PART I

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11096 – PRACTICAL WORK IN GEOGRAPHY ISBN 81-7450-595-4
Textbook for Class XI

First Edition
June 2006 Asadha 1928 ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
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 FOREWORD

The National Curriculum Framework (NCF), 2005, recommends that children’s

life at school must be linked to their life outside the school. This principle
marks a departure from the legacy of bookish learning which continues to
shape our system and causes a gap between the school, home and community.
The syllabi and textbooks developed on the basis of NCF signify an attempt
to implement this basic idea. They also attempt to discourage rote learning
and the maintenance of sharp boundaries between different subject areas.
We hope these measures will take us significantly further in the direction of
a child-centred system of education outlined in the National Policy on
Education (1986).
The success of this effort depends on the steps that school principals
and teachers will take to encourage children to reflect on their own learning
and to pursue imaginative activities and questions. We must recognise that,
given space, time and freedom, children generate new knowledge by engaging
with the information passed on to them by adults. Treating the prescribed
textbook as the sole basis of examination is one of the key reasons why other
resources and sites of learning are ignored. Inculcating creativity and initiative
is possible if we perceive and treat children as participants in learning, not
as receivers of a fixed body of knowledge.
These aims imply considerable change in school routines and mode of
functioning. Flexibility in the daily time-table is as necessary as rigour in
implementing the annual calendar so that the required number of teaching
days are actually devoted to teaching. The methods used for teaching and
evaluation will also determine how effective this textbook proves for making
children’s life at school a happy experience, rather than a source of stress or
boredom. Syllabus designers have tried to address the problem of curricular
burden by restructuring and reorienting knowledge at different stages with
greater consideration for child psychology and the time available for teaching.
The textbook attempts to enhance this endeavour by giving higher priority
and space to opportunities for contemplation and wondering, discussion in
small groups, and activities requiring hands-on experience.
The National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT)
appreciates the hard work done by the textbook development committee

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 vi

responsible for this book. We wish to thank the Chairperson of the advisory
committee for textbooks in Social Sciences, at the higher secondary
level, Professor Hari Vasudevan and the Chief Advisor for this book, Professor
M.H. Qureshi for guiding the work of this committee. Several teachers
contributed to the development of this textbook; we are grateful to their
principals for making this possible. We are indebted to the institutions and
organisations which have generously permitted us to draw upon their
resources, material and personnel. We are especially grateful to the members
of the National Monitoring Committee, appointed by the Department of
Secondary and Higher Education, Ministry of Human Resource Development
under the Chairpersonship of Professor Mrinal Miri and Professor G.P.
Deshpande, for their valuable time and contribution. As an organisation
committed to systemic reform and continuous improvement in the quality of
its products, NCERT welcomes comments and suggestions which will enable
us to undertake further revision and refinement.

Director
New Delhi National Council of Educational
20 December 2005 Research and Training

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 RATIONALISATION OF CONTENT
IN THE TEXTBOOKS

In view of the COVID-19 pandemic, it is imperative to reduce content load on

students. The National Education Policy 2020, also emphasises reducing
the content load and providing opportunities for experiential learning with
creative mindset. In this background, NCERT has undertaken the exercise
to rationalise the textbooks across all classes. Learning Outcomes already
developed by the NCERT across classes have been taken into consideration
in this exercise.

Contents of the textbooks have been rationalised in view of the following:

•· Overlapping with similar content included in other subject areas in the
same class
•· Similar content included in the lower or higher class in same subject
•· Difficulty level
•· Content, which is easily accessible to students without much
interventions from teachers and can be learned through children through
self-learning or peer-learning

• Content, which is irrelevant in the present context

This present edition, is a reformatted version after carrying out the
changes given above.

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 TEXTBOOK DEVELOPMENT COMMITTEE

CHAIRPERSON, ADVISORY COMMITTEE FOR SOCIAL SCIENCE TEXTBOOKS AT HIGHER

SECONDARY LEVEL
Hari Vasudevan, Professor, Department of History, University of Calcutta,
Kolkata

CHIEF ADVISOR
M. H. Qureshi, Professor, CSRD, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi

MEMBERS
Rupa Das, PGT, DPS, R.K. Puram, New Delhi
S.M. Rashid, Professor, Department of Geography, Jamia Millia Islamia,
New Delhi
Sucharita Sen, Asstt. Professor, CSRD, Jawaharlal Nehru University,
New Delhi
Y. Sreekanth, Lecturer, DEME, NCERT, New Delhi

MEMBER-COORDINATOR
Tannu Malik, Lecturer, DESSH, NCERT, New Delhi

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 The following are applicable to all the maps of India used in this book
© Government of India, Copyright 2006
1. The responsibility for the correctness of internal details rests with the publisher.
2. The territorial waters of India extend into the sea to a distance of twelve nautical miles measured from
the appropriate base line.
3. The administrative headquarters of Chandigarh, Haryana and Punjab are at Chandigarh.
4. The interstate boundaries amongst Arunachal Pradesh, Assam and Meghalaya shown on this map are
as interpreted from the “North-Eastern Areas (Reorganisation) Act.1971,” but have yet to be verified.
5. The external boundaries and coastlines of India agree with the Record/Master Copy certified by
Survey of India.
6. The state boundaries between Uttaranchal & Uttar Pradesh, Bihar & Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh &
Madhya Pradesh have not been verified by the Governments concerned.
7. The spellings of names in this map, have been taken from various sources.

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The National Council of Educational Research and Training acknowledges

the contribution of Milap Chand Sharma, Reader, CSRD, JNU; Muzammil
Husain Quasmi, Lecturer, IASE, Jamia Millia Islamia; Aruna Gordan, PGT,
St. Thomas School, New Delhi and C. Pargi, PGT, KV, Neemuch in the
development of this textbook.
Acknowledgements are also due to Savita Sinha, Professor and Head,
Department of Education in Social Science and Humanities for her valuable
support at every stage of preparation of this textbook.
The Council is thankful to the Survey of India for certification of maps
given in the textbook. It also gratefully acknowledges the support of individuals
and organisations as listed below for providing various photographs and other
materials used in the textbook-
Milap Chand Sharma, CSRD, JNU for photographs of gentle slope,
steep slope, concave slope, convex slope, conical hill, plateau, V-shaped valley,
U-shaped valley, gorge, spur, cliff, waterfall and rapids in Chapter 5; Narendra
Kumar Saini, Cartographer, JMI for box 1.1, Figures 1.1 and 6.1; Concept
Publishing Company (Book : Fundamentals of Cartography by R.P. Misra and
A. Ramesh), New Delhi for Figures 1.4, 1.5 and 1.6 and NCERT textbook
(Remote Sensing by Meenakshi) for Figures 6.3 and 6.6; Survey of India for
Figures 1.2, 1.3 and parts of toposheet on page nos. 66 and 68; National Atlas
and Thematic Mapping Organisation for Figures 1.7, 1.8, 1.9, 1.10, 1.11, 1.12
and 1.13; Regional Remote Sensing Service Centre, Jodhpur for Figures 6.4;
National Remote Sensing Agency, Hyderabad for Figures 6.9, 6.11, 6.13, 6.14,
6.15, 6.16, 6.17 and image on page no. 91 and Digital Globe Agency for
Figure 6.10.
The Council also gratefully acknowledges the contributions of Anil Sharma,
DTP Operator; Sameer Khatana and Amar Kumar Prusty, Copy Editors;
Shrestha and Deepti Sharma, Proof Readers; Dinesh Kumar, Computer Station
Incharge who have helped in giving a final shape of this textbook. The efforts
of Publication Department, NCERT are also duly acknowledged.
The Council acknowledges the valuable input for analysing syllabi,
textbooks and the content, proposed to be rationalised for this edition by
Kulprit Singh, PGT, Geography, Chanakyapuri, New Delhi, Pushpendra Singh,
PGT, Geography, Prudence School, Ashok Vihar, Aparna Pandey, Associate
Professor, DESS, NCERT, Tanu Malik, Assistant Professor, DESS, NCERT.

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Rationalised 2023-24
 CONTENTS

FOREWORD iii
RATIONALISATION OF CONTENT IN THE TEXTBOOKS V

CHAPTER 1
Introduction to Maps 1

CHAPTER 2
Map Scale 17

CHAPTER 3
Latitude, Longitude and Time 26

CHAPTER 4
Map Projections 35

CHAPTER 5 49
Topographical Maps

CHAPTER 6
Introduction to Remote Sensing 69

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 Constitution of India
Part IV A (Article 51 A)

Fundamental Duties
It shall be the duty of every citizen of India —
(a) to abide by the Constitution and respect its ideals and institutions, the
National Flag and the National Anthem;
(b) to cherish and follow the noble ideals which inspired our national struggle
for freedom;
(c) to uphold and protect the sovereignty, unity and integrity of India;
(d) to defend the country and render national service when called upon to
do so;
(e) to promote harmony and the spirit of common brotherhood amongst all
the people of India transcending religious, linguistic and regional or
sectional diversities; to renounce practices derogatory to the dignity of
women;
(f) to value and preserve the rich heritage of our composite culture;
(g) to protect and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes,
rivers, wildlife and to have compassion for living creatures;
(h) to develop the scientific temper, humanism and the spirit of inquiry and
reform;
(i) to safeguard public property and to abjure violence;
(j) to strive towards excellence in all spheres of individual and collective
activity so that the nation constantly rises to higher levels of endeavour
and achievement;
*(k) who is a parent or guardian, to provide opportunities for education to
his child or, as the case may be, ward between the age of six and
fourteen years.

Note: The Article 51A containing Fundamental Duties was inserted by the Constitution
(42nd Amendment) Act, 1976 (with effect from 3 January 1977).
*(k) was inserted by the Constitution (86th Amendment) Act, 2002 (with effect from
1 April 2010).

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Introduction to Maps

Chapter 1

Introduction to Maps

You may be familiar with

maps that you have seen in
most of your books of social
sciences representing the
earth or any of its parts.
You may also know that the
shape of the earth is geoid
(three-dimensional) and a
globe can best represent it
(Fig. 1.1). A map, on the
other hand, is a simplified
depiction of whole or part
of the earth on a piece of
paper. In other words, it is
a two-dimensional form of
the three-dimensional
earth. Hence, a map can be
Figure 1.1 India as it is seen on the globe
drawn using a system of
map projections (see
Chapter 4). As it is impossible to represent all features of the earth’s
surface in their true size and form, a map is drawn at a reduced
scale. Imagine your school campus. If a plan/map of your school is
to be drawn in its actual size, it will be as large as the campus itself.
Hence, maps are drawn at a scale and projection so that each point 1
on the paper corresponds to the actual ground position. Besides,
the representation of different features is also simplified using
symbols, colours and shades. A map is, therefore, defined as
selective, symbolised and generalised representation of whole or a

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 Practical Work in Geography

Figure 1.2 Sketch of the Environs of Delhi (Left) and a Map of Delhi (Right)

Glossary

Cadastral Map : A large-scale map drawn at a scale of 1 : 500 to 1 : 4000 to show

property boundaries, designating each parcel of land with a number.
Cardinal Points : North (N), South (S), East (E) and West (W).
Cartography : Art, science and technology of making maps, charts, plans and other
modes of graphical expression as well as their study and use.
Generalisation-Map : A simplified representation of the features on the map, appropriate
to its scale or purpose, without affecting their visual form.
Geoid : An oblate spheroid whose shape resembles the actual shape of the Earth.
Map : A selective, symbolised and generalised representation of the whole or part of the
earth at a reduced scale.
Map series : A group of maps produced at same scale, style and specifications for a
country or a region.
Projection-Map : The system of the transformation of the spherical surface onto a plane
surface.
Scale : The ratio between the distances of two points on the map, plan or photograph
and the actual distance between the same two points on the ground.
Sketch Map : A simplified map drawn freehand which fails to preserve the true scale or
orientation.

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Introduction to Maps

part of the earth's surface on a plane surface at a reduced scale. It may

also be understood that a simple network of lines and polygons without
a scale shall not be called a map. It is only referred to as “the sketch” (Fig.
1.2). In the present chapter, we will study the essential requirements of
maps, their types and the uses.

ESSENTIALS OF MAP MAKING

In view of the variety of maps, we may find it difficult to summarise what

they all have in common. Cartography, being an art and science of map-
making, does include a series of processes that are common to all the
maps. These processes that may also be referred to as essentials of maps
are :
± Scale
± Map Projection
± Map Generalisation
± Map Design
± Map Construction and Production

Scale: We know that all maps are reductions. The first decision that a
map-maker has to take is about the scale of the map. The choice of scale
is of utmost importance. The scale of a map sets limits of information
contents and the degree of reality with which it can be delineated on the
map. For example, figure 1.3 provides a comparison between maps having
different scales and the improvements made thereupon with the change
in scale.

