ADVANCED PRINCIPLES OF CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY-QUSCT801

LEARNING UNITY1. DESCRIBE BUILDING CONSTRUCTION ELEMENTS

1. 1. INTERPRETATION OF ARCHITECTURAL AND STRUCTURAL DRAWINGS
A.Architectural drawings
I. Location drawings
 Site plans
Used to locate site, buildings, define site levels, indicate services to buildings, identify parts of site
such as roads, footpaths and boundaries and to give setting out dimensions for the site and
buildings as a whole. Suitable scale not less than 1 : 2500.
 Floor Plans
Used to identify and set out parts of the building such as rooms, corridors, doors, windows,
etc., Suitable scale not less than 1 : 100.
 Elevations
Used to show external appearance of all faces and to identify doors and windows. Suitable
scale not less than 1 : 100.
 Sections
Used to provide vertical views through the building to show method of construction. Suitable
scale not less than 1 : 50.
 Components drawings
Used to identify and supply data for components to be supplied by a manufacturer or for
components not completely covered by assembly drawings. Suitable scale range 1 : 100 to 1 :
1.
 Assembly drawings
Used to show how items fit together or are assembled to form elements. Suitable scale range
1 : 20 to 1 : 5.
All drawings should be fully annotated, fully dimensioned and cross referenced.
Ref. BS EN ISO 7519: Technical drawings. Construction drawings. General principles of
presentation for general arrangement and assembly drawings.
Examples of architectural drawings
 Figure 1. Example of architectural drawings

Figure 2.Site plan

B.Structural drawings
This indicate the drawings of structural elements such as beams, columns, footings, slab, and roof,
etc.For instance, below are drawings of basic types of structure
Figure 3. Basic types of structure

Basic structure forms

Figure 4. Reinforced concrete frame
 Figure 5.Folded plate construction

Shell roof: these are formed by a structural curved skin covering a given plan shape and
area.
Figure 6.Shell roof
 Figure 7.Tension membrane structure
Substructure
Can be defined as all structure below the superstructure which in general terms is considered to
include all structure below ground level but including the ground floor bed.
 Figure 8. Substructure
Superstructure
Can be defined as all structure above substructure both internally and externally.
Primary Elements ~ basically components of the building carcass above the substructure
excluding secondary elements, finishes, services and fittings.
 Figure9.Superstructure
Secondary Elements
Completion of the structure including completion around and within openings in primary
elements.
 Figure10.Secondary elements of structure

Finishes
The final surface which can be self-finished as with a troweled concrete surface or an applied
finish such as floor tiles.
 Figure 11.Finishes on structure
C. Landscaping Drawings
Environment: Surroundings which can be natural, man-made or a combination of these.
Build environment: Created by man with or without the aid of the natural environment.
Landscaping is the process of making a piece of land more attractive by altering the existing
design, adding ornamental features, and planting trees and shrubs. The landscaping process can be
composed of both natural and man-made features such as roads, footprint, garden, ponds. Etc
 Figure12.Element of natural environment

Figure13.Elements of the built environment

1.2. INTERPRETATION OF ARCHITECTURAL AND STRUCTURAL

SPECIFICATIONS
A. GENERAL REQUIREMENTS SPECIFICATIONS
1: Structural integrity of building project
The structure of a building is the part which is responsible for maintaining the shape of the
building under the influence of the forces, loads and other environmental factors to which it is
subjected. It is important that the structure as a whole does not fall down, break or deform to
an unacceptable degree when subjected to such forces or loads.
The study of structures involves the analysis of the forces and stresses occurring within a
structure and the design of suitable components to cater for such forces and stresses.
The basic function of a structure is to transmit loads from the position of application of the load
to the point of support and thus to the foundations in the ground.
Examples of structural components include
Steel beams, columns, roof trusses and space frames;
Reinforced concrete beams, columns, slabs, retaining walls and foundations;
Timber joists, columns, girder beams and roof trusses; Masonry walls and
columns
2: Building information
The classification of a building or part of a building shall be determined by the purpose for
which it is designed, constructed or adapted to be used /occupied

Occupancy: The particular use or to which a building or portion thereof is normally put or
intended to be put.
The Rwanda Building Code has eleven main occupancy groups as well as multiple
subgroups. The occupancy group or subgroup defines the specific use of the building.
Subgroups are numbered based on the perceived risk for the building occupants. The
lower the subgroup number, the higher the perceived risk.

