Communication System

Very Imp Subject ESE Ref Books

GATE DBPLathi
2 Shawn
series
ISRO 3 SimonHaykin

We will do practice daily by DPP sheets

Topic 1 Basic Introduction

iton the process oftransmitting Information from

Source to Receiver

Basic Block diagram communication

system
of
The source originates a message like human
voice television picture

example Microphone
The transducer convert it into electrical signal
which is then modified
by transmitter for efficient
transmission

The channel is a medium such as wine coaxial

cable waveguide opticalfibre or radio link

The receiver reprocess the signal heaved franth

Channel andthen the transducer at
output
convert it into format required at output

example
loudspeaker
Howchannel all at the signal being transmitted
There are a effects
1 Distortion I the channel is actually a

filter also the channel lead to attenuation

of signal
This can be connected an equalizer
by
with transferfunction equal to 11Transfer
junction of Channel

1e Hf 1
of equaliser
HCf OfChanel

2 Noise The unwanted signal that gets

added Into original signal contaminate the

original signal we Limit elect ofNoise

by keeping the signal level high enough
 Topic 2 Analog and digital Message

Analog message signals data whose value

Vary over continuous range for example

the temperature ofa certain location

Digital message signals the number of data

symbols to be send is finiteq for example 26
Code wordsfor 26 leHees g here each symbol is

coded 19 code O's

of L's and

Why digital signals are better I

as already disussed each symbol is send as

a set of code word made of I's and O's

 v v
decade

So we canclearly see that digital signal

communication are more
digital rugged than
analog communication q digital system can better
withstand noise and distortion

What is a Regenerative Repeater

Digital system are successful because of the

concept of Regenerative Repeater
These Regenerative Repealer are placed
along the
communication path of digital system at a distance

short enough that ensure noise and distortion are

within limit

Tx RR RR RR Rx

distance is

f very large

Theregenerative repeater are placed along

the channel periodically which Naeve the
signal and generate a new signal thus
prevent accumulation of noise and distortion

In analog systemthere is no such way to

avoid accumulation ofnoise and distortion

along the path

Topic 3 Modulation
have frequency
generally the message signals
component that is close to 0frequency these
signals are called baseband signals

baseband signals are not suitable to

directly
transmit over the channel thus for
transmission these signals are modified to

facilitate transmission

Modulation is the process that help in

modification baseband signal's for ease
of of
transmission

Modulation Process in which baseband

signals are used to modify some parameters

carrier signals
of high frequency

A carrier is a sinusoidal signal high

of
frequency and
baseband
if signal met changes
carrier's amplitude it is called
amplitude Modulation
baseband signal met changes
if
Carrie's frequency it is called
Inequeny modulation

if baseband signal met changes

carrier's phase it is calledphase
modulation
at transmitter side we have modulator and
at receiver side we have demodulator
which is a reverse process to reconstruct

the baseband signal

 information Source
Modulator 4
Source transducer

demodulator Reliever destination

transducer

Needfor Modulation

I ReducesAntenna height for ease of radiation

the radiating antenna should be of height Hog
where I is the wavelength of signal to be

transmitted
Thus modulation increases the frequency of the
signal to be transmitted the reduces antenna
size to a feasible Value

baseband signal offnequency 15kHz

example if
then Olly will be 1082
3 5km
UX 15000
 But we modulate it by carrier of
if
19ha then
My 3 108 0 75
075M
4 1 109 To
y I
Practically
implementable

2 Multiplying finnultaneous transmission of

several signals

Suppose you want to transmit a signals

sect and on same channel g Since both
yet
are baseband they cannot besend

Simultaneously nyt
nXlf

OT KH It
 t
Cannot be send together
This can be solvedby modulation we modulate both
the signals using different carrier signals

exist
µ

I i
1GHz 2GHz f

now we can send modulated signals together on

same channel without interference

of multiplexing is called CFD

This method

frequency division Multiplexing

 Topic Ibasizoffouniatransform
PointNo
1 Ww fofectseJwtdt

Few et9wtdw
f
nut

Touma Transform
of rectangular pulse
ArectCtk LA Sin IID
A T
easilycalculateusing
aboveformulae
T I

Jwtdt
Xlwt.ffae
Twtk.e'Tway
jAw
 2A sin HD
T
some
if x f

I E

wecan see that Bandwidth XCf o

of
No
Point
a

Timeshifting
property
mHme shifting
nut c Xlw
the
to
Nt to Xcwgejw
 frequency shifting property

nets law
etiwotnet Neo WD

Multiplication in teme domain

kilt Nutt L X Cw Ww
2T

Convolution in teme domain

kilts nut X Cw x cud

founiatransform
offew signals
L SCH I

2 I 2T Scw

3 EJwot za few Wo
4 e Jwot 2A SCW two
 5 Cos wot IT Slw

wDtflwtwoD6
rectLtH s2Asin
uTDw7

A Sin ttt Area WIE

System Analysis using Fouriertransform

Ntt

hCtHkCtJxcw7
s w Hcwl.xcw

also explain fouma Series and F Toy periodic

signal
 Topic 5 Amplitude Modulation
near Modulation

Topic 5.1 Amplitude Modulation

Double side band
In Amplitude modulation the amplitude A'of
the carrier is Valued in proportion to
baseband message signal meth the modulation

signal

This is done a Simply multiplying the signal

by
withcarrier
Mct met cos wet

9
Coswet

Mlt s Mcw
 then meet coswet to Mlw
fasho Wo
ASCW two
FT
Mcw two Mcw Wo

Mitt has
Bandwidth
B Ha

BHa
Bandwidthof
transmittedsign
is
213Hz

2B
Ha

This is called DSB Sc modulation double side band

Suppressed carrier
Thus modulator is simply a multiplierog

Demodulator I will be to extract the baseband

signal from modulated signal

The process
of recovering the signal from modulated

signal is called demodulation

ect Mitt cos'wat

 met s2WE

MEI mutant
Ecw t MIw wD
1µg Mouth
Thustoget Mitt from eet we Just need a

lowpass felta
This method
of detection is called coherent detection
coherent demodulation

the signal used in above case has many frequencies

thus this modulation is multitone modulation

We can have singletone modulation case also

where modulating signal met has single frequency

 example mltt f.AM Cos cont

DSB Sc Modulation single tone modulation

of
ACoswmt A Cos cont

Coswet
Coswig Az Cos etwndt
1 Cos Cwc Wma

X Acosmt Cotuit
p AztosconttwsYosawm
Coswet

V
passingthis
through LPF
wewill Coswmt
get
Modulators
1 NonLinear Modulator
This nonlinear device
has characteristic
an Ct baht
ylt

fo Lett
y
CH
gut
built
La nicht bait fault
a kilt htt b niet RECH

As Milt Coswett met

Halt Cos Wct Mct

2ft 2am Ct t 4b Mitt cos wet

Baseband modulatedsignal

we pass zits through a Band passfeiter with

Centrefreq we so we will get 4bmitt cos wet
 at the
output

Input to the modulator is Mlt and Coslett and

Litt has modulated signal and one ofthe
Input Suppressing the carrier Each kindof
modulator are Singly balanced modulator

2 twitching Modulator

1
Ict Ht
When Acoswct so then diodes are on and

Htt Mlt but when A Coswet Lo then deode are

off and Lets

fo Ll t met wit g here cuttles a square wa

as shown in the figure

Thus Witt is periodic signal with frequency Wcg
Thus using fourier series
00
Kt
with Icke Howtofind F T
K N
ofperiodic
signal
V

WH
Iz t Cos wet Legcos sweet

Thus 2h met wit

and BPF will Extract the component in at

Closeto closeto Iwc frequency

So Mlt wit BPF Cos wet

27
modulated signal
We can see that twitching modulator is also

single balanced modulator as ftellat inputof

BPF we have met signal
3 RingModulator
It

Here we can see that

LAI met when ACoswet so

LCH met when ACos wet co

Thus Litt Mlt WH og wit is a square wave

as shown infigure above
0
Thus wet IcketJkwet
K co

WH wet Cos3wet 1 Cos5Wet

fo Litt MHI wit

met cos3 wet
2 Ct Mlt Coswet f

So BPF outfall Will be Mitt cos wet

We can see that input to BPF has neither

Mets and Coswet Thus it is doable balanced

modulator
Topic 5.2 General topic
twin
Frequency miyaffnequency
I Converter

To convert the frequency the signal foreyampl

of
MHIcos wet is a signal with Centrefrequency
Wc
To convert the centrefrequency from wctowf
we use frequency Converlee

mt BPF MittCosey
X s
with Centre
freq Wf

2C wetweft
 2 frequency Multiplier

cos Nonlinear BPF

device Centre freq cosy wet
H Uwc
input outgoatndalearis

anltl bnttttcw.CH tducts

yltt
Topic 53 Amplitude Modulation

for DSB SC modulation we need

synchronous
detection at reliever thus we need

sophisticated receiver which is quele costly

For broadcast application we need Meu ever

which should be cheap g thus we use
DSB C g double side band with carrier
modulation this is called Amplitude modulation

AMsignal Accesswet mat cos wet

AM signal Ac It M cos wet
2
OR
4AM It CAct MAD cos wet
 AAC few Wc tfCWtWd
4amCw
Wo Mewtwo
Lmao

envelope ofanysignal
is obtained joining
by
all the
peakofSigna

0
o

We can see that when

if modulation index is
than Ithen
At MCA other greater
Synchronousdetection need
Envelop of modulatedsignaleg
to be done
fimilarto signal met
Thus for AM we need that Atm Itt 30 for all t

then
f Mpe's peak of me
A mp
Modulation index is µ Mfs
A
tale need u shouldbe between 0and f
I
Modulation Index tell the depth modulation
µ Li is under Modulator of
q µ critical Modulation
µ 1 is Over ModulateOng
lets see the
9W Ww

poof
fam
2A B 2x B to
a Scwtwo Dfw TSIw WD
Am 2 Power
Poof f
y
I 1 w
Wc Wc
gaps
 The Bandwidth needed for transmission
of
AMsignal is hitBradlsec 2B Ha

lets Seethe
single tone modulation
Mlt Amcos 2itfmt og Carreee Ac cos2Afet

flatly
Access
zafet t Amcos2Ffetcosutfmt

Ae It µ cos 2Afmt Cos et

team moduayon nd

v
Ac Nw west a fewtwo
4fq
Age Aflw we Wm ta f w we
turn
ITS Wtwc Wm 1A flu twctwm
 Act Act flu wc
n

a n AMIT n n

Lm

wa wa whom we wm we wetwm
Bw 2Wm

Now lets do some analysis

Correa and band power
fide
4h7m Accoswett met cos wet
in
Carrier sidebands
di
CarrierPower Power in m His
Pc Acyz MITT
Power maws we
of
will
te f met
fine there are 2 sidebands thus each sideband
hasPower tametT
 Signal Power met
Power is
of Mitt Coswet I met
Power each sideband is MITT
of 4

