Content

● Basic Human Physiology

○ Digestion
○ Respiration
○ Body fluids and circulation
○ Excretion
○ Locomotion
○ Neural control
● Role and significance of Vitamins for public health
○ Water soluble vitamins
○ Fat-soluble vitamins
● Health and Lipids
○ Fats and oils
○ Types of fats
○ Lipoproteins
● Immunity and Immunization
○ Innate and acquired immunity
○ Active and passive immunity
○ Immunisation or vaccination
○ Principle of immunisation
○ Types of Vaccines
○ Herd immunity
● Human Diseases
○ Tuberculosis
○ HIV
○ Coronavirus
Basic Human Physiology
Digestion
The process of conversion of complex food substances into simple absorbable form in the
digestive system is called digestion.

Digestive system
● It starts with the mouth which
opens into the oral cavity
containing the tongue
(containing taste buds) and
teeth to chew the food taken
inside through the mouth.
● From the oral cavity food
enters the thin long pipe
named the oesophagus or
food pipe. It propels the food
forward by the movement
known as Peristalsis
(contraction and relaxation of
food).
● From here it enters a
J-shaped structure called the
stomach.
● From the stomach food enters
the duodenum (upper portion
of the small intestine). The
middle part of the small
intestine is called Jejunum
and the lower part is called
Ileum.
● Ileum opens into the large intestine (caecum, colon and rectum) and the rectum the last
part of the large intestine opens into the anus from where the waste is excreted.
● Associated Digestive glands:
○ Salivary glands present in the oral cavity produce salivary juice.
○ Liver, the largest gland of the body secrete bile juice which is stored in the
muscular sac called Gallbladder.
○ Pancreas is a compound (exocrine and endocrine) gland that secretes pancreatic
juices which help in digestion.

Digestion of food
● Ingestion includes intake, chewing of food and mixing with saliva and mucus converting
it into a bolus.
● Digestion starts from the mouth and ends in the anus.
 ● Of Carbohydrates
○ In the oral cavity: Up to 30
per cent of starch is hydrolysed by Salivary
amylase enzyme into disaccharides.
○ Remaining polysaccharides
get converted into disaccharides by the
action of the enzyme in the pancreas.

● Of Proteins
○ In Stomach: Pepsin converts
protein into proteoses and peptones. Rennin
help in the digestion of milk proteins.
○ In the small intestine by the
action of enzymes in pancreatic juice
proteases and peptones get converted into

dipeptides.
● Of Fats:
○ Bile juice helps in the
emulsification of fats.
○ Fats get broken down into
diglycerides and diglycerides into
monoglycerides.

● Nucleic Acids get converted into

Nucleotides in the pancreas and then into
Nucleosides and then nucleosides into
sugars and bases.
Finally, it is defecated through the anus.

Respiration
Breathing or respiration is the process of
exchange of oxygen from the Carbon dioxide
produced by the cells.
Respiratory Organs

● Nostrils: Human respiratory system begins with the nostrils opening above the upper
lips which open into nasal chambers via Nasal Passage.
● Pharynx: Nasal chambers open into Pharynx which is a common passage for food and
air.
● Trachea: The pharynx opens into the trachea through the larynx (sound box). it is a
straight tube extending up to the mid-thoracic cavity. It divides into right and left primary
bronchi.
● Lungs:
○ Lungs are covered by a double-layered pleura with pleural fluid between them. It
reduces friction on lung surface.
○ Bronchi: the primary bronchi undergo repeated divisions and form secondary
and tertiary bronchi and bronchioles and end in thin terminal bronchioles.
○ Alveoli: these are very thin irregularly walled and vascularised bag-like
structures

The process of Respiration

It includes the following steps:
1. Inspiration: Breathing or pulmonary ventilation by which atmospheric air is drawn in and
Carbon dioxide-rich alveolar air is released out.
2. Diffusion of gases both oxygen and carbon dioxide across the alveolar membrane.
3. Transport of gasses by the blood.
4. Diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide between blood and tissues.
 5. Expiration: Utilisation of oxygen by the cells for catabolic reaction and the release of
carbon dioxide.
Body fluids and circulation
Blood is the most commonly used body fluid for the movement of certain substances
which provides the cells of the body with nutrients, oxygen and other essential substances.
Lymph is also used for this purpose.

Blood
It is a connective tissue consisting of fluid, plasma and
formed elements.
● Plasma: 55% of the blood is made up of
straw-coloured, viscous fluid called plasma.
Plasma is 90 per cent water and 6-8 per cent
are proteins such as fibrinogen, globulins and
albumins and the remaining are small minerals
like sodium, calcium etc. Plasma without
clotting factors is called Serum.
○ Fibrinogens are needed for the clotting
of blood.
○ Globulins are involved in the defence
mechanism of the body.
○ Albumins maintain the osmotic balance.
● Formed Elements are Erythrocytes, leukocytes
and platelets.
○ Erythrocytes are the red blood cells and are present in the most abundant of all
the cells.
■ Normal RBCs count in the human body ranges from 5 million to 5.5.
Million.
■ They are biconcave in shape and devoid of nuclei, with an average life
span of 120 days.
 ■ They have a red-coloured, iron-containing a complex protein called
Haemoglobin. A Healthy individual has 12-16 gms of haemoglobin.
○ Leukocytes are white blood cells as they are colourless due to a lack of
haemoglobin.
■ They are nucleated and are present in fewer numbers up to 6000-8000
mm of blood.
■ There are mainly two types of WBCs:
● Granulocytes include neutrophils (a phagocyte, that destroy
foreign particles), eosinophils (resist infections) and basophils
(responsible for inflammation)
● Agranulocytes include lymphocytes (are two major lymphocytes B
cells, T cells) and monocytes (phagocyte, that destroys foreign
particles)
○ Platelets are also called thrombocytes which are responsible for coagulation of
blood.

Blood Groups,
There are 4 main blood groups A, B, AB and O. Each blood group can be either RhD positive
or RhD negative, thus there are 8 blood groups.

Antibodies and antigens

● Blood group is identified by antibodies and antigens in the blood.
● Antibodies are proteins found in plasma. They act as a part of the body's natural
defences. They recognise foreign substances and alert your immune system, which
destroys them.
● Antigens are protein molecules which are found on the surface of red blood cells.

The ABO system

● Blood group A – has A antigens on the red blood cells with anti-B antibodies in the
plasma
● Blood group B – has B antigens with anti-A antibodies in the plasma
● Blood group O – has no antigens, but both anti-A and anti-B antibodies in the plasma
● Blood group AB – has both A and B antigens, but no antibodies.

The blood group The genotype of The blood group The genotype of Possible blood
of parent 1 Parent 1 of parent 2 Parent 2 groups of
offspring

A AA A AA A

A AO A AO A, O

A AA, AO B BB, BO A, AB, B, O

B BB B BB B
 B BO B BO B, O

O OO O OO O

Lymph
When blood passes through capillaries some water and water-soluble substances move
out into the spaces between the cells of tissues. Proteins and formed elements remain in blood
vessels. This fluid when present in the lymphatic system is called lymph.
The lymph system is a network of organs, lymph nodes, lymph ducts, and lymph vessels
that make and move lymph from tissues to the bloodstream. The lymph system is a major part
of the body's immune system.

Human circulatory system:

The circulatory system of humans consists of a network of blood vessels including arteries,
veins, and capillaries, and the heart pumps blood through it. The primary function of the
circulatory system is to provide essential nutrients, minerals, and hormones to different parts of
the body. Also, the circulatory system is responsible for collecting metabolic waste and toxins
from the cells and tissues to be purified or expelled from the body.

