

Transfer function=G ( s )=
L [ output ]
L [ input ] |
zeroinitial conditions

By using the concept of transfer function, it is possible to represent system dynamics by algebraic
equations in s. If the highest power of s in the denominator of the transfer function is equal to n, the
system is called an nth-order system.

The applicability of the concept of the transfer function is limited to linear, time-invariant, differential
equation systems.

INTRODUCTION TO MODELING OF SIMPLE ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS

Modeling of electrical networks with simple passive elements such as resistors, inductors, and
capacitors

Modeling of Passive Electrical Elements

The basic passive electrical elements: resistors, inductors, and capacitors.

Resistors: Ohm's law states that the voltage drop , e R (t), across a resistor R is proportional to the
current i(t)going through the resistor.
e R ( t )=i ( t ) R

Inductors: The voltage drop, e L (t) , across an inductor L is proportional to the time rate of change
of current i(t) going through the inductor.
di(t)
e L (t )=L
dt

Capacitor: The voltage drop, e C (t), across a capacitor C is proportional to the integral current i{t )
going through the capacitor with respect to time.
i(t)
e C (t )=∫ dt
C

Modeling of Electrical Networks

The classical way of writing equations of electric networks is based on the loop method or the node
method, both of which are formulated from the two laws of Kirchhoff, which state:

Kirchhoff's current law (node law) states that the algebraic sum of all currents entering and leaving a
node is zero. (This law can also be stated as follows: The sum of currents entering a node is equal to
the sum of currents leaving the same node.)

Kirchhoff's voltage law (loop law) states that at any given instant the algebraic sum of the voltages
around any loop in an electrical circuit is zero. (This law can also be stated as follows: The sum of the
voltage drops is equal to the sum of the voltage rises around a loop.)

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A mathematical model of an electrical circuit can be obtained by applying one or both of Kirchhoff's
laws to it.

Simple Circuits via Mesh Analysis

Transfer functions can be obtained using Kirchhoff’s voltage law and summing voltages around loops or
meshes. We call this method loop or mesh analysis

Example 1
Transfer Function—Single Loop via the Differential Equation

Find the transfer function relating the capacitor voltage, VC(s) to the input voltage, V(s)

Figure 1

Solution:
Summing the voltages around the loop, assuming zero initial conditions, yields the integro-differential
equation for this network as
t
di(t ) 1
L + Ri ( t ) + ∫ i ( t ) dt =¿ V ( t ) equation 1 ¿
dt C 0

Changing variables from current to charge using i(t)=dq(t )/dt yields

2
d q (t) dq (t) 1
L 2
+R + =V ( t ) equation 2
dt dt C

From the voltage-charge relationship for a capacitor in Table

q ( t )=C V C ( t ) equation 3

Substituting Eq. (3) into Eq. (2) yields

2
d V C (t) d V C (t )
L 2
+ RC +V C (t )=V ( t )
dt dt

Taking the Laplace transform assuming zero initial conditions, rearranging terms, and simplifying yields
2
LCs V C ( s )+ RCS V C ( s )+ V C ( s )=V ( s)

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2
(LCs + RCS +1)V C ( s )=V (s)
Solving for the transfer function, V C ( s ) /V (s), we obtain

1
V C (s ) 1 LC
= ∨¿ final answer
V (s) LCs2 + RCs+1 2 R 1
s + s+
L LC
2nd method solving transfer function
Example: using Transfer function impedance.
Find the transfer function relating the capacitor voltage, VC(s) to the input voltage, V(s)

Figure 2

the concept of impedance simplifies the solution for the transfer function. The Laplace transform of the
impedance value of the components, assuming zero initial conditions

Solution:
V ( s )=IZ
V ( s )=I ( s) [ ∑ of impedances ]

[
V ( s )=I ( s ) Ls+ R+
1
Cs ]
Notice that the circuit of Figure 1 could have been obtained immediately from the circuit of Figure 2 simply by
replacing each element with its impedance. We call this altered circuit the transformed circuit. Finally, notice
that the transformed circuit leads immediately to Eq. if we add impedances in series as we add resistors in
series. Thus, rather than writing the differential equation first and then taking the Laplace transform, we can
draw the transformed circuit and obtain the Laplace transform of the differential equation simply by applying
Kirchhoff’s voltage law to the transformed circuit