Table 1. Occupancy Classification

S/N GR CLASSIFICATION SUB-
o OU GROUPS
P
1 A ASSEMBLY A-1, A-2, A-3, Gatherings/civic/religious/social/recreati
A4, A-5 onal
2 B BUSINESS B-1. B-2 and B- Office/Professional or Service
(COMMERCIAL) 3 Transactions
3 E EDUCATIONAL E-1 and E-2 Schools

4 F FACTORY AND F-1 and F-2 Manufacturing/Fabrication/Packaging

INDUSTRIAL
 5 I INSTITUTIONAL I-1, I-2, I-3 and Assisted Living/Hospitals/Prisons
I-4
6 M MERCANTILE M-1, M-2, and Display & Sale of Merchandise
M-3
7 R RESIDENTIAL R-1, R-2, R-3, Housing/Apartments/Hotel
R-4, R-5
8 S STORAGE S-1 and S-2 Non or Low-Hazardous Storage (parking
garages)
9 ME MEMORIAL
M
10 MI MIXED USE
X
11 MI MISCELLANEOUS Other Structures
SC

3: Design codes, regulations and standards

The code is a form of a law on a given matter and therefore anyone concerned has to abide to it
while the standard is an accepted procedure of doing thinks, common to a certain group of people.
Eg: Rwanda Building Code,…
The standard is a level of quality or attainment. It is something used as a measure, norm, or model
in comparative evaluations. Eg: RS, BS
Buildings must be designed and constructed according to the provisions of building codes, which
is a legal document containing requirements related to architectural requirements, structural
safety, fire safety, plumbing, ventilation, accessibility to the physically disabled, ...
A building code has the force of law and is administered by a governmental entity such as a
country, a city, or for some large metropolitan areas.
Building codes do not give design procedures, but specify the design requirements and constraints
that must be satisfied.
The building code is used along with the construction standards that provide much more details on
how to implement the building code.
In Rwanda, the Rwanda Building Code is the national code of compliance.
3.1.Design
The task of the structural engineer is to design a structure which satisfies the needs of the client
and the user. Specifically the structure should be safe, economical to build and maintain, and
aesthetically pleasing.
There are many inputs into the engineering

1. Client brief
2. Experience

3. Imagination

4. A site investigation

5. Model and laboratory tests

6. Economic factors

7. Environmental factors
B. STRUCTURAL AND MATERIALS SPECIFICATIONS
As far as the design of structures for safety is concerned, it is seen as the process of ensuring
that stresses due to loading at all critical points in a structure have a very low chance of exceeding
the strength of materials used at these critical points.

Figure 14. Relationship between stress and strength

The overlap between the two curves represents a possibility that failure may take place at one of
the critical points, as stress due to loading exceeds the strength of the material.
In order for the structure to be safe the overlapping area must be kept to a minimum.
The degree of overlap between the two curves can be minimized by using one of three distinct
design philosophies, namely:
Limit state design, Permissible stress design, and load factor method

1.Limit State Design

As limit state philosophy forms the basis of the design methods in most modern
codes of practice for structural design.
1.1. Ultimate and Serviceability limit states
The aim of limit state design is to achieve acceptable probabilities that a structure will not
become unfit for its intended use during its design life, that is, the structure will not reach a
limit state. There are many ways in which a structure could become unfit for use, including
excessive conditions of bending, shear, compression, deflection and cracking.
Some of the above limit states, e.g. deflection and cracking, principally affect the appearance of
the structure. Others, e.g. bending, shear and compression, may lead to partial or complete
collapse of the structure. Those limit states which can cause failure of the structure are termed
ultimate limit states. The others are categorized as serviceability limit states.
The ultimate limit states enable the designer to calculate the strength of the structure.
Serviceability limit states model the behaviour of the structure at working loads.

In addition, there may be other limit states which may adversely affect the performance
of the structure, e.g. durability and fire resistance, and which must therefore also be
considered in design.
In assessing the effect of a particular limit state on the structure, the designer will need to
assume certain values for the loading on the structure and the strength of the materials
composing the structure.
This requires an understanding of the concepts of characteristic and design values.
1.2. Characteristic and design values.
As stated at the outset, when checking whether a particular member is safe, the designer cannot
be certain about either the strength of the material composing the member or, indeed, the load
which the member must carry.
The design strength (of the material) is obtained by dividing the characteristic strength by the
partial safety factor for strength

γm will depend upon the properties of the actual construction material

The design load is obtained by multiplying the characteristic load by the partial safety factor for
load:

Design strength ≥ Design load

2.Structural concept and materials properties

All structures are composed of a number of interconnected elements such as slabs, beams,
columns, walls and foundations. Collectively, they enable the internal and external loads
acting on the structure to be safely transmitted down to the ground. The actual way that this
is achieved is difficult to model and many simplifying, but conservative, assumptions have
to be made. It is usually assumed that the reaction from one element is a load on the next and
that the sequence of load transfer between elements occurs in the order: ceiling/floor loads
to beams to columns to foundations to ground.
The figure below show the sequence of load transfer between elements of a structure.
Figure.15. Load transmission throughout structural elements.
The designer must make an assessment of the future likely level of loading, including self-
weight, to which the structure may be subject during its design life.
Using computer methods or hand calculations the design loads acting on individual elements
can then be evaluated.
The design loads are used to calculate the bending moments, shear forces and deflections at
critical points along the elements.
Finally, suitable dimensions for the element can be determined.
This aspect requires an understanding of the elementary theory of bending and the behaviour of
elements subject to compressive loading.
2.1.Design process
2.1.1.Design loads acting on structures
The loads acting on a structure are divided into three basic types: dead, imposed and wind.
For each type of loading there will be characteristic and design values which must be
estimated. In addition, the designer will have to determine the particular combination of
loading which is likely to produce the most adverse effect on the structure in terms of
bending moments, shear forces and deflections.
i.DEAD LOADS, Gk ,gk