Projection: We also know that maps are a simplified representation of

the three-dimensional surface of the earth on a plane sheet of paper. The
transformation of all-side-curved-geoidal surface into a plane surface is
another important aspect of the cartographic process. We should know
that such a radical transformation introduces some unavoidable changes
in directions, distances, areas and shapes from the way they appear on a
geoid. A system of transformation of the spherical surface to the plane 3
surface is called a map projection. Hence, the choice, utilisation and
construction of projections is of prime importance in map-making.

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 Practical Work in Geography

A Portion of Sheet NH 43 A Portion of Sheet 53 H

A Portion of Sheet 53 H/2 A Portion of Guide Map

Figure 1.3 Effect of Scale on Mapped Information

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Introduction to Maps

Generalisation: Every map is drawn with a definite objective. For

example, a general purpose map is drawn to show information of a general
nature such as relief, drainage, vegetation, settlements, means of
transportation, etc. Similarly, a special purpose map exhibits information
pertaining to one or more selected themes like population density, soil
types or location of industries. It is, therefore, necessary to carefully
plan the map contents while the purpose of the map must be kept in the
forefront. As maps are drawn at a reduced scale to serve a definite
purpose, the third task of a cartographer is to generalise the map
contents. In doing so, a cartographer must select the information (data)
relevant to the selected theme and simplify it as per the needs.

Map Design: The fourth important task of a cartographer is the map

design. It involves the planning of graphic characteristics of maps
including the selection of appropriate symbols, their size and form, style
of lettering, specifying the width of lines, selection of colours and shades,
arrangement of various elements of map design within a map and design
for map legend. The map design is, therefore, a complex aspect of map-
making and requires thorough understanding of the principles that
govern the effectiveness of graphic communication.

Map Construction and Production: The drawing of maps and

their reproduction is the fifth major task in the cartographic process. In
earlier times, much of the map construction and reproduction work
used to be carried out manually. Maps were drawn with pen and ink
and printed mechanically. However, the map construction and
reproduction has been revolutionalised with the addition of computer
assisted mapping and photo-printing techniques in the recent past.

HISTORY OF MAP MAKING

The history of map making is as old as the history of mankind itself. The
oldest map was found in Mesopotamia drawn on a clay tablet that belongs
to 2,500 B.C. Figure 1.4 shows Ptolemy’s Map of the World. Greek and
5
the Arab geographers laid the foundation of modern cartography. The
measurement of the circumference of the Earth and the use of the system
of geographical coordinates in map-making are some of the significant
contributions of the Greeks and the Arabs. The art and science of map

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 Practical Work in Geography

making was revitalised in early

modern period, with extensive
efforts made to minimise the
6 effects of the transformation of the
geoid onto a plane surface. The
maps were drawn on different
projections to obtain true
directions, correct distances and
to measure area accurately. The
aerial photography supplemented
the ground method of survey and
Figure 1.4 Ptolemy’s Map of the World the uses of aerial photographs
stimulated map-making in the
nineteenth and twentieth
centuries.
The foundation of map-making in India was laid during the Vedic
period when the expressions of astronomical truths and cosmological
revelations were made. The expressions were crystallised into ‘sidhantas'
or laws in classical treaties of Arya Bhatta, Varahamihira and Bhaskara,
and others. Ancient Indian scholars divided the known world into seven
‘dwipas’ (Fig. 1.5). Mahabharata conceived a round world surrounded
by water (Fig. 1.6).

Figure 1.5 Seven Dwipas of the World Figure 1.6 Round World surrounded by
as conceived in Ancient water as conceived in
India Mahabharata

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Introduction to Maps

Todarmal pioneered land surveying and map-making as an integral

part of the revenue collection procedure. Besides, Sher Shah Suri’s
revenue maps further enriched the mapping techniques during the
medieval period. The intensive topographical surveys for the preparation
of up–to–date maps of the entire country, were taken up with the setting
up of the Survey of India in 1767, which culminated with the map of
Hindustan in 1785. Today, the Survey of India produces maps at different
scales for the entire country.

Types of Maps Based on Scale: On the basis of scale, maps may

be classified into large-scale and small-scale. Large scale maps are drawn
to show small areas at a relatively large-scale. For example, the
topographical maps drawn at a scale of 1: 250,000, 1:50,000 or 1:25,000
and the village maps, the zonal plans of the cities and house plans
prepared on a scale of 1:4,000, 1:2,000 and 1:500 are large scale maps.
On the other hand, small-scale maps are drawn to show large areas.
For example, atlas maps, wall maps, etc.
(i) Large-scale Maps: Large-scale maps are further divided into the
following types :
(a) Cadastral maps
(b) Topographical maps
(a) Cadastral Maps : The term ‘cadastral’ is derived from the French
word ‘cadastre’ meaning ‘register of territorial property’. These maps are
drawn to show the ownership of landed property by demarcating field
boundaries of agricultural land and the plan of individual houses in
urban areas. The cadastral maps are prepared by the government
agencies to realise revenue and taxes, along with keeping a record of
ownership. These maps are drawn on a very large scale, such as the
cadastral maps of villages at 1 : 4,000 scale and the city plans at a scale
of 1 : 2,000 and larger.
(b) Topographical Maps : These maps are also prepared on a fairly large
scale. The topographical maps are based on precise surveys and are
prepared in the form of series of maps made by the national mapping
agencies of almost all countries of the world (Chapter 5). For example, 7
the Survey of India undertakes the topographical mapping of the entire
country at 1 : 250,000, 1 : 50,000 and 1 : 25,000 scale (Fig. 1.3). These
maps follow uniform colours and symbols to show topographic details
such as relief, drainage, agricultural land, forest, settlements, means of

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 Practical Work in Geography

communication, location of schools, post offices and other services and

facilities.
(ii) Small-scale Maps: Small-scale maps are further divided into the
8 following types :
(a) Wall Maps
(b) Atlas Maps
(a) Wall Maps : These maps are generally drawn on large size paper or
on plastic base for use in classrooms or lecture halls. The scale of wall
maps is generally smaller than the scale of topographical maps but
larger than atlas maps.
(b) Atlas Maps : Atlas maps are very small-scale maps. These maps
represent fairly large areas and present highly generalised picture of the
physical or cultural features. Even so, an atlas map serves as a graphic
encyclopaedia of the geographical information about the world,
continents, countries or regions. When consulted properly, these maps
provide a wealth of generalised information regarding location, relief,
drainage, climate, vegetation, distribution of cities and towns, population,
location of industries, transport-network system, tourism and heritage
sites, etc.

Types of Maps Based on Function: The maps may also be

classified on the basis of their functions. For example, a political map
serves the function of providing administrative divisions of a continent
or a country and a soil map shows the distribution of different types of
soils. Broadly, maps based on their functions may be classified into
physical maps and cultural maps.
(i) Physical Maps: Physical maps show natural features such as relief,
geology, soils, drainage, elements of weather, climate and vegetation,
etc.
(a) Relief Maps: Relief maps show general topography of an area like
mountains and valleys, plains, plateaus and drainage. Figure 1.7 shows
the relief and slope map of Nagpur district.
(b) Geological Maps: These maps are drawn to show geological structures,
rock types, etc. Figure 1.8 shows the distribution of rocks and minerals
in Nagpur district.
(c) Climatic Maps : These maps depict climatic regions of an area.
Besides, maps are also drawn to show the distribution of temperature,

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Introduction to Maps

Figure 1.7 Relief and Slope Map of Nagpur District

Figure 1.8 Distribution of Rocks and Minerals in Nagpur District

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 Practical Work in Geography

10
10

Figure 1.9 Map showing Climatic Conditions of Nagpur District

Figure 1.10 Soils of Nagpur District

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Introduction to Maps

rainfall, cloudiness, relative humidity, direction and velocity of winds and

other elements of weather (Fig 1.9).
(d) Soil Maps : Maps are also drawn to show the distribution of different
types of soil(s) and their properties (Fig. 1.10).

(ii) Cultural Maps: Cultural maps show man-made features. These

include a variety of maps showing population distribution and growth,
sex and age, social and religious composition, literacy, levels of
educational attainment, occupational structure, location of settlements,
facilities and services, transportation lines and production, distribution
and flow of different commodities.
(a) Political Maps : These maps show the administrative divisions of an
area such as country, state or district. These maps facilitate the
administrative machinery in planning and management of the concerned
administrative unit.
(b) Population Maps: The population maps are drawn to show the
distribution, density and growth of population, age and sex composition,

11
11

Figure 1.11 Nagpur District : Distribution of Population

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 Practical Work in Geography

distribution of religious, linguistic and social groups, occupational

structure of the population, etc. (Fig 1.11 on previous page). Population
maps serve the most significant role in the planning and development of
12
12 an area.
(c) Economic Maps: Economic maps depict production and distribution
of different types of crops and minerals, location of industries and
markets, routes for trade and flow of commodities. Figures 1.12 and
1.13 show the land use and cropping patterns and the location of
industries in Nagpur district respectively.

Figure 1.12 Land use and Cropping Patterns in Nagpur District

(d) Transportation Maps: These maps show roads, railway lines and the
location of railway stations and airports.

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Introduction to Maps

Figure 1.13 Location of Industries in Nagpur District

USES OF MAPS

Geographers, planners and other resource scientists use maps. In doing

so, they make various types of measurements to determine distances,
directions and area.

Measurement of Distance: The linear features shown on the maps

fall into two broad categories, i.e. straight lines and erratic or zigzag
lines. The measurement of straight line features like roads, railway lines
and canals is simple. It can be taken directly with a pair of dividers or a
scale placed on the map surface. However, distances are required, more
often, along erratic paths, i.e. the coastlines, rivers and streams. The
distances along all such features can be measured by placing a thread
13
13
at the starting point and carrying it along the line up to the end point.
The thread is then stretched and measured to determine the distance. It
can also be measured by using a simple instrument called Rotameter.

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 Practical Work in Geography

The wheel of the 'rotameter' is

moved along the route to measure
the distance.
14
14 Measurement of Direction:
Direction is defined as an
imaginary straight line on the map
showing the angular position to a
common base direction. The line
pointing to the north is zero
direction or the base direction line.
A map always shows the north
direction. All other directions are
determined in to this relation. The
north direction enables the map-
user to locate different features
with respect to each other. The four
commonly known directions are
Figure 1.14 Cardinal and Intermediate Directions North, South, East and West. These
are also called the cardinal points.
In between the cardinal points, one
may have several intermediate
directions (Fig. 1.14).

Measurement of Area: The measurement of area of features like

that of administrative and geographic units is also carried out over the
surface of the map by map-users. There are different methods in which
areas can be determined. One of the simplest but not very accurate
method to determine the area is by means of regular pattern of squares.
In this method, the area to be measured is covered by squares by placing
a sheet of graph paper beneath the map on an illuminated tracing table
or by tracing the area onto the square sheet. The total number of 'whole
squares' are summed up, together with 'partial squares'. The area is
then determined by a simple equation :
Area = Sum of whole squares +
( Sum of partial squares
2
) × Map Scale

The area can also be calculated by using a fixed area polar planimeter
(Box 1.1).

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Introduction to Maps

Box 1.1 Measurement of Area using Polar Planimeter

The area calculation is also carried out using

Polar Planimeter. In this instrument, a
measure is made of the movement of a rod
whose locus is constrained by having one end
fixed to a radial arc. The area to be measured
is traced along its perimeter in a clockwise
direction with an index mark, starting from
one convenient point to which the index of
the tracing arm must exactly return.
Reading on the dial, before and after the
tracing of area’s perimeter, will give a value
in instrumental units. These readings are
multiplied by the same constant for the
particular instrument to convert into areas
in square inches or centimetres.

You may explore more on bhuvan.nrsc.gov.in

EXERCISE

1. Choose the right answer from the four alternatives given below:
i) Which one of the following is essential for the network of lines and
polygons to be called a map ?
(a) Map Legend
(b) Symbols
(c) North Direction
(d) Map Scale
ii) A map bearing a scale of 1 : 4000 and larger is called :
(a) Cadastral map
(b) Topographical map
(c) Wall map
(d) Atlas map
iii) Which one of the following is NOT an essential element of maps ?
(a) Map Projection 15
15
(b) Map Generalisation
(c) Map Design
(d) History of Maps

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 Practical Work in Geography

2. Answer the following questions in about 30 words:

(i) What is map generalisation ?
(ii) Why is map design important ?
16
16 (iii) What are different types of small-scale maps ?
(iv) List out two major types of large-scale maps ?
(v) How is a map different from a sketch ?