Double Circulation
Blood flows in a unique and efficient manner in the human body. The blood circulates through
the heart twice, hence, it is called double circulation which serves as an advantage that every
tissue in the body has a steady supply of oxygenated blood, and it does not get mixed with
deoxygenated blood.

Blood Vessels
Two main types of blood vessels in the human body are the Arteries and veins

Arteries Veins

are blood vessels that transport oxygenated are blood vessels that carry deoxygenated
blood from the heart to various parts of the blood towards the heart from various parts
body of the body.

They are thick and elastic They are thin and elastic

They are divided into a small network of blood They are present closer to the surface of
vessels called capillaries. the skin

Exception: pulmonary arteries are the only Exceptions: Pulmonary and umbilical veins
artery which carries deoxygenated blood to are the only veins that carry oxygenated
the lungs. blood in the entire body.

Functions of the Circulatory System

● The most important function of the system is transporting oxygen throughout the body.
● It helps in the sustenance of all the organ systems.
● It also facilitates the transport of blood, nutrients, oxygen, carbon dioxide and hormones
throughout the body.
● It acts as a defence mechanism for the body and thus protects cells from pathogens.
● It also acts as an interface for cell-to-cell interaction.
● The substances which are present in the blood help in the repair of the damaged tissue.

Excretory Products and their elimination

The mechanism of elimination of substances which get accumulated in the human body
like various nitrogenous wastes (Ammonia, Urea and Uric acid), ions, water, carbon dioxide etc.
is called Excretion.

Human Excretory System:

● Human excretory system consists of a pair

of kidneys, one pair of ureters, a urinary
bladder and a urethra.
● Kidneys:
○ They are reddish brown in colour,
bean-shaped structures.
 ○ Each kidney is 10-12 cm in length, 5-7 cm in width, and 2-3 cm in thickness.
○ Ureter, blood vessels and nerves enter the kidney through the Hilum.
○ The outer layer of the kidney is called the capsule. The outer zone is the cortex
and the inner zone is the medulla
○ Nephron: The functional unit of the kidney is called the Nephron. Each nephron
has two parts- the glomerulus and renal tubule.
○ Glomerulus part consists of a bunch of capillaries which carry blood. The renal
tubule starts with a cup-like structure called Bowman’s capsule and this encloses
the glomerulus. The highly coiled network of the tubule is the proximal
convoluted tubule.
○ The next part of the tubule is
Henle’s loop which has an
ascending (leads to a distal
convoluted tubule) and a
descending limb. The loop
opens into the collecting duct.
● Ureter is a pair of thin muscular
tubes which comes out of each
kidney extending from the renal
pelvis. It transports urine from the
kidney to the urinary bladder.
● Urinary Bladder is a muscular
sac-like structure, which stores urine.
The urinary bladder is emptied by the
process of micturition, (the act of
urination).
● Urethra is a tube that arises from the
urinary bladder and helps to expel
urine from the body. In males, it also
acts as the common route for sperm
and urine. The opening of the urethra
is guarded by sphincter muscles.

Mechanism of Excretion in Humans

Following are the steps in the process of
excretion in humans:

● Urine Formation: The urine is formed in the nephrons and involves the following steps:
○ Glomerular Filtration is the primary step in urine formation. During this process,
the excess fluid and waste products from the kidney are filtered out of the blood
into the urine collection tubules of the kidney and thus eliminated from the body.
■ The amount of filtrate produced in a minute by the Kidney is known as
Glomerular Filtration Rate (GFR).
 ○ Tubular Reabsorption is the absorption of ions and molecules such as sodium
ions, glucose, amino acids, water etc. Water is absorbed by a passive process,
while glucose and sodium ions are absorbed by an active process.
○ Secretion is the process in which Potassium ions, hydrogen ions, and ammonia
are secreted out to maintain the equilibrium between the body fluids.

Functions of various tubules:

● Glomerulus is responsible for filtering the blood

● Proximal Convoluted Tubules (PCT) reabsorb water, ions and nutrients.
○ They are responsible for the removal of toxins.
○ Help in maintaining the ionic balance and pH of the body fluids by secretion of
potassium, hydrogen and ammonia to filtrate and reabsorbing bicarbonate ions
from the filtrate.
● Descending Loop of Henle is permeable to water. The filtrate thus gets concentrated
here, as it is impermeable to electrolytes.
● Ascending Loop of Henle is impermeable to water and permeable to electrolytes. The
filtrate here gets diluted due to the movement of electrolytes from the filtrate to the
medullary fluid.
● Distal Convoluted Tubule (DCT) allows the reabsorption of water and sodium ions.
○ It also helps in maintaining pH and ionic balance by secretion and reabsorption of
ions as in the Proximal convoluted tubule..
● In the collecting Duct a large amount of water is reabsorbed from the filtrate by the
collecting duct.

Micturition
The urinary bladder is stretched and gets filled with urine which is formed in the nephrons. The
receptors on the walls of the urinary bladder send signals to the Central Nervous System,
which allows the relaxation of sphincter muscles to release urine. This process is known as
micturition.

Locomotion in humans
Various kinds of motions/ movements such as walking, running, jumping, swimming, etc.
by the body is referred to as locomotion. Locomotion /Movement is one of the characteristic
features of all living organisms. It helps organisms to move from one place to other. Generally,
organisms require locomotion for defence, searching for food and shelter.
The locomotory action involved the movement of various organs of the skeletal system
such as various bones, tissues and joints such as cartilage, muscles, bone, ligaments, tendons,
etc.

Types of Muscles in the Human Body

Largely, there are three types of muscles in the human body which are based on contractibility,
elasticity, excitability, and extensibility. They are as follows:
 Muscles of the skeletal Smooth muscles Cardiac muscles
system

They are voluntary muscles They are involuntary muscles They are involuntary muscles
and are under the control of and are controlled by the
the human. autonomic nervous system.

Found in various parts of found in the walls of the Found in the heart.
the body such as the legs, internal organs such as the
neck, face, arms etc. reproductive tract, blood
vessels, alimentary canal, etc.

These muscles are striated These smooth muscles consist consist of muscle fibres
in nature. They help in the of a non-striated, slender type which are in short and
movement and locomotion of tapering fibres. striated form
of the human body. They
are attached to the bones
through the tendons.

Skeletal System in Human Body

● The skeletal system as given in

the figure provides a structural
framework for the body.
● It provides a definite shape.
● The skeletal system also
provides protection to internal
organs such as the spinal cord,
the Human brain, and the lungs.
● The primary function of the
skeletal system is to help the
body in locomotion and
movement.
● The skeletal system also helps in
the breathing process through
the movement of the sternum
and the ribs.

Nervous System
The nervous system is a complex
network of neurons which is specialized
to carry messages. It is one of the most
complicated structures in the animal
kingdom and contains billions of neurons which are intricately connected.
Nervous System in the human body:
● In the human body, the nervous system integrates the activities of organs based on the
stimuli, which are detected and transmitted by the neurons.
● They transmit messages in the form of electrical impulses and convey messages to and
from the sense organs of the body.
● Nervous coordination n humans involves the participation of the sense organs, nerves,
spinal cord, and brain.
● It consists of two parts:
○ Central Nervous System which consists of the brain and spinal cord.
○ Peripheral Nervous System which includes all the nerves of the body.

Central Nervous System

Central Nervous System (CNS) is also called the central processing unit of the body. It consists
of the brain and the spinal cord.