Dead loads are all the permanent loads acting on the structure including self-weight, finishes,
fixtures and partitions. The symbols Gk and gk are normally used to denote the total and
uniformly distributed characteristic dead loads respectively.
The characteristic dead loads can be estimated using the schedule of weights of building
materials given in BS 648-1964.
Table 2. Unity weight of construction materials
Note:
Generally, the self-weight of the element is likely to be small in comparison with other
dead and live loads and any error in estimation will tend to have a minimal effect on the
overall design.
ii.IMPOSED LOADS Q k, qk

Imposed load, sometimes also referred to as live load, represents the load due to the proposed
occupancy and includes the weights of the occupants, furniture and roof loads including snow.
Since imposed loads tend to be much more variable than dead loads they are more difficult to
predict. Dead loads: BS 648:1964 Schedule of weights of building materials Live loads: BS 6399-
1996- Part 1 Code of Practice for Dead and Imposed Loads.

Table 3. Imposed load on structures

iii.Wind Loads

Wind pressure can either add to the other gravitational forces acting on the structure or, equally
well, exert suction or negative pressures on the structure. Under particular situations, the latter may
well lead to critical conditions and must be considered in design. The characteristic wind loads
acting on a structure can be assessed in accordance with the recommendations given in CP 3:
 Chapter V: Part 2: 1972 Wind Loads or Part 2 of BS 6399: Code of Practice for Wind Loads.
Wind loading is important in the design of masonry panel walls.

iv. Load Combinations and Design Loads

The design loads are obtained by multiplying the characteristic loads by the partial safety factor
for loads, γf .
Table 4. Load combination and value of partial safety factor for load

The value for γf depends on several factors including the limit state under consideration, i.e.
ultimate or serviceability, the accuracy of predicting the load and the particular combination of
loading which will produce the worst possible effect on the structure in terms of bending
moments, shear forces and deflections. The worst possible combination will arise due to the
maximum dead and maximum imposed loads acting on the structure together. In such cases, the
partial safety factors for dead and imposed loads are 1.4 and 1.6 respectively and hence the
design load is given by:

The different idealized structural members are loaded with different load as follow:
Slab: Load per unit surface (kN/m2 ).
Beam, stair, bearing wall: Load per unit length (kN/m).
Column, footing: Point load (kN)

2.2. Design strength

The two materials whose properties must be known are concrete and steel reinforcement. In the
case of concrete, the property with which the designer is primarily concerned is its
compressive strength. For steel, however, it is its tensile strength capacity which is important
2.2.1. Characteristic Compressive Strength of Concrete, ƒcu
 The characteristic strength (ƒcu) is defined as the value below which not more than 5 per cent
of the test results fall.

Figure.16. Normal frequency distribution of strengths.

Table 5. Compressive strength class of concrete

Note: In many applications the most straightforward approach is to use a designated concrete
which simply involves specifying the strength class, e.g. RC 20/25, and the maximum aggregate
size.

However, this approach may not be suitable for foundations, for example if ground investigations
indicate the concrete will be exposed to an aggressive chemical environment. Under these
circumstances a designed mix may be required and the designer will need to specify not only the
strength class, i.e. C20/25, and the maximum aggregate size but also the maximum permissible
water/cement ratio, minimum cement content, permitted cement or combination types, amongst
other aspects.
2.2.2. Characteristic Strength of Reinforcement, ƒy

Table 6. Tensile strength of reinforcements

 Tests to determine the characteristic strengths of concrete and steel reinforcement are carried out
on near perfect specimens, which have been prepared under laboratory conditions. Such
conditions will seldom exist in practice. Therefore, it is undesirable to use characteristic
strengths to size members.

To take account of differences between actual and laboratory values, local weaknesses and
inaccuracies in assessment of the resistances of sections, the characteristic strengths (ƒk) are
divided by appropriate partial safety factor for strengths (γm), The resulting values are
termed design strengths and it is the design strengths which are used to size members.
Table 7. Values of partial safety factors for materials

2.3. Concrete cover to reinforcement

2.3.1. Nominal cover
 Nominal cover is the design depth of concrete cover to all steel reinforcement,
including links.
 It is the dimension used in design and indicated on the drawings.
 The actual cover to all reinforcement should never be less than the nominal cover minus
5 mm.
 The nominal cover should:
 be in accordance with the recommendations for bar size and aggregate size for
concrete cast against uneven surfaces
 protect the steel against corrosion
 protect the steel against fire
2.3.2. Bar size
 The nominal cover to all steel should be such that the resulting cover to a main bar
should not be less than the size of the main bar or, where bars are in pairs or bundles, the
size of
a single bar of cross-sectional area equal to the sum of their cross-sectional areas.
 At the same time the nominal cover to any links should be preserved
2.3.3. Nominal maximum size of aggregate
 Nominal covers should be not less than the nominal maximum size of the aggregate.
 The nominal maximum size of coarse aggregate should not normally be greater than one-
quarter of the minimum thickness of the concrete section or element.
 For most work, 20 mm aggregate is suitable. Larger sizes should be permitted where there
are no restrictions to the flow of concrete into sections. In thin sections or elements with
closely spaced reinforcement, consideration should be given to the use of 14 mm or
10 mm nominal maximum size.