We summarize the steps as follows:

1. Redraw the original network showing all time variables, such as v (t),i(t ), and V C (t ), as Laplace
transforms V (s), I (s), and V C (s), respectively.
2. Replace the component values with their impedance values. This replacement is similar to the case of
dc circuits, where we represent resistors with their resistance values.
3. We now repeat Example 1 using the transform methods just described and bypass the writing of the
differential equation.

Transfer Function—Single Loop via Transform Methods

Example 2

Find the transfer function relating the capacitor voltage, VC(s) to the input voltage, V(s)
Use mesh analysis and transform methods without writing a differential equation.

Figure 2
Solution:

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Writing a mesh equation using the impedances as we would use resistor values in a purely resistive circuit, we
obtain

V ( s )=I ( s) [ ∑ of impedances ]

V ( s )=I ( s ) Ls+ R+
[ 1
Cs ]
Solving for I (s )/V (s )
I (s) 1 Cs
= = equation 1
V (s )
[ ]
2
1 LCs + RCs+1
Ls + R+
Cs

But the voltage across the capacitor, VC(s), is the product of the current and the impedance of the capacitor.
1
V C =I ( s )
∨I ( s )=V C Cs
Cs
Solving for the transfer function, V C ( s ) /V (s), substitute the value of I ( s ) at equation 1 and simplify
V C Cs Cs
=
V (s ) LCs2 + RCs+1
Dividing both sides by Cs
VC 1
= final answer
V (s ) LCs + RCs+1
2

Transfer Function—Single Node via Transform Methods

3rd method solving transfer function

Example: 3 Use nodal analysis and without writing a differential equation.

Find the transfer function relating the capacitor voltage, VC(s) to the input voltage, V(s)

Solution:
The transfer function can be obtained by summing currents flowing out of the node whose voltage is V C(s)
Figure 2. We assume that currents leaving the node are positive and currents entering the node are
negative. The currents consist of the current through the capacitor and the current flowing through the series
resistor and inductor. Hence,

V Z ( s )=IZ
Z=Ls+ R

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I (s )=V Z (s)/ Z (s).
V Z (s)=V ( s )−V C (s)

entering current Z=leaving current 1/Cs

I Z =I C

V Z (s) V C (s) ⇒ V ( s )−V C (s) V C

= . =
Z (s) 1/Cs Ls+ R 1
Cs

V C (s ) V C ( s )−V (s) ⇒ V Cs V ( s ) −V (s )
+ =0 . C + C =0
1 Ls+ R 1 Ls+ R
Cs

V C Cs (s) V C ( s ) V ( s )
+ = multiply both side1 ( Ls+ R ) gives
1 Ls + R Ls+ R

V C Cs ( Ls + R ) +V C =V (s )
Solving transfer function

V C (s ) 1
= final answer
V (s) LC s + RCs+1
2

Complex Circuits via Mesh Analysis

To solve complex electrical networks—those with multiple loops and nodes—using mesh analysis.
Perform the following steps:
1. Replace passive element values with their impedances.
2. Replace all sources and time variables with their Laplace transform.
3. Assume a transform current and a current direction in each mesh.
4. Write Kirchhoff’s voltage law around each mesh.
5. Solve the simultaneous equations for the output.
6. Form the transfer function.

Transfer Function—Multiple Loops

Example 4
Find the transfer function, I2(s) =V(s)

Solution:
1. Replace passive element values with their impedances.
2. Replace all sources and time variables with their Laplace transform.

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3. Assume a transform current and a current direction in each mesh.
4. Write Kirchhoff’s voltage law around each mesh.
5. Solve the simultaneous equations for the output.