3. Write an explanatory account of types of maps.

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Map Scale

Chapter 2

Map Scale
You have read in Chapter 1 that the scale is an essential element of
all types of maps. It is so important that if a network of lines and
polygons does not carry a scale, we call it a “sketch”. Why is the
scale so important ? What does it mean ? What are the different
methods of showing the scale on a map? How useful is the scale in
measuring the distances and the area? These are some of the
questions which will be taken up in the present chapter.

Glossary

Denominator: The number below the line in a fraction. For example, in a fraction
of 1 : 50,000, 50,000 is the denominator.

Numerator: The number above the line in a fraction. For example, in a fraction of
1 : 50,000, 1 is the numerator.

Representative Fraction: A method of scale of a map or plan expressed as a

fraction showing the ratio between a unit distance on the map or plan, and the
distance measured in the same units on the ground.

What is Scale ?
You must have seen maps with a scale bar indicating equal divisions,
each marked with readings in kilometres or miles. These divisions
are used to find out the ground distance on the map. In other
words, a map scale provides the relationship between the map and
17
the whole or a part of the earth’s surface shown on it. We can also
express this relationship as a ratio of distances between two points
on the map and the corresponding distance between the same two
points on the ground.

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 Practical Work in Geography

There are at least three ways in which this relationship can be

expressed. These are:
1. Statement of Scale
18 2. Representative Fraction (R. F.)
3. Graphical Scale
Each of these methods of scale has advantages and limitations. But
before taking up these issues, let us understand that the scale is normally
expressed in one or the other system of measurement. You must have
read and/or used kilometre, metre, centimetre etc. to measure the linear
distances between two points on the ground. You might have also heard
of miles, furlongs, yards, feet, etc. These are two different systems of
measurement of the distances used in different countries of the world.
Whereas the former system is referred to as the Metric System of
Measurement and presently used in India and many other countries of
the world, the latter system is known as the English System of
Measurement and is prevalent in both the United States and the United
Kingdom. India also used this system for measuring/showing linear
distances before 1957. The units of measurement of these systems are
given in Box 2.1.

METHODS OF SCALE
As mentioned above, the scale of the map may be expressed using one or
a combination of more than one methods of scale. Let us see how these
methods are used and what are their advantages and limitations.

Box 2.1 Systems of Measurements

Metric System of Measurement

1 km = 1000 Metres
1 Metre = 100 Centimetres
1 Centimetre = 10 Millimetres

English System of Measurement

1 Mile = 8 Furlongs
1 Furlong = 220 Yards
1 Yard = 3 feet
1 Foot = 12 Inches

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Map Scale

1. Statement of Scale: The scale of a map may be indicated in the

form of a written statement. For example, if on a map a written statement
appears stating 1 cm represents 10 km, it means that on that map a
distance of 1 cm is representing 10 km of the corresponding ground
distance. It may also be expressed in any other system of measurement,
i.e. 1 inch represents 10 miles. It is the simplest of the three methods.
However, it may be noted that the people who are familiar with one
system may not understand the statement of scale given in another system
of measurement. Another limitation of this method is that if the map is
reduced or enlarged, the scale will become redundant and a new scale is
to be worked out.

2. Graphical or Bar Scale: The second type of scale shows map

distances and the corresponding ground distances using a line bar with
primary and secondary divisions marked on it. This is referred to as the
graphical scale or bar scale (Fig. 2.1). It may be noted that the scale
readings as shown on the bar scale in Figure 2.1 reads only in kilometres
and metres. In yet another bar scale the readings may be shown in
miles and furlongs. Hence, like the statement of scale method, this
method also finds restricted use for only those who can understand it.
However, unlike the statement of the scale method, the graphical scale
stands valid even when the map is reduced or enlarged. This is the
unique advantage of the graphical method of the map scale.

Figure 2.1

3. Representative Fraction ( R. F. ): The third type of scale is R.

F. It shows the relationship between the map distance and the
corresponding ground distance in units of length. The use of units to
express the scale makes it the most versatile method. 19
R. F. is generally shown in fraction because it shows how much the
real world is reduced to fit on the map. For example, a fraction of 1 :
24,000 shows that one unit of length on the map represents 24,000 of
the same units on the ground i.e. one mm, one cm or one inch

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 Practical Work in Geography

on the map representing 24,000 mm, 24,000 cm and 24,000 inches,

respectively of the ground. It may, however, be noted that while converting
the fraction of units into Metric or English systems, units in centimetre or
20 inch are normally used by convention. This quality of expressing scale in
units in R. F. makes it a universally acceptable and usable method. Let us
take R. F. of 1 : 36,000 to elaborate the universal nature of R. F.
If the given scale is 1: 36,000, a person acquainted with the Metric
System will read the given units by converting them into cm, i.e. the
distance of 1 unit on the map as 1 cm and the distance of 36,000 units
on the ground distance as 36,000 cm. These values may subsequently
be converted into a statement of scale, i.e. 1 cm represents 360 metres.
(by dividing values in denominator by the number of centimetres in a
metre, i.e. 100). Yet another user of the map familiar with the English
system of measurement will understand the map scale by converting it
into a statement of scale convenient to him/her and read the map scale
as 1 inch represents 1,000 yards. The said statement of scale will be
obtained by dividing 36,000 units in the denominator by 36 (number of
inches in a yard).

C ONVERSION OF SCALE

If you have carefully read the advantages and limitations of the different
methods of scale, then it will not be difficult for you to convert the
Statement of Scale into Representative Fraction and vice-versa.

Statement of Scale into R. F.

Problem Convert the given Statement of Scale of 1 inch represents
4 miles into R. F.
Solution The given Statement of Scale may be converted into R. F.
using the following steps.
1 inch represents 4 miles
or 1 inch represents 4 × 63,360 inches (1 mile = 63,360
inches)
or 1 inch represents 253,440 inches
NOTE : We can now replace the character “inches” into “units”
and read it as :
1 unit represents 253,440 Units
Answer R. F. 1 : 253, 440

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Map Scale

R. F. into Statement of Scale

Problem Convert R. F. 1 : 253, 440 into Statement of Scale (In
Metric System)
Solution The given R. F. of 1 : 253, 440 may be converted into
Statement of Scale using the following steps :
1 : 253, 440 means that
1 unit on the map represents 253, 440 units on the ground.
or 1 cm represents 253, 440/100,000 (1 km = 100,000
cm)
or 1 cm represents 2.5344 km
After rounding of up to 2 decimals, the answer will be :
Answer 1 cm represents 2.53 km

Construction of the Graphical/Bar Scale

Problem 1 Construct a graphical scale for a map drawn at a scale of
1 : 50,000 and read the distances in kilometre and metre.
NOTE: By convention, a length of nearly 15 cm is taken to draw
a graphical scale.
Calculations To get the length of line for the graphical scale, these
steps may be followed:
1 : 50,000 means that
1 unit of the map represents 50,000 units on the ground
or 1 cm represents 50,000 cm
or 15 cm represents 50,000 × 15/100,000 km
or 15 cm represents 7.5 km
Since the value of 7.5 (km) is not a round number, we can choose 5
or 10 (km) as the round number. In the present case, we choose 5 as the
round number.
To determine the length of the line to show 5 km, the following
calculations are to be carried out:
7.5 km is represented by a line of 15 cm
5 km will be represented by a line of 15 × 5/7.5
or 5 km will be represented by a line of 10 cm
Construction The graphical scale may be constructed by following 21
these steps:
Draw a straight line of 10 cm and divide it into 5 equal parts and assign
a value of 1 km each for 4 right side divisions from the 0 mark. Also

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 Practical Work in Geography

divide the extreme left side division into 10 equal parts and mark each
division by a value of 100 metres, beginning from 0. (You may also divide
it into 2, 4, or 5 parts and assign a value of 500, 250, or 200 metres to
22

each of the subdivisions respectively from 0.

Figure 2.2

Problem 2 Construct a graphical scale when the given Statement

of Scale is 1 inch representing 1 mile and read the
distances in miles and furlongs.
NOTE: By convention, a length of nearly 6 inches is taken to
draw a graphical scale.
Calculations To get the length of line for the graphical scale, these
steps may be followed:
1 inch represents 1 mile
or 6 inches represents 6 miles
Construction The graphical scale may be constructed in the
following steps:
Draw a straight line of 6 inches and divide it into 6 equal parts and assign
a value of 1 mile each for 5 right side divisions. Also divide the extreme
left side division into 4 equal parts and mark each division by a value of 2
miles each, beginning from 0.

Figure 2.3
Problem 3 Construct a graphical scale when the given R. F. is 1 :
50,000 and read the distances in miles and furlongs.
Calculations To get the length of the line for the graphical scale,
these steps may be followed:
1 : 50,000 means that
1 unit represents 50,000 units
or 1 inch represents 50,000 inches.
or 6” represents 50,000 × 6/63,360 miles
= 6’ represents 4.73 miles

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Map Scale

Since a figure of 4.73 (miles) is not a round number, we take 5 as the

round number.
To determine the length of the line to show 5 km, the following
calculations are to be carried out :
4.73 miles are represented by a line of 6 inches
5 miles will be represented by a line of 6 × 5/4.73
= 5 miles will be represented by a line of 6.34 inches
Construction The graphical scale may be constructed in the following
steps:
To construct a graphical scale to show 5 miles we need to draw a line of
6.34 inches and divide it into 5 equal parts. The question is how can an
unequal line of 6.3 inches be divided into 5 equal parts. To do so we can
use the following procedure:
° Draw a straight line of 6.3 inches.
° Draw lines at an angle of 400 or 450 from the start and end
nodes of the lines and divide them into 5 equal parts of 1 or
1.5 inches each.
° Draw dotted lines joining the divisions marked on the two lines.
° Mark the intersections of these lines at the primary scale.
By doing so, you will divide the unequal line of 6.3 inches into 5
equal parts. You can repeat the same way to divide the extreme left part
on the primary scale into 4 or 8 parts to show the number of furlongs
that are equivalent to 1 mile.

23
Figure 2.4 Drawing of equal divisions in a graphical scale

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EXERCISE

1. Choose the right answer from the four alternatives given below:
24 (i) Which one of the following methods of scale is a universal method?
(a) Simple Statement
(b) Representative Fraction
(c) Graphical Scale
(d) None of the above
(ii) Map distance in a scale is also known as:
(a) Numerator
(b) Denominator
(c) Statement of Scale
(d) Representative Fraction
(iii) ‘Numerator’ in scale represents:
(a) Ground distance
(b) Map distance
(c) Both the distances
(d) None of the above

2. Answer the following questions in about 30 words:

(i) What are the two different systems of measurement?
(ii) Give one example each of statement of scale in Metric and English
system.
(iii) Why is the Representative Fraction method called a Universal
method?
(iv) What are the major advantages of the graphical method?

3. Convert the given Statement of Scale into Representative Fraction

(R. F.).
(i) 5 cm represents 10 km
(ii) 2 inches represents 4 miles
(iii) 1 inch represents 1 yard
(iv) 1 cm represents 100 metres

4. Convert the given Representative Fraction (R. F.) into Statement of

Scale in the System of Measurement shown in parentheses:
(i) 1 : 100,000 (into km)
(ii) 1 : 31680 (into furlongs)

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Map Scale

(iii) 1 : 126,720 (into miles)

(iv) 1 : 50,000 (into metres)

5. Construct a graphical scale when the given R. F. is 1 : 50,000 and

read the distances in kilometre and metre.

25

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26 Chapter 3

Latitude, Longitude and

Time
THE EARTH is nearly a sphere. It is because of the fact that the
equatorial radius and the polar radius of the earth is not the same.
The rotation of the earth over its axis produces bulging at the equator.
Hence, the actual shape resembles that of an oblate spheroid. The
shape of the earth presents some difficulties in positioning its surface
features, as there is no point of reference from which to measure the
relative positions of other points. Hence, a network of imaginary lines
is drawn on a globe or a map to locate various places. Let us find out
what are these lines and how are they drawn.
The spinning of the earth on its axis from west to east provides
two natural points of reference, i.e. North and South Poles. They form
the basis for the geographical grid. A network of intersecting lines is
drawn for the purpose of fixing the locations of different features.
The grid consists of two sets of horizontal and vertical lines, which
are called parallels of latitudes and the meridians of longitudes.
Horizontal lines are drawn parallel to each other in east-west
direction. The line drawn midway between the North Pole and the
South Pole is called the equator. It is the largest circle and divides
the globe into two equal halves. It is also called a great circle. All the
other parallels get smaller in size, in proportion to their distance
from the equator towards the poles and divide the earth into two
unequal halves, also referred to as the small circles. These imaginary
lines running east-west are commonly known as the parallels of
latitude.
The vertical lines running north-south, join the two poles. They
are called the meridians of longitude. They are spaced farthest apart
at the equator and converge at a point at each pole.