2.3.4. Concrete cast against uneven surfaces

  I n such cases the specified nominal cover should generally be increased beyond the
values given in Table 3.3 to ensure that an adequate minimum cover will be
obtained.
 F o r this reason, the nominal cover specified where concrete is cast directly against the
earth should generally be not less than 75 mm. Where concrete is cast against an
adequate blinding, a nominal cover of less than 40 mm (excluding blinding) should not
generally
be specified.

2.3.5. Ends of straight bars

Cover is not required to the end of a straight bar in a floor or roof unit where its end is
not exposed to the weather or to condensation.

2.3.6. Exposure conditions

Table 8. Exposure conditions
 Table 9. Cover to all reinforcement

Table 10. Nominal Cover to all reinforcement

2.4. Design loads acting on Structural elements
2.4.1. Slab
 R e i n f o r c e d concrete slabs are used to form a variety of elements in building
structures such as floors, roofs, staircases, foundations and some types of walls.
 T h e span ranges quoted above generally assume the slab is supported along two opposite
edges, i.e. it is one-way spanning Where longer-situ concrete floor spans are required it
is usually more economical to support the slab on all four sides.
 T h e cost of supporting beams or walls needs to be considered though. Such slabs are
referred to as two-way spanning and are normally designed as two-dimensional plates
provided the ratio of the length of the longer side to the length of the shorter side is equal
to 2 or less.
Figure 17. Plan of two-way spanning slab. lx length of shorter side, ly length of longer side.
Provided ly/lx < 2 slab will span in two directions as indicated.
Ly/Lx=Lmax/Lmin
Lmax/Lmin≥2 then h will vary between (1/25&1/35)*Lmin ….one way
Lmax/Lmin<2 then h will vary between (1/30&1/45) *Lmin……two way

Overall depth of the slab (h): (h) =d + Φ/2 + c

Depth of slab (clause 3.5.7, BS 8110)

Solid slabs are designed as if they consist of a series of beams of 1metre width. The effective
span of the slab is taken as the smaller of:
(a) the distance between centres of bearings, A, or
(b) the clear distance between supports, D, plus the effective depth, d, of the slab (Fig. 3.59).
The deflection requirements for slabs, which are the same as those for beams, will often
control the depth of slab needed.
(c) The minimum effective depth of slab, dmin, can be calculated using

Figure 18. Effective span of simply supported slab

Table 11. Modification factor for tension reinforcement
Typical design load for the slab
(KN/m2)
Determination of effective depth.
Ly/Lx=Lmax/Lmin
Lmax/Lmin≥2 then h will vary between (1/25&1/35)*Lmin
Lmax/Lmin<2 then h will vary between (1/30&1/45)*Lmin
Determination of loads(KN/m2)
Slab self-weight=unity weight of Reinforced concrete(25kn/m3)*Depth(m)=kN/m2
Characteristic dead load(Gk )=finishing (1.5 kN/m2) + self-weight
Characteristic Live load(QK) = depending on occupancy e.g.3KN/m2 for residential building
Ultimate design load n=1.4*Gk+1.6*Qk )
Bars (location ,number and spacing)
 2.4.2. Beam

Beams are structural elements carrying external loads that cause bending moments shear,
shear Consider an unreinforced concrete beam of rectangular cross-section which is simply
supported at the ends and carries a distributed load.
Beams in reinforced concrete structures can be defined according to:
1. Cross-section

2.Position of reinforcement
3. Support conditions.

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 Figure19. Beam effective span
Table 12. Basic span ratio

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2.4.3. Column
Columns can be defined as structural elements subjected to compression and with
dimensions such that its length is relatively larger than its lateral dimensions.
 The strength of all columns depends on:
 The strength of the materials
 The elasticity of the materials
 The shape of and size of the cross section
 The length of the column
 The degree of positional and directional restraint of the ends of the columns

Column can fail in three ways, namely

1. Compression failure
This happens in columns that short relative to its cross-section dimension (short column).
For concrete, it takes the form of longitudinal splitting and spalling of concrete.
2. Buckling failure
If a compression member is long relative to its lateral dimensions, it can fail by buckling
at a load much lower than that indicated by the strength of the materials.
3. Combination of compression and Buckling
This when failure of compression member is a combination of crushing of the material
and buckling.

Classifications of Columns

There are many methods used to classify columns, and are discussed below
On the basis of response to lateral restraint (Braced or Unbraced Columns)
On the basis of response to lateral restraint, columns are classified as either braced or
unbraced. Columns are considered braced if the lateral loads, due to wind for example, are
resisted by shear walls or cross bracing or brick or concrete panel or adjacent structures, or
some other form of bracing.

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 Figure 20. Columns in building
Simply put, in braced column, side sway is prevented. Unbraced column is usually part of an
unbraced frame which is free to deflect horizontally by flexure of the columns when
horizontal forces are applied.
For example, Figure 21.a is example of unbraced columns in both x and y axis. On the other
hand, Figure 21.b represents columns that are braced in one direction only, that is, along the
y axis.