Equation around loop 1 using KVL

V ( s )−R1 I 1 ( s )−Ls [ I 1 ( s )−I 2 ( s ) ]=0
Simplifying the gives
V ( s )=R1 I 1 ( s ) + Ls I 1 ( s ) −Ls I 2 ( s ) equation 1
Equation around loop 2 using KVL
1
−R2 I 2 ( s )−I 2 (s) −Ls [ I 2 ( s )−I 1 ( s ) ]=0
Cs
Simplifying and do the same at equation 1
1
R2 I 2 ( s ) + I 2 ( s ) + Ls I 2 ( s )−Ls I 1 ( s )=0 equation 2
Cs
. Combining terms, Eqs. (1) and (2) become simultaneous equations.

R1 I 1 ( s ) + Ls I 1 ( s )−Ls I 2 ( s )=V (s) equation 1

(
−Ls I 1 ( s ) + I 2 ( s ) Ls+ R2 +
1
Cs)=0 equation 2∧multiply both sides by Cs
or
−LC S2 I 1 ( s ) + I 2 ( s ) ( LCs2 + R2 Cs+1 ) =0 equation 2

use Cramer’s rule (or any other method for solving simultaneous equations) to solve I 2 (s)

I 2 ( s) =
|( R 1+ Ls ) V (s )
−Ls 0 |
|
( R 1+ Ls )
−Ls 2
−Ls
(LCs + R2 Cs+1) |
Forming the transfer function,

We have succeeded in modeling a physical network as a transfer function: The network modeled as the
transfer function, notice a pattern first illustrated

[ ] [
∑ of
[ ∑ of
impedances 1
around Mesh1
I ( s
]) − impedances
common
¿
the ¿ two meshes I
¿ 2 ( s ) =
∑ of applied
voltages around
Mesh1 ]
[ ] [
∑ of ∑ of ∑ of applied
impedances the ¿ two meshes ¿ I 1 ( s ) − impedances I 2 ( s )= voltages around
common
¿ around Mesh 2 Mesh 2 ] [ ]
Complex Circuits via Nodal Analysis
the easiest way to find the transfer function is to use nodal analysis rather than mesh analysis. The number of
simultaneous differential equations that must be written is equal to the number of nodes whose voltage is
unknown. In the previous example we wrote simultaneous mesh equations using Kirchhoff’s voltage law. For
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multiple nodes we use Kirchhoff’s current law and sum currents flowing from each node. Again, as a
convention, currents flowing from the node are assumed to be positive, and currents flowing into the node are
assumed to be negative.

In order to handle multiple-node electrical networks, we can perform the following steps:
1. Replace passive element values with their admittances.
2. Replace all sources and time variables with their Laplace transform.
3. Replace transformed voltage sources with transformed current sources.
4. Write Kirchhoff’s current law at each node.
5. Solve the simultaneous equations for the output.
6. Form the transfer function

Example:
Find the transfer function, V C (s)=V (s) , for the circuit in Figure (b). Use nodal analysis

Solution:

For this problem, we sum currents at the nodes rather than sum voltages around the meshes. From
Figure (b) the sum of currents flowing from the nodes marked V L (s) and V C (s) are, respectively,

entering current=leaving current

At node VL

V ( s )−V L (s) V L ( s ) V L ( s )+V C ( s )

− − =0
R1 Ls R2

V ( s ) V L ( s ) V L ( s )−V C ( s ) V L ( s )
= + + Multiply both side by R 1 R2 Ls
R1 LS R2 R1

V ( s ) LR 2 S=V L R 1 R2 ( s ) +V L L R1 S ( s )−V C L R1 S ( s )+ V L L R2 S ( s )

V ( s ) L R2 S=V L ( s)¿

At Node VC
V L ( s )−V C ( s ) V C ( s )
− =0
R2 1
CS

V L (s ) V C ( s ) V C CS ( s )
− − =0
R2 R2 1

−V L ( s ) V C ( s ) V C CS ( s )
+ + =0 multiply bothside by R2
R2 R2 1

−V L ( s ) +V C ( s ) +V C R 2 CS ( s )=0

−V L ( s ) +V C ( s ) ( R 2 CS+1 ) =0 equation 2

Solving for transfer function using equation 1 and equation 2 by using any method.