Brain
● The brain is one of the
important, largest and central
organs of the human nervous
system.
● Brain is the control unit of the
nervous system. It helps in
remembering and
understanding, making
decisions, and a lot more.
● It is enclosed within the skull,
Skull provides frontal, lateral
and dorsal protection to the
delicate matter of the brain.
● The human brain is made up of
three parts:
○ Forebrain: it is the
anterior part of the brain
consisting of the Cerebrum, Hypothalamus and Thalamus.
■ Thalamus play an important role in processing and relaying sensory
information selectively to various parts of the cerebral cortex.
■ Hypothalamus play an important role in general regulation of the system.
■ Pituitary is responsible for the production of hormones as it is part of the
Endocrine System.
○ Midbrain is the smaller and central part of the brainstem
■ It is associated with vision, hearing, motor control, sleep/wake, arousal
(alertness), and temperature regulation
 ○ Hindbrain is the central region of the brain, composed of the Cerebellum,
Medulla and Pons.
■ It is responsible for functions that are fundamental to survival, including
respiratory rhythm, motor activity, sleep, and wakefulness.

Spinal Cord
● It is a cylindrical bundle of nerve fibres and associated tissues enclosed within the spine.
● It connects all parts of the body to the brain.
● Spinal Cord begins with the medulla and extends downwards.
● It is enclosed in a bony cage of vertebrae known as a vertebral column and is
surrounded by membranes called
meninges.
● The spinal cord is responsible for spinal
reflex actions and the conduction of
nerve impulses to and from the brain.

Peripheral Nervous System

It is the lateral part of the nervous system that
originates from the central nervous system. It
connects different parts of the body with the
CNS.
There are two types of nerve fibres in the
Peripheral Nervous system:
1. Afferent nerve fibres are responsible
for transmitting messages from tissues
and organs to the Central Nervous
System.
2. Efferent nerve fibres are responsible
for conveying messages from CNS to
the corresponding peripheral organ.

Classification of the PNS:

● Somatic neural system (SNS):
○ It is the neural system which
consists of somatic nerves and
controls the voluntary actions in the body through the transmission of impulses
from CNS to skeletal muscle cells.
● Autonomic neural system (ANS)
○ It is a self-regulating system which conveys the impulses from the CNS to the
smooth muscles and involuntary organs (heart, bladder and pupils) and is
involved in involuntary actions like regulation of physiological functions
(digestion, respiration, salivation, etc.).
Neuron
A Neuron is a structural and functional unit of the nervous system. They are irregular in shape
and able to conduct electrochemical signals.

Structure of Neuron:
● Dendrite stretches out from the cell body of a neuron. It is the shortest fibre in the cell
body.
● Axon or nerve fibre is a long, slender projection of a nerve cell, or neuron, in

vertebrates, that typically conducts electrical impulses and has an insulating and
protective sheath of myelin around it.
● Cell body consists of cytoplasm and nucleus.
● Synapse refers to the microscopic gap between a pair of adjacent neurons through
which nerve impulses pass when moving from one neuron to the other.

Nerves
They are thread-like structures that emerge from the brain and spinal cord and are made up of
neurons. It carries messages to all the parts of the body.
Types of Nerves:
● Sensory nerves take messages from all the sensory organs to the brain.
● Motor nerves take messages from the brain to all the muscles of the body.
● Mixed nerves carry both sensory and motor signals.
Previous Year Question
2013
Q1 Consider the following minerals:
1. Calcium
2. Iron
3. Sodium
Which of the minerals given above is/are required by the human body for the contraction of
muscles?
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
Role and significance of Vitamins for public health
Vitamins are organic compounds required by the body in small quantities. They are generally
not synthesised by our body so they are essential to be supplied by outside food sources.
Vitamins were first named as Accessory factors by Hopkins (1929), who also won the Nobel
prize in medicine for identifying the significance of Accessory factors. It was Funk who later
named them Vitamins.
There are largely two groups of vitamins namely
1. Fat-soluble vitamins: Vitamin A, Vitamin D, Vitamin E, Vitamin K
2. Water soluble vitamins: Vitamin C and B-complex

Fat-Soluble Vitamins
● Fat-soluble vitamins are called so because they need a fat-rich diet for their absorption
in the body.
● They are generally stored in the liver for an extent of up to 1 year.
● Beyond this period if there is no uptake deficiency starts to appear.
Hypervitaminosis
The over-intake of certain vitamins particularly fat-soluble vitamins including vitamin A and
Vitamin D may lead to harmful effects on the body. The condition is known as
Hypervitaminosis may damage the liver with the symptoms of loss of hunger, and loss of
hair with dry and rough skin.

Vitamin A (Retinol)
Sources:
● Plant source: dark green and yellow fruits and vegetables, papaya, mango, carrot.
These are rich in Beta carotene which is a precursor to vitamin A. thus these are indirect
sources.
● Animal source is a direct source of vitamin A such as fish, fish liver oil, and meat
including liver, egg etc.

Role and significance:

● It increases the production of WBCs (white blood cells), thus is also called an
anti-infection vitamin.
● It aids in the formation of tears.
● It is responsible for Rhodopsin synthesis which is necessary for dim light vision.
Golden Rice
Is a Genetically modified rice which contains the Beta carotene gene and after consumption
gets converted into vitamin A. it has been used as an important public health intervention to
combat nutritional deficiency of vitamin A in a population where the staple diet is rice.

Deficiency
 ● Xerophathalamia: It is characterised by dry eyeballs, especially of the cornea and
conjunctiva of the eyes. Moreover, severe and prolonged deficiency of vitamin A, it may
lead to blindness.
● Nyctalopia: it is also known as night blindness, in the ability to see at night.
● Deficiency of vitamin A causes an increase in dark adaptation time due to a delay in the
resynthesis of depleted visual pigment Rhodopsin (present in rods of the retina).
● It reduces immunity making the body vulnerable to various diseases or infections.

Vitamin D (Calciferol)
Vitamin D is also known as the sunshine vitamin. It is synthesised in the body with the help of
the skin, liver and kidney in the presence of Sunlight. Its functional form is Calcitriol.

Source: fish liver oil, egg, Milk, sunlight etc.

Role and Significance:
● Vitamin D is responsible for the deposition of minerals, calcium and phosphorous into
the bone which maintains the strength and rigidity of bones to withstand our body
weight.
Deficiency:
● Rickets: it is generally seen in infants and children and characterised by softening of
skull bones and delay in teeth formation including sitting and standing posture of an
infant. It can lead to the bending of bones due to increase body weight leading to
conditions like Bowlegs.
● Osteomalacia: It is seen in adults, characterised by the demineralisation of bones which
means reduced calcium and phosphorous of the bones, making the bones softer which
makes bones prone to fractures even due to minor injuries.
● Renal Rickets: It is seen in individuals with kidney failure/ kidney disease where the
functional form of vitamin D may not be formed.

Vitamin E (Tocopherol)
Vitamin E is a strong antioxidant. It can counter oxidants and can prevent cancer, cataract, and
anaemia and also delay the process of ageing.

Free Radical/ Oxidant is characterised by the presence of unpaired electron which makes
them unstable so they attack body cells to attain stability, but in turn leads to oxidative stress on
the body which leads to
● Increase in the rate of ageing like wrinkling of the skin, hair loss and dental loss.
● It destroys red blood cells causing anaemia.
● Damage of eye lens causing opacity of eye lens leading to cataracts.
● Death of heart muscle sometimes leads to a heart attack.
● It may damage DNA causing genetic change/ mutation which may lead to cancer.
Further, external factors like cigarette smoking and pollution produce a large amount of free
radicals in the body.
Sources of vitamin E: Sunflower oil, soybean oil, wheat germ oil, nuts like almonds,
pomegranate, and broccoli.