Figure 21. Unbraced and braced columns

Classification on the basis of slenderness ratio (Short or Slender/Long Columns)
Columns can also be classified on the basis of slenderness ratio.
Slenderness ratio is defined as the ratio effective height to the radius of gyration. In laboratory
testing, the effective height is usually connected with the least radius of gyration.
But in practical conditions, the effective height is relating to all possible values of slenderness
ratio must be considered.
For columns, there will two values of slenderness ratio to consider, which will be those
corresponding to the two principal axes of the cross section.

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Figure 22. Slender column with lateral deflection

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2.4.4. Footing
There are a number of reasons for foundation failure, the two major causes being:
Bearing capacity:
o When the shear stress within the soil, due to the structure’s loading, exceeds the
shear strength of the soil, catastrophic collapse of the supporting soil can occur.
o Before ultimate collapse of the soil occurs there can be large deformations within it which
may lead to unacceptable differential movement or settlement of, and damage to, the
structure.
o (In some situations however, collapse can occur with little or no advance warning!)
Settlement:
Practically all materials contract under compressive loading and distort under shear loading.
Soils are no exception. Provided that the settlement is either acceptable (will not cause
structural damage or undue cracking, will not damage services, and will be visually acceptable
and free from practical problems of door sticking, etc.) or can be catered for in the structural
design there is not necessarily a foundation design problem. Problems will occur when the
settlement is significantly excessive or differential.
Bearing capacity
Some designers, when in a hurry, tend to want simple ‘rules of thumb’ (based on local
experience) for values of bearing capacity.
But like most rules of thumb, while safe for typical structures on normal soils, their use can
produce uneconomic solutions, restrict the development of improved methods of foundation
design, and lead to expensive mistakes when the structure is not typical.

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Table 12.Allowable bearing capacity of soil

Figure 23. Pad footing

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 Figure 24. Strip footing
Foundation Design
Foundation failure may arise as a result of
(a) Allowable bearing capacity of the soil being exceeded, or
(b) Bending and/or shear failure of the base.
The first condition allows the plan-area of the base to be calculated, being equal to the
design load divided by the bearing capacity of the soil, i.e.

Since the settlement of the structure occurs during its working life, the design loadings to be
considered when calculating the size of the base should be taken as those for the
serviceability limit state (i.e. 1.0Gk + 1.0Qk).
The calculations to determine the thickness of the base and the bending and shear
reinforcement should, however, be based on ultimate loads (i.e. l.4Gk + 1.6Qk).

1.3.DESCRIPTION OF SUBSTRUCTURE ITEMS

1.3.1. Basement construction
In the general context of buildings, a basement can be defined as a storey which is below the
ground storey and is therefore constructed below ground level.
Most basements can be classified into one of three groups:

39
40
i. Deep basement
Deep Basement Construction ~ basements can be constructed within a cofferdam or other
temporary supported excavation up to the point when these methods become uneconomic,
unacceptable or both due to the amount of necessary temporary support work.
Deep basements can be constructed by installing diaphragm walls within a trench and providing
permanent support with ground anchors or by using the permanent lateral support given by the
internal floor during the excavation period. Temporary lateral support during the excavation
period can be provided by lattice beams spanning between the diaphragm walls.

Figure25. Typical ground anchor

NB. vertical ground anchors installed through the lowest floor can be used to overcome any
tendency to flotation during the construction period.

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Basement construction with permanent lateral supports

Basement construction with temporary lateral supports

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1.3.2. Water proofing basements
Waterproofing Basements ~ basements can be waterproofed by one of three basic methods
namely:
1.Use of dense monolithic concrete walls and floor
2. Tanking techniques
3. Drained cavity system
Dense Monolithic Concrete † the main objective is to form a watertight basement using dense
high quality reinforced or prestressed concrete by a combination of good materials, good
workmanship, attention to design detail and on site construction methods. If strict control of all
aspects is employed a sound watertight structure can be produced but it should be noted that such
structures are not always water vapourproof. If the latter is desirable some waterproof coating,
lining or tanking should be used.
The watertightness of dense concrete mixes depends primarily upon two factors:
1.Water/cement ratio.
2. Degree of compaction
The hydration of cement during the hardening process produces heat therefore to prevent early
stage cracking the temperature changes within the hardening concrete should be kept to a
minimum. The greater the cement content the more is the evolution of heat therefore the mix
should contain no more cement than is necessary to fulfil design requirements.
Concrete with a free water/cement ratio of 0.5 is watertight and although the permeability is
three time more at a ratio of 0.6 it is for practical purposes still watertight but above this ratio the
concrete becomes progressively less watertight.
For lower water/ cement ratios the workability of the mix would have to be increased, usually by
adding more cement, to enable the concrete to be fully compacted.
Admixtures if the ingredients of good design, materials and workmanship are present watertight
concrete can be produced without the use of admixtures. If admixtures are used, they should be
carefully chosen and used to obtain a specific objective:
1.Water-reducing admixtures † used to improve workability
2. Retarding admixtures † slow down rate of hardening
3. Accelerating admixtures † increase rate of hardening † useful for low temperatures † calcium
chloride not suitable for reinforced concrete.
4.Water-repelling admixtures † effective only with low water head, will not improve poor quality
or porous mixes.