V ( s ) L R2 S=V L ( s)¿

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−V L ( s ) +V C ( s ) ( R 2 CS+1 ) =0 equation 2

Transfer Function

V C (s ) LS
= final answer
V (s) LC S2 ( R1 + R2 ) + ( R 1 R2 C+ L ) S+ R1

Mesh Equations via Inspection

Example:

Write, but do not solve, the mesh equations for the network shown

Solution:
Each of the previous problems has illustrated that the mesh equations and nodal equations have a predictable
form. We use that knowledge to solve this three-loop problem. The equation for Mesh 1 will have the following
form:

[ ] [ ] [
∑ of ∑ of
[ ∑ of
impedances 1
around Mesh1
I
]( s ) − impedances
common
¿
¿ meshes 1∧¿ Mesh2 ¿ I 2 ( s ) − impedances
common
¿
¿ meshes 1∧¿ Mesh 3 ¿ I 3 (s)=
∑ of app
voltages ar
Mesh1
Similarly, Meshes 2 and 3, respectively are

[ ] [ [ ] [
∑ of ∑ of
− impedances
common
¿
∑ of
¿ meshes 1∧¿ Mesh2 ¿ I 1 ( s )+ impedances I 2 ( s )−
around Mesh 2 ]
impedances
common
¿
∑
¿ meshes 2∧¿ Mesh3 ¿ I 3 (s)= vo

[ ] [ ] [
∑ of ∑ of
common
¿
common
¿
∑ of
around Mesh 3
∑
− impedances ¿ meshes 1∧¿ Mesh3 ¿ I 1 ( s )− impedances ¿ meshes 2∧¿ Mesh3 ¿ I 2 ( s )+ impedances I 3 (s)= vo
] [
Substituting the values from the three equation
+ ( 2 S +2 ) I 1 ( s )−( 2 S+1 ) I 2 ( s )−I 3 ( s )=V ( s ) eqn 1

−( 2 S +1 ) I 1 ( s ) +¿

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1
−I 1 ( s ) −4 S I 2 ( s ) −(4 S+1+ )I 3 ( s )=0 eqn3
S

which can be solved simultaneously for any desired transfer function, like

I 3 ( s ) I 2 ( s ) I 1 ( s)
,∨ ,∨
V (s ) V ( s ) V (s )

Week 3

Mechanical Systems
Mechanical systems can be divided into two basic systems
1. Translational systems
2. Rotational systems

Translational
The motion of translation is defined as a motion that takes place along a straight or curved path.
The variables that are used to described translational motion are acceleration, velocity and
displacement.
Newton’s law of motion states that the algebraic sum of external forces acting on a rigid body in a given
direction is equal to the product of the mass of the body and its acceleration in the same direction.
M= mass
a = acceleration in the direction considered
Force equation:

f(t) =Ma(t)
Where:
a(t) = acceleration
v(t) = linear velocity
y(t) = displacement of mass

Translational Mechanical System Transfer Functions

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Note: The following set of symbols and units is used throughout this book: f ( t )=N (newton¿ , x ( t )=m (meters), v ( t )=m/ s)
(meters/second), K=N /m(newtons/meter), f v =N −s /m-seconds/ newton-seconds/meter, M =kg (kilograms = newton-
seconds2 /meter).

Three fundamental linear elements

1. Mass – this represent an element which resists the motion due to inertia.
- a property of an element that stores the kinetic energy of translational motion.

According to Newton’s second law of motion:

“the inertia force is equal to mass times acceleration”

Where M = mass
a = acceleration
v(t) = linear velocity
x(t) = displacement of mass
2. Dashpot or Viscous friction
– this is an element which opposes motion due to friction. If the friction is viscous friction, the frictional force is
proportional to velocity. This force is also damping force.
- Represents a retarding force that is a linear relationship between the applied force and velocity.
Where: β = damping coefficient
f v = viscous friction

3. Spring – the third element which opposes motion is the spring. The spring is considered to be an element
that stores potential energy.
The restoring force of a spring is proportional to the displacement.