Vitamin K
Is Also known as Phylloquinole which is essential for the formation of blood clotting proteins
such as prothrombin and fibrinogen to be produced by liver cells.

Source:
● Animal source: meat, egg, milk and milk products
● Plant source: spinach and cabbage.

Deficiency:
● It leads to a deficiency of blood clotting proteins like prothrombin and fibrinogen which
delay the process of blood clotting or increase blood clotting time.
● It also leads to more loss of blood or haemorrhage and therefore it is also known as an
Anti-Hemorrhage vitamin.

Water Soluble Vitamins

● Water soluble vitamins are more temperature sensitive as they may get destroyed by
direct sunlight or even at cooking temperature.
● If there are no thorough meals for a period of more than 2-3 months deficiency symptom
starts to appear
● The excess of water-soluble vitamins is eliminated via the urine. The synthetic bacteria
E.Coli residing in the large intestine produce vitamins B1, B2, B3, and vitamin K
(fat-soluble)

Vitamin C (Ascorbic Acid)

Vitamin C also known as ascorbic acid is also an antioxidant vitamin same as vitamin E.

Functions:
● Vitamin C is essential for collagen protein synthesis which is responsible for tissue
repair/ wound healing and formation of bones.
● It facilitates the absorption of iron in the body.
● It is responsible for the formation of active components of vitamin B9 or folic acid which
is essential for red blood cells.

Source: citrus fruits, tomato, grapes, guava, gooseberries etc.

A deficiency of vitamin C causes scurvy which is characterized by decreased collagen protein

synthesis which delays the process of wound healing and this adversely affects particularly the
soft tissues of the body like Gums (in form of swollen and bleeding gums).

B-Complex
Sources:
● Whole grain cereal, sprouted grain, milk and milk products, egg
● fungus, yeast, legumes, green leafy vegetables.
Common functions of B-complex vitamins
● It is essential for the metabolism of nutrients carbohydrates, proteins and fats like the
oxidation of glucose to release energy.
● It is essential for the production of RBC and Haemoglobin.
● It is essential for the proper functioning of the nervous system in the form of myelin
synthesis for the formation of a fat-rich insulating layer known as myelin sheath covering
the axon of neurons which prevents loss of message during nerve impulse transmission
and also boosts our memory.
● It is also essential to maintain healthy skin, lips, mouth and tongue.

Vitamin Scientific name Source Deficiency

B1 Thiamine Beef, liver, dried ● Gastrointestinal disturbances in the

milk, nuts, oats, form of indigestion, constipation,
oranges, pork, anorexia etc.
egg, legumes, ● Deficiency of Thiamine is also known
peas etc. as Beri-Beri. It is of two types
○ Dry Beri Beri: nerves and
muscle weakness.
○ Wet Beri Beri: weakening
blood vessels sometimes
leading to heart failure.
B2 Riboflavin Dairy milk, ● Dermatitis: inflammation of skin
Yogurt, Eggs, leading to dry, rough and red skin
Cheese, Lean ● Glossitis: inflammation of tongue
beef and pork, leading to tongue ulcer
Salmon, Fortified ● Chelosis: crack and fissures on lips
cereal and bread, and corner of the mouth.
Almond.
B3 Niacin Is found in eggs ● Pellagra: dermatitis, diarrhoea, and
(Essential amino and milk. mental disturbance, and is often
acid known as linked to over-dependence on maize
Tryptophan is as a staple food.
required for its ● Prolonged pellagra sometimes leads
formation ) to death.
B5 Pantothenic Acid Broccoli, ● Gastrointestine disorder
cabbage white ● Nervous disorder
and sweet
 potatoes, ● Burning feet symptom (sensation of
whole-grain tingling and numbness)
cereals
B6 Pyridoxin Beef liver, Tuna, ● Anemia as it is responsible for
Salmon, Fortified haemoglobin synthesis.
cereals, Poultry, ● Convulsions and Seizure as it is
Chickpeas, dark needed for the synthesis of chemical
leafy greens, neurotransmitters.
bananas,
papayas, orange
B7 Biotin walnuts, peanuts, Excessive consumption of raw egg white
cereals, milk, and which contains Avidin protein, which prevents
egg yolks. absorption of Biotin
● Gastrointestine disorder
● Nervous disorder
● Loss of hair
B9 Folic Acid Dark green leafy Responsible for maturation of Red blood
vegetables cells, help in DNA synthesis and cell division.
(turnip, spinach, Its deficiency leads to Megaloblastic
romaine lettuce, Anaemia.
asparagus,
Brussels sprouts,
broccoli), Beans,
Peanuts,
Sunflower seeds
B12 Cyanocobalamin Fish, shellfish Is Responsible for the maturation of Red
Liver, Red meat, blood cells, myelin synthesis, and DNA
Eggs, Poultry, synthesis and its deficiency leads to
and Dairy Pernicious Anaemia, megaloblastic
products such as anaemia
milk, cheese, and
yoghurt

Previous Year Questions

2014

Q1: Consider the following pairs:

Vitamin Deficiency Disease

1. Vitamin C Scurvy
 2. Vitamin D Rickets
3. Vitamin E Night blindness
Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched?
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 3 only
(c) 1, 2 and 3
(d) None
Answer: A
Health and Lipids
Lipids are fatty, waxy, or oily compounds which are soluble in organic solvents like carbon
tetrachloride and carbon disulphide and are insoluble in polar solvents such as water. Lipids
include Fats, oils (triglycerides) and cholesterol.

Organic Solvents
Organic solvents are derived from living organisms. These are organic compounds which
vaporise at room temperature.
Role of Lipids:
● Lipids act as a concentrated source of energy especially at the time of starving for
example in the hibernation period of bears.
● These are essential for the proper functioning and structural integrity of the Nervous
system as myelin sheath is a fat-rich insulating layer.
● Essential for the reproduction system as the steroid hormones like Estrogen and
Testosterone are lipids based.
● It is important for the absorption of fat-soluble vitamins.
● It provides heat insulation for example a fat-rich layer of blubber beneath the skin of
whales, and polar bears and a layer of Adipose tissue made up of fat cells adipocytes.

Fats and Oil (triglycerides)

Fats and oil are made up of triglycerides, which are esters consisting of three fatty acid units
connected to glycerol. Fats are a type of lipid which are solid at room temperature and have
higher melting points whereas oil is in a liquid state and has a lower melting point.

Types of fats

Saturated Fat
Saturated fat is characterised by the single bond
between a carbon atom of the hydrocarbon chain.
They have a higher melting point.

Source:
● These are found mainly in animal food
sources like milk ghee and butter in the
form of butyric acid, meat and egg whites.
● However, the exceptional plant source of saturated fatty acid is coconut oil and palm oil.
Unsaturated Fat
These are characterised by the presence of one or more double bonds between the
carbon atoms. They have lower melting points and remain in the liquid state at room
temperature.

Monounsaturated fatty acids are the ones with the presence of only one double bond
whereas Polyunsaturated fatty acids are the ones with the presence of more than one i.e. 2 or
more double bonds. PUFA includes essential fatty acids like Omega 3 PUFA, Linolenic Acid and
Omega 6 PUFA, Linoleic Acid. these are essential because they cannot be synthesised by the
body so they are needed from outside food sources. After consumption of Omega 3 PUFA
linoleic acid, it gets converted into Docosahexaenoic (DHA) which is essential for the
development of the nervous system including the brain of the child. Both PUFA and MUFA
promote heart health thus reducing the risk of a heart attack.