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5. Air-entraining admixtures † increases workability † lowers water content.
Joints ~
In general, these are formed in basement constructions to provide for movement accommodation
(expansion joints) or to create a convenient stopping point in the construction process
(construction joints). Joints are lines of weakness which will leak unless carefully designed and
constructed therefore they should be simple in concept and easy to construct.
Basement slabs ~
These are usually designed to span in two directions and as a consequence have relatively heavy
top and bottom reinforcement. To enable them to fulfil their basic functions they usually have a
depth in excess of 250 mm. The joints, preferably of the construction type, should be kept to a
minimum and if water bars are specified they must be placed to ensure that complete compaction
of the concrete is achieved.
Typical basement slab joint details below:

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Mastic Asphalt Tanking
The objective of tanking is to provide a continuous waterproof membrane which is applied to the
base slab and walls with complete continuity between the two applications. The tanking can be
applied externally or internally according to the circumstances prevailing on site. Alternatives to
mastic asphalt are polythene sheeting: bituminous compounds: epoxy resin compounds and
bitumen laminates.
External Mastic Asphalt Tanking ~ this is the preferred method since it not only prevents the
ingress of water it also protectsthemain structure of the basement from aggressive sulphates
whichmay be present in the surrounding soil or ground water.
Typical external tanking details below:

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Internal Mastic Asphalt Tanking
This method should only be adopted if external tanking is not possible since it will not give
protection to the main structure and unless adequately loaded may be forced away from the walls
and/or floor by hydrostatic pressure. To be effective the horizontal and vertical coats of mastic
asphalt must be continuous.
Typical internal tanking details below:

Drained Cavity System

This method of waterproofing basements can be used for both new and refurbishment work.
The basic concept is very simple in that it accepts that a small amount of water seepage is
possible through a monolithic concrete wall and the best method of dealing with such moisture is

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to collect it and drain it away. This is achieved by building an inner non-load bearing wall to
form a cavity which is joined to a floor composed of special triangular tiles laid to falls which
enables the moisture to drain away to a sump from which it is either discharged direct or pumped
into the surface water drainage system. The inner wall should be relatively vapour tight or
alternatively the cavity should be ventilated.

1.3.3. Types of foundations for buildings

Foundation function
The function of any foundation is to safely sustain and transmit to the ground on which it rests the
combined dead, imposed and wind loads in such a manner as not to cause any settlement or other
movement which would impair the stability or cause damage to any part of the building.
Refer to the figure below as a typical example.

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Subsoil beneath foundation is compressed and reacts by exerting an upward pressure to resist
foundation loading. If foundation load exceeds maximum passive pressure of ground (i.e.
bearing capacity) a downward movement of the foundation could occur. Remedy is to increase
plan size of foundation to reduce the load per unit area or alternatively reduce the loadings being
carried by the foundations.
Subsoil Movements
These are due primarily to changes in volume when the subsoil becomes wet or dry and occurs
near the upper surface of the soil. Compact granular soils such as gravel suffer very little movement
whereas cohesive soils such as clay do suffer volume changes near the upper surface. Similar
volume changes can occur due to water held in the subsoil freezing and expanding † this is called
Frost Heave. Refer to the figure below as a typical example.

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Foundation materials
One of the functions of a foundation can be seen to be the ability to spread its load evenly over the
ground on which it rests. It must of course be constructed of a durable material of adequate strength.
Experience has shown that the most suitable material is concrete.
Concrete is a mixture of cement + aggregates + water in controlled proportions.
Refer to the figure below as a typical example.

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Foundation types

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Foundation bed
A concrete slab resting on and supported by the subsoil, usually forming the ground floor
surface. Beds (sometimes called oversite concrete) are usually cast on a layer of hardcore which
is used to make up the reduced level excavation and thus raise the level of the concrete bed to a
position above ground level. Refer to the typical example below.

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Sizing of foundations
The size of a foundation is basically dependent on two factors
1.Load being transmitted, max 70 kN/m (dwellings up to 3 storeys).
2. Bearing capacity of subsoil under proposed foundation.
Bearing capacities for different types of subsoils may be obtained from tables such as those in
BS 8004: Code of practice for foundations and BS 8103-1: Structural design of low rise
buildings. Also, directly from soil investigation results. Refer to the typical examples below.

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Guide to strip foundation width

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Calculated sizing of foundation

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Stepped foundations
These are usually considered in the context of strip foundations and are used mainly on sloping
sites to reduce the amount of excavation and materials required to produce an adequate foundation.

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Concrete foundation
Concrete is a material which is strong in compression but weak in tension. If its tensile strength is
exceeded cracks will occur resulting in a weak and unsuitable foundation. One method of
providing tensile resistance is to include in the concrete foundation bars of steel as a form of
reinforcement to resist all the tensile forces induced into the foundation. Steel is a material which
is readily available and has high tensile strength. Refer to the examples below.

