1.

mul plexing and demul plexing in computer network *Rou ng Algorithm The principles of conges on control in TCP in computer networks:
Rou ng algorithms are procedures that determine the path of data packets from
*Mul plexing source to des na on. They assist in direc ng web traffic efficiently.
Mul plexing is a technique used in computer networks to transmit mul ple *Principles of Conges on Control
*Types of Rou ng Algorithms
signals or data streams over a single channel or link. This allows mul ple devices There are two main types of rou ng algorithms:
to share the same bandwidth, increasing the efficiency of the network. - *Adap ve Algorithms*: These algorithms change their rou ng decisions based
- *Prevent network overload*: Conges on control prevents networks
Types of Mul plexing: on network topology or traffic load changes. Examples include: from ge ng overloaded with too much data traffic.
1. *Time-Division Mul plexing (TDM)*: divides the channel into me slots, - Isolated - *Maintain network stability*: Conges on control ensures that
alloca ng each slot to a specific device. - Centralized networks remain stable and opera onal.
2. *Frequency-Division Mul plexing (FDM)*: divides the channel into different - Distributed - *Reduce latency and packet loss*: Conges on control minimizes
frequency bands, assigning each band to a specific device. - *Non-Adap ve Algorithms*: These algorithms do not change their rou ng delays in data transmission and reduces data packet loss.
3. *Sta s cal Mul plexing*: dynamically allocates bandwidth based on the decisions once they have been selected. Examples include:
instantaneous needs of each device.
- *Op mize resource u liza on*: Conges on control helps networks
- Flooding use their resources efficiently.
*Demul plexing - Random Walks
Demul plexing is the process of separa ng the combined signals or data - *Ensure fairness and scalability*: Conges on control ensures fairness
*Hybrid Algorithms*: These algorithms combine adap ve and non-adap ve
streams back into their original form, allowing the receiving device to extract algorithms. in resource alloca on and is scalable.
the intended data. *Rou ng Protocols
Demul plexing techniques: (Rou ng Informa on Protocol): uses hop counts to calculate the shortest path *TCP Conges on Control Algorithms
1. *Time-Division Demul plexing *: extracts data from specific me slots. - *IGRP (Interior Gateway Rou ng Protocol)*: developed by Cisco, uses a
2Frequency-Division Demul plexing: extracts data from specific frequency combina on of metrics like load, reliability, and network capacity - *Slow Start Phase*: The sender sends a small number of packets and
bands. - *EGP (Exterior Gateway Protocol)*: used for transferring data between gradually increases the number based on the receiver's feedback.
3. *Sta s cal Demul plexing*: dynamically allocates bandwidth based on the gateway hosts in autonomous systems
instantaneous needs of each device. - *Conges on Avoidance Phase*: The sender con nues to send packets,
- *EIGRP (Enhanced Interior Gateway Rou ng Protocol)*: a classless protocol
*Example but at a slower rate than in the slow start phase.
that uses the diffusing update algorithm
Suppose we have three devices (A, B, and C) that want to transmit data over a - *OSPF (Open Shortest Path First)*: a link-state protocol that uses the shortest
- *Conges on Detec on Phase*: The sender detects conges on and
single channel. Using mul plexing, we can combine their data streams into a path first algorithm adjusts its transmission rate accordingly.
single signal. At the receiving end, demul plexing is used to extract the original - *BGP (Border Gateway Protocol)*: an exterior gateway protocol that defines
data streams, allowing each device to receive its intended data. communica on over the internet. *Key Points
*Benefits - Rou ng algorithms determine the path of data packets from source to
Mul plexing and demul plexing offer several benefits, including: des na on. - Conges on control is essen al for maintaining network performance
- Increased bandwidth efficiency - Adap ve algorithms change their rou ng decisions based on network topology
- Reduced costs
and reliability.
or traffic load changes. - TCP conges on control algorithms adjust the transmission rate based
- Improved network reliability - Non-adap ve algorithms do not change their rou ng decisions once they have
- Enhanced scalability on network condi ons.
been selected.
*Conclusion Suppose we have a network with mul ple routers and we want to send data
In conclusion, mul plexing and demul plexing are essen al techniques in from one router to another. The rou ng algorithm will determine the shortest
computer networks that enable efficient data transmission and recep on over path between the routers and direct the data packets accordingly.
shared channels. By understanding these concepts, network administrators can
design and manage networks more effec vely, ensuring reliable and efficient
data communica on.

_Internal Protocols Rou ng Concepts Here are the error detec on and correc on techniques in
- _Address Resolu on Protocol (ARP)_: maps IP addresses to MAC - _Rou ng_: the process of forwarding packets between computer networks:
addresses networks
- _Reverse Address Resolu on Protocol (RARP)_: maps MAC - _Routers_: devices that connect mul ple networks and route _Error Detec on Techniques
addresses to IP addresses packets between them - _Parity Check_: adds a parity bit to data to detect single-bit
- _Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)_: reports errors and - _Rou ng Tables_: tables that store informa on about network errors
provides diagnos c func ons routes - _Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)_: uses a polynomial to detect
- _Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP)_: manages - _Rou ng Protocols_: protocols that exchange rou ng errors
mul cast group membership
informa on between routers - _Check Sum_: calculates a sum of data to detect errors
- _Domain Name System (DNS)_: translates domain names to IP
- _Route Selec on_: the process of choosing the best path for - _Frame Check Sequence (FCS)_: uses a CRC to detect errors in
addresses
packet forwarding frames
_Func ons of Internal Protocols - _Error-Correc ng Codes_: uses codes to detect and correct
- _Address resolu on_: ARP and RARP resolve IP addresses to MAC _Rou ng Types errors
addresses and vice versa - _Sta c Rou ng_: manual configura on of rou ng tables
- _Error repor ng_: ICMP reports errors and provides diagnos c - _Dynamic Rou ng_: automa c upda ng of rou ng tables _Error Correc on Techniques
func ons through rou ng protocols - _Retransmission_: retransmits data that contains errors
- _Mul cast management_: IGMP manages mul cast group - _Default Rou ng_: sending packets to a default router when no - _Forward Error Correc on (FEC)_: adds redundant data to
membership specific route is known correct errors
- _Name resolu on_: DNS translates domain names to IP addresses - _Hamming Codes_: uses a code to correct single-bit errors
_Key Points
_Key Points - Rou ng enables communica on between devices on different _Key Points
- Internal protocols operate within a network or between networks networks - Error detec on and correc on techniques ensure data integrity
- They provide essen al func ons for network communica on and - Rou ng protocols ensure efficient and accurate packet and reliability
management forwarding - These techniques are essen al for maintaining data accuracy
and preven ng data corrup on
Note: These protocols are used within a network or between Note: Rou ng is a cri cal func on in computer networks that
networks to provide essen al func ons for network communica on enables communica on between devices on different networks. Note: Error detec on and correc on techniques are crucial in
and management. Rou ng protocols and routers work together to ensure efficient computer networks to ensure data reliability and integrity. These
and accurate packet forwarding. techniques help detect and correct errors that may occur during
data transmission.