Source:
● MUFA: Olive oil
● PUFA: vegetable oil, Sunflower oil, soybean oil.
● Fish is a direct source of DHA which it gets by consuming phytoplankton microalgae.

Hydrogenation of Fats
Conversion of
unsaturated fat into saturated
fat i.e conversion of double
bonds into single bonds by
adding hydrogen atoms which
are intended to increase
melting points and thus
change the state of the fat and
increase the shelf life as it
becomes less prone to
rancidity.

It requires a catalyst
(especially Nickle, platinum,
palladium) to convert
unsaturated fats into saturated
fat especially vegetable oil for example Vanaspati ghee.

Transfats
Partial hydrogenation refers to the conversion of some double bonds into single bonds
while other double bonds remain whereas the arrangement of hydrogen atoms in the acid
changes from the cis arrangement (the same side) to the trans arrangement (opposite side)
and the result are called Transfats. They have increased melting points and increased shelf life.
However, its consumption increases the risk of Heart attack and brain stroke.

Elimination of Transfats:
● FSSAI had capped trans fats in oils & fats to 2% by 2022 in food products.
● World Health Organisation (WHO) has called for the elimination of industrially produced
trans fatty acids from the global food supply by 2023.

Lipoprotein
Lipoproteins are molecular complexes formed by the combination of lipids and proteins
known as lipoprotein which acts as a transport vehicle for the transportation of lipids by blood.
Depending upon the proportion of lipids and proteins they are classified as high-density
lipoprotein, low-density lipoprotein and very low-density lipoproteins in the increasing order of
lipids content and lower protein content.

Types of Lipoprotein
● High-density lipoprotein (HDL) includes PUFA and MUFA which reduces the risk of
heart attack and is considered good cholesterol.
Do you know?
For a healthy heart, HDL must be greater than 50 mg/dl while VLDL, and LDL together should
be less than 100mg/dl.

● Low-density and very low-density lipoprotein (LDL and VLDL) includes saturated
fatty acid and trans fat which increases the risk of heart attack and thus comes under the
category of bad cholesterol.

Previous year Questions

2011
Q1: A company marketing food products advertises that its items do not contain trans-fats.
What does this campaign signify to the customers?
1. food products are not made out of hydrogenated oils.
2. food products are not made out of animal fats.
3. The oils used are not likely to damage the cardiovascular health of consumers.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
Immunity and Immunization
Immunity refers to the resistance of the host/ body to fight disease-causing organisms. It is a
defence mechanism of the body provided by the body’s immune system.

Types of Immunity

Innate immunity: It is a non-specific defence which is present since birth in our body. It is
immediate in nature.

Adaptive/ Acquired immunity: It is a pathogen-specific defence which takes time to develop

during the lifetime of an organism. It produces a strong and specific immune response.
● When the body encounters a pathogen for the first time and the response it produces
refers to the Primary response. It is a weak or less intense response.
● The response of the body’s immune system on subsequent encounters with the same
pathogen refers to as a secondary and anamnestic response.

Adaptive immunity response is carried out by the lymphocytes of two types:

● Humoral immunity: it is imparted by the B-cell lymphocytes. These cells secrete
antibodies in response to the antigen which circulates in the blood and impart immunity.
B cells mature in the Bone Marrow of the human body
● Cell-Mediated immunity: it involves the role of T-cell lymphocytes. T-cells mature in
the thymus gland of the body.
○ Helper T-cells: they activate humoral immunity by stimulating B-cells to produce
antibodies.
○ Suppressor t cells: they prevent an excessive immune response.
○ Killer T-cells: They are responsible for direct attacks to destroy pathogens.
Antigen
Antigen are the surface protein on the cells of living
organisms which act as biological markers or
identities of body cells. The antigen present on our
body cell surface is called self-antigen. While antigen
present in other living organisms including other
human beings is called a foreign antigen.

Antibodies
Whenever a foreign antigen enters our body
activating the immune response in the form of
activation of WBCs to produce defence proteins
called antibodies to destroy the foreign antigen.

Structure of Antibodies
● Each antibody has four peptide chains.
● It has 2 heavy chains and 2 light chains.
Active and Passive Immunity
The response of the body i.e. production of antibodies in response to the foreign antigen
refers to as Active immunity. It is a slow response and takes time to be fully effective. When
ready-made antibodies are directly given to protect the body against foreign antigens is called
Passive immunity. Colostrum secreted by the mother of the newborn containing IgA in
abundance is an example of passive immunity.

Immunisation and vaccination

Immunisation is a process whereby a person is made immune/ resistant to an infectious
disease typically by the administration of a vaccine. The vaccine stimulates the body’s own
immune system to protect the person against subsequent inefctions and disease. It works on
the principle of passive immunity.

Significance:
● It is a tool for controlling and eliminating life-threatening infectious diseases and is
estimated to avert between two to three million deaths each year.
● It is the most cost-effective health intervention or investment with proven strategies that
is accessible even to the most hard-to-reach and vulnerable population.
● Strategy against deadly disease begins with control i.e. preventing the spread of disease
in the community followed by elimination with the common and ultimate aim of global
eradication to protect humanity.
● Smallpox is the only vaccine-preventable disease which has been eradicated globally
in the year 1980.

Principle of immunisation and vaccination

It is based on the property of immunological memory that helps in establishing activated
lymphocytes known as memory cells during the primary immune response. Thus vaccination
takes the advantage of the secondary immune response.

Types of Vaccines
There are three types of vaccines:
● Live attenuated/ weakened pathogen vaccine
● Killed or inactivated vaccine
● Recombinant vaccine.
● mRNA Vaccine
● Conjugate Vaccine
● Toxoid Vaccine

Live attenuated Vaccine

It refers to the introduction of attenuated/ weekend pathogen into the body of a healthy
individual where the vaccine virus undergoes controlled and checked multiplication and
simultaneously triggers immune response for the development of memory cells which will further
eliminate the virus and help develop a stronger immune response against the pathogen.
 However, this type of vaccine is counterproductive to immunocompromised
individuals like those one suffering from AIDS or cancer. In these cases, the vaccine virus
undergoes rapid multiplication and mutation to a developed more virulent form. These types of
infections are called Vaccine derived infections. The safety margin of the live attenuated
vaccine is lower than the inactivated/killed vaccine.
Examples of live attenuated vaccines are the oral polio vaccine, and the Bacillus
Calmette Guerin Vaccine (BCG) examples of vaccine-derived infections include vaccine-derived
poliovirus named polio paralysis and SABIN by the oral polio vaccine.

Killed or inactivated vaccine

In this type of vaccine pathogen is dead/ inactivated which means it can never multiply,
preventing mutation and vaccine-derived infections therefore safety margin of these vaccines is
higher. However, the strength of immunity development is lower than in live attenuated
vaccines. An example of this vaccine is inactivated polio vaccine also known s the SALK
vaccine which was
introduced by Jones
SALK.

Recombinant Vaccine
Recombinant vaccine is
also known as Subunit
Vaccine use only part of
a target pathogen to
initiate a response from
the immune system. This
can be done by isolating
a specific protein from a
pathogen and presenting
it as an antigen on its
own. Examples of
Subunit vaccines are
Hepatitis B, and
influenza Vaccine

Conjugate vaccines are similar to recombinant vaccines as they are made using a combination
of two different components. Conjugate vaccines are made using pieces from coats of bacteria.
These coats are linked to a carrier protein, and the combination is then used as a vaccine

mRNA Vaccine is a novel type of vaccine which is composed of nucleic acid RNA, packaged
within a vector such as lipid nanoparticles.