So Usefelpouce
Keffeaency Total Power

SidebandPoweutotel
Power
M X 100
w
Aft Mits
modulation
special Caseoffirigletone
Mlt Am
coswmtq
Amyz xoo.AM
X100Ac2tAm4z2Ac2tAm2
Since µ Am Ac

q MINOO for a I
ztµ2
1 33 t
 I ccontinuing
Since u the Powerof sideband Agin
Aff og

µ LAI
Z
Pside band L ur Pc
Peachsideband
Total Powertransmitted P
f ee2Pa
Carrier Doucet
Sideband Power
L P

Q1 An unmodulated AM power isgiven

by500
Wait g find AM power with loot Modulation

easy 7501N

02 Total sideband power 1hAM signal isgivenby

100 Walt with 05 mod Indexed In d Pc and
total Power transmitted
Pt 900 W
De 800W
03 AM signal with each sideband power is

given by 2kW and carrier power is 8kW

find power efficiency
2 3331
Current Relation in AM
run run run

Pt Pc
Hid
let antenna Resistance is Irthen
Current in antenna for unmodulated
Carrier is Ic

LIER Pc Id ape
in case modulated carrier g Current
will be It Such that
It R Pt Pe Huy

It IE Itu'D
It
Icftu Relation b wtotalCurrent
And Carrier Current
 and carrier current

Voltage Relation in AM
rn rn
Vc
It
JTF

4 An unmodulated Carrier produces 5A of

current total current when
og
find
µ 0.5
Ans 5.3A

5 An AM current is
givenby 10A
with
A 04
find AM current whenyu O8

Ahs It 05A

6 Carrier signal is 10 Cos2axiftog

message signal is 6Cos47 104 to

find

A
 Ans
C Mod Index u 0.6
Bandwidth 40kHz
Carrier Powers 50
g
fidebandjoura
151
efficiency
q

F A carrier Dignal Oflocos2axiost is amphtad

modulated by a message signal 4cosaxio't
of
with µ 0.5 load resistance is
f Pnd
5rad
Bandwidth Pt and ofAMsignal
2
Ans B D 10kHz

Pt 1125W
till't

8 AMsignal is
01AM t 4COS 3200ft t locos 4000A t t
4 Cos 4800ft
find C Modulation Index Pt 3
I
4 Bandwidth 5 Pe
Ans ee 0.8g Bw 800142g Pc 50 Walt

Pt 66Walt og
f 24.1

9 AM power is 100 Walt with a 0707gfind

Peg PSB Peakyalueof AMsignal
Ans 12 80 wait
PSB 20 Walt
Peak 2159

Let do some analysis AM modulated signal

of
Single modulation case
10AM t Access
2Ffett Amcos2afmt Cosutfot
Hi
Ac It cos
tfm Hfmt Cosutfet
 Ac It
legoszitfmt Cosutfett
t we can see that
Amay Actu Amin Adi ay
Thus u modulation Indy Amax Amin
Amaxt Amin

D
find out uqpt.gg AMsignal Varies
between Quand lov

µ O 66g 18181
2
Pt 18WaHg

Multitone AM modulation

Let Mlt Amicosaafmitt

LtIAmzcosztfms.to
Acws2iTfettMlt fet Cos2n
 Ac It COS
Anmycoszafm t t AamfCos
Utfmet F

4am It Ac H Us Cos
2Ifmit t U2 cos 2afmt cos2nF

Pt Pet MEAL
wife 4

Pt Pc It Pe H MtoIae
Hitz
µ total Ftu
So U total t uuz Generalformulae
multilane modulation
for
Pt Pc It Utozia

LidebandPower Pe
Utz
U total X100
2
11 An unmodulated AM Power is given 10kW
by
when the carrier is modulated by 1st message

signal AM power is increased to 135kW

find AM power
if Cannon is Simultaneously
modulated with 2ndMsg signal with 601 modeediation
Ans g
Pt 153kW

12 An AM current is given by 10Ag

Corresponds to carrier is modulated by
1St 40 modulation When
msgsignal with t g
Canner is modulated simultaneously by 2nd

Msg signal then AM

current increase to

105A o fend't modulation of2nd signal

Ans 4740
13 An AM signal is givenby

SAM t 12COS21TX104T 16Cos Ua x E Cos 21 10 t

120 t o

Bandwidth Pt and 2 of the signal

find g
Ans B'w 2 2 104Hz og Pt 300Walt
3333 l

of Atf signal
Generation
Method g
fquare law Modulator op L input
1 Mt I z dquafeejq.co put
fun
I Accos2afet x
BPF
t
AMsignal
Theoutput BPF
of Dith Centrefrequency
Iwc will be
 the Ac Cos 2a fat t d 22 Mlt Ac coszafet

d Accosutfot It met Cos

2g raft
H
Here we need that

if mp is ve peakofsignal
mett then

I 222
a Mp so
2
mp CL
in
Mod Index here is
222
Imp

the nonlinear device has input output

914
If
related as Ho VE t O al Vi
find the og

expression
of output
Lws
z Nodneotineear BPF
with centre 9
4 freq 1000112
LOCOS 2000ft
and band
width 400192

findthe equation of output find Mod Index of

output power transmitted carries power and

bandwidth of output
BW 200112

Pc 200W

Pts 216W

µ 04

Method
faithng Modulator
we can see that 2

when CoswettmitD other

11th Closwettmet
 T
LCH

And when CoswcttmltDL0thenzLtI

E
ofo2LtI
WLtI.CCcoswet 1 met

Gimilarto Switching operation

Here wut is a Square wave and

WITH Lzcos3Wet
fat COSWct
Iscos5 wet
LinceBPF hasCentre
Elt wit coswet t mad
freq Iwc
The
output of coswet t met coswet
BPF willbe
0AM It Ewswet It met cos wet
H
µ modulationIndex
Demodulation AM signal
of
1 Rectifier detector 2 fquarelawdemodulato
3 Envelop detector only when µcD
4 Lynchronous detection
any Valueof a

demomaor
t.IE s

Thus Ittf ALtmctfcoswct.cat

Litt CAtmttfcoswctf.tt coswct
 fAtmltDcoswzcti

oyIEC0S2wctCAtmctDt
Theoatgau
e.LPF
AtmCtDlz

He
Passingthisthrough capacitor
will remove dc component
fo
Inal Op DN be
metO
F

Hole We can easily that here modulator

fee
and demodulator are
fame except in
modulator we use BPF and in
demodulator we use LPF
 2 Square law demodulator

AM Square law
signal Lpf met
device

Ac It mat Cos2afet

The Square law device Vo d Vi thalli

to d Ac it met Coszafet

1 die At It met Cos

Lift

The output LPF da At It

of
2
Thedapaator
will remove do
component thus we will
get
output equalto
 da At matter
2

stationpresent in the output

3 Envelope detection

envelop detector is Very simple andcheaper

 very large then we have diagonal clipping
if RC is
as seen in above figure

Rics fm the choice ofRec is very important

forproper foravoiding
diagonaldipping
wonkey

TheAMsignal It
2hAM
ALI tacos wont coswet
prove few Important condition on RC
nowlets

to voltage across capacitor is

A Itu Coswmto
 now Udt for teme duration
to To to
tf
HRC
Udt Afl tacos unto e

Udt A Hee cos Wmto I

Ee

at t totYfe the capacitance voltage shouldbe

lessthan value KAMH at

of signal totyfe

Thus

ftp.c L tot
Ctucoscontd I tucoswm

tanto L l to I
US inwmto.com
ftp.cfltllcolwmto
fc

µ smwmto.com L
Irc
Hucoswm to
 I

plz Wmusincomtoltucoscomto

Heecoswmto Uwm Sinwmto

RT
uwimsinwmto Coswmto
plz

i T de
n'Wmi
4202

fees.uwTFJ
Cfd n'fwm't D

comin
fpej turf
 Rc E 2

Wmu

4 fynchronous detection
ofAny signal
when µ i then Synchronous detection is done

NAMIT
x LPF 11 met

Capacitor
that block
do al oscillator de

the local Oscillator is

if perfectly synchronised

with the carrier Thew

RANCH Ac It Mitt Coszafet
AC
the carrier is 2 Coszafet

thus input to LPF will be

 ZAC it ma costafet

Ac It M

ft
cos hafet
2
Thus
output of LPF will be
Aft MHD
and capacitor will block dc thus we will

get meth at the

output

15 Explain the effect

of Imperfect Synchronisation
between local oscillator and incoming AM

signal
Taking the above Synchronous detector circuit
we can see that local oscillator will be
2 Cos fet tOD

The output
of multiplier Will be
 2 Ac It cosCzafet cost fettoD
mn

Ac it
mn shaft 10 cos

The output will be

ofLPF
AftMADcosy
output of LPF will Vary with 0gthus
Thus

Varies then output LPF will vary

if4 of randomly
As 0will Vary randomly thus it will be impossible

to recover met from the LPF output

Simple demodulation
AdPantages ofAry
usedfor longdistance Comm

Power iswasted
Disadvantages ofAry
Demands highchannel B W

effect ofnoise is high

 Topic 504 Comparison between AM and
DSB SC mm
rrr

Here in DSB Sc there is no carrier

gonly
Sidebands
So Pt Psb and Psid
f Psg
D 1001

Bothuses same amount

of B w 2x Burysignal

915 Acarrea fignal Of Clt 2ocoszaxio't

is DSBSC modulated by a message signal
Mtt COS 21 104 t t 260541T XIout 1
of Lycos
GTX lout
This
find B'w g Pt 60kHz
thefreqcomponent present in modulated
figgnal 990,1010g 980g 1020g 970g 1030
916 Explain the effect of imperfect synchronisation

Tn demodulation
of DSB SC

DSBSCsignal

Mlt CosHTfet output

a

2 Cos afettoD

The input to LDF is

MHI cos 2Afet cosGafettoD
L2
met Cos t CosutfettoD

Theoutput
ofLPF will be method
thus we can see that output is completely
distortedgasgis a random Variable
 Advantage of DSB SC power
paved
used for
long Comm

Drawback of DSB Sc demodulation is complex

Affectedby
Imp

017 A nonlinear device is characterisedby

Vo 3
a Hot bile
UP Mlt t Cos 2Afist

Such that DSB.sc signal thatis

findout takeoffs
generated has frequency of 1MHz
Aus11 0 5MHz
018
A 100MHz Carrier of tv of amplitude and 1MHz

modulating signalof Iv amplitude are fed to a

Balanced modulator the output balanced
of
modulator is passed through Ideal HPF
with cutoff frequency
of 100MHz The outputof
filter is added with 100MHz signal of IV
amplitude and 90phase shift as shown in the

figure The envelope of Resultant Signal will be

so

1M Balanced HPF
T X 01
Modulator 100MHz
Amwshtfmt a
1010MHz q
100MHz
g IV
Lvg900
Accosutfet Access
fat198