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Short bored pile foundations
These are a form of foundation which are suitable for domestic loadings and clay subsoils where
ground movements can occur below the 1.000 depth associated with traditional strip and trench
fill foundations. They can be used where trees are planted close to a new building since the trees
may eventually cause damaging ground movements due to extracting water from the subsoil and
root growth. Conversely where trees have been removed this may lead to ground swelling. Refer
to the figure below.

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Reinforced concrete raft foundation
These can be used for lightly loaded buildings on poor soils or where the top 450 to 600 mm of
soil is overlaying a poor quality substrata. See details below.

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Foundation design principles
The main objectives of foundation design are to ensure that the structural loads are transmitted to
the subsoil(s) safely, economically and without any unacceptable movement during the
construction period and throughout the anticipated life of the building or structure.
Basic Design Procedure
This can be considered as a series of steps or stages
1. Assessment of site conditions in the context of the site and soil investigation report.
2. Calculation of anticipated structural loading(s)
3. Choosing the foundation type taking into consideration
a. Soil conditions;
b. Type of structure;
c. Structural loading(s);
d. Economic factors;
e. Time factors relative to the proposed contract period;
f. Construction problems.
4. Sizing the chosen foundation in the context of loading(s), ground bearing capacity and
any likely future movements of the building or structure.
Foundation types
Apart from simple domestic foundations most foundation types are constructed in reinforced
concrete and may be considered as being shallow or deep. Most shallow types of foundation are
constructed within 2.000 of the ground level but in some circumstances it may be necessary to take
the whole or part of the foundations down to a depth of 2.000 to 5.000 as in the case of a deep
basement where the structural elements of the basement are to carry the superstructure loads.
Generally, foundations which need to be taken below 5.000 deep are cheaper when designed and
constructed as piled foundations and such foundations are classified as deep foundations.
Foundations are usually classified by their type such as strips, pads, rafts and piles. It is also
possible to combine foundation types such as strip foundations connected by beams to and working
in conjunction with pad foundations.

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Strip Foundations
These are suitable for most subsoils and light structural loadings such as those encountered in low
to medium rise domestic dwellings where mass concrete can be used. Reinforced concrete is
usually required for all other situations. See the typical strip foundation type below.

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Pad foundations
Suitable for most subsoils except loose sands, loose gravels and filled areas. Pad foundations are
usually constructed of reinforced concrete and where possible are square in plan.

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Raft Foundations
These are used to spread the load of the superstructure over a large base to reduce the load per
unit area being imposed on the ground and this is particularly useful where low bearing capacity
soils are encountered and where individual column loads are heavy. See details below.

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Cantilever foundation
These can be used where it is necessary to avoid imposing any pressure on an adjacent
foundation or underground service. See details below.

Piled Foundations
These can be defined as a series of columns constructed or inserted into the ground to transmit the
load(s) of a structure to a lower level of subsoil. Piled foundations can be used when suitable
foundation conditions are not present at or near ground level making the use of deep traditional
foundations uneconomic. The lack of suitable foundation conditions may be caused by:

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1. Natural low bearing capacity of subsoil.
2. High water table † giving rise to high permanent dewatering cost.
3.Presence of layers of highly compressible subsoils such as peat and recently placed filling
materials which have not sufficiently consolidated.
4.Subsoils which may be subject to moisture movement or plastic failure.
Classification of Piles ~ piles may be classified by their basic design function or by their method
of construction.

Pile cap
Piles can be used singly to support the load but often it is more economical to use piles in groups
or clusters linked together with a reinforced concrete cap. The pile caps can also be linked
together with reinforced concrete ground beams.
The usual minimum spacing for piles is:
1. Friction Piles :1.100 or not less than 3 x pile diameter, whichever is the greater.
2. Bearing Piles :750 mm or not less than 2 x pile diameter, whichever is the greater.

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Pile Testing
It is advisable to test load at least one pile per scheme. The test pile should be overloaded
by at least 50% of its working load and this load should be held for 24 hours. The test pile
should not form part of the actual foundations. Suitable testing methods are:
1. Jacking against kentledge placed over test pile.
2. Jacking against a beam fixed to anchor piles driven in on two sides of the test pile
Retaining walls
The major function of any retaining wall is to act as on earth retaining structure for the
whole or part of its height on one face, the other being exposed to the elements. Most small
height retaining walls are built entirely of brickwork or a combination of brick facing and
blockwork or mass concrete backing. To reduce hydrostatic pressure on the wall from
ground water an adequate drainage system in the form of weep holes should be used,
alternatively subsoil drainage behind the wall could be employed. See typical combination
retaining wall below.

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Small Height Retaining Walls
Retaining walls must be stable and the usual rule of thumb for small height brick retaining
walls is for the height to lie between 2 and 4 times the wall thickness. Stability can be
checked by applying the middle third rule.