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Latitude, Longitude and Time

The latitudes and longitudes are commonly referred to as geographical

coordinates as they provide systematic network of lines upon which the
position of various surface features of the earth, can be represented. With
the help of these coordinates, location, distance and direction of various
points can be easily determined.
Although an infinite number of parallels and meridians may be drawn
on a globe, only a selected number of them are usually drawn on a map.
Latitudes and longitudes are measured in degrees (°) because they
represent angular distances. Each degree is further divided into 60
minutes ( ‘ ) and each minute into 60 seconds ( “ ).

Glossary

Parallels of Latitude : The parallels of latitude refer to the angular

distance, in degrees, minutes and seconds of a point north or south
of the Equator. Lines of latitude are often referred to as parallels.

Meridians of Longitude : The meridians of longitude refer to the

angular distance, in degrees, minutes, and seconds, of a point east
or west of the Prime (Greenwich) Meridian. Lines of longitude are
often referred to as meridians.

PARALLELS OF LATITUDES

The latitude of a place on the earth’s surface is its distance north or

south of the equator, measured along the meridian of that place as an
angle from the centre of the earth. Lines joining places with the same
latitudes are called parallels. The value of equator is 0° and the latitude
of the poles are 90°N and 90°S (Fig. 3.1 on the next page). If parallels of
latitude are drawn at an interval of one degree, there will be 89 parallels
in the northern and the southern hemispheres each. The total number
of parallels thus drawn, including the equator, will be 179. Depending
upon the location of a feature or a place north or south of the equator,
the letter N or S is written along with the value of the latitude.
27
If the earth were a perfect sphere, the length of 10 of latitude (a one
degree arc of a meridian) would be a constant value, i.e. 111 km
everywhere on the earth. This length is almost the same as that of a

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 Practical Work in Geography

degree of longitude at the equator. But to be precise,

a degree of latitude changes slightly in length from
the equator to the poles. While at the equator, it is
28 110.6 km at the poles, it is 111.7 km. Latitude of a
place may be determined with the help of the altitude
of the sun or the Pole Star.

DRAWING THE PARALLELS OF LATITUDES

How to draw the parallels of latitudes? Draw a circle

Figure 3.1 Parallels of Latitudes and divide it into two equal halves by drawing a
horizontal line in the centre. This represents the
equator. Place a protractor on this circle in a way
that 0° and 180° line on the protractor coincide with
the equator on the paper. Now to draw 20°S, mark
two points at an angle of 20° from the equator, east
and west in the lower half of the circle, as shown in
Fig. 3.2. The arms of the angle cut the circle at two
points. Join these two points by a line parallel to the
equator. It will be 200S.

MERIDIANS OF LONGITUDE
Figure 3.2 Drawing of Parallels of
Latitudes Unlike the parallels of latitude which are circles, the
meridians of longitude are semi-circles that converge
at the poles. If opposite meridians are taken together,
they complete a circle, but, they are valued separately
as two meridians.
The meridians intersect the equator at right angles.
Unlike the parallels of latitude, they are all equal in
length. For convenience of numbering, the meridian
of longitude passing through the Greenwich
observatory (near London) has been adopted as the
Prime Meridian by an international agreement and has
been given the value of 0°.
The longitude of a place is its angular distance
east or west of the Prime Meridian. It is also measured
in degrees. The longitudes vary from 0° to 180°

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Latitude, Longitude and Time

eastward and westward of the Prime Meridian (Fig.

3.3). The part of the earth east of the Prime
Meridian is called the eastern hemisphere and in
its west referred to as the western hemisphere.

Drawing the Meridians of Longitude

How to draw the lines of longitude? Draw a circle
whose centre represents the North Pole. The
circumference will represent the equator. Draw
a vertical line through the centre of the circle,
i.e. crossing the North Pole. This represents the Figure 3.3 Meridians of Longitude
0° and 180° meridians, which meet at the North
Pole (Fig. 3.4).
When you look at a map, the east is towards
your right and the west is towards your left.
However, to draw a longitude, imagine that you
are on the North Pole, i.e. at the centre of the
circle as shown in Fig. 3.4. Observe now that
the relative directions of east and west would
reverse in this case and east would be towards
your left while west would be towards your right.
Now, draw 45° E and W as shown in Fig. 3.5
For this, place your protractor along the vertical
line, coinciding with the 0° and 180° meridians Figure 3.4 Meridians of 00 and 1800
join at the North Pole
and then measure 45° on both the sides, which
will denote 45° E meridian and 45° W meridian
on your left and right, respectively. The diagram
will represent the appearance of the earth if we
look at it from directly above the North Pole.

LONGITUDE AND TIME

We all know that the earth rotates from west to
east over its axis. It makes the sun rise in the
east and set in the west. The rotation of the earth 29
over its axis takes 24 hours to complete one circle
or 360° of longitudes. As 180° of longitudes fall Figure 3.5 Drawing of Meridians of
both east and west of the Prime Meridian, the Longitude
sun, thus takes 12 hours’ time to traverse the

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Table 3.1 A Comparison between the Parallels of Latitudes and t

he Meridians of Longitudes

30 S. No. Parallels of Latitude Meridians of Longitude

1. Latitude is the angular Longitude is the angular
distance of a point north or distance along the
south of the equator as equator measured in
measured in degrees. degrees. It is measured
east or west of
Greenwich (0°), from 0°
to 180°.
2. All latitudes are parallel All meridians of
to the equator. longitude converge at
the poles.
3. On a globe, parallels of All meridians of
latitudes appear as circles. longitude appear as
circles running through
the poles.
4. The distance between two The distance between
latitudes is approximately two longitudes is
111 km. maximum at the
equator (111.3 km) and
minimum at the poles (0
km). Midway, at 450 of
latitude, it is 79 km.
0
5. The 0 latitude is referred to There are 360° of
as the equator and the 90° longitude, 180° each in
as the poles. the east and west of the
Prime Meridian.
6. The latitudes from the The longitudes are used
equator to the poles are to determine the local
used to demarcate time with reference to
temperature zones, i.e. 0° to the time at Prime
23 ½° north and south as the Meridian.
torrid zone, 23 ½° to 66 ½°
as the temperate zone and
66 ½° to 90° as the frigid

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Latitude, Longitude and Time

eastern and western hemispheres. In other words, the sun traverses 150 of
longitudes per hour or one degree of longitude in every four minutes of
time. It may further be noted that the time decreases when we move from
west to east and increases with our westward movement.
The rate of the time at which the sun traverses over certain degrees of
longitudes is used to determine the local time of an area with respect to
the time at the Prime Meridian (0°Longitude). Let us try to understand
the question of the determination of time with respect to the Prime Meridian
with the following set of examples :

Example 1 : Determine the local time of Thimpu (Bhutan) located at 90°

east longitude when the time at Greenwich (0°) is 12.00 noon.
Statement : The time increases at a rate of 4 minutes per one degree of
longitude, east of the Prime Meridian.
Solution :
Difference between Greenwich and Thimpu = 90° of longitudes
Total Time difference = 90 × 4 = 360 minutes
= 360/60 hours
= 6 hours\Local time of Thimpu is 6 hours more than that at Greenwich,
i.e. 6.00 p.m.

Example 2 : Determine the local time of New Orleans (the place, which
was worst affected by Katrina Hurricane in October 2005), located at 900
West longitude when the time at Greenwich (00) is 12.00 noon.
Statement : The time decrease, at a rate of 4 minutes per one degree of
longitude, west of the prime meridian.
Solution :
Difference between Greenwich and New Orleans = 90° of longitudes
Total Time difference = 90 × 4 = 360 minutes
= 360/60 hours
= 6 hours\Local time of New Orleans is 6 hours less than that at
Greenwich, i.e. 6.00 a. m.
In the same way, the time may be determined for any place in the
world. However, in order to maintain uniformity of time as far as possible 31
within the territorial limits of a country, the time at the central meridian of
the country is taken as the Standard Meridian and its local time is taken
as the standard time for the whole country. The Standard Meridian is
selected in a manner that it is divisible by 150° or 7° 30’ so that the difference

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 Practical Work in Geography

between its standard time and the Greenwich Mean Time may be
expressed as multiples of an hour or half an hour.
The Indian Standard Time is calculated from 82°30’E meridian passing
32 through Mirzapur. Therefore, IST is plus 5.30 hours from the GMT ((82°30’
x 4) (60 minutes=5 hours 30 minutes). Similarly, all countries of the world
choose the standard meridian within their territory to determine the time
within their administrative boundaries. The countries with large east-
west span may choose more than one standard meridian to get more than
one time zone such as Russia, Canada and the United States of America.
The world is divided into 24 major time zones (Fig. 3.6).

Figure 3.6 Major Time Zones of the World

INTERNATIONAL DATE LINE

While the world is divided into 24 time zones, there has to be a place
where there is a difference in days, somewhere the day truly “starts” on
the planet. The 180° line of longitude is approximately where the
International Date Line passes. The time at this longitude is exactly 12
hours from the 00 longitude, irrespective of one travels westward or
eastward from the Prime Meridian. We know that time increases east of

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Latitude, Longitude and Time

the Prime Meridian and decreases to its west. Hence, for a person moving
east of the Prime Meridian, the time would be 12 hours less than the time
at 0° longitude. For another person moving westward, the time would be
12 hours more than the Prime Meridian. For example, a person moving
eastward on Tuesday will count the day as Wednesday once the
International Date Line is crossed. Similarly, another person starting
his journey on the same day, but moving westward will count the day as
Monday after crossing the line.

EXERCISE

1. Answer the following questions in about 30 words:

(i) Which are the two natural points of references on the earth?
(ii) What is a great circle?
(iii) What are coordinates?
(iv) Why does the sun appear to be moving from east to west?
(v) What is meant by local time?

2. Distinguish between latitudes and longitudes.

ACTIVITY

1. Find out the locations of the following places with the help of your
atlas and write their latitudes and longitudes.
Place Latitude Longitude
(i) Mumbai
(ii) Vladivostok
(iii) Cairo
(iv) New York
(v) Ottawa 33
(vi) Geneva
(vii) Johannesburg
(viii) Sydney

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2. What would be the time of the following cities if the time at Prime
Meridian is 10 a.m.
(i) Delhi
34 (ii) London
(iii) Tokyo
(iv) Paris
(v) Cairo
(vi) Moscow

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Map Projections

Chapter 4

Map Projections
What is map projection? Why are map projections drawn? What
are the different types of projections? Which projection is most
suitably used for which area? In this chapter, we will seek the
answers of such essential questions.

MAP PROJECTION

Map projection is the method of transferring the graticule of latitude

and longitude on a plane surface. It can also be defined as the
transformation of spherical network of parallels and meridians on
a plane surface. As you know that, the earth on which we live in is
not flat. It is geoid in shape like a sphere. A globe is the best model
of the earth. Due to this property of the globe, the shape and sizes
of the continents and oceans are accurately shown on it. It also
shows the directions and distances very accurately. The globe is
divided into various segments by the lines of latitude and longitude.
The horizontal lines represent the parallels of latitude and the
vertical lines represent the meridians of the longitude. The network
of parallels and meridians is called graticule. This network facilitates
drawing of maps. Drawing of the graticule on a flat surface is
called projection.
But a globe has many limitations. It is expensive. It can neither
be carried everywhere easily nor can a minor detail be shown on it.
Besides, on the globe the meridians are semi-circles and the parallels
are circles. When they are transferred on a plane surface, they
35
become intersecting straight lines or curved lines.