Aus tx
019 Let the Atfsignal

sets Ac Heecoswont Cos wot where Wm

is the message frequency and Wc is the cannier

Ace 1g ee Yz and USB is attenuated

frequency If by
factor of 2 thenthe value of envelope of Seti will be

020 An AM wave with modulation Index 0.5 is

to the envelope detector as shown below
given
Assume MHI is band limited to 10kHz fendthe
detector output tofollow the
valueof Cfa envelope
9AMsignal all thetime
input output
oHqr To
021 Consider the system Shows in figure let

Xff and YCf denote the Fouriertransform

The ideal High pass filter has the cutoff

frequency 10kHz

setts
yet
Balmgnaced
Balmagnodeed

p
Lws217 104t 26521 13 103 t
Hf
Q

I 1 I fckHD
3 I I 3

Plot the fooniatransformof

yH YAD
022
A 1MHz Siniesoidal Carrier is amplitude
modulated by a symmetrical square wave of
period looeeseca Which the following
of
frequency will not be present in the
modulated signal
A 990kHz b 1010kHz c 1020KHL

n
d 1030kHz
A

Z
A
Housec
 Topic 5.5
Quadrature Amplitude Multiplexing

The disadvantage DSB SC modulation is that

of
It occupy the twice the Bandwidth of the

signal mat

To rectifythe above problem we use 0AM

technique

inphase inphase
Channel
channel

Quadrature Quadrature
Channel Channel

aamlH MICHcos2afett Mitt sin zitfet

y
 Thetwo ignals are modulated bysame
but boththe carrier are
frequency fc
having phase difference 998

fothey can be easily separated at the

demodulator
demodulator
X t 00amCH dwswct
I
MCH Coswet mitts sincerely Lwswet

HisCt Milt 2 Mitt smart Coswet

Milt cos 2 wet

and output ofLPF will be Medt

also XdH 00amHobin wet

Chit Coswett mitts in IS in wet

Melt Sin wet t Mut Mut Cosner

 Go outputofLPF will be Mitt

but the biggest problem in 0AM is that ifthere is

imperfect
Synchronisation then there will be huge

problemof interference between channels

for example carrier at demodulator is

if
2cosGafetto then
NIH 4dam It 2cos 2itfetto

MCLAWS2Ffet t Mitt Sin21 2Cos

fetty

Mitt cos0 t Mitt Ws Uefa

to
Mitt Sind 1 Mut Sth Uefa to
The WD maltsinto
output ofLPF will be MLT
Topic 506 Single Sideband Modulation
Modulation

As we have seen in DSB Sc modulation we

send boththe sidebands Since the sidebands

Upper side band and lowerside band q the USB

and DSB both contain same information thus

ites beneficial tosend only one side band

Thus in SSB modulates we send only one

fideband andthus save 501 bandwidth

of
and 501 of Power wat DS BSC modulation
Theteme domain analysis
of SSBsignal
mates time domain signal and MN ties hilbat
transform me
of
is founiatransform met them fourPer
if Mlw of
transform MHA will be
Yj MCW w o
Mh w
M W w LO
Mt HI
ta ti t j mHED g foun a transformof
Mtl ties Mtcw
and
foumatransform q
M Ct
I met j mu
tf g M IH is MCw
Thus OisBlwJ MtCW wdtM CwtwcJ
MtCtyeHWcttm.u e j wet

vsBlt M A Coswet Matt Smart

Milady MHwtwy M.tw WD

µpdw
wet
Mitt e
JW't met

LsBt Mlt Coswet t Mh Smart

Thus MHI cos wet mutts in wet

fossB t
ve LSB
versus B

if we
look at comparison b w SSBand AM
f Powersaved in DSBK
pP
p uyyW
f Power saved in SSB PctPc 4tI w
PdHayy 4 242
023
find out they Power faced in SSB signal
wat AMsignal it 0707 and a 0 8
if
Topic 5.7 Single tone SSB Sc modulation
Let Mlt Am cos 2Afmt
0am It Accosutfett Amwfgzzfg.net

0psBut Am cos2Ffmt Coszafet

lossBlt Mlt Los 2afet I Mnet Sinutfet

Amcos 2itfmt Cosutfett

Amcos me 90Jsin
2Afet
g
ssBLt
LAmcosLotfmtCosutfet
Am
 Atm

ssBH ws 2Afc fm t

Method of Generation ofSSB

Methods felective filtering method

or frequency discrimination Method
DSB signal
mat Bpf SSBsignal

But here we need BPF to be ideal

NYAN
Tks
USB aADSBSC I
signal
jusB
inanimwinna
Et I
NiWc i
Wc
Here USB and DSB
Of DSB Sc signal are

having nogapsotogenerale SSB signal

 we need ideal BPF which is practically
Unrealizable

But we have Signal with between

if gap
USB and LSB then wecan easily create SSB

signal from DSBSc signal

NY
DC null in Mcw na ADSBscsignal
unSB

h sewn
Here we can use practical BPF togenerate

the SSB signal

Thus for selective
filtering methodfor
using
getting SSB signal we need De null in Mcw
 Thus Selective
filter method is used
for generation of SSB signal from DSB Sc
signal only when signal hasgap between
USB and LSB

What will be the problem in

Q24 generation
SSBsignal from DSB Se signal using
frequency Selective method when USB
andDSB has Zero
gap Since between
gap
the adjacent sideband
Yfdass
explain wqgaoeefhwenpgancwkaeaf.ba

sidebands and Mitt will

never be recovered
925 Explain whyVoice signal canbe easily
modulated
using SSB modulation

Method 2 Phase shift method

ORphase discriminatein
Method

This method is better for SSB signal

generation when SSB has no dc null
 Method demodulation SSB signal
of of
SSB signal can be coherently demodulated

ssBltt Mlt Cos wet Mnet Sin wet

SSB
Mlt

Local Oscillator
saws wet

in Synchronous demodulation
fo have
we

SSB X 2Cos wet

2M It Cost wet I 2M htt sin wet

cos wet

Mlt t Cos2Wett Mlt I Mut Sin 2 wet

 Thus Output LPF
Of will be met

But there is
in case
if imperfect
synchronisation between Local oscillator
and SSBsignal then

ssB
Output

1
Local Oscillator
2 Cos wet 10

Here to the LPF will be

input
Cos
25ft I Mhlt SMU
x 2 cos
fit t0
MHI cosLO t Mlt Ws Uefa 10
 I Mnltl Sino I Mnlt Sion UAfettoD

The
output
gdPFwmihbwif.mn
sino

Thus it will not be

possible
to extract met from

OutputofLPF

SSB advantage a
faced power
dared Channel B W

SSB disadvantage demodulator is

complex
Limitedto theice
signal
modulation
only
Envelope detection ofSSB signal
we send single side band with Carrie
If o o
then there is a possibility that we demodulate
the SSB signal withthe help detector
of envelope

example Oss Btc G

Accesswet It coswet Mh Hsin

H
demodulator we are performing
fine
asynchronous demodulation thus the envelope
detector will produce envelope at the op

the Signal is
SsBtc ACCTMADCOSWet MhCt Sin wet

The envelope
ofthe signal will be
 EH
J Act D
Ac JE mn Ch j
EH Ac
JIt t
Ac is very large then we will
if
neglect
2 and
hn andthus
n

Ac
EH
J Ac
t

EA I Ac It Act met
meat

Thus
envelope detection SSB signal canalsobe
of
done but we need Ac D M htt og ie the carrier
Should be
very large
For envelope detectionof AM we need that
Acymity but for envelope detectionof
SSB we need that Ac lmeth

Thus SSB need Verylarge carrier Wnt

the carrier needed 19 AM Signal

 Topic 5.7
Vestigial side band

There is a problem in generation of SSB

signal the Selective filtering method need

that Signal Should have de null in

modulating signal spectrum and phase
Shiftu method need a phase shifter which
workfor wide range of frequencies thus
designing Such phase shifter is also
not

feasible

Thus we USB VSB is

gofor compromis
a

between SSB and DSB

In VSB instead of rejecting a sideband completely

as we dedPn SS B agradual cut of Of one
og
1
sideband is accepted

inVSB wetake aporting

othersideband
Generation
of VSB Modulation

met Vestige dignity

211th

q
2wswct
Mewtwo 1
Mcw McwWy
A
DSB

w I I
ZAB ZAB Wc Wc
nHCw
Vestigefelter

I
I 1
Wc Wc

OvsBlw
USB
usb
A
d i Vestige

I
9
1 9 91K
I4 1
Wc Wc
 The generation
of VSB signal is easier and
practically realisable because it do not completely
suppress one side band but transmission
bandwidth is more wat the SSB

Now look at demodulation of

if we

VSB
eat
0vs s e9gYi met
Low pass
Her Hocus

2cos wet

thus ect vs Blt 2 cos wet

Eko 0UsB wt WD t
0vsB W Wd
 Ecw M W 12Wc Mcw HCwtwD

MCW 2Wc t Mcw Hao Wo

output of LPF will be

The

Hocus w ar t Hcwtw d Mcw

We want
output ofLPF should be
Mcw
thus a Hocus 1 for
HC w w c t Hcwtwc

WIEZAB

also H W Wc t Hao WD Const

Jose W E ZAB
026

Application of VSB modulation

In Tv Broadcasting

Video is having B without

w
of 5MHz
dc NULL
DSB Sc will need 10MHz B w and
s S BSC is not possible so VSB is

used
Modulation Of Video signal
 Topic 5.8
Frequency Division Multiplexing
The benefit modulation is multiplexing
of if
we modulate three signals at three different

frequencies then we can use the same channel

transmission all the signals at sametime
for of
Milt LPF MODI

v
Milt LPF Mo Dz Channel

M3 LPF MOD3

Gawed Band
1 I
I l l
l l
l
l l
l

I
I
l
i
I i b Nl O

fez l f Cz fC3
 S S S3

at demodulatorside
BPF Demod mitts
I

BPF Demod met

2

Demod Milt
BPF 3

we need a Gawed band b w two

modulated signals So that BPF is easily
able to extract modulated component
of
signal

Generally for FDM we use SSB

modulation technique
 3 message signals each
927 of bandwidth
5kHz are multiplexed Using FDMg
Gawed band Of 1kHz find out
bandwidth needed DSB
for
and SSB modulation
 Will be solved in
for practice
2
Q
Class
90208
so
fo

ME a
M_ag

soooo

toping
worthy
 do

stag

434

com
A

ISI

Next topic PLL

ENJOY STUDYING
 l G

Topic 5.9 Carrier Acquisition

Weknow that in suppressed carrier
amplitude modulated system
DS B Scg SSB SC VSB Sc we need that
local carrier must be generated as
we used demodulation
synchronous
technique

We need 100 perfect Synchronisation

of phase and frequency of local carrier
with the incoming carrier
any
discrepancy in the frequency or phase of
local carrier
give rise to distortion in
detector
output
 For example demodulator
makes wet
LPF met
hosp

Local
carrier
2 cos et t

0 is a constant then Output is fine but

if
9 is varying with time then output
if
keep ranging with time
methos wet
1 X PE L PF s Mitt cos Awt

deal
carrier
2cos ctAw t

Here even A we's Small the whole output

if is attenuated
 is attenuated

We use the concept of pilot Carrie

That is small carrier is send with
modulated pignalog this is then extracted
it is then
Using narrow band filler
amplified and synchronize the localoscillator