Where: k = stiffness of the spring or simply spring constant

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Mechanical systems parallel electrical networks to such an extent that there are analogies between electrical
and mechanical components and variables. Mechanical systems, like electrical networks, have three passive,
linear components. Two of them, the spring and the mass, are energy-storage elements; one of them,
the viscous damper, dissipates energy. The two energy-storage elements are analogous to the two
electrical energy-storage elements, the inductor and capacitor. The energy dissipator is analogous to
electrical resistance.

Comparing the force-velocity column to the voltage-current column, the mechanical force is analogous to
electrical voltage and mechanical velocity is analogous to electrical current. Comparing the force-displacement
column of Table 2 with the voltage-charge column of Table 1 leads to the analogy between the mechanical
displacement and electrical charge. We also see that the spring is analogous to the capacitor, the viscous
damper is analogous to the resistor, and the mass is analogous to the inductor. Thus, summing forces written
in terms of velocity is analogous to summing voltages written in terms of current, and the resulting mechanical
differential equations are analogous to mesh equations. If the forces are written in terms of displacement, the
resulting mechanical equations resemble, but are not analogous to, the mesh equations. We, however, will use
this model for mechanical systems so that we can write equations directly in terms of displacement.
Another analogy can be drawn by comparing the force-velocity column of Table 2.4 to the current-voltage
column of Table 2.3 in reverse order. Here the analogy is between force and current and between velocity and
voltage. Also, the spring is analogous to the inductor, the viscous damper is analogous to the resistor, and the
mass is analogous to the capacitor. Thus, summing forces written in terms of velocity is analogous to summing
currents written in terms of voltage and the resulting mechanical differential equations are analogous to nodal
equations.

The transfer functions for translational mechanical systems. The mechanical system requires just one
differential equation, called the equation of motion, to describe it.

Steps in finding transfer functions for translational mechanical systems.

1. begin by assuming a positive direction of motion, to the right or upward
2. draw a free-body diagram, placing on the body all forces that act on the body either in the direction of
motion or opposite to it.
3. use Newton’s law to form a differential equation of motion by summing the forces and setting the sum
equal to zero, assuming zero initial conditions,
4. take the Laplace transform of the differential equation, separate the variables, and arrive at the transfer
function.

Example
1. Transfer Function—One Equation of Motion
PROBLEM: Find the transfer function, X (s)=F(s), for the system.

Solution
draw the free-body diagram, Place on the mass all forces felt by the mass. We assume the mass is traveling
toward the right. Thus, only the applied force points to the right; all other forces impede the motion and act to
oppose it. the spring, viscous damper, and the force due to acceleration point to the left.

Write the differential equation of motion using Newton’s law to sum to zero all of the forces shown on the mass.
2
d X (t ) dX (t)
M 2
+f v + KX ( t ) =f (t)
dt dt

Taking the Laplace transform, assuming zero initial conditions,

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2
M S X ( s ) + f v SX ( s ) + KX ( s )=F (s )
2
(M S + f v S+ K ) X ( s )=F (s)
Solving for the transfer function
X ( s) 1
G ( s )= = 2
final answer
F(s) M S + f v S + K

Many mechanical systems are similar to multiple-loop and multiple-node electrical networks, where more than
one simultaneous differential equation is required to describe the system. In mechanical systems, the
number of equations of motion required is equal to the number of linearly independent motions. Linear
independence implies that a point of motion in a system can still move if all other points of motion are held
still. Another name for the number of linearly independent motions is the number of degrees of freedom.

Example
2. Transfer Function—Two Degrees of Freedom
Find the transfer function, X 2 (s)=F (s), for the system

Solution
The forces on M 1are due to (1) its own motion and (2) the motion of M 2 transmitted to M 1 through the system.
We will consider these two sources separately. If we hold M 2 still and move M 1 to the right, If we hold M 1 still
and move M 2 to the right. The total force on M 1 is the superposition, or sum, of the forces

For M 2, we proceed in a similar fashion: First we move M 2to the right while holding M 1 still; then we move M 1
to the right and hold M 2 still. For each case we evaluate the forces on M 2

The Laplace transform of the equations of motion

[M 1 S 2 ( f v 1 +f v 3 ) S+ ( K 1+ K 2) ] X 1 ( s )−( f v 3 S+ k 2 ) X 2 ( s )=F ( s ) eqn 1

−( f v 3 S+ K 2 ) X 1 ( s )+ [ M 2 S 2 ( f v2 + f v 3 ) S + ( K 2 + K 3 ) ] X 2 ( s )=0 eqn 2

X 2 (s)
The transfer function is
F (s)
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In solving transfer function, you can use any method in simplifying the equation i.e. Cramer’s rule, substitution
method etc.