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NEED FOR MAP PROJECTION

The need for a map projection mainly arises to have a detailed study of a
36 region, which is not possible to do from a globe. Similarly, it is not easy to
compare two natural regions on a globe. Therefore, drawing accurate
large-scale maps on a flat paper is required. Now, the problem is how to
transfer these lines of latitude and longitude on a flat sheet. If we stick a
flat paper over the globe, it will not coincide with it over a large surface
without being distorted. If we throw light from the centre of the globe, we
get a distorted picture of the globe in those parts of paper away from the
line or point over which it touches the globe. The distortion increases
with increase in distance from the tangential point. So, tracing all the
properties like shape, size and directions, etc. from a globe is nearly
impossible because the globe is not a developable surface.
In map projection we try to represent a good model of any part of the
earth in its true shape and dimension. But distortion in some form or the
other is inevitable. To avoid this distortion, various methods have been
devised and many types of projections are drawn. Due to this reason,
map projection is also defined as the study of different methods which
have been tried for transferring the lines of graticule from the globe to a
flat sheet of paper.

Glossary

Map projection: It is the system of transformation of the spherical

surface onto a plane surface. It is carried out by an orderly and
systematic representation of the parallels of latitude and the meridians
of longitude of the spherical earth or part of it on a plane surface on a
conveniently chosen scale.
Lexodrome or Rhumb Line: It is a straight line drawn on Mercator’s
projection joining any two points having a constant bearing. It is very
useful in determining the directions during navigation.
The Great Circle: It represents the shortest route between two points,
which is often used both in air and ocean navigation.
Homolograhic Projection: A projection in which the network of latitudes
and longitudes is developed in such a way that every graticule on the
map is equal in area to the corresponding graticule on the globe. It is
also known as the equal-area projection.
Orthomorphic Projection: A projection in which the correct shape of a
given area of the earth’s surface is preserved.

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ELEMENTS OF MAP PROJECTION

a. Reduced Earth: A model of the earth is represented by the help

of a reduced scale on a flat sheet of paper. This model is called the “reduced
earth”. This model should be more or less spheroid having the length of
polar diameter lesser than equatorial and on this model the network of
graticule can be transferred.

b. Parallels of Latitude: These are the circles running round the

globe parallel to the equator and maintaining uniform distance from the
poles. Each parallel lies wholly in its plane which is at right angle to the
axis of the earth. They are not of equal length. They range from a point at
each pole to the circumference of the globe at the equator. They are
demarcated as 0º to 90º North and South latitudes.

c. Meridians of Longitude: These are semi-circles drawn in north-

south direction from one pole to the other, and the two opposite meridians
make a complete circle, i.e. circumference of the globe. Each meridian lies
wholly in its plane, but all intersect at right angle along the axis of the
globe. There is no obvious central meridian but for convenience, an
arbitrary choice is made, namely the meridian of Greenwich, which is
demarcated as 0° longitudes. It is used as reference longitudes to draw
all other longitudes

d. Global Property: In preparing a map projection the following basic

properties of the global surface are to be preserved by using one or the
other methods:
(i) Distance between any given points of a region;
(ii) Shape of the region;
(iii) Size or area of the region in accuracy;
(iv) Direction of any one point of the region bearing to another point.

CLASSIFICATION OF MAP PROJECTIONS

37
Map Projections may be classified on the following bases:

a. Drawing Techniques: On the basis of method of construction,

projections are generally classified into perspective, non-perspective and

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conventional or mathematical. Perspective projections can be drawn

taking the help of a source of light by projecting the image of a network of
parallels and meridians of a globe on developable surface. Non–perspective
38 projections are developed without the help of a source of light or casting
shadow on surfaces, which can be flattened. Mathematical or conventional
projections are those, which are derived by mathematical computation,
and formulae and have little relations with the projected image.

b. Developable Surface: A developable surface is one, which can

be flattened, and on which, a network of latitude and longitude can be
projected. A non-developable surface is one, which cannot be flattened
without shrinking, breaking or creasing. A globe or spherical surface has
the property of non-developable surface whereas a cylinder, a cone and a
plane have the property of developable surface. On the basis of nature of
developable surface, the projections are classified as cylindrical, conical
and zenithal projections. Cylindrical projections are made through the
use of cylindrical developable surface. A paper-made cylinder covers the
globe, and the parallels and
meridians are projected on it. When
the cylinder is cut open, it provides a
cylindrical projection on the plane
sheet. A Conical projection is drawn
by wrapping a cone round the globe
and the shadow of graticule network
is projected on it. When the cone is
cut open, a projection is obtained on
a flat sheet. Zenithal projection is
directly obtained on a plane surface
when plane touches the globe at a
point and the graticule is projected
on it. Generally, the plane is so placed
on the globe that it touches the globe
at one of the poles. These projections
are further subdivided into normal,
oblique or polar as per the position
of the plane touching the globe. If the
Figure 4.1 Conversions from a Globe to a flat
surface produces distortions in developable surface touches the
area, shape and directions. globe at the equator, it is called the

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Map Projections

Figure 4.2 A conical projection from a Globe to a Flat Map

equatorial or normal projection. If it is tangential to a point between the

pole and the equator, it is called the oblique projection; and if it is tangential
to the pole, it is called the polar projection.

c. Global Properties: As mentioned above, the correctness of area,

shape, direction and distances are the four major global properties to be
preserved in a map. But none of the projections can maintain all these
properties simultaneously. Therefore, according to specific need, a
projection can be drawn so that the desired quality may be retained. Thus,
on the basis of global properties, projections are classified into equal area,
orthomorphic, azimuthal and equi-distant projections. Equal Area
Projection is also called homolographic projection. It is that projection in
which areas of various parts of the earth are represented correctly.
Orthomorphic or True-Shape projection is one in which shapes of various
areas are portrayed correctly. The shape is generally maintained at the
cost of the correctness of area. Azimuthal or True-Bearing projection is 39
one on which the direction of all points from the centre is correctly
represented. Equi-distant or True Scale projection is that where the
distance or scale is correctly maintained. However, there is no such
projection, which maintains the scale correctly throughout. It can be

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maintained correctly only along some selected parallels and meridians as

per the requirement.

40 d. Source of Light: On the basis of location of source of light,

projections may be classified as gnomonic, stereographic and
orthographic. Gnomonic projection is obtained by putting the light at the
centre of the globe. Stereographic projection is drawn when the source of
light is placed at the periphery of the globe at a point diametrically opposite
to the point at which the plane surface touches the globe. Orthographic
projection is drawn when the source of light is placed at infinity from the
globe, opposite to the point at which the plane surface touches the globe.

CONSTRUCTING SOME SELECTED PROJECTIONS

a. Conical Projection with one Standard Parallel

A conical projection is one, which is drawn by projecting the image of the
graticule of a globe on a developable cone, which touches the globe along a
parallel of latitude called the standard parallel. As the cone touches the
globe located along AB, the position of this parallel on the globe coinciding
with that on the cone is taken as the standard parallel. The length of other
parallels on either side of this parallel are distorted. (Fig. 4.3)
Example
Construct a conical projection with one standard parallel for an area
bounded by 10º N to 70º N latitude and 10º E to 130º E longitudes when
the scale is 1:250,000,000 and latitudinal and longitudinal interval is 10º.
Calculation

640,000,000
Radius of reduced earth R = = 2.56 cm
250,000,000
Standard parallel is 40º N (10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70)
Central meridian is 70º E (10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 110,
120, 130)
Construction
(i) Draw a circle or a quadrant of 2.56 cm radius marked with angles
COE as 10º interval and BOE and AOD as 40º standard parallel.
(ii) A tangent is extended from B to P and similarly from A to P, so
that AP and BP are the two sides of the cone touching the
globe and forming Standard Parallel at 40° N.

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(iii) The arc distance CE represents the interval between parallels.

A semi-circle is drawn by taking this arc distance.
(iv) X-Y is the perpendicular drawn from OP to OB.
(v) A separate line N-S is taken on which BP distance is drawn
representing standard parallel. The line NS becomes the central
meridian.
(vi) Other parallels are drawn by taking arc distance CE on the
central meridian.
(vii) The distance XY is marked on the standard parallel at 40° for
drawing other meridians.
(viii) Straight lines are drawn by joining them with the pole.
Properties
1. All the parallels are arcs of concentric circle and are equally spaced.
2. All meridians are straight lines merging at the pole. The meridians
intersect the parallels at right angles.
3. The scale along all meridians is true, i.e. distances along the
meridians are accurate.
4. An arc of a circle represents the pole.
5. The scale is true along the standard parallel but exaggerated away
from the standard parallel.
6. Meridians become closer to each other towards the pole.
7. This projection is neither equal area nor orthomorphic.

41

Figure 4.3 Simple Conical Projection with one standard parallel

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Limitations
1. It is not suitable for a world map due to extreme distortions in the
hemisphere opposite the one in which the standard parallel is selected.
42 2. Even within the hemisphere, it is not suitable for representing larger
areas as the distortion along the pole and near the equator is larger.
Uses
1. This projection is commonly used for showing areas of mid-latitudes
with limited latitudinal and larger longitudinal extent.
2. A long narrow strip of land running parallel to the standard parallel
and having east-west stretch is correctly shown on this projection.
3. Direction along standard parallel is used to show railways, roads,
narrow river valleys and international boundaries.
4. This projection is suitable for showing the Canadian Pacific Railways,
Trans-Siberian Railways, international boundaries between USA and
Canada and the Narmada Valley.

b. Cylindrical Equal Area Projection

The cylindrical equal area projection, also known as the Lambert’s
projection, has been derived by projecting the surface of the globe with
parallel rays on a cylinder touching it at the equator. Both the parallels
and meridians are projected as straight lines intersecting one another at
right angles. The pole is shown with a parallel equal to the equator; hence,
the shape of the area gets highly distorted at the higher latitude.
Example
Construct a cylindrical equal area projection for the world when the R.F.
of the map is 1:300,000,000 taking latitudinal and longitudinal interval
as 15º.
Calculation

640,000,000
Radius of the reduced earth R = = 2.1 cm
300,000,000

2 × 22 × 2.1
Length of the equator 2πR or = 13.2cm
7

13.2 × 15°
Interval along the equator = = 0.55cm
360°

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Map Projections

Construction
(i) Draw a circle of 2.1 cm radius;
(ii) Mark the angles of 15º, 30º, 45º, 60º, 75º and 90º for both, northern
and southern hemispheres;
(iii) Draw a line of 13.2 cm and divide it into 24 equal parts at a distance
of 0.55cm apart. This line represents the equator;
(iv) Draw a line perpendicular to the equator at the point where 0° is
meeting the circumference of the circle;
(v) Extend all the parallels equal to the length of the equator from the
perpendicular line; and
(vi) Complete the projection as shown in fig 4.4 below:

Figure 4.4 Cylindrical Equal Area Projection

Properties
1. All parallels and meridians are straight lines intersecting each other
at right angle.
2. Polar parallel is also equal to the equator.
3. Scale is true only along the equator.
Limitations
1. Distortion increases as we move towards the pole.
2. The projection is non-orthomorphic.
3. Equality of area is maintained at the cost of distortion in shape.
Uses
1. The projection is most suitable for the area lying between 45º N 43
and S latitudes.
2. It is suitable to show the distribution of tropical crops like rice,
tea, coffee, rubber and sugarcane.

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c. Mercator’s Projection
A Dutch cartographer Mercator Gerardus Karmer developed this
projection in 1569. The projection is based on mathematical formulae.
44 So, it is an orthomorphic projection in which the correct shape is
maintained. The distance between parallels increases towards the pole.
Like cylindrical projection, the parallels and meridians intersect each other
at right angle. It has the characteristics of showing correct directions. A
straight line joining any two points on this projection gives a constant
bearing, which is called a Laxodrome or Rhumb line.
Example
Draw a Mercator’s projection for the world map on the scale of
1:250,000,000 at 15º interval.
Calculation

250,000,000
Radius of the reduced earth is R = = 1" inch
250,000,000

1 × 22 × 2
Length of the equator 2πR or = 6.28 "inches
7

6.28 × 15°
Interval along the equator = = 0.26 "inches
360°
Construction
(i) Draw a line of 6.28" inches representing the equator as EQ:
(ii) Divide it into 24 equal parts. Determine the length of each
division using the following formula:

Length of Equator × interval

360
(iii) Calculate the distance for latitude with the help of the table
given below:-
Latitude Distance
15º 0.265 × 1 = 0.265" inch
30º 0.549 × 1 = 0.549" inch
45º 0.881 × 1 = 0.881" inch
60º 1.317 × 1 = 1.317" inches
75º 2.027 × 1 = 2.027" inches
(iv) Complete the projection as shown in Fig. 4.5

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Figure 4.5 Mercator’s Projection

Properties
1. All parallels and meridians are straight lines and they intersect
each other at right angles.
2. All parallels have the same length which is equal to the length of
equator.
3. All meridians have the same length and equal spacing. But they
are longer than the corresponding meridian on the globe.
4. Spacing between parallels increases towards the pole.
5. Scale along the equator is correct as it is equal to the length of the
equator on the globe; but other parallels are longer than the
corresponding parallel on the globe; hence the scale is not correct
along them. For example, the 30º parallel is 1.154 times longer
than the corresponding parallel on the globe.
6. Shape of the area is maintained, but at the higher latitudes
distortion takes place.
7. The shape of small countries near the equator is truly preserved
while it increases towards poles.
8. It is an azimuthal projection.
9. This is an orthomorphic projection as scale along the meridian is
equal to the scale along the parallel.
45
Limitations
1. There is greater exaggeration of scale along the parallels and
meridians in high latitudes. As a result, size of the countries near

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the pole is highly exaggerated. For example, the size of Greenland

equals to the size of USA, whereas it is 1/10th of USA.
2. Poles in this projection cannot be shown as 90º parallel and
46 meridian touching them are infinite.