PLL plays an important role in carrier

acquisition

Phase locked loop PLL

Used
for tracking the phase and frequency
carrier
ofthe component of an incoming signal

it is very useful in synchronous demodulation

 PLL has 3 components
1 Voltage controlled oscillator
2 A
multiplier that act as aphase detector
or phase
comparator
3 Aloopfella HCD

loopfelter
Asin ett sect eat
I H

Bcos wet too

VCO

The
working Of PLL is fimilae to feedback system
that is the signal which is
fed back tendsto
follow the input signal PU alsofollowthe same
principle except that the signal which is
fed back has same phase as that of the
input
signal

Here NCH AB sin wet Oi cos wet too

sin di Oo t
ALI
Sin 2 wet toothed

The loop
filler is actually a lowpassfilleeg

thus it will block the high

frequency Componen
Of nut and thus output of loopfilter will be

Colt Adz Sin Oi Oo ALI since

thus when the two Signals have non zero

phase difference then output of LPF will be
nonzero and this will change the outputof
 the VCO

Here instantaneous frequency

of Vco output will be
Wilco wet Ceo t

doit CeoCt

dolt _Scent dt

Taking small error Sinden de gthus

Here Ak Hcs Is AKHG

dies takes Stat
 thus Decs Oils Docs 8 Oils
St Aktecs

Taking the case

of
incoming signal Asin otto
and Vco quiescent frequency is Wcg

thus input signal is ASin wettdictD

Here dict o waft
too

Oils wo
0oz

Taking Hls f I 41st order PLL Htt SCH

Oels
steak woj too

Hence Oe will be
woffe thus
t oo
phase
error will beconstant incase
of Hls is
1
We know that
off Ioan
codes

de ai ooo

fence di o WD 00
plot
de o WD Aksin CoeCTD

We want OE 0 at
equi Dea 0 so that it
buoy
doesn't changes

initially phase error Oelot Oeo then we can

see that here Oi is negative so de will decog
 and will go and stop Oz

Also
if two wel Ak then Oi will never becom

Eero and no steady state for system exist

thus loop will never locks

When we use Hls this is second order

filter Sta og
PLL
µ
Here Oels 5 Oils
Stan Hcs

Here 0 0 steady stale

de D
what is lock range and capture range

Let the loop is locked g means that frequencies

identical og
of input and output signal
are

thus loop is at steady stale Oigdog de all

are constant
boo when frequency
of inputsignal
Increases suddenly then 010inc

thus de mi and input to UCO

will also Pnc thus PLL will track

input
fimilae Situation exist when Oi
dec then Oedec So input to Ko
dec and thus Output do will dec
Thus PLL tracks the
input signal the
two signals are inphase lock g phase where n

Thus Vco signal tracks input

output
Signals for a finite range of input signal
frequency only this is called hold in on

loch
range

capture range The frequency range

over which input will cause loopto lock is
called in or
pull capturerange

Note
If
the incoming signal is noisy
sinusoidal then also PLL can track the
incoming signal neglecting noise
Topic Carrier Acquisition in DSB se

1 Signal Squaring method

Why do we needto square the signal

The bandpass
Ji Hee
accurately extract the
carrier offrequency 2 we
Also 0thcos wet is spread over band of 4B
H2 and thus very small component will
pass through BPF

2 Costas loop

The Costas
loop
eat
Reade
Stores
µ
Topic Luperheterodyne AM Reckon

It Consist Of RF section g afreqconverter

an I F amplifier g adetector an audio amplifier

StageNot
The RF amplifier atunable filter and amplifier that
picks up desired stationby tuning thefilter to
right freq band RF Filterselect
this

I Sim
stageNo 2
frequency Mixer Convert the signal's carrier from
Coswet to a signal
Of freq WI Fo

we X we Iww
Signal with
Carrier at NIF
W
We keep who Wet WI f gthen we
get
the desired result

we keep Ww Wet WIF and not Woo we WI

Why
Because when we keep w Lo we WIE then ratio

ofWmaxwmin will be very large Wrt the case when

who wet WIT then Mateo Wmay wmin will be mall
 conversion
Why we perform
frequency
Because after converting all the incoming signal
from uk to WI F g all the Systems followed by
freq converter are to be designed to work at

constant frequency le WIE and thus theycan be

designed perfectly
Reason

RF section helpin Removing Image frequency q and cell

Selectivity is done in IF section

What is Image ftation
Lfc1455
fe EE BYE missional
1
Heat
Emania
fetus5 Signal at fc
Zfc11305 then herewe
f Ct910 and
Bpp s signal
will
get
signaloffe
uss
A 455
andfc1910
atop
fetus5

This Statius fetzfIF is Image stuteing thus RF

stage at inputof SHRR Should have selecteuity

Such that it stops the Image statues and
frequency converter should not relieve Imagepatios

Image Relecteas Rate specifies the elledeuenen

mm
of Toned amplifier in
Suppressing the Image statues
 Higher the IRR Toned amplifier mole

effectively suppresses the Image slate or

f
Ftd
dis duality factor oftonedamplifier
p fsi ft
fs f si

Q Find IRR D 100g IF 455kHz og

if
Rx toned at 9MHz

Note we need high dog thus we need

high PgClg thus fee and fs should be
ofsome order
Q why we choose
f Lo fstf IF 2
 Chapter 2 Angle Modulation
Topic2.1 Basic Introduction
Here the messagesignal modulates the phase and

frequency ofcarrier

Concept Aws wet too

Here Oct wet too

Instantaneousphase
instantaneous
frequency is we
dd

Thus wie
adde and D twicaida

InFM we varythe
instantaneous frequency
of
carrier is changed Rn proportion to message signal

Vary the phase of carrier

mtg 1hPM we Pn

proportion to message signal mat

 Thus in PM Oilth Watt Kpmet

Here with wet kpm.lt

Thusin PM instantaneous freq is proportional to
WH
0pm it Access wet tkpmHD

And in FM Wilts wet Kfmct

Here dilth Wet 1 KF tmH1dL

Wecan see that FMand PM are very similar to each

other
Q1

firedJmaxandfmin in both f Mand PM

Cf Prove that Bandwidth of FMorPMis

infinite theoretically

Let altt
fotmklddfemltt
at that
Ref.ae
Re Aeiwetejkfact

Re AeJw't Itjkeacts hz anti

 4pm t A cos wet Kfacttsinwt
anti cos wet 3a3lt sin wit
kf th
Thus we can that the B w of f FM ideally
fee
is

Topic 2.2 Narrow Band Angle Modulation

we know that det att Eftmenda

Frett Aws ett KealtD

OFMH A cos wet cosheacts

ASin wet Sinkpact

when Mitt and acts are Very small then

IO
Coskpact ne
tog Linke att
 Thus
01pmCt Awswet ASin wet kecat

0pretty Aws wit ke act fin wet

I
InCasey HarrowBand FM

Nowlets look at PM

01pm HI Ac cos et t Kpm

Now here Mitt is very small then

Narrow band PM
10pmHI Ac cos wet A sin wet sinkpmits
FLACcos wet Akp mitts in wet
Now lets see difference b w A M and N BPM

0AMHI A
ecoswyttmlttcos.co

10pm HI Access wet AckpmHI 8in wet

NB FM and NB FM generation
Topic 23 wideband FM
inCt

Let meth be a signal of B W Bog and peak value

Mpand mpg
the FM signal of hilt is equivalent to
meetLt B x cos wit
WEmay We t k Fm g wi We hemp
p min
 spectrum will be Sino we hemp and

we thpmp
The width sine will be
of
meet B I 28in
zg

WI
I

u w
Ld B
ZAB
ZAB

The spectrum of FM signal will be as Shown

above
g
the B w willbe
Bem 2hpmp t 8AB

Bay 2 Aft 2B

AF 2k
11 B is BW
of Mitt
 BFM actual 2 FtB

Modulation Index B AI
B
B W ofFM 2BLBtD

Now lets look PM

we wet Kprinct
AF Kpmits
L
Bpm 2 Aft B
2 Kpm Htt B

Carrier wing 2 AF
Taking the case mat Ancoswmt
of
I
Foy PM
AF kFAmwm
AF Kf Am
Bfm 2 Aft B D ABIE KpAry
2 KFAMt B
B w 24317 B
Berg 2B
KEATH
2 kp Anti
 Jn B Rosina nd
L Dn

Here
t that
wecan see In B willdecide which
frequencies will be present or not
 Bessel
Properties
of fxn
Jncn decas nine g Jocu Jun Juul
N
In u fDnJnr Jn2 n L
n N

Thus
Strict Ac cos wet 1135in zitfmt
D
Sault Ac 2 Jnfp cost
fetnfm t
D N

V V
I NB.FM
B 13 1
then Iof B II

I I B a B12 I B Bc
I Jn B to form I

I
Frysignal is
I
Access
1 2Afett AzcICosfzaffetfm t
l
 f ALI Ros 2A fm t

t
When ppl g WB FM

we can see that a

Sem Ct Ac Jn B Cos 2itfetfm t

n N

thus there will be a frequencies

As

A OLB
BT
AcIIB2 nA B
2
ACT2433 2
Ac IL
n n

f c fm Fc fetfm
ideally Busof WBFMPs 00
We CanSee that mostof the strength FM signal will
of
bePresent in lower order sidebandscalled significant side
bands
Power calculation in FM

SemCt Ac JnCB cos Tfetnfn t

n D

Power in SEM Itt will be

2
Ac
III
SFM HI o
t 52

N
Snips AI
Af n N
Z

Power
of FM signal is Azt

Wecan see that ideally B w w BFM is but

of
wecan neglect the higher order sidebands and
take those sideband that give 95 98.1 Of
total power of the FMsignal