G ( s )=
X 2 ( s)
=
|[M 1

−( f v 3 S+ K 2 )
S 2 ( f v 1 +f v 3 ) S+ ( K 1+ K 2 ) ] F ( s )
0 |
| |
F (s) M S2 ( f + f ) S + ( K + K ) −( f v 3 S +k 2 )
1 v1 v3 1 2
2
−( f v 3 S+ K 2 ) M 2 S ( f v2 + f v 3 ) S + ( K 2 + K 3 )

X 2 (s) ( f v 3 S+ K 2 )
G ( s )= =
F (s) [ M 1 S2 ( f v1 + f v 3 ) S + ( K 1 + K 2 ) M 2 S2 ( f v 2+ f v 3 ) S + ( K 2 + K 3 ) ] −( f v 3 S+ k 2 )2

The form of the equations is similar to electrical mesh equations:

[ ] [ ]
∑ of ∑ of
impedances
connected
¿ the motion
at X 1
X 1 ( s ) − impedances X ( s )=
between
X1¿ X 2
2
∑ of
applied force
at X 1 [ ]
[ ] [ ]
∑ of ∑ of

between
X1 ¿ X2
impedances

¿ the motion
at X 2
∑ of
− impedances X 1 ( s ) + connected X 2 ( s )= applied force
at X 2 [ ]
The concept to write the equations of motion of a three-degrees-of-freedom mechanical network by
inspection, without drawing the free-body diagram.

Equations of Motion by Inspection

Example:
Write, but do not solve, the equations of motion for the mechanical network.

M 1 has two springs, two viscous dampers, and mass associated with its motion. There is one spring between
M 1 and M 2 and one viscous damper between M 1and M 3
At M1
[M 1 S 2 ( f v 1 +f v 3 ) S+ ( K 1+ K 2) ] X 1 ( s )−( K 2 ) X 2 ( s )−f v 3 S X 3 ( s ) =0 eqn 1
At M2
−( K 2 ) X 1 ( s ) + [ M 2 S 2 ( f v 2 +f v 4 ) S + K 2 ] X 2 ( s )−f v 4 S X 3 ( s )=F (s )eqn 2
At M3
2
−f v 3 S X 1 ( s )−f v 4 S X 2 ( s ) +[M ¿¿ 2 S ( f v 2 + f v 4 ) S ] X 3 ( s )=F (s)eqn 3¿

Equations (1) through (3) are the equations of motion. We can solve them for any displacement,
X 1 (s); X 2 (s);∨ X 3 (s) , or transfer function.
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Practice Problem
Find the transfer function, X 2 (s)/ F (s ) for the translational mechanical system shown

Rotational Mechanical System Transfer Functions

Rotational Mechanical system

The rotational motion of a body can be defined as motion about a fixed axis.
The extension of Newton's law of motion for rotational motion states that the algebraic sum of moments or
torque about a fixed axis is equal to the product of the inertia and the angular acceleration about the axis.
∑ torques =¿ Jα ¿
Where:
J denotes the inertia
α is the angular acceleration.
The other variables generally used to describe the motion of rotation are torque T, angular velocity θ , and
angular displacement ω

Torque-angular velocity, torque-angular displacement, and impedance rotational relationships for springs,
viscous dampers, and inertia

The term associated with the mass is replaced by inertia. The values of K, D, and J are called spring
constant, coefficient of viscous friction, and moment of inertia, respectively. The impedances of the
mechanical components are also summarized in the last column

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 IM No.: 03, EE 6-2SEM-2022-2023
The concept of degrees of freedom carries over to rotational systems, except that we test a point of
motion by rotating it while holding still all other points of motion. The number of points of motion that can
be rotated while all others are held still equals the number of equations of motion required to describe the
system.