Uses
1. More suitable for a world map and widely used in preparing atlas
maps.
2. Very useful for navigation purposes showing sea routes and air
routes.
3. Drainage pattern, ocean currents, temperature, winds and their
directions, distribution of worldwide rainfall and other weather
elements are appropriately shown on this map

Figure 4.6 Straight lines are Laxodromes or Rhumb lines and

Dotted lines are great circles

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Map Projections

EXERCISE

1. Choose the right answer from the four alternatives given below:
(i) A map projection least suitable for the world map:
(a) Mercator
(b) Simple Cylindrical
(c) Conical
(d) All the above
(ii) A map projection that is neither the equal area nor the correct
shape and even the directions are also incorrect
(a) Simple Conical
(b) Polar zenithal
(c) Mercator
(d) Cylindrical
(iii) A map projection having correct direction and correct shape but
area greatly exaggerated polewards is
(a) Cylindrical Equal Area
(b) Mercator
(c) Conical
(d) All the above
(iv) When the source of light is placed at the centre of the globe, the
resultant projection is called
(a) Orthographic
(b) Stereographic
(c) Gnomonic
(d) All the above

2. Answer the following questions in about 30 words:

(i) Describe the elements of map projection.
(ii) What do you mean by global property?
(iii) Not a single map projection represents the globe truly. Why?
(iv) How is the area kept equal in cylindrical equal area projection?

3. Differentiate between— 47
(i) Developable and non-developable surfaces
(ii) Homolographic and orthographic projections
(iii) Normal and oblique projections
(iv) Parallels of latitude and meridians of longitude

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4. Answer the following questions in not more than 125 words:

(i) Discuss the criteria used for classifying map projection and state
the major characteristics of each type of projection.
48 (ii) Which map projection is very useful for navigational purposes?
Explain the properties and limitations of this projection.
(iii) Discuss the main properties of conical projection with one standard
parallel and describe its major limitations.

ACTIVITY

Construct graticule for an area stretching between 30º N to 70º N and

40º E to 30º W on a simple conical projection with one standard parallel
with a scale of 1:200,000,000 and interval at an 10º apart.
Prepare graticule for a Cylindrical Equal Area Projection for the world
when R.F. is1: 150,000,000 and the interval is 15º apart.
Draw a Mercator Projection for the world map when the R.F. is
1:400,000,000 and the interval between the latitude and longitude is
20º.

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Topographical Maps

Chapter 5

Topographical Maps

You know that the map is an important geographic tool. You also
know that maps are classified on the basis of scale and functions.
The topographical maps, which have been referred to in Chapter 1
are of utmost importance to geographers. They serve the purpose
of base maps and are used to draw all the other maps.
Topographical maps, also known as general purpose maps, are
drawn at relatively large scales. These maps show important natural
and cultural features such as relief, vegetation, water bodies,
cultivated land, settlements, and transportation networks, etc.
These maps are prepared and published by the National Mapping
Organisation of each country. For example, the Survey of India
prepares the topographical maps in India for the entire country.
The topographical maps are drawn in the form of series of maps at
different scales. Hence, in the given series, all maps employ the
same reference point, scale, projection, conventional signs, symbols
and colours.
The topographical maps in India are prepared in two series, i.e.
India and Adjacent Countries Series and The International Map
Series of the World.

India and Adjacent Countries Series: Topographical maps under

India and Adjacent Countries Series were prepared by the Survey
of India till the coming into existence of Delhi Survey Conference
in 1937. Henceforth, the preparation of maps for the adjoining
49
countries was abandoned and the Survey of India confined itself to
prepare and publish the topographical maps for India as per the
specifications laid down for the International Map Series of the
World. However, the Survey of India for the topographical maps

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Glossary

Contours: Imaginary lines joining all the points of equal elevation or

altitude above mean sea level. They are also called “level lines”.
50 Contour Interval: Interval between two successive contours. It is also
known as vertical interval, usually written as V. I. Generally, it is constant
for a given map.
Cross-section: A side view of the ground cut vertically along a straight
line. It is also known as a section or profile.
Hachures: Small straight lines drawn on the map along the direction of
maximum slope, running across the contours. They given an idea about
the differences in the slope of the ground.
Topographic Map: A map of a small area drawn on a large scale
depicting detailed surface features both natural and man made. Relief
in this map is shown by contours.

under the new series retained the numbering system and the layout plan
of the abandoned India and Adjacent Countries Series.
The topographical maps of India are prepared on 1 : 10,00,000,
1 : 250,000, 1 : 1,25,000, 1 : 50,000 and 1: 25,000 scale providing a
latitudinal and longitudinal coverage of 4° × 4°, 1° × 1°, 30' × 30',
15' × 15' and 5' × 7' 30", respectively. The numbering system of each one
of these topographical maps is shown in Fig. 5.1 (on page 51).

International Map Series of the World: Topographical Maps

under International Map Series of the World are designed to produce
standardised maps for the entire World on a scale of 1: 10,00,000 and
1:250,000.

Reading of Topographical Maps: The study of topographical maps

is simple. It requires the reader to get acquainted with the legend, conventional
sign and the colours shown on the sheets. The conventional sign and symbols
depicted on the topographical sheets are shown in Fig. 5.2 (on page 52).

METHODS OF RELIEF REPRESENTATION

The earth’s surface is not uniform and it varies from mountains to hills to
plateaus and plains. The elevation and depressions of the earth’s surface
are known as physical features or relief features of the earth. The map
showing these features is called a relief map.

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Topographical Maps

51

Figure 5.1 Reference Map of Topographical Sheets Published by Survey of India

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52

Figure 5.2 Conventional Signs and Symbols

A number of methods have been used to show the relief features of

the Earth’s surface on maps, over the years. These methods include
hachure, hill shading, layer tints, benchmarks and spot heights and
contours. However, contours and spot heights are predominantly used
to depict the relief of an area on all topographical maps.

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Topographical Maps

CONTOURS

Contours are imaginary lines joining places having the same elevation
above mean sea level. A map showing the landform of an area by contours
is called a contour map. The method of showing relief features through
contour is very useful and versatile. The contour lines on a map provide
a useful insight into the topography of an area.
Earlier, ground surveys and levelling methods were used to draw
contours on topographical maps. However, the invention of photography
and subsequent use of aerial photography have replaced the conventional
methods of surveying, levelling and mapping. Henceforth, these
photographs are used in topographical mapping.
Contours are drawn at different vertical intervals (VI), like 20, 50, 100
metres above the mean sea level. It is known as contour interval. It is
usually constant on a given map. It is generally expressed in metres.
While the vertical interval between the two successive contour lines remains
constant, the horizontal distance varies from place to place depending
upon the nature of slope. The horizontal distance, also known as the
horizontal equivalent (HE), is large when the slope is gentler and decreases
with increasing slope gradient.

Some basic features of contour lines are

° A contour line is drawn to show places of equal heights.
° Contour lines and their shapes represent the height and slope or
gradient of the landform.
° Closely spaced contours represent steep slopes while widely spaced
contours represent gentle slope.
° When two or more contour lines merge with each other, they represent
features of vertical slopes such as cliffs or waterfalls.
° Two contours of different elevation usually do not cross each other.

Drawing of Contours and Their Cross Sections

We know that all the topographical features show varying degrees of
slopes. For example, a flat plain exhibits gentler slopes and the cliffs and 53
gorges are associated with the steep slopes. Similarly, valleys and
mountain ranges are also characterised by the varying degree of slopes,
i.e. steep to gentle. Hence, the spacing of contours is significant since it
indicates the slope.

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Types of slope
The slopes can broadly be classified into gentle, steep, concave, convex
and irregular or undulating. The contours of different types of slopes
54 show a distinct spacing pattern.

Gentle Slope Steep Slope

When the degree or angle of When the degree or angle of
slope of a feature is very low, the slope of a feature is high and
slope will be gentle. The the contours are closely spaced,
contours representing this type they indicate steep slope.
of slope are far apart.

Gentle Slope Steep Slope

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Topographical Maps

Concave Slope Convex Slope

A slope with a gentle gradient in Unlike concave slope, the
the lower parts of a relief feature convex slope is fairly gentle in
and steep in its upper parts is the upper part and steep in the
called the concave slope. lower part. As a result, the
Contours in this type of slope are contours are widely spaced in
widely spaced in the lower parts the upper parts and are closely
and are closely spaced in the spaced in the lower parts.
upper parts.

55

Concave Slope Convex Slope

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Types of Landform

Plateau
56 A widely stretched flat–topped high
Conical Hill land, with relatively steeper slopes,
It rises almost uniformly from rising above the adjoining plain or
the surrounding land. A conical
sea is called a plateau. The contour
hill with uniform slope and lines representing a plateau are
narrow top is represented by normally close spaced at the margins
concentric contours spaced with the innermost contour showing
almost at regular intervals. wide gap between its two sides.

Conical Slope Plateau

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Topographical Maps

VALLEY
A geomorphic feature lying between two hills or ridges and formed as a
result of the lateral erosion by a river or a glacier is called a valley.

‘V’-shaped Valley ‘U’ – shaped Valley

It resembles the letter V. A V-shaped A U–shaped valley is formed by strong
valley occurs in mountainous areas. lateral erosion of glaciers at high
The lowermost part of the V–shaped altitudes. The flat wide bottom and
valley is shown by the innermost steep sides makes it resemble the
contour line with very small gap letter ‘U’. The lowermost part of the
between its two sides and the lowest U–shaped valley is shown by the
value of the contour is assigned to it. innermost contour line with a wide
The contour value increases with gap between its two sides. The contour
uniform intervals for all other contour value increases with uniform intervals
lines outward. for all other contour lines outward.

57

V-Shaped Valley U-Shaped Valley

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Gorge Spur
In high altitudes, gorges form in the A tongue of land, projecting from
58 areas where the vertical erosion by
river is more prominent than the
higher ground into the lower is called
a spur. It is also represented by V-
lateral erosion. They are deep and shaped contours but in the reverse
narrow river valleys with very steep manner. The arms of the V point to
sides. A gorge is represented by very the higher ground and the apex of ‘V’
closely-spaced contour lines on a map to the lower ones.
with the innermost contour showing
small gap between its two sides.

Gorge Spur

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Topographical Maps
Waterfall and Rapids
A sudden and more or less
perpendicular descent of water from
a considerable height in the bed of a
river is called a waterfall. Sometimes,
a waterfall succeeds or precedes with
a cascading stream forming rapids
CLIFF
upstream or downstream of a
It is a very steep or almost
waterfall. The contours representing
perpendicular face of landform. On a
a waterfall merge into one another
map, a cliff may be identified by the
while crossing a river stream and the
way the contours run very close to one
rapids are shown by relatively distant
another, ultimately merging into one.
contour lines on a map.

59

Cliff Waterfall

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Steps for Drawing a Cross-section

The following steps may be followed to draw cross-sections of various
relief features from their contours :
60 1. Draw a straight line cutting across the contours on the map and
mark it as AB.
2. Take a strip of white paper or graph and place its edge along the
AB line.
3. Mark the position and value of every contour that cuts the line
AB.
4. Choose a suitable vertical scale, eg ½ cm =100 metres, to draw
horizontal lines parallel to each other and equal to the length of
AB. The number of such lines should be equal or more than the
total contour lines.
5. Mark the appropriate values corresponding to the contour values
along the vertical of the cross-section. The numbering may be
started with the lowest value represented by the contours.
6. Now place the edge of the marked paper along the horizontal line
at the bottom line of the cross-section in such a way that AB of the
paper corresponds to the AB of the map and mark the contour
points.
7. Draw perpendiculars from AB line, intersecting contour lines, to
the corresponding line at the cross-section base.
8. Smoothly join all the points marked on different lines at the cross-
section base.