The B w depend on 13g more the 13 more the

Bw The Carson rule

og
say that
Bw 2fmLB

AMsignal is used where we want to save B w

FM signal is used where we want tosave Power

Power elliciency
ofFrysignal
Powerin Sidebands
if Total Powertransmitted
In many special cases the carrier power can be

zero in FM signal that is To B o

1B 2495.5g 8 Gg 11.8 These are called

eigenvalues ofFM
AcY2 AIJokB I JoyB
I Psidpfbandy
Ark
 Given at 5 cos to

Mlt 4 Cos 4 IT X103t

find
fo such that FMsignal has B w equal
to 4 times the B w AM signal generated
of
by Mitt and CCH
A carrier is frequency modulated
by a message signal having amplitude
A Mand frequency fm fm 1kHz og
if
Carrea frequency is missing from
modulated signal
forAm 2g find
Kf
Find Am for which Carrea frequency
component will be missing again in
modulated Signal
An on modulated FM power is too wattg

if D 3 8g Jo 38 04g Ji 38 0.32
J2 38 0.2

find Power in carrier frequency Componen

Total sideband power
power in and order side band
 3

Topic 2.4 Features Modulation

of Angle

1 Changing the transmission B w Thetransmission

bandwidth Of AM cannot be changed but in FM

wecan change transmission bandwidth and we

will analyze that SNR here is proportional to
transmission bandwidth

2 Immunity OfAngle modulation to Nonlinearity

Anglemodulated NL
s
wave 3 output
ytffeaanfftbn.ee

Htt Cos watt 4AD

Otp will be a Ntl t bulb
acoslwett Htt t
bz Has
hefty

thus we can see that outputis not concept ites

still Angle modulated wave

Toffee
 Topic 2.5 Generation ofFM waves

Method 1 Indirect Method wave

of FM
generation

In this method NBFM is generated wehave seen the

method then it is converted to WB FM g byusing

frequency multiplier and frequency converter as shown

below
 Howdoes frequency converter and frequency

multiplier works 1
Frequency multiplier

Mt NL device BPF ACos n wet

Acos wet Theoutput
will dependon
B PF

Frequency converter is

fc BPF f Lotfi or fo fo
flotfe
4 f Lo fo
f to
do input to frequency multiplier is
if
ACos ett 4kt output will be Aws nwett nuts

if input to frequency converter is

A cos wit touts output will be ACos 2x f ctfu t t

 An FM signal has frequency deviation
of90kHz with message signal of
5k112g is applied to afrequency multiplierof
2g find Bw and
Afof resulting Signal

9 The message signal mat is applied to

FM and PM modulator findKp1kt
a Such
that maximum phase deviation
of
resulting PMand FM signal is same
n Mlt
t 2

Aus 41T
 ur

4 The message signal mat is applied to

F Mand PM modulator findKF kp
a Such
that maximum deviation
freq of
resulting PMandFM signal is same
A Mlt
4

t
o L 3 f o f g

Am421T

Q An angle modulated signal is given

by
S t Cos 21T 2X100T 130 81h15 Ott
40 COS150E

The Max freq and phase deviation

of
Sct are 75k192g 1001T
Nole
ACos Bcos 2Afat
fit t Max is Atb
A Wsutfitt Bsin 21Tfit Max is TAIB

Find modulation Index of the

angle modulated wave
10 Cos
ctt5sPn3000tt10Slh2ooottgo.Aus
13 12387

a Carreeies phase modulated with

If
Af 10k112g by single tone frequency
1K42g If single tone frequency is increased
to 2k112g assume phase deviation remain
unchanged Bw of PM will be
Aus 44km
Q Consider the phase modulated signal
SCH locos wet 15 sin with fm LKH2g
2Ifmt
if message signal amplitude is doubled and
fin is decreased by one half the bandwidth
will be Ans 11kHz

Mlt
I
Q MH

t
To

70 2 10 4 sec
bandwidth of met is
f
taken tell 6th harmonic then for ke 2A X105
Madtv
Kp 5AMadtv og find B W Of F Mand P Mo
Alsofind B wtf Mitt's amplitude is doubled

and MHI is time expandedby 2

Method 2 Direct Generation

1 Generateon using Uco

the Vco produces signal of frequency

proportional to the input applied fo

wgenerated Wet KFml t

2 LC oscillator circuit
Wo L
TLC

if we
vary c according to input signal then
Wowill vary we can use deode as varying
capacitor

C Co Knit
 WE
gtfo FE.am tD

LTcoCtFmco

jwo
fyoftkmIf
Lo Wo Wct Kfmle
we
Tao kf jtzo.no
 Topic 2.6 Demodulation of FM
1 The Demodulator
demodulator ofFM

FEMI dat envelope

04pm detector

OFMH Aws Witt KffotmiddD

OFFMHI et KemHD A Cos Watt KffotmendD

Thus envelopeof Em It will be same as mett or

message signal

2 PLL PLL can beused to demodulate the FM

signal
 Topic 2.7 Interference in Angle modulated

system

Let usconsider the simple case of intuference ofan

Un modulated carrier Acoswet with another signal

Ices HWI g the renewed Signal nets is

out Acoswett Iws Wettest

Aws wit t I Coswet cos wt
Isin wet Sn wt

Aft I CoswD Coswat Isin wetsinw

Erlt cos wet YdHD

OldA tan Isin
At Icoswt

Ydlt I Isin wt
A
 In FM output will be Iwcoswt
A

1h PM output will be Isin Wt

A

Wecan see that the effectof noise in FM ishuge at

high frequency and the signal mat is generally

Weah at high frequency thus for FM we use

 and de emphasis
pneegmphasis
attdemodulator
doingopposite
Hpcw 9 Pre emphasis
strengthen the high frequency component in Mlb
before modulation
Preemphasis

deemphasis

the
Note FM has lower Interference lowfthanPM
but higher Interference
highf
Questions to be solved in class

Q2

03
04

05

06 For an FM
signal having minimum frequencyof
1MHz corresponding frequency swing IS 1200kHzog

find AFog fig fmax g fmln

QF A message signal with BW 10kHz is SSB LSB

modulated with carrier 10GHz The

resulting
signal is then passed through NB.FM with carrier
of output will be
109112 g the Bw
of

Q Please explain what is a Toned Radio

neueve Aus
explainnadkains 1
hdqctIR.ae

The Q Of Schawn Series OfAngle Mod

 Chapter 3 Sampling And Pulse Code
Modulation

Topic 31
Lampangtheorem

Sampling is method where we multiply

a
signal with impulse train
a

gas gut X Sisk get x n2 NSH nts

In frequency domain

I cut a cat
Iff
K D
SCw aus

IC w IIGcw Kud
Is ke N
Wecan see that we can recover a cat from
Icwl only when the two adjacent cycles
of Icw
darot overlap each other thus we

need 2B Ts taps
fs g 0k

a This iscalled NyquistRate the

of
signal
 Theideal Interpolator
Toget back gut from we need a
gitt
lowpass Jllteeog

HlwHTseeectlW1uetBJ.h
t 2BTS since BED

Htt let Ts YzB

guy get og

cuts Ict Uts as incl 2B e

gut Ig
ke n
N

g
Ct 2 glues 2
Sine 2BCt h SD
h p
II find the Nyquist Rate offollowingsignals
sin 2000kt COS 4000A t 1 Sin 6000T

SMC loot S1nc4cottOS1ncooot

S1nC210ot5OS1nc4wttS1ncoooL6Osinc4oot.S

in coast

02 A signal net Gws wat og sampled at

Rale 914Hug to recover signal cutoff
ideal LPF should be
frequency feof
a 5 Hz to 9192 b GHz C 10th d 14th

6
03 YAK
5 10 Nlt 28ft nts
D N
Ts loousg Nlt locos 10 g

findoutput offillerif yetis passedthrough

 adPF Ofcutofffrequency of5000112

04 find frequency 9 AMsignal

Sampling
generated by carrier Of 1GHz and
modulated signal Mitt B W 1MHz
by of
The
concept of Bandpass
Sampling
Topic 32 Pulse Code Modulation

Basically PCM is a method

of converting an
conversion
analog signal into digital signal AfD

Analog signal is converted to digital signal

using a sampler and Quantize

g fampke 0 Quantize on degilal

Analog
Signal
signal

0 ifthe analogsignal is having amplitude

between to and there are L
mp mp
Levels in Quantize thus each level will be

of magnitude 2mpk
 O
Then each level is coded into a Sequence
of
Land 0g fond level we need login number
ofbits for each level

Quantization We know that gap in between

run
two levels Quantize is 2MPlugthe sample
of
Valve is approximated
by the mid Ualeeg thus
there is Quantization noise Quantization error
 Weknow that AV 2mL the demon can lie

anywhere in therange tank AMY the

mean Square quantizing error 952 will be

AVI L
of El 9,4 taytay aida
E
LAI
12

Thus SNR dignalpower

quantization aloinpower
z

iLmI
sung 3
fft
Now let us calculate Bandwidth
of PCM

let signal is sampled at fs sampling frequency

that is fssamplespeesecondog
let each sample is representedby n bits

persample

Thus will have

we
Mfs bitspersecond

Ts Symbol teme

Tb bit time
In
I bit
I shifted nectar
red HAD
I
0 Tb
2815Gt
 w

l
Thus for bitofTb
duration B w needed
f is tbH2

So B w in above case will be nfs

D A message signal Of locos 21T Holt is

transmitted byusing PCMog EachSample
Is encoded in bits g binary pulse are
if
Shown by Rectangular pulses then BW
IS H2o

A message signal having peakto

peak
Voltage of lov g Band limited to 20k172g
IStransmitted through PCM Noof level is 256g
 f sampling male is 251 above Nyquestrate
and Rbo
find A

Q
if message Signal e's Lows 2h10 t

is transmitted byusing PCM or Maximum 4

error should be almost 014 Of

peak amplitude ofMsg signalg findRb

Q A message signal is transmitted through

PCM such that maxm Quantization error
should be almost 21 ofpeak to peak
voltage of met
a
findminm aloof bitysample
 A message signal Uws TX 104 t is
transmitted Pcmg each sample
using
IS encoded with 3 bits
a
find bitrate
Ag Bow

Quantization
Topic 33 Non uniform

We can see that when the signal is small then

Quantisatear Noise is and thus
ofAuk very large
distort the signal

There are two methods to reduce Ouantisation

noise To increase the numberof levels L thus

A 2m21 will reduce and Dnasewill
reduce but then will increase Bw
 needed
To create a Quantize which is
nonuniform Quantize

Nonuniform Quantization

800
thus when the signal is small then SNRee will be very low

Thus the best method to keep same bandwidth is

to keepsmall step size for small amplitude signals
and to have bigger stepsice for bigger amplitudes
The nonuniform duantizer are

A law and eelaw

Then law

youcan remember that for eelaw Compander

SNR is Se 31 g
No n Itu

SNR in case
of uniform quantize
M2
SNR
mm q
Let Mitt Am coscot
q All 2 Arryn

SNR AMIL 2 12 32 22
4Am2

SNR 17Gt G 02h dB

Note Thus here we can see that ash increases

the SNR Inc Bandwidthinc g thus increase

in B w will lead to Tnc in SNR

Topic 3.3 Differential Pulse Code Modulation

PCM
Wecan see that
duet May Maggie

dqcut
dcbtqckjmqckt
mqlbtdq.cn
Mlk dat doeCh

mu t 9 Ch Theequate b
MqCh
Used at
receiver

SNR Improvement
if we keep the Bandwidthsame
as that ofPCM that is we keep numberof bitsper
sample same as that ofPCM then stepsize
of
Quantize will reduce and thus SNR will improve

AY AVppcm 2dpmaxL
pay Limp

thus Dnase will reduce by factor dmpPm

 Thus Gp is the processgains in SNR

Gp Pre Powagm
Pd Power dct
of

Reduced Bandwidth requirement

There is one more option available that we
may
keep the step size constant as that in PCM that is
All AVppcm
pay
tamp dmax dmin thus L'will beless
1
than L

than of levels in duantizerof

number

DRM should be less than that of

PCM

Thus number
of bitsper sample needed for
DPCM will be less than PCM and thus
Bw will reduce
foin Dpcoy either we can improve SNR or

reduce b w or both Advantage ofDPCM

But in DPcoy disadvantage is that Complexity

ofsystem is
very high

Topic34 Delta Modulation

The analog signal is thus

generally verysmooth
there are no sudden changes in the signal
do oversampling ofanalog signal then
if we
the adjacent samples will be correlated thus
the duantiser needed isjust of 1 bit