Toxoid Vaccine
These vaccine use toxoids as antigens to initiate an immune response in protecting against
diseases caused by specific toxins secreted by particular bacteria.

Herd Immunity
As per the World Health Organization “Herd immunity', also known as 'population
immunity', is the indirect protection from an infectious disease that happens when a population
is immune either through vaccination
or immunity developed through the
previous infection.”

In the COVID-19 infection, the world

tried to achieve herd immunity. Herd
immunity is effective for
communicable diseases. It provides
benefit vaccination beyond
vaccinated individuals such that
vaccination is also beneficial at a
community level.
When a sufficient number of
individuals in a population are
immune to a disease which would
occur in a large proportion of the population is not vaccinated, herd immunity is achieved.

HI acts by breaking the transmission of infection or by reducing the chances of susceptible

individuals coming in contact with the person who is infectious. It provides a measure of
protection to individuals who are not personally immune to a particular disease.

It played an important role in the successful eradication of smallpox and is vital in preventing the
spread of diseases such as Polio.

Universal Immunization Programme

Complete immunisation against preventable childhood disease is the right of every child,
with a view of providing this right to every child, the Government of India launched the Universal
immunisation programme in 1985.
Despite being operational for about 30 years, UIP has been able to be fully immune to
only 62% of children and moreover, the increase in coverage stagnated at 1%. Every year 5
lakh children die in India due to various preventable diseases and 89 lakh children remain at risk
because they are not fully immunised against vaccine-preventable diseases.
To accelerate the process of immunisation coverage for all children upto 2 years of age
and pregnant women Mission Indradhanush was launched in 2014 for seven
vaccine-preventable diseases and by 2017 it provides vaccination for 12 life-threatening
vaccine-preventable diseases under Intensified Mission Indradhanush with the main focus on
children in urban areas. The ultimate goal of the mission is to increase the overage to the extent
of 90% from 62% by December 2018. An independent survey (2018) conducted in 190 IMI
districts has shown an average increase of 18.5 percentage points in Full immunisation
coverage.

Diseases covered in UIP:

1. Diphtheria
2. Pertussis
3. Tetanus
4. Hepatitis B
5. Tuberculosis
6. Poliomyelitis
7. Measles
Since 2014, five new diseases have also been covered
8. Rubella
9. Rotavirus
10. Japanese encephalitis
11. Pneumonia (Haemophilus influenza type B)
12. Pneumococcal Conjugate Vaccine (PCV)

Previous Year Question

2022
Q1: Which one of the following statements best describes the role of B cells and T cells in the
human body?
(a) They protect the body from environmental allergens.
(b) They alleviate the body's pain and inflammation.
(c) They act as immunosuppressants in the body.
(d) They protect the body from diseases caused by pathogens.

2021
Q2: With reference to recent developments regarding ‘Recombinant Vector Vaccines’, consider
the following statements:
1. Genetic engineering is applied in the development of these vaccines.
2. Bacteria and viruses are used as vectors.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 Only
(b) 2 Only
(c) Both 1 and 2
(d) Neither 1 nor 2

2020
Q3: What is the importance of using \ Pneumococcal Conjugate Vaccines in India?
1. These vaccines are effective against pneumonia as well as meningitis and sepsis.
2. Dependence on antibiotics that are not effective against drug-resistant bacteria can be
reduced.
3. These vaccines have no side effects and cause no allergic reactions.

Select the correct answer using the code given below:

(a) 1 only
(b) 1 and 2 only
(c) 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3

2014
Q4 Consider the following diseases
1. Diphtheria
2. Chickenpox
3. Smallpox
Which of the above diseases has/have been eradicated in India?
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 3 only
(c) 1, 2 and 3
(d) None

Answers
1(d) 2(b) 3(b) 4(b)

Human Diseases

Tuberculosis
TB is a bacterial disease caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis. It is a communicable disease
and can easily transfer by coughing and sneezing. Bacteria come into the air infecting other
individuals in the community. The TB bacteria has been developing drug resistance resulting in
the emergence of a different form of Antimicrobial resistance.

MDR Tuberculosis or multi-drug resistance Tuberculosis is a form of TB caused by

bacteria which are resistant to the first-line drugs of TB namely Isoniazid and Rifampicin.
Inappropriate tuberculosis or incorrect use of medicine or even poor quality of medicine is
responsible for the development of MDR TB.

XDR TB is caused by the TB bacillus which is resistant to not only the first-line drug but also the
second-line drug of TB namely fluoroquinolone and injectable anti-tuberculosis drugs namely
Amikacin, and Kanamycin.

Negative impacts:
● These resistant forms of TB do not respond to the standard six-month treatment but
require 2 years or more treatment.
● Thus it is more expensive.
● Also increases the toxicity of the body which can have adverse reactions on the body
like liver failure and hearing loss.
● There is a reduced effectiveness of treatment which means reduced therapeutic effect.

Symptoms of Tuberculosis:
The most common form of tuberculosis is lung or pulmonary tuberculosis have the following
symptoms
● chronic cough for more than 3 weeks
● Fever, chest pain
● Blood in sputum
● Swollen lymph nodes and
● Excessive weight loss

Diagnosis:
● Sputum Smear Microscopy
● Drug susceptibility test
● Gene Xpert

WHO Global Tuberculosis Report 2022

● Global: Diagnosis and Mortality
○ In 2021, around 10.6 million people were diagnosed with TB, an increase of 4.5%
from 2020.
○ There were 1.6 million deaths because of the disease of which 187,000 patients
were also positive for HIV (human immunodeficiency virus) with maximum deaths
among HIV-negative people in the African and South-East Asia regions.
 ○ The reported number of people newly diagnosed with TB decreased from 7.1

million in 2019 to 5.8 million in 2020.

● India and TB:
○ Indian accounts for the highest i.e. 28% of cases
○ Top eight countries account for 68.3% of the total TB patients count which
includes Indonesia (9.2% cases), China (7.4%), the Philippines (7%), Pakistan
(5.8%), Nigeria (4.4%), Bangladesh (3.6%) and the Democratic Republic of the
Congo (2.9%).
○ India accounted for 36% of the global TB-related deaths among HIV-negative
people.
○ India, Indonesia and the Philippines accounted for most of the reduction in
2020 (67% of the global) and made partial recoveries in 2021.

TB failure in India
● Inadequate efforts on social parameters poverty and malnutrition and also smoking fuel
the TB epidemic.
● Weak public health system which is unable to provide a point-of-care diagnosis and
treatment at primary healthcare centres including complicated long-care diagnostic
delays of up to 2 months.
● India still prefers sputum smear microscopic examination for TB detection as the prime
detection test which is cheaper but outdated and can not differentiate between normal
and MDR types of TB.
● India has not yet adopted Fixed dose combination (FDC) as a standard care, particularly
in child TB cases.