IDENTIFICATION OF CULTURAL FEATURES FROM

TOPOGRAPHICAL SHEETS
Settlements, buildings, roads and railways are important cultural features
shown on topographical sheets through conventional signs, symbols and
colours. The location and pattern of distribution of different features
help in understanding the area shown on the map.

Distribution Of Settlements
It can be seen in the map through its site, location pattern, alignment and
density. The nature and causes of various settlement patterns may be
clearly understood by comparing the settlement map with the contour
map.

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Topographical Maps

Four types of rural settlements may be identified on the map

(a) Compact
(b) Scattered
(c) Linear
(d) Circular
Similarly, urban centres may also be distinguished as
(a) Cross-road town
(b) Nodal point
(c) Market centre
(d) Hill station
(e) Coastal resort centre
(f) Port
(g) Manufacturing centre with suburban villages or satellite towns
(h) Capital town
(i) Religious centre
Various factors determine the site of settlements like
(a) Source of water
(b) Provision of food
(c) Nature of relief
(d) Nature and character of occupation
(e) Defence
Site of settlements should be closely examined with reference to the
contour and drainage map. Density of settlement is directly related to
food supply. Sometimes, village settlements form alignments, i.e. they
are spread along a river valley, road, embankment, coastline – these are
called linear settlements.
In the case of an urban settlement, a cross-road town assumes a
fan-shaped pattern, the houses being arranged along the roadside and
the crossing being at the heart of the town and the main market place. In
a nodal town, the roads radiate in all directions.

Transport And Communication Pattern

Relief, population, size and resource development pattern of an area
directly influence the means of transport and communication and their 61
density. These are depicted through conventional signs and symbols.
Means of transport and communication provide useful information about
the area shown on the map.

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INTERPRETATION OF TOPOGRAPHICAL MAPS

Knowledge of map language and sense of direction are essential in reading

62 and interpreting topo-sheets .You must first look for the northline and the
scale of the map and orient yourself accordingly. You must have a thorough
knowledge of the legends / key given in the map depicting various features.
All topo-sheets contain a table showing conventional signs and symbols
used in the map (Figure 5.2). Conventional signs and symbols are
internationally accepted; so, anyone can read any map anywhere in the
world without knowing the language of that particular country.
A topographic sheet is usually interpreted under the following heads:
(a) Marginal Information
(b) Relief and Drainage
(c) Land Use
(d) Means of Transport and Communication
(e) Human Settlement

Marginal Information: It includes the topographical sheet number,

its location, grid references, its extent in degrees and minutes, scale, the
districts covered, etc.

Relief of the Area: The general topography of the area is studied to

identify the plains, plateaus, hills or mountains along with peaks, ridges,
spur and the general direction of the slope. These features are studied under
the following heads :
° Hill : With concave, convex, steep or gentle slope and shape.
° Plateau : Whether it is broad , narrow, flat, undulating or dissected.
° Plain : Its types, i.e. alluvial, glacial, karst, coastal, marshy, etc.
° Mountain : General elevation, peak, passes, etc.

Drainage of the Area: The important rivers and their tributaries and
the type and extent of valleys formed by them, the types of drainage pattern,
i.e. dendritic, radial, ring, trellis, internal, etc.

Land Use: It includes the use of land under different categories like :
° Natural vegetation and forest (which part of the area is forested,
whether it is dense forest or thin, and the categories of forest found
there like Reserved, Protected, Classified / Unclassified).

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° Agricultural, orchard, wasteland, industrial, etc.

° Facilities and Services such as schools, colleges, hospitals, parks,
airports, electric substations, etc.

Transport and Communication: The means of transportation

include national or state highways, district roads, cart tracks, camel
tracks, footpaths, railways, waterways, major communication lines, post
offices, etc.

Settlement: Settlements are studied under the following heads :

° Rural Settlements: The types and patterns of rural settlements,
i.e. compact, semi-compact, dispersed, linear, etc.
° Urban Settlements: Type of urban settlements and their functions,
i.e. capital cities, administrative towns, religious towns, port towns,
hill stations, etc.

Occupation: The general occupation of the people of the area may be

identified with the help of land use and the type of settlement. For example,
in rural areas the main occupation of majority of the people is agriculture;
in tribal regions, lumbering and primitive agriculture dominates and in
coastal areas, fishing is practised. Similarly, in cities and towns, services
and business appear to be the major occupations of the people.

MAP INTERPRETATION PROCEDURE

Map interpretation involves the study of factors that explain the causal
relationship among several features shown on the map. For example, the
distribution of natural vegetation and cultivated land can be better
understood against the background of landform and drainage. Likewise,
the distribution of settlements can be examined in association with the
levels of transport network system and the nature of topography.

The following steps will help in map interpretation:

° Find out from the index number of the topographical sheet, the 63
location of the area in India. This would give an idea of the general
characteristics of the major and minor physiographic divisions of
the area. Note the scale of the map and the contour interval, which
will give the extent and general landform of the area.

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° Trace out the following features on tracing sheets.

(a) Major landforms – as shown by contours and other graphical
features.
64 (b) Drainage and water features – the main river and its important
tributaries.
(c) Land use – i.e. forest, agricultural land, wastes, sanctuary,
park, school, etc.
(d) Settlement and Transport pattern.
° Describe the distributional pattern of each of the features separately
drawing attention to the most important aspect.
° Superimpose pairs of these maps and note down the relationship,
if any, between the two patterns. For example, if a contour map is
superimposed over a land use map, it provides the relationship
between the degree of slope and the type of the land used.
Aerial photographs and satellite imageries of the same area and of the
same scale can also be compared with the topographical map to update
the information.

EXERCISE

1. Answer the following questions in about 30 words:

(i) What are topographical maps?
(ii) Name the organisation which prepares the topographical maps of
India.
(iii) Which are the commonly used scales for mapping our country
used by the Survey of India?
(iv) What are contours?
(v) What does the spacing of contours indicate?
(vi) What are conventional signs?

2. Write short notes on—

(i) Contours
(ii) ‘Marginal Information’ in Topographical sheets
(iii) The Survey of India

3. Explain what is meant by ‘map interpretation’ and what procedure is

followed for its interpretation.

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Topographical Maps

4. If you are interpreting the cultural features from a topographical sheet,

what information would you like to seek and how would you derive
this information? Discuss with the help of suitable examples.

5. Draw the conventional signs and symbols for the following features—
(i) International Boundary
(ii) Bench Mark
(iii) Villages
(iv) Metalled Road
(v) Footpath with bridges
(vi) Places of Worship
(vii)Railwayline

Exercise A
Study the contour pattern and answer the following questions.
1. Name the geographical feature formed by contours.
2. Find out the contour interval in the map.
3. Find out the map distance between E and F and convert it into ground
distance.
4. Name the type of slope between A and B; C and D and E and F.
5. Find out the direction of E, D and F from G.

Exercise B
Study the extract from the topographical sheet No. 63K/12, as shown in
the figure below and answer the following questions—

65

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1. Convert 1:50,000 into a statement of scale.

2. Name the major settlements of the area.
3. What is the direction of flow of the river Ganga?
66

Uttar Pradesh
Mirzapur and Varanasi District Part of 63K/12
82o 40’ 82o 45’
o
25 25o

15’ 15’

25o 25o

10’ 10’
82o 40’ 82o 45’

R. F. 1: 50,000
Part of the Topographical Sheet No 63K/12

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Topographical Maps

4. At which one of the banks of river Ganga, Bhatauli is located ?

5. What is the pattern of rural settlements along the right bank of river
Ganga?
6. Name the villages/settlements where Post Office is located ?
7. What does the yellow colour in the area refer to?
8. What means of transportation is used to cross the river by the people
of Bhatauli village ?

Exercise C
Study the extract for topographical sheet 63K/12 shown in the figure on
page 68 and answer the following questions.
1. Give the height of the highest point on the map.
2. River Jamtihwa Nadi is flowing through which quarter of the map ?
3. Which is the major settlement located in the east of the Kuardari Nala ?
4. What type of settlement does the area have ?
5. Name the geographical feature represented by white patches in the
middle of Sipu Nadi.
6. Name the two types of vegetation shown on part of the topographical
sheet.
7. What is the direction of the flow of the Kuardari ?
8. In which part of the sheet area is Lower Khajuri Dam located?

67

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Uttar Pradesh
Mirzapur and Varanasi District Part of 63K/12
82o 35’ 82o 40’
68 25o 25o

5’ 5’

25o 25o

0’ 0’
o o
82 35’ 82 40’

R. F. 1: 50,000
Part of the Topographical Sheet No 63K/12

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Chapter 6

Introduction To Remote
Sensing
Both the human eyes and the photographic systems respond to
light in a minute portion of the total energy received and responded
by the objects’ surface. The present day remote sensing devices, on
the other hand, react to much wider range of radiations reflected/
emitted, absorbed and transmitted by all object surfaces at a
temperature above 0 Kelvin (-273°C).
The term remote sensing was first used in the early 1960s. Later,
it was defined as the total processes used to acquire and measure the
information of some property of objects and phenomena by a
recording device (sensor) that is not in physical contact with the
objects and phenomena in study. It can be noted from the above
definition of remote sensing that it primarily involves an object
surface, the recording device and the information carrying energy
waves (Fig 6.1).

Information
Carrying
Energy Waves
NATURAL SENSOR OBJECT SURFACE
Figure 6.1 Conceptual Frame of Remote Sensing
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Glossary

Absorptance : The ratio of the radiant energy absorbed by a substance to the energy
70 it receives.

Band : The specific wavelength interval in the electromagnetic spectrum.

Digital image : An array of digital numbers (DN) arranged in rows and columns,
having the property of an intensity value and their locations.

Digital Number : An intensity value of a pixel in a digital image.

Digital Image Processing : The numerical manipulation of DN values for the purpose
of extracting information about the phenomena of the surface they represent.

Electromagnetic Radiation (EMR) : The Energy propagated through a space or a

medium at a speed of light.

Electromagnetic Spectrum : The continuum of EMR that ranges from short wave
high frequency cosmic radiations to long wavelength low frequency radio waves.

False Colour Composite (FCC) : An artificially generated colour image in which

blue, green and red colours are assigned to the wavelength regions to which they do
not belong in nature. For example, in standard a False Colour Composite blue is
assigned to green radiations (0.5 to 0.6 µm), green is assigned to red radiations (0.6
to 0.7 µm and red is assigned to Near Infrared radiation (0.7 to 0.8 µm).

Gray scale : A medium to calibrate the variations in the brightness of an image that
ranges from black to white with intermediate grey values.

Image : The permanent record of a scene comprising of natural and man-made

features and activities, produced by photographic and non–photographic means.

Scene : The ground area covered by an image or a photograph.

Sensor : Any imaging or non–imaging device that receives EMR and converts it into
a signal that can be recorded and displayed as photographic or digital image.

Reflectance : The ratio of the radiant energy reflected by a substance to the energy
it receives.

Spectral Band : The range of the wavelengths in the continuous spectrum such as
the green band ranges from 0.5 to .6 µ and the range of NIR band 0.7 to 1.1 µ.

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STAGES IN REMOTE SENSING

Figure 6.2 illustrates the processes used in remote sensing data

acquisition. These basic processes that help in the collection of information
about the properties of the objects and phenomena of the earth surface
are as follows :
(a) Source of Energy (sun/self-emission);
(b) Transmission of energy from the source to the surface of the earth;
(c) Interaction of energy with the earth’s surface;
(d) Propagation of reflected/emitted energy through atmosphere;
(e) Detection of the reflected/emitted energy by the sensor;
(f) Conversion of energy received into photographic/digital form of
data;
(g) Extraction of the information contents from the data products; and
(h) Conversion of information into Map/Tabular forms.

Figure 6.2 Stages in Remote Sensing Data Acquisition

a. Source of Energy: Sun is the most important source of energy

used in remote sensing. The energy may also be artificially generated
and used to collect information about the objects and phenomena such
as flashguns or energy beams used in radar (radio detection and ranging).
71
b. Transmission of Energy from the Source to the Surface
of the Earth: The energy that emanates from a source propagates
between the source and the object surface in the form of the waves of

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energy at a speed of light (300,000 km per second). Such energy

propagation is called the Electromagnetic Radiation (EMR). The energy
waves vary in size and frequency. The plotting of such variations is known
72 as the Electromagnetic Spectrum (Fig. 6.3). On the basis of the size of the
waves and frequency, the energy waves are grouped into Gamma, X–
rays, Ultraviolet rays, Visible rays, Infrared rays , Microwaves and Radio
waves. Each one of these broad regions of spectrum is used in different
applications. However, the visible, infrared and microwave regions of energy
are used in remote sensing.