Thus DM is a Ibit DPCMog thus duanlizer

Usesonly 2levels ta or A
 Here mqckt mqcuDtdq.cn
K
thus mgcus I dqCm
M O

There are 2 problems In Delta Modulation

to Granular Noise Weknow that if maqutis

tenthan me then Quantize produces A and
if
 ringCH is more than met then Quantize

produces A

Consider the case where imputes constant

inguy 17 121212542 met

Here mnq.CH will keep on changingogoutput

will be 101010 g thus this is the

noisy output and if A es large then this

noise will distort the output completely
Toreduce the Granular Noise we
try
tokeep A small g
E o
To reduce granular noise we need small
A

2 Slope overload

When MHI changes veryfeisty that the

delta modulator is not able to catch the
 signal met this leads to the problemof
slope overload

This is explained in the figure below

fits
not able tofollow as
L
dat met datingCt
next
e Cordelia's
dat Mlt Afg
ofslope
overload

The condition slope overload is

of
maltImax Ahs

Toavoid slope overload we want A Should be

Large
Thus A
Its MEImax
Adaptive Delta Modulation
Wehave seen that we need large A for avoiding

slope overload and small A for avoiding granularnoise

Thus we can design Adaptive Delta modulation
where duantiser can increase or decrease a

in need

SNR D In DM the Quantisation noise is between

Aton

Thus ECW
Laf Ag2dg A

This noise is uniformly spread over B w offs

and thus noise power within baseband B

Is

No
Is
 Thus SNR will be 3a gmTt5

For practice
Q1

Q2
03

04

05
 Chapter 4 Line codes and ISI

Topic Lao AE Linecodes to

dig dine channel

to o
Source coder

Thus linecoder converts the digital Source output

f go into electrical pulses on waveform
 Here we have used
half width pulses
these are called RZ
linecodes
R2pulses have
pulse width equal
to Tb 2
p N R2 have pulses
width ofTb
Note Transparent linecodes

w
Favourable properties linecoding
of

tht
__

PSD of line codes

Let pet is the pulse then line code will be

as shown in figure below
The value willdepend typeof line code
of an on

I
If polarsignalling 9k 1g in on Offkeeping

AK toro ele

Thus Aki's a random Variable now tofind PSD

ofcoded signal we
firstof all find PSDof mtg
I find PSD ofnut the impulse train signal
all represent sect as train
we
firstof of
practical deltajunction of width Eeg and
height of each delta Jin will be h K 9k1g
We can see that Rxx Ct for ITIK g will be

Rxxkt nethut tide

dmfof.fi

ftp.fu 2aah bCatiD

RxxH k
634
q

Similarly closeto E Tb we will get

Rxx lit Rxf Ct
Et
Lo Rn dim t Ia Kaun aaaaa
N K
Nen
Thus
Sylwk Must sxcw
1M Rnetwtbny

Thecase of polar signaling

Ak II og REL g Rn o fan O

fo sycwt.LY
Tb
Since
put rect Cttb for NRN
a
hsin with

An
plug

Htb Htb f
 I
B Wis Hb

But in case
of R2 put Meet Htbld
plug a sin WTbly
H w a
Buen

Hb Htb

Few other codes

1 a Manchester coding Splitphasecoding

twinned binary coding

we send put
for 1g put for 0g this coding
has 2 erode Value Photo was

2 Bipolar AM I Altunate Mark Inverted

Signaling
O Nopulse 1
by Plt and pets
depending on previous value of 1
thus alternate 1 s are send
by opposite
de Value
pulses fo of Pcw is still zero
also Bipolar is not transparent

Topic 2.00 Pulse shaping and ISI

What Is Inter Symbol Interference Why

does it take place
Wehave Seen that line coder produces time
limited hectangular pulses ofduration Tb or Tbk
in boththe cases we get jounier transform
some bandwidth
equal to pulse which has a

when we send a signal of Bandwidth over

 AChannel with
finite bandwidth the time
domain Signal expands in teme domain and
thus the adlacent pulse overlap with each

other or the symbols interfere with each

other leading to ISI
Note Spreading of pulses in temedomain
leads to ISI

H
10 above problem is
folate or using thepulses
which have
finite bandwidth and pulses
put should follow this cardetects
put
Lot ntb
IRD
 sin Rbt PCW rect
put g
Lg 2ARb

SIR
we create a new pulse bandwidth
if of
between
Rbf10 Rb then the decayin
timedomain is tati
fast
 Where B w will be Rad Hd

when Moll offfactor 4 1 then roll 0ft is

and B Wis Rb
oft
Weneed that
if put is sampled at t ntb

then we should
get HH only lie
N

pal n22ft
N
ht b Set

H
II Icw nub I
Topic 30 Eye diagram
00
 A message signal
of lows XIII
given is

to 8 bit Pcm Resulting binary sequence is

represented by cosine pulse find transmission
B w with
to
4 0.5

Q A sinusoidal message signal having

amplitude Am and frequencyfm is transmitted
Delta modulate'as having A 0628 Volts
by
fs 40000samples Isecg for which ofthe followy
Slope overload will take place
Am fm
a 025 lok Hu d 2V 2 5k He

b 025 025k Hu
c Iv 3k Hr
 nmCt
125

I
I 2 t

find Aopt
if bit rule is Ikbps
 Time Division Multiplexing DM

TDMis a method Multiplexing digital signals

of

TDM is extension of PCM for multiple Signals

Inplace of samples we use a commutator

M
use

M
Lpf 9
me
MuttLpp or

The commutator famplesthe

signal here we can see
that commutator Dampier 4 signals in one notation'g

time taken for single notation is frame time Cs

Takingthe case All signals are Band
of fame width
case1
Thus we want to fample all Signals at 2B damping

we want that Commulator should

frequency thus
complete its one notation in see tense
afg

Thus
frame duration will be ftp.sec and
in one frame we will have 4 samples 1 Sample

ofeach Signal

t th Es tu tis tu
Ts
L
2B

Thus 2
Samples of each Signal will be separated byu
 Sec
only

Now each sample is represented

if by nbits then

bitrate will be AE

4samples in Tsteme donation

fample rate is Ufs samples see

40bitrate will be 9Nfs bits Sec

At aeciever we have decommutator

Milt

2x
Mut
skeletons LPF

my Lt
Mutt

We need Synchronisation b w commutator and

decommulator
For synchronisation after eachframe there are few
extrabits which are kept these
for synchronisation
Are Called Synchronisation and control bits

3 Signals each band limited to 2kHz are

multiplexed using TDM Each sample is

encoded with 5 bits bit rate and
find
transmission bandwidth
Aus 30K112g
Gokbps

4 message signals are multiplexed using

TDM og the time taken bycommutator
to complete one dotation is 125 usecog

find Transmission B w if each Sample is

encoded with 10bits Aus 160kHz
 10Message signals are multiplexed using
TDM g speed of the commutator is 5000
rotation see Each Sample is encoded
with 8bits bits are
if synchronisation
lot of each frame And bitrate

Caseam Multiplexing TDM

of signalsof
different frequencies

1St Possibility
Mitt A
B wfIt
Mutt Commutator
A today
Bwf TB
IN

T
BOdp
mb.to a

m
B wfu 47g
 of commutator is equal to
the
speed
Nyquist rate of signal with largest
bandwidth det
fu fz fr fi thus
commutator rotates at afy notation perseconds
thus all signals are now Sampled at
4a
sampling frequency

Thus No
of famples will be 8f y samplesper
second and we used n bitfor each
if
Sample then
Rb bitrate 8nfy

This is wastage B Woo

of
2nd Possibility

Aae the Commutator rotates 2ft notation

per
second ie.no rotation commutator will be
of of
equalto Nyquist rate of signalwith fmallest
bandwidth
Bn

Mitt Ms Commutator
10kHz

native
20kHL
Don
Ms Ct
30UH

q
Here commutator rotates at 20 ooo noteteas

persecond this will satisfy Ng rate of melt

only q toSatisfy Ng rate of malt and Bout we
take a samples and 3samples respectively
 In one rotation of commutator

do Bitrate will be be 120,000 Samplespee

Second g Rb 120N Kbps

Milt
14 A
4k

Mutt
EB IQ L a pcm
signal
my
8km An 1

find
Multi fpeed ofcommutator
16Wh
Bitrate
 3 Analog signals having B w 12001kg

6001kg 600112g find bit rate Of System

Shows below

Mitt B
600M
Multi
6WHr
B As 99TH
sample

Mz Aus Rb 57 Gkbps
1200112

In PCM we can incb.co and Improve system

performance as SNR increases

 Chapter 40
Random Variables To

There are a type signals

of
to Deterministic signals Signals whose

analytical andgraphical description is

known at all time instant
2 Random signals thesignal which is

unpredictable which are uncertain

to
Topic to concept of probability

1 what is a random Experiment

Ied
e
A sample space S is collection of all possible
Separately identifiable outcome of random

experiment for example in tossofcoin

Sample space is 1,21314516

Event is set of outcome meeting some

specification for example odd number or throw

0 Even include 1,315 as possibleoutcome

Each outcome of an experiment is element

or sample point

Null event to Event with No samplepoint

Complement of any event A AC is an event

that contain all the sample points that are not

 present in Aa

Union of events A and B AUB E

Unionof two events is a new event AUB

which contain all the sample point in A and B

Intersection events AaB simply A B

of two
or

This is a new event that contain all the samples

points which are common to both A and B

Note
if AaB p then Aand B events are

called disjoint event 09 Mutually exclusive

event
Relative frequency and probability

Probability of any event A is PA NGAI

1e Number of sample points in A Total
number
ofsamplepointsin
samplespace

P AUB NCA t N 1B NCAA B MAHDI B

PCAA B
N
 PLAY I PLA

Q1

Q2

Wewill study more and complete probabity in

Mathematics Here we are Just looking Basics

Conditional probability and Independent
Events

Conditional Probability s The fituatemin

which one ofthe event has already occurred
and you havetofind probability occurrence
of of
another event
Written as PLAIB Given that event B has
already occurred thenwho
is
probabilitythat event A
will occur

we can write that

PCA B PIA X PCBIA
um
probability that
I
both even occur probability that probability
that Bwi
event Aoccer occur
A
given
hasalready
occurred
 OR
PIAB Pl B X PCHB