Prevention and control of Tuberculosis

 ● Vaccination: BCG vaccine is a live attenuated vaccine which contains cattle
tuberculosis bacteria, mycobacterium Boris. This vaccine helps in the development of
80% immunity mainly against brain tuberculosis which can cause death in a child. This
vaccine also develops immunity against another fatal disease Leprosy caused by
Mycobacterium Leprae.
● TB programme: India Adopted the National TB control (NTBC) programme in 1962
followed by adopting DOTS (Directly Observed Treatment Short course) guidelines by
wHO under its Revised NTBC programme in 1997.
● National Strategic plan: India launched a National Strategic plan for the elimination of
TB 2017-2025 with an aim to eliminate the TB epidemic by 2025 for which certain steps
were taken
○ Making Gene Xpert test available for drug resistance TB diagnosis including
MDR Tuberculosis in the district hospital.
○ Improving the availability of an effective MDR-TB drug known as Bedaquiline
which reduces toxicity.
● e-Nikshay: India has also introduced a web-based platform known as e-Nikshay for
mandatory case notification of TB in both public and private health care for improved and
accurate surveillance of TB.
● TRUEnat MTB: it is a battery-operated, portable and indigenous diagnostic device even
for drug-resistant TB which is based on a DNA chip using sputum or blood sample. This
has been developed by Goa-based Molbio Diagnostics. This was introduced to enable
point-of-care and diagnosis of drug-resistant tuberculosis.
● Global: WHO passed a resolution in 2016 adopting the END-TB strategy, a target under
sustainable development goals for more than 90% reduction in new TB cases with the
ultimate goal to end the TB epidemic with “0” (Zero) TB incidences by 2035. India’s goal
is to eliminate it by 2025.

Principle and Pillars of END-TB Strategy

I: Integrated Patient-Centred Care and prevention
● Early diagnosis of TB including Drug susceptibility testing.
● Treatment of tuberculosis including MDR TB cases.
● Vaccination against Tuberculosis.
● Collaborative TB-HIV activities.
II: Bold Policies and supportive systems
● Strong political will to make available sustainable financial resources to control TB.
● Engagement of communities civil society organisation public and private health care
providers.
● Universal Health coverage policy and framework for case notification.
● Social protection and poverty alleviation.
III: Intensified Research and Innovation
● Discovery, development and rapid uptake of tools, interventions and strategies to deal
with tuberculosis.

HIV-AIDS
Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) is a chronic, potentially life-threatening condition
caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). It impacts/damages your immune system,
and HIV interferes with your body's ability to fight infection and disease. It impacts helper
T-cells. HIV is a sexually transmitted infection.

HIV virus is a retrovirus which means it can

undergo the process of reverse transcription by
using a special enzyme known as HIV enzyme or
reverse transcriptase by which HIV-RNA can form
or produce viral DNA, followed by the production
of viral RNA and then viral protein synthesis.

Stages of HIV infection:

● Early or initial stage: entry of HIV virus
into the body followed by the rapid
multiplication of HIV virus in HIV positive
body resulting in influenza-like illness or
flu-like symptoms such as fever,
headache, sore throat, muscle pain,
swollen lymph nodes and rashes on the
body. The immune response produces antibodies against HIV, so the virus enters the
latent phase.
● Latent or hidden stage: it is characterised by slow multiplication by gradually settling in
HIV positive bodies infecting and destroying more and more Helper-T cells for the next
few years of infections which reduces immunity causing excessive weight loss. The
incubation period on average is 10 years.
● Advanced AIDS phase: It is characterised by an advanced stage of HIV infection with
reduced CD4 blood cell count. Thus making the HIV-positive person vulnerable to
secondary bacterial and viral infections including TB and cancer.

Transmission of HIV
● Sexual transmission is the prime route of HIV, it includes both homosexual and
heterosexual transmission.
● Contaminated blood and blood products transfusion.
● Intravenous use of drugs in use of sharing of infected needles
● HIV-positive mother to foetus during pregnancy or even after birth via breastfeeding,
colostrum is also known as Perinatal or vertical transmission.
However, body fluids like saliva, sweat, tears, urine and faeces do not transmit HIV and infection
provided these are not blood-stained.

Diagnosis of HIV
ELISA i.e. Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Essay is a common diagnostic technique used
generally for viral disease including for HIV testing based on specific antigen-antibody
interaction. Whereby enzyme-linked Antibodies along with specific antigen is put inside the
instrument spectrophotometer which will emit a specific colour/ wavelength of light and help in
the visible detection of infection.

Treatment
● Since HIV is a retrovirus the antiviral drug used against HIV is known as an
Anti-retroviral drug and the treatment is known as Antiretroviral therapy.
● HAART: The most effective ART is known as HAART (highly active anti-retrovirus
treatment).
○ It is a combination therapy in which 3 or more drugs are given to HIV-positive to
delay or prevent the development of drug resistance or AMR in HIV.
○ Thereby maintaining the effectiveness of ART for a longer duration reduces viral
load or viral antigen concentration in the body.
○ Thus, preventing transmission of HIV to the extent of 95-96 per cent from
HIV-positive to another individual in the community or from HIV-positive mother to
foetus.
○ It also helps in improving the CD4 count and regaining immunity preventing AIDS
and secondary infection and leading a prolonged life without any death risk.
● However, there is no permanent cure for AIDS which means the virus may not be
eliminated from the body.
Risk factor: HIV virus can undergo frequent mutation to constantly change the nature of
antigens a million times faster than our immune response, thereby they can easily evade the
immune response and further suppress immunity.

Vaccination: there is no vaccine against AIDS because the virus is capable of frequent
mutation.

Global status of HIV-AIDS

● According to the Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS), as of
2021,
○ 38.4 million people were infected with HIV, out of which 1.7 million were
children.
○ 54% of all people living with HIV were women and girls.
○ 85% of all people living with HIV knew their HIV status in 2021.
○ In 2021, 6,50,000 people died of AIDS-related diseases.
National status of HIV-AIDS
● According to UNAIDS, 2021
○ Around 2.4 million people were living with HIV in India in 2021 (including 70,000
children).
○ Maharashtra had the maximum number of HIV patients followed by Andhra
Pradesh and Karnataka.

India’s Initiatives to Curb AIDS Disease

● HIV and AIDS (Prevention and Control) Act, 2017:
 ○ This bill will ensure equal rights to the people infected with HIV and AIDS in
getting treatment and prevent discrimination of any kind.
○ Though the prevalence of HIV has been decreasing over the last decade, India
still has the third largest HIV epidemic in the world only after South Africa and
Nigeria.
○ According to this act, the central and state governments shall take measures to
prevent the spread of HIV or AIDS.
○ Further, it aims at achieving the sustainable development goal by ending the
epidemic by 2030.
○ For ensuring privacy, the bi prohibits HIV testing/ medical treatment without
informed consent. There are also penal provisions for discrimination and breach
of confidentiality.
○The bill provides legal rights for all HIV positive to have access to HIV treatment,
counselling, prevention and control.
● Access to ART:
○
India has made an achievement in making Antiretroviral Therapy (ART)
affordable and accessible to over 90 per cent of people living with HIV in the
world.
● Memorandum of Understanding (MoU):
○ The Ministry of Health and Family Welfare and the Ministry of Social Justice and
Empowerment in 2019 signed an MOU for enhanced HIV/AIDS outreach and to
reduce the incidence of social stigma and discrimination against victims of drug
abuse and Children and People Living with HIV/AIDS.
● Project Sunrise:
○ It was launched by the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare in 2016, to tackle
the rising HIV prevalence in northeastern states in India, especially among
people injecting drugs.

COVID-19
COVID-19 pandemic or the novel coronavirus outbreak in 2019-2020 is a new strain of
viruses which shocked the entire world leading to severe casualties and lockdowns in the entire
world. It causes fever, cough, breathing difficulties, pneumonia and even death in humans.

The new coronavirus or COVID-19 was first identified in Wuhan, China in December
2019. It has affected more than 50,00,000 people all over the world and has resulted in more
than 3,00,000 deaths and is still undergoing. The World Health Organization (WHO) declared
the coronavirus outbreak of 2019–20 a Public Health Emergency of International Concern
(PHEIC) initially, and later it was declared a pandemic.