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Retaining Walls up to 6.000 high
These can be classified as medium height retaining walls and have the primary function
of retaining soils at an angle in excess of the soil's natural angle of repose. Walls within
this height range are designed to provide the necessary resistance by either their own
mass or by the principles of leverage.
Design
The actual design calculations are usually carried out by a structural engineer who
endeavours to ensure that:
1.Overturning of the wall does not occur.
2. Forward sliding of the wall does not occur.
3. Materials used are suitable and not overstressed.
4. The subsoil is not overloaded.
5. In clay subsoils slip circle failure does not occur.
The factors which the designer will have to take into account:
1.Nature and characteristics of the subsoil(s).
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 2. Height of water table † the presence of water can create hydrostatic pressure on the
rear face of the wall, it can also affect the bearing capacity of the subsoil together with its
shear strength, reduce the frictional resistance between the underside of the foundation
and the subsoil and reduce the passive pressure in front of the toe of the wall.
3.Type of wall.
4. Material(s) to be used in the construction of the wall.
Retaining wall terminology

Earth Pressures
These can take one of two forms namely:
1. Active Earth Pressures † these are those pressures which tend to move the wall at all
times and consist of the wedge of earth retained plus any hydrostatic pressure. The
latter can be reduced by including a subsoil drainage system behind and/or through
the wall.
2. Passive Earth Pressures ~ these are a reaction of an equal and opposite force to any
imposed pressure thus giving stability by resisting movement.
See typical examples below.

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Mass Retaining Walls
These walls rely mainly on their own mass to overcome the tendency to slide forwards. Mass
retaining walls are not generally considered to be economic over a height of 1.800 when

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constructed of brick or concrete and 1.000 high in the case of natural stonework. Any mass
retaining wall can be faced with another material but generally any applied facing will not increase
the strength of the wall and is therefore only used for aesthetic reasons. See typical brick mass
retaining wall below.

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Cantilever Retaining Walls
These are constructed of reinforced concrete with an economic height range of 1.200 to 6.000.
They work on the principles of leverage where the stem is designed as a cantilever fixed at the
base and base is designed as a cantilever fixed at the stem. Several formats are possible and in
most cases a beam is placed below the base to increase the total passive resistance to sliding.

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1.4. DESCRIPTION OF SUERSTRUCTURE ITEMS
1.4.1. Simply Supported Slabs
These are slabs which rest on a bearing and for design purposes are not considered to be fixed to
the support and are therefore, in theory, free to lift. In practice however they are restrained from
unacceptable lifting by their own self weight plus any loadings.
Concrete Slabs
Concrete is a material which is strong in compression and weak in tension and if the member is
overloaded its tensile resistance may be exceeded leading to structural failure.

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Reinforcement
Generally, in the form of steel bars which are used to provide the tensile strength which plain
concrete lacks. The number, diameter, spacing, shape and type of bars to be used have to be
designed. Reinforcement is placed as near to the outside as practicable, with sufficient cover of
concrete over the reinforcement to protect the steel bars from corrosion and to provide a degree of
fire resistance. Slabs which are square in plan are considered to be spanning in two directions and
therefore main reinforcing bars are used both ways whereas slabs which are rectangular in plan are
considered to span across the shortest distance and main bars are used in this direction only with
smaller diameter distribution bars placed at right angles forming a mat or grid. See typical details
below.

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Construction of RC slabs
Whatever method of construction is used the construction sequence will follow the same pattern-
1.Assemble and erect formwork.
2. Prepare and place reinforcement.
3. Pour and compact or vibrate concrete.
4. Strike and remove formwork in stages as curing proceeds. See typical example below.

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 Concrete casting for slab and beams
Profiled galvanized steel decking
Is a permanent formwork system for construction of composite floor slabs. The steel sheet has
surface indentations and deformities to effect a bond with the concrete topping.

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The concrete will still require reinforcing with steel rods or mesh, even though the metal section
will contribute considerably to the tensile strength of the finished slab. See details below.

Where structural support framing is located at the ends of a section and at intermediate points,
studs are through-deck welded to provide resistance to shear.

There are considerable savings in concrete volume compared with standard in-situ reinforced
concrete floor slabs. This reduction in concrete also reduces structural load on foundations.
In situ RC framed Structures-Beams
These are horizontal load bearing members which are classified as either main beams which
transmit floor and secondary beam loads to the columns or secondary beams which transmit floor
loads to the main beams.
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Concrete being a material which has little tensile strength needs to be reinforced to resist the
induced tensile stresses which can be in the form of ordinary tension or diagonal tension (shear).
The calculation of the area, diameter, type, position and number of reinforcing bars required is one
of the functions of a structural engineer. See typical RC Beam details below.

Mild Steel Reinforcement † located in areas where tension occurs in a beam or slab. Concrete
specification is normally 25 or 30 N/mm2 in this situation.
See beam or slab details below.

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Note:
Distribution or cross bars function as lateral reinforcement and supplement the units strength in
tensile areas. They also provide resistance to cracking in the concrete as the unit contracts during
setting and drying.
In situ RC framed Structures-Columns
These are the vertical load bearing members of the structural frame which transmits the beam loads
down to the foundations. They are usually constructed in storey heights and therefore the
reinforcement must be lapped to provide structural continuity. See RC Column details below.

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