fo PLAB PLAI.pro AJ
PCB

and PIBIA PLAIBIRB

PLA

4
Independent Event
When two Events are independent then PCAIB
will not depend on Bgthus NAIB PLA gthus

Insuch cases PCAB PIA MB

Topic 2.0 Random Variable

TABOO

n Icn
05
Probability ofacointoss
experiment
s
s

Topic
Discrete Random arlable

Random Valuable is discrete RV

if the variable
take only distinct number ni
thus RVcanbe Ni ican be any value
between too
Ricki is called probability Mass
function
 we can
easily see that
Puni L

funof Probabilities
of
all possible

Values
of Rv is 1

For 2 RV
Nandy
Pay Mos yj ie Probability that

y yj
A ni and

Bey ni I
yj

also Palydeity I

Type Yjtri I
also Paylaig yj Palyckily Pylyj
type yjpei Puni

also Pay Cai yj Palai

 Cumulative Distribution function CCDD

a
CDF Fx se Px xen Generally
Haircare
function
Thus Fx Coo Px Koo I

FXC a PxCxc o O

Fx n is always an increasingfunction

Q
Topic 40 Continuous Random Variable

The RV can take

any Value in a certain Interval
Puni show the probability that Rikki

PDF z n Rani

Probabilitydensity
function

I e I
Mr
Ni
µ
fine Rtx canhave Value in
range ki n

thus 92Cai da I le the

area under PDF is always 1

Cumulative distribution function CDF

Fx n Ric Xen f Randa

 Fx a
Ig FxC D Og
the CDF is always an increasing

function

Thus Pdf Blah akaFica

also P MERE 4 Randa

Construct density function for above

discrete RV
11 Ran
Hu
42

0
purr
I 2
 nPxcn

ke

10 10

ofthe given PMF

CDF
find Krog
Plus.io
find

PMF of a axis
given
FX n _O NEO
KHL O l k f lo

look H 10

fendK PC 2 cues
Q for Rv Pmies
ae bn x o
fun o otherwise

find relation btw a b

Prob PC tent 3

plot fun

Topic 5.0 Gaussian Random Pariable 7

The PDF
of Gaussian Rv is
L e Mz
Pxen
VIT

Fun
14 e an

kda
Icy Syd
e I fwy
 h au Yoo
Thegeneral Gaussian PDF is pW L e
JIA T
n

Lo Fx a J Pxcusdu

e en
a 4202dm
Funk
fo
r

Let F Kiyo
died
Fx a
f 4 e ok

Fun I Quote

Topic 60 Joint Distribution

we know that

Pf Xen og
Yey Fxy my
thejoint PDF is pxycn.gl 2
xayyH4D

also Pxylum Indy I

also Marginal densities pxcn5IPxyln.ci dy

and
Pyly If Pxy my dn

Z
alf.gg

EfgxggdnfxCnI
foFxyCn.y1dyM
arginalPPF
Topic to flakslical Averages

let Ki is a discrete Random Variable then

f outof N trials NI comes Ni times

Hz h Nr h
Hz n
Nb n

Then Mean u I Hint Nuh 1143ns

of
Nnnn
N
n
I I I ni Pulse
i I

Thus Expected Value a lie meanof U RVis

of
Ecu ki Ricki

also Ecu Pxcn dm

Mean of a function of a Random Variable
then
if gas is afunction
of n
ElginD gCais Rani

and agentRani du
ElginD

Mean
of the
sum

If gluey g gamey gun g grin 4 are

the Rv then
t
filthy gun y 1gun y t tgnlu.us

g.cn DtgunytgscTDt gnlnTD

Thus Tty Tty

Meanoftheproductoftwofunct

I
 the two random variable
if my are

independent then

Pxycu g Ran Pycy

Thus
E Ny JmyPxy my dndy
Else ECD

when the two Variables

Ty I
g are independent

Moments to

nth moment Rvn is defined the

of as mean

often thus
get Ten
p Cn du

The nth central moment

ofRvn is
CEEJ IJPxenidu
L
 and central moment of Riles called flandaed
deviation

Taz EFF k 165 EEE

2
ET E

Ela Ela

Variance
of a sum of independent Rv

g
MY
Ty's E

Tz Z Felt Ty2
as when are independent then
Randy
D and Cy g are also independent
 V
This result can be extended to
any number of
Variables

Topic 80 Central limit theorem

Under the certain condition the sum large

of
numberOf independent RV lends to begaussian
Rv IndependentOf the PDF of the Variables
being added

It will be shown that if I k th t b Nn

And N H Nz Ny Nn are independent RV

then PDFof 2 will be convolutionof

PDFOf Mi gNr Nz Nn
Topic 90 Correlation't

when we want to find the dependence

between two 124 nandy then we we

compute Covariance Tay two Rv's ie

of

Tey eesexy D

Variance our nFtTeF

 The covariance

Fey G Dey D
sty sty sty try
Try sty IT
Thus when K and are independent
y
ny IT
then and thus

O
guy

Thus when are independent then

Randy
their covariance is Zero

Note for independent Rv we know that

gingold gin gets

Note two Rv independent then
if are

they are uncorrelated but not Vice versa

Qand Solution

Q
Q

FewRandom Variables

1 Binomial RV if we conduct an

experiment where the experiment has

only 2 outcomes
Success paobab p
failure probab 9 GD

then an experiment is lenducted

if n

probability of Success Ktemes is

ternes their

Pate Mcu Ch h
pkg
 MeanValueOf Binomial RV is Np
Variance of a n
Npg

2 Poisson RV E
If a is a RV and
f is
Poisson RV the parameter ofPoisson ru
is d
Shen
Plans e
dq g
Meanof Poisson Rv L
u d
Variance of u
3 Rayleigh density
Ma
flu if
e u cry

Mean aJFK
Variance G AID are
Few important Point Impfor GATE like
exam

FLAIM P xen M Paterno

PCM
Topic 100

functionof one Random Variable

fuppose n is a Ril and y is another RVcreated

by the relation
g goes
We know that Eg is then KCG and
any number
NG are also numbers
g
Fyly P yay P
glassy
Example axtb
10 y
Now Fyly P ntb
Ey
P see
Ha
Fyly Fx Fba if a o

Fyly I Fx Fda a 20
if
Example 2 o a then
g

n
iii I't
Example 30
Example 40

Example 50
 Example 60

How to fend fycy le PDF

My

We want to find PDF of interms of ng

y
 We know that
goes thus
ya
g Cy My

Thus
fyup f xlustfully
fycy filthy At
doff

The above formulae is used when

ginfunctein
is Montonic Increasing or decreasing function g
thus n is one to one g
y g

but
if y gen is not one to one then
thus
y gcn will have roots Kw
g gin grey glad

I
 t
fylyt Zfxcudklg.cm

xfyyr fxgfIn tfxgHuIytfg'tiff

Example

T.yt antbfycyt fqfxly.ba

2

3 ang a o their
g
fyly Tayy a fxLTy1a tfxfFla
 4

6
Topic 11 Two Random Variables 0

we know that

Joint PDF is Fcu y PEX Eng Yey

L FC o o
y
Else 05 0
Les
f carat 1

DOO

ooo

Incase independent Rv case

of
Flu y Fun FYLD g fxyln.gg fxcmfyly
Topic 12 Onefunction of two Rv

F gluey q Lis Rv which is afunctear of

Randy
FeG Paez P gcse y EE

Examples Katy
Faz Pf Hy S2
AY
H
Thus integrating over the
Nty 2

Stay we get
mmmm
f2121 1 fo fcng dudy
Z
fztD ddzFzlD

fzcyzfffk y.y dy
Thus
fun fo ft yay dy

Now if ney are independent then

f212 If f K y fly dy
0Th's PDF PDF at PDFy
Thus when we add independent RV then
the PDF Of resultant RV is corn of PDFof all
RV

Example2
if Ryu and y are Independent
a e an Ucu
fun
e B Uy
fyly p

If 2 Nty find PDF 92

Example3 Two independent 124

Nandy are

Uniformly distributed in Interval g1 gjnd

PDF Of L kty o
Example4 o Two Independent
124 are uniformlydestabu
Nandy
InSame Interval 1 find P ay o

Examples 0 X.gl2gXz are three Independent 1211g Uniformly

distributed 1 P Nith EU
on
find
1 I 1
Nice Method 1
Xitxz EK is
I
Probab 1542
0
t
PLXitxzEXD fokfdk 3
kg gg

nfxin
Example G O HIT

f A
ITI The

tann find fyly

g
Example 70 A zero mean Gaussian Rv is passed through a

HWRfindPDF ofoutput

8.0
Example o
2 axtb nd PDF Of 2 Take Randy as
independent
o
ye axtby

Example 90 The Joint PDF

ca Y
fxycu.gg Say e U o y 0

o otherwise

PDF
find marginal fxing fycy
find fuly HD
Q

to Explain MAP detection Rule't

I
 Chapter 50
Random Process

How will
fo we define Random
process

Tospecify Run we
repeat the experiment a large dumb

times to butto define random process

of find Pyu
wedogame thing valve of t
foreach
 lunate's
Ensemble

We canbuythat Random process is also outcome

of
random experiment here the outcome
ofeach trial is
a waveform that is a function of t
Wecan see that t t we fample
the waveforms weget Runt

Note Wecan Random process is combination

say that of
infinite number Random Variables
of
Rampling of Random process results in RV
Collection all waveforms ofRPis called
of
ensemble
 fowhat is nth order PDF

Topic 5.1 Autocorrelationfunction of Random

process

Rxftp.gt L kltHNtD HIM

Here ke and n are 1211 createdby Sampling Random

process at tf and tu

P N

Rx te te
N
f Nth pain Negus du du
N

Topic 52 Classificationof Random process

 Firstorder densityof
stationaryRPis independge

Strict sense stationary

1st 2ndorderPDF
f only and
 Mtk A cos
Question ett
if dis
RV which is Uniformly distributed in
range 0102A
is ut Wss Ausyes

Process
Topic 5.3 Ergodic

The Random process has two

typeof Statistical
averages 1 Ensemble
Aug
2 Time
Aug

Ensemble The Valve found averageof

Aug avg by
all Sample points at one

particulartime
Time Aug Thetime average of random process
 Ensemble Averages Time Averages

Htm
IF JaiPadre
c0
deign
t.fiInctidt
d T runner
RxxCtsgtD Htt Utd NtitectD
murmur
HAD Nctitt
417 I ftp.huttutthde

Now Ergodic Process When the Ensemble

avg and teme avg

are
fimilar to each other
Verifythat RP NHK Acos otto goes Rv
Uniformly distributed Otoag find that
whether Rpis Wide Sense
flationary or not

Aus Ho

ARP Aws wot g Ae's

given by Kitt a

Random Variable Uniformly distributed between

0 1 find mean and ACF of Ntl ta Coswot

wot
IzcosCoswote
 Topic 54 PSD Of Random Process 3

ThePSD Random Process is founia

of any
transformof ACF ofthe Random process
Question 3
Question

Question
Quested
Question to
Topic5 5 Multiple Random Process

Cross Correlation function

mm
Rxy test sects yay
I
point flationary Ran
to
RxyCtigtDsRxyLtI tD RxylD

RxyLti.tD HHT yTtD I

unconellated
Few Important Properties
I
ACF i RxxCt
RxxH E Nlt Htt 4
RxxCt is even function