What is Coronavirus?
 ● COVID-19 is caused by a Coronaviruses.
● They belong to a family of viruses called Coronaviridae and the order Nidovirales.
● Coronaviruses is the Latin word “corona” which means Crown. They get their name from
their crown-like shape.
● They are found in animals and birds and are zoonotic – as they are transmitted between
animals and people.
● Coronavirus also causes diseases like result in severe diseases such as respiratory
syndromes (MERS – Middle East Respiratory Syndrome and SARS – Severe Acute
Respiratory Syndrome).

Novel Coronavirus (COVID-19)

● COVID-19 was caused by a new strain of the coronavirus that has not been identified
previously and thus is called
a novel coronavirus (nCov).
● Coronavirus disease 2019 is
caused by Severe Acute
Respiratory Syndrome
Coronavirus 2
(SARS-CoV-2), a virus
closely related to the SARS
virus. The disease has been
given the official name
COVID-19.
● Novel coronavirus is a
highly infectious disease
and spreads rapidly, the
death rate is low about
3.7%.
Structure of Coronavirus
There are four main structural parts
of the Coronavirus
● Viral Envelope
● The spike protein, club-shaped protrusions
● MEmbrane protein
● Nucleocapsid.

Coronavirus Genome
● It consists of an RNA genome and is one of the largest in the RNA family.
● Coronaviruses are enveloped viruses and contain single-stranded positive-sense RNA.
● The RNA attaches to the ribosome of the host cell for translation.
● Positive sense RNA can also function as messenger RNA thus viral RNA sequence may
be directly translated into the desired viral proteins.
Coronavirus (COVID-19) – Origin and Transmission
 ● Origin: It originates in animals like camels and bats. It is a zoonotic disease as it passes
from animals to humans occasionally.
● The source of a zoonotic disease is called Reservoir species and for SARS, the
reservoir species was identified as bats.
● The first known case of COVID-19 was traced to an animal market in the city of Wuhan
in December 2019.
● Spread of disease: As per WHO, the disease spreads in humans via exposure to
respiratory secretions like the small droplets from the nose or mouth of an infected
person either directly or indirectly.
● As compared to earlier outbreaks of SARS and MERS, COVID-19 has a greater global
spread and mutation in the virus strain is enabling it to be more efficiently transmitted.
Basic Reproduction number (R0)
It is a measure of transmissibility that aims to describe the average number of people a new
case can infect. For COVID-19, R0 is 1.4 to 2.5 as per WHO.

Symptoms:
● It affects the upper respiratory tract with varying severity.
● Various respiratory infections ranging from the common cold to bronchiolitis, various
diseases like pneumonia, gastroenteritis and neurological disorders can also occur.
● Other and more common symptoms include headache, chills, sore throat and cough.
● The incubation period of COVID-19 is from 2 to 5 days and symptoms have a range of 3
to 18 days.

Prevention of Disease
● Vaccination
● mRNA Vaccines:
■
mRNA vaccines include: Pfizer and Moderna vaccines developed in
the US.
■ Mechanisms of action: Vaccines will carry the molecular instructions to
make the protein in the body through a synthetic RNA of the virus.
■ The host body will use this to produce the viral protein. This protein is
recognized by the body and thus body mounts an immune response
against the disease.
● Viral Vector Vaccines:
■ Johnson & Johnson, Sputnik V and AstraZeneca-Oxford University
vaccine is a viral vector vaccine.
■ In this type of vaccine a modified version of other viruses like
adenovirus is used.
■ The virus can enter human cells but will not replicate inside the cells.
■ A gene for the coronavirus vaccine was added to the adenovirus DNA.
This allows the vaccine to target the spike proteins that SARS-CoV-2
uses to enter human cells.
 ● Inactivated Vaccines:
■ Covaxin by Bharat Biotech and Sinovac-CoronaVac is an inactivated
vaccine.
■ In these vaccines, an inactivated live virus is used to create an immune
response against the disease.
● Spike Protein Vaccines:
■ Corbevax, indigenously produced by Biological E, the Hyderabad-based
Pharmaceutical company is a recombinant protein subunit vaccine.
■ It is made up of a specific part of SARS-CoV-2 the spike protein on the
virus’s surface.
■ They have sharp bumps that protrude from the surface of their outer
envelopes. Those bumps are known as spike proteins.
■ These spike proteins facilitate the virus to enter the cells in the body so
that it can replicate and cause disease.
■ As it uses only the spike protein, it is not expected to be harmful as the
rest of the virus is absent.
■ Thus body develops immunity against the spike protein.
● Other preventive measures include:
● Avoid close contact with infected people.
● Avoid touching unsanitised eyes, nose, and mouth.
● Staying home when infected and using a facemask.
● Covering mouth and nose while coughing or sneezing.
Treatment: There is no specific antiviral treatment for COVID-19.

Other Human Coronaviruses Diseases

● Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS)
○ These cases were mainly reported in the Arabian Peninsula.
○ Symptoms include fever, cough, and shortness of breath which often progress to
pneumonia.
○ Fatality: about 3 or 4 out of every 10 infected individuals have died.
● Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS)
○ The 2003 SARS epidemic started with the spread of the virus from small
mammals in China.
○ Symptoms include fever, chills and body aches which usually progressed to
severe pneumonia and breathing difficulty.
○ SARS is more fatal, however, much less infectious than COVID-19.

Previous Year Question

2022
Q1: In the context of vaccines manufactured to prevent the COVID-19 pandemic, consider the
following statements:
 1. The Serum Institute of India produced a COVID-19 vaccine named Covishield using an
mRNA platform.
2. Sputnik V vaccine is manufactured using a vector-based platform
3. COVAXIN is an inactivated pathogen-based vaccine.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3

2021
Q2: The term ‘ACE2’ is talked about in the context of
(a) genes introduced in the genetically modified plants
(b) development of India’s own satellite navigation system
(c) radio collar for wildlife tracking
(d) spread of viral diseases

2019
Q3 Which one of the following statements is not correct?
(a) Hepatitis B virus is transmitted much like HIV.
(b) Hepatitis B., unlike Hepatitis C, does not have a vaccine.
(c) Globally, the number of people infected with Hepatitis B and C viruses arc several times
more than those infected with HIV.
(d) Some of those infected with Hepatitis B and C viruses do not show the symptoms for
many years.

2017
Q4: Consider the following statements:
1. In tropical regions, Zika virus disease is transmitted by ‘the same mosquito that transmits
dengue.
2. Sexual transmission of Zika virus disease is possible
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2
(d) Neither 1 nor 2

2015
Q5: H1N1 virus is sometimes mentioned in the news with reference to which one of the
following diseases?
(a) AIDS
(b) Bird flu
(c) Dengue
 (d) Swine flu

2013
Q6: Which of the following diseases can be transmitted from one person to another through
tattooing?
1. Chikungunya
2. Hepatitis B
3. HIV-AIDS
Select the correct answer using the codes given below:
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3

Answers

1(b) 2(d) 3(b) 4(c) 5(d)

6(b)

Mains Previous Year Question

Q1: COVID-19 pandemic has caused unprecedented devastation worldwide. However,

technological advancements are being availed readily to win over the crises. Give an account of
how technology was sought to aid the management of the Pandemic. (2020)

Q2: What do you understand about Fixed Dose Drug Combinations (FDCs)? Discuss their
merits and demerits( 2013)