Writing the equations of motion for rotational systems is similar to writing them for translational systems; the
only difference is that the free-body diagram consists of torques rather than forces. We obtain these
torques using superposition.

Rotate a body while holding all other points still and place on its free-body diagram all torques due to the
body’s own motion. Then, holding the body still, we rotate adjacent points of motion one at a time and add the
torques due to the adjacent motion to the free-body diagram. The process is repeated for each point of motion.
For each free-body diagram, these torques are summed and set equal to zero to form the equations of motion.

Transfer Function—Two Equations of Motion

Example
1. Find the transfer function, θ2 ( s)/T (s ), for the rotational system shown

The rod is supported by bearings at either end and is undergoing torsion. A torque is applied at the left, and the
displacement is measured at the right.

Summing torques

( J 1 S2 + D1 S+ K ) θ1 ( s )−K θ2 ( s )=T ( s ) eqn 1

2
−K θ1 ( s )+(J 2 S + D2 S+ K )θ2 ( s )=0 eqn 2

the transfer functions.

( J 1 S2 + D1 S+ K ) θ1 ( s )−K θ2 ( s )=T ( s ) eqn 1
2
−K θ1 ( s )+(J 2 S + D2 S+ K )θ2 ( s )=0 eqn 2

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 IM No.: 03, EE 6-2SEM-2022-2023

| |
2
J 1 S + D1 S + K T (s)
θ2 (s ) −K 0
=

|
T (s) J 1 S 2 + D1 S+ K
−K 2
−K
J 2 S + D2 S+ K |
❑

θ2 (s ) K
=
T (s) (J ¿¿ 1 S 2+ D1 S + K )(J ¿¿ 2 S 2+ D 2 S+ K )−K 2 answer ¿ ¿

Equations of Motion by Inspection

Example : Write, but do not solve, the Laplace transform of the equations of motion for the system shown

Three-degrees of-freedom rotational system

Solution:

[ ] [ ] [ ]
∑ of ∑ of ∑ of
impedances
connected θ 1 ( s )−
¿ the motion
at θ1
impedances θ 2 ( s ) − impedances θ3 (s)=
between
θ1∧θ 2
between
θ1∧θ 3
∑ of
θ1 [
applied torques
]
| | [ ] [ ]
∑ of ∑ of ∑ of

θ 1∧θ2
impedances

¿ the motion
at θ2
between
θ2 ∧θ3
∑ of
θ2 [
− impedances θ1 ( s ) + connected θ2 ( s )− impedances θ3 (s)= applied torques
between ]
| | | | [ ]
∑ of ∑ of ∑ of

θ 1∧θ3
between
θ 2∧θ3
impedances

¿ the motion
at θ3
∑ of
θ3 [
− impedances θ1 ( s )− impedances θ2 ( s ) + connected θ3 (s)= applied torques
between ]
( J 1 S2 + D1 S+ K ) θ1 ( s )−K θ2 ( s )−0 θ3=T ( s ) eqn 1
−K θ1 ( s )+ ( J 2 S 2+ D2 S+ K ) θ 2 ( s ) −D2 S θ3=0 eqn 2
−0 θ1 ( s )−D2 S θ2 ( s )+ ( J 3 S 2+ D 2 S+ D3 S ) θ3=0 eqn 3

Practice Problem:
Find the transfer function, G ( s )=θ 2(s)/T (s), for the rotational mechanical system shown

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 IM No.: 03, EE 6-2SEM-2022-2023

VIII. REFERENCES

A. Book/Printed Resources

Golnaraghi, F, Kuo, B. (2010) Automatic Control Systems, John Wiley and Sons Inc.,
M Gopal (2004) Control Systems: Principles and Design,
Nise, N. (2011) Control Systems Engineering, Addison-Wesley Publishing Company
Jagan, N.C.(2008) Control Systems, BS Publication

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