IRxx lol ER xxCD

2 Cross correlation Rxy E

Rxy E E Xlt Htt 4

Rxytt Ry
IRxy t ETR xx b RyyLD
Rxy to l E
ta Rxxlo t Ryy o

3 Auto Covariance Cxxle 2

CxxH E
Htt uD xftu
g
Cxx It Rxx It tex

4 Cross covariance Cxy It

Cxyk E
f Ct Ux
yate Uy
 Cxyth Rxyt Ux

their uncorrelated
If Cxy 0

Rxy H o then orthogonal

If
5 PSD Of random Process

Sxx PSD
of Rxx E
w

Thus Sxx Is ve and

w
always
even
Sexy w and Frog
RxyC

a
Syx w A FT Of Ryne

Since Rxy t
Ryne
x Sxy w
Sync W
Topic 5 6 Transmission of Randomprocess
through Linear system
µ
Question to
Note PSD of output is
Syycw Hkd Sxxcw
Topic 57 Bandpass Random Process

here Reet and Nsa are inphase and

Quadriphase components MHI and Nsa

Are basebandog settles bandpassog
n Sxx w

nI l
w
n
c
Wc
 s
seats
NH 2Tos
y wet

reset
A
2J In wet
Question to
Now Questions will be solved in class

fhawn levies and BP Lathi Questions

 6 Noise
Chapter mm
mm

what is Noise

Noise is Undesired random Variations that interfere

with desired signal andinhibit communication

hot Noise In Hemiconductor devices the

flowof
f
o

cementis not continuous Mather dueto discreteflow

of
of minority Carrier
electrons Thediffusion generator

and recombination
ofe andhole all are random

process thus flowof cement is not continuous rather

it is random
The characteristic noise is while
flat with freq
ofthis
when the noise is amplified than it sounds like
leadshole falling on the metallic surface
 flickerNoise His generated dueto defects in the
Semiconductor Crystal and in oxide coating used in devices
this noise is in almost all active electronic devices

it is effectivein lowfreq only and not high freq

Thus
flicker Noise is Yfnoise also

Thermal Kloise Alsocalled resista Noise on

Johnson Noise

Inany aspect with electrical resistance the thermal

fluctuations ofelectrons in the object will generate noise

due to random motion

offree charged particles in conducting
media
The agitation wandering randomly giveaide to
of free e
a noise voltage that appear between the resistor teeminal

Thermal Noise is Lao mean Gaussian Noise and thePSD

 thermal Noise is also
of flat for wide rangeof
frequency

Therms thermal noise voltage isgiven by

In CHI 412ktB

Ris valve ofresistance in ohmsg ke l 68 102351u

Tis temp in helvin and Bl's Bandwidth

nokia II D

max Noise power transfer toload hltDh.R

CREEK RY
URKTB ki
4k
To
Max Powertransfer is independent valueof R o
of
 Topic Ga
Noise temperature and Noise gone

medeim can
The amount of noise in a given transmission
be equated to thermal Noiseg

Any amount of radiated noise canbe approximated

bythermal Noise with an ellective noise tempmeasuredin

Kelvin

Equivalent Noise Temperature

If Pa is the total noise power

fromthe Source
Pa KTeB
where Te is the noise eq temperature the
of
Source
 Now when any signal is processed through a

sport network the amplifier mixer ele

Thetotal Noise
output of apoet network will
be Noise produced due to sport network and
Noise
output due to input
neuenedfrom noisy

resistor at input

Noisy Noise
logiest
output
Amplifier
tho GutBtPnaw
gaina A dueto
Noise
amplifier

The temperature tis reference temperature and

the Noisy Resistor produce Noise KTB

Tho GhetBt Pna

D Gk B T'tPna Gk B Ttt
GTB
 Teel the ellective or equivalent noise temperature

ofthe aportnetwork

The equivalent noise temperature of whole systemis

F Te

Topic 63 Noise figure or Noise Factor

0

If we see the above discussion then

Hai Noise 0
I Noisy less
µ
Amplifier Amp

L Na L g

IfNa is noise produced

by amplifier at QP if Ge's
then this can be shown as
gainof amplifier
acombination
of Noiselen Amp and noise sauce
 Nai at input
Hai
Naff
total
Noise Figure F is Mateo
of 9P Noise producedby
noisy network to the total 17Noise produced
0
by
noiseless network

f GCNPt Naco Nit Nat

G Ni Ni

TheNoisefigure or Noise
factor expresses the noisiness
ofthe aport yw
Topic64 3
SNR Signal to Noise Rate

3 In an Ideal N w the SNR

input and SNRoutput are
fame because both are
input noise and signal are
Healed identically

However
practical system add noise and thus SNRo

decreases

Noise one Noise Factor F SHI

SNRo

CIii
SNRoffo offsite
I 7
F It te
T

Noise
eq temp of the system
 Te CF DT

Topics Noise Equivalent Bandwidth

While Noises filter Coloured

Hlf noise

PSDofOlpe I

Noise power Olp to

NEITH Tdf
equivalent
Bneq Noise Bandwidth

Pout NoBrieg Hmat

Brieg
I Tdf
E I
Now examples from Schaum Series
Some Imp Proof D
1 Cascade Of 2 System with eq temp tea tea
and
gain Gtg 92g

F
µTB FIGG t
214th out I

Pno NiceGa t Cee D Nice Grt CED Niaz

D Fog
system It fs D t FED
91

Fatal FL t 122
191

Thus Fst F

f FEI
t
qtFa a

finitely k
fear Eat Fifa t
 ChapterF 0 Behaviour of Analog system in
presence of Noise

ftp.T
I 0
T TsggTs
Topic Baseband system 7

figure shows a communication system with no

modulation

Here So Si a signalmet is ofbandwidth Btecg

Noise will be
 PDFofNoise
µ D Rx we have LPF
which will give
Noise
power
Aki
fBB df
No NB

Thus
SEE ftp

We define a parameter F SI og theesin baseband

NB
systems
I 8
No
Topic 2 0 DSB Sc in Noise

Signal Mitt has power MTt q

we used 52coswet
for modulation sothe transmitted
power is MTtt og same as powerof Mitt signal
Now noise gets added nut and Rx BPF will
extract a noise portion D

T2 Mut coswet niet

gift
T2 Mlt Coswett nuts cos wet t
Ndt Sin wet

output ofLPF willbe

The

Mlt t nuts
you 52

MAT
So g No Iz nett
 No 2NB

No NB
Thus
SEE gthus 8
FIB q
re
thus performance of DSBK is same as that

Baseband system
of
Topic 6.0 SSB Sc in Noise

ssBsc It Mlt Coswet Imma smart

w z
Si mas

The BPF will produce signal

HI the coswet
filth htt 1ns sin wet

to The is multiplied with 2cos wet

gilts
and passedthrough 2PF thus we
get
must nut
you
 So MF Si
No nett JVB
Thus 8 thus SSB Sc also has
Lfo µIg
fame performance as
that Baseband
of fignal

Question
nm

Aus 33.8dB
 Topic 5.0 Noise in AM signal

We can demodulate AM
by synchronous
demodulation or by envelope delection

The case
of coherent demodulation
to

Mt 52Coswe
0AMCtl Iv
_t BPF
FzAhEswI
A
q DE
Block
T2 Mlt Ws wet n

t
Soul
Noel
HereSo Mct
No NB
si CAINID E CA t may 7
Art mTtJ t 2 AmTt
MHI Is of Lao then mett o
if mean
 Thus

IT fizxnnIIme
N 2

I am m

Then SNRoutput of AME's poor wut

DSB.SC and SSB.sc

Thecase Envelope Detection Fee

of

The renewed signal is AtmCtD cos wet Mt

Thus CATMCED Coswett nuts cos wet

Ns Ct Sin wet

D
gift LAT Mitt that cos wet
nSCH s in wet
 Theenvelope
of gilts is
J At
DTtCsTj

f ceases 1
d large Noise
fmall Noisecase case

when CATMADD noise

thus envelope will be
Elt x Atmltl that

Thus So math
No 2NB
mm
2
Here Si MITHA

Ni a NB
Mz
Thus 8NRo Scout MAI N
N out A2tmTtT
This is same as that of Synchronous demodulatecis
 g
case

d large Noise Case 3

When nets AftMAD their

envelope of yet will be

nstE AtmitD
ECHL
J
Enki ofnoise then
if is envelope

It an
Eltiefents tyfAmtD
En A
I
If It 2CAtm cosOnce

Thus Emts is too large then

f
Eilts En HI It CAtmitDCosOn It
p
Noise Noise

Thus here Eilt has

nothing mitlog everything
here is noise
Topic 60 Noise in Angle Modulated System
FM and PM B

The angle modulated Signal

em Its A Cos wet
Here Kp Mitt forPM
yet
4CH KF EncodeforFM

The noise nates nuttwswettnsttisinwet

the noise Ntl EnCt Wslwett OnHD
For Phase Modulation

Ac cos et to net
gilt
Ac cos wet t
01ft t EnCHCes wet 1
OnCTD

Thus

Rtt Cos wet 1 Htt AYAD

gilts w
p
Envelope

Thus demodulator output will be

yoA YAH AHH

Now sin AQCH Ppg x
EnltisinconitD
A
 A Yet Ona HAD
Enacts Sin

Thier
output will be

you Kp Mlt t
Sinton
Ef
Soot
Kp2 Mlt I
Noise Power
is2Nd
Ah
So Az
Float Kp
2 NB
Here8 Si AI
HB 2ND

do
fifty ftp.mttt
In frequency Modulation

p
The noise is

alsopassedthrong
dellerentiateies

Thus when noise passedthrough

get
dellerenteator then
Snow 2
w l WI C ZAB
0 IWI ZAB

Thus No fBB tn GafJdf

No 81TWB's
3AT
 Thus
shot kftmT3 az
81T WBZ

wz
3Kp2m AI
452 132 AVB

do V 3Kf2mTtT
No TALBT
3 KF 2mF
2
B

EID THEIR

incase Of Mitt Amos wont

SNRo
of Fry 3g 1326
SNRoof PM Kp2mTtf8
1328
Q Compare Noiseperformance
of
PMandFM
Shiro FM r3kEffgTtI
µ
me 2
SN Ro PM 8 Kp Mlt

we can now
easily compare the two

Q what is Threshold in the case

of Angle
modulation 5

Threshold means that maximum noise above

which the message signal cannot be recovered

fromthe Renewed
signal ie modulated signal t
noise
00 Threshold Is seen in all kind Ofmodulations
effect
like AMG FM and PM

it is seen that threshold effect is more in Angle

modulation case than the amplitude modulated

Here we assumed that

noiseis low thus
EnlHg A 414 all are

very small
but when Enki is
lange
then AYCH will also be large and A Yeti will change
It and thus phason will rotate circle
by full
a

about origin and since noise changes very tasty

 1
InCase Of large Noise we will get spikes in the

Output and thus RX willproduce cracking sound