Figure 6.3 Electromagnetic Spectrum

c. Interaction of Energy with the Earth’s Surface: The

propagating energy finally interacts with the objects of the surface of the
earth. This leads to absorption, transmission, reflection or emission of energy
from the objects. We all know that all objects vary in their composition,
appearance forms and other properties. Hence, the objects’ responses to the
energy they receive are also not uniform. Besides, one particular object also
responds differently to the energy it receives in different regions of the
spectrum (Fig. 6.5). For example, a fresh water body absorbs more energy
in the red and infrared regions of the spectrum and appears dark/black in
a satellite image whereas turbid water body reflects more in blue and green
regions of spectrum and appears in light tone (Fig. 6.4).

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Figure 6.4 Spectral Signature of Soil, Vegetation and Water

Figure 6.5 IRS 1 C Band 1 Green (Left) and Band 4 IR Images of

Sambhar Lake, Rajasthan

d. Propagation of Reflected/Emitted Energy through

Atmosphere: When energy is reflected from objects of the earth’s
surface, it re–enters into the atmosphere. You may be aware of the fact
that atmosphere comprises of gases, water molecules and dust particles.
The energy reflected from the objects comes in contact with the atmospheric
constituents and the properties of the original energy get modified. Whereas
the Carbon dioxide (CO2), the Hydrogen (H), and the water molecules
absorb energy in the middle infrared region, the dust particles scatter the
blue energy. Hence, the energy that is either absorbed or scattered by
73
the atmospheric constituents never reaches to sensor placed onboard a
satellite and the properties of the objects carried by such energy waves
are left unrecorded.

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e. Detection of Reflected/Emitted Energy by the Sensor:

The sensors recording the energy that they receive are placed in a near–
polar sun synchronous orbit at an altitude of 700 – 900 km. These
74 satellites are known as remote sensing satellites (e.g. Indian Remote
Sensing Series). As against these satellites, the weather monitoring and
telecommunication satellites are placed in a Geostationary position (the
satellite is always positioned over its orbit that synchronises with the
direction of the rotation of the earth) and revolves around the earth
(coinciding with the direction of the movement of the earth over its axis) at
an altitude of nearly 36,000 km (e.g. INSAT series of satellites). A
comparison between the remote sensing and weather monitoring satellites
is given in Box (6.1). Figure 6.6 shows the orbits of Sun Synchronous
and Geostationary satellites respectively.

Box. 6.1 Comparison between Sun-Synchronous and Geostationary Satellites

Orbital Sun Synchronous Geostationary

Characteristics Satellites Satellites
Altitude 700 – 900 km @ 36,000 km
Coverage 810 N to 810 S 1/3rd of the Globe
Orbital period @ 14 orbits per day 24 hours
Resolution Fine Coarse
(182 metre to 1 metre) (1 km x 1 km)
Uses Earth Resources Telecommunication
Applications and Weather monitoring

Figure 6.6 Orbit of Sun Synchronous (Left) and Geostationary (Right) Satellites

Remote sensing satellites are deployed with sensors which are capable
of collecting the EMR reflected by the objects. Photographic camera obtains

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photographs at an instance of exposure. However, the sensors used in

remote sensing satellites possess a mechanism that is different from
photographic camera in collecting and recording the information. The
images so acquired by space-borne sensors are in digital format as against
the photographic format obtained through a camera-based system.

f. Conversion of Energy Received into Photographic/

Digital Form of Data: The radiations received by the sensor are
electronically converted into a digital image. It comprises digital numbers
that are arranged in rows and columns. These numbers may also be
converted into an analogue (picture) form of data product. The sensor
onboard an earth-orbiting satellite electronically transmits the collected
image data to an Earth Receiving Station located in different parts of the
world. In India, one such station is located at Shadnagar near Hyderabad.

g. Extraction of Information Contents from Data

Products: After the image data is received at the earth station, it is
processed for elimination of errors caused during image data collection.
Once the image is corrected, information extraction is carried out from
digital images using digital image processing techniques and from
analogue form of data products by applying visual interpretation methods.

h. Conversion of Information into Map/Tabular Forms:

The interpreted information is finally delineated and converted into different
layers of thematic maps. Besides, quantitative measures are also taken to
generate a tabular data.

SENSORS
A sensor is a device that gathers electromagnetic radiations, converts it
into a signal and presents it in a form suitable for obtaining information
about the objects under investigation. Based upon the form of the data
output, the sensors are classified into photographic (analogue) and
non–photographic (digital) sensors.
A photographic sensor (camera) records the images of the objects at
an instance of exposure. On the other hand, a non–photographic sensor 75
obtains the images of the objects in bit-by-bit form. These sensors are
known as scanners. In the present chapter, we will confine ourselves to
describe the non–photographic sensors that are used in satellite
remote sensing.

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Multispectral Scanners: In satellite remote sensing, the Multi

Spectral Scanners (MSS) are used as sensors. These sensors are designed
to obtain images of the objects while sweeping across the field of view. A
76 scanner is usually made up of a reception system consisting of a mirror
and detectors. A scanning sensor constructs the scene by recording a
series of scan lines. While doing so, the motor device oscillates the
scanning mirror through the angular field of view of the sensor, which
determines the length of scan lines and is called swath. It is because of
such reasons that the mode of collection of images by scanners is referred
bit–by–bit. Each scene is composed of cells that determine the spatial
resolution of an image. The oscillation of the scanning mirror across the
scene directs the received energy to the detectors, where it is converted
into electrical signals. These signals are further converted into numerical
values called Digital Number (DN Values) for recording on a magnetic
tape.
The Multi-Spectral Scanners are divided into the following types:
(i) Whiskbroom Scanners
(ii) Pushbroom Scanners
(i) Whiskbroom Scanners : The whiskbroom scanners are made up of
a rotating mirror and a single detector. The mirror is so oriented that
when it completes a rotation, the detector sweeps across the field of view

6.7 Whiskbroom Scanners 6.8 Pushbroom Scanners

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between 90° and 120° to obtain images in a large number of narrow

spectral bands ranging from visible to middle infrared regions of the
spectrum. The total extent of the oscillating sensor is known as the Total
Field of View (TFOV) of the scanner. While scanning the entire field, the
sensor’s optical head is always placed at a particular dimension called
the Instantaneous Field of View (IFOV). Figure 6.7 depicts the scanning
mechanism of whiskbroom scanners.
(i) Pushbroom Scanners: The pushbroom scanners consist of a number
of detectors which are equivalent to the number obtained by dividing the
swath of the sensor by the size of the spatial resolution (Fig. 6.8). For
example, the swath of High Resolution Visible Radiometer – 1 (HRVR – 1)
of the French remote sensing satellite SPOT is 60 km and the spatial
resolution is 20 metres. If we divide 60 km x 1000 metres/20 metres, we
get a number of 3000 detectors that are deployed in SPOT HRV – 1 sensor.
In pushbroom scanner, all detectors are linearly arrayed and each detector
collects the energy reflected by the ground cell (pixel) dimensions of 20
metres at a nadir’s view.

RESOLVING POWERS OF THE SATELLITES

In satellite remote sensing, the sun-synchronous polar orbit enables the

collection of images after a pre-determined periodical interval referred to
as the temporal resolution or the revisit time of the satellite over the same
area of the earth surface. Fig. 6.9 illustrates the two images acquired over
two different periods in time for the same area enabling to study and
record the changes that take place with respect to the types of vegetation
in Himalayas. In another example, Fig. 6.10 (a and b) shows the images
acquired before and after the tsunami in the Indian Ocean. The image
acquired in June 2004 clearly shows the undisturbed topography of
Banda Aceh in Indonesia, whereas the post tsunami image acquired
immediately after tsunami reveals the damages that were caused by the
tsunami.

77

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78

Figure 6. 9 Images of Himalayas and Northern Indian Plain by IRS Satellite taken in
May (Left) and November (Right) show differences in the types of vegetation.
The red patches in May image refer to Coniferous vegetation. In November
image the additional red patches refer to Deciduous plants and the light red
colour is related to the crops.

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Figure 6.10 (a) Pre-tsunami Image acquired in June 2004

79
Figure 6.10 (b) Post-tsunami image acquired in December, 2004

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SENSOR RESOLUTIONS

Remote sensors are characterised by spatial, spectral and radiometric

80 resolutions that enable the extraction of useful information pertaining to
different terrain conditions.
(i) Spatial Resolution: You must have seen some people using
spectacles while reading a book or newspaper. Have you ever thought as
to why they do so. It is simply because of the fact that resolving power of
their eyes to differentiate two closed spaced letters in a word is unable to
identify them as two different letters. By using positive spectacles they try
to improve their vision as well as the resolving power. In remote sensing,
the spatial resolution of the sensors refers to the same phenomena. It is
the capability of the sensor to distinguish two closed spaced object surfaces
as two different object surfaces. As a rule, with an increasing resolution
the identification of even smaller object surfaces become possible.

(ii) Spectral Resolution: It refers to the sensing and recording power

of the sensor in different bands of EMR (Electromagnetic radiation).
Multispectral images are acquired by using a device that disperses the
radiation received by the sensor and recording it by deploying detectors
sensitive to specific spectral ranges. The principles in obtaining such
images is the extension of the dispersion of light in nature resulting in the
appearance of the ‘rainbow” and the use of prism in the lab (Box 6.2).
The images obtained in different bands show objects response
differently as discussed in Para 3 of the stages in remote sensing data
acquisition. Fig. 6.11 illustrates images acquired in different spectral
regions by IRS P - 6 (Resource sat - 1) showing strong absorption
properties of fresh water in band 4 (Infrared) and mixed strong reflectance
in band 2 (green) by dry surfaces (Fig. 6.11).

(iii) Radiometric Resolution: It is the capability of the sensor to

discriminate between two targets. Higher the radiometric resolution,
smaller the radiance differences that can be detected between two targets.
The spatial, spectral, and radiometric resolutions of some of the remote
sensing satellites of the world are shown in Table 6.1.

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Table 6.1 Spatial, Spectral and Radiometric Resolution of Landsat, IRS

and SPOT Sensors
Satellite/Sensor Spatial Resolution Number of Radiometric Range
(in metres) Bands (Number of Grey
Level Variations)

Landsat MSS (USA) 80.0 × 80.0 4 0 - 64

IRS LISS – I (India) 72.5 × 72.5 4 0 - 127
IRS LISS – II (India) 36.25 × 36.25 4 0 - 127
Landsat TM (USA) 30.00 × 30.00 4 0 - 255
IRS LISS III (India) 23.00 × 23.00 4 0 - 127
SPOT HRV - I (France) 20.00 × 20.00 3 0 - 255
SPOT HRV – II (France) 10.00 × 10.00 1 0 - 255
IRS PAN (India) 5.80 × 5.80 1 0 - 127

Box : 6.2

RAINBOW
(Natural Dispersion of Light)
Dispersion of Light
(The principle that is utilised in
obtaining Multispectral Images)
The overall mechanism of obtaining
images in a number of bands derives
strength from the principle of the
dispersion of light. You must have
seen the rainbow. It is formed
through a natural process of
dispersion of light rays through
PRISM water molecules present in the
(Artificial Dispersion of Light) atmosphere. The same phenomena
may be experimented by putting a
beam of light at one side of a prism.
At the other side of the prism you
may notice the dispersion of energy
into seven colours that form white 81
light.

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82

Figure 6. 11 IRS P - 6 (Resourcesat - 1) Images of Parts of Najafgarh, Delhi,

03 June 2005

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DATA PRODUCTS

We have seen that the electromagnetic energy may be detected either

photographically or electronically. The photographic process uses light
sensitive film to detect and record energy variations. On the other hand, a
scanning device obtains images in digital mode. It is important to
distinguish between the terms – images and photographs. An image refers
to pictorial representation, regardless of what regions of energy have been
used to detect and record it. A photograph refers specifically to images
that have been recorded on photographic film. Hence, it can be said that
all photographs are images, but all images are not photographs.
Based upon the mechanism used in detecting and recording, the
remotely sensed data products may be broadly classified into two types :
° Photographic Images
° Digital Images

Photographic Images: Photographs are acquired in the optical

regions of electromagnetic spectrum, i.e. 0.3 – 0.9 µm. Four different
types of light sensitive film emulsion bases are used to obtain photographs.
These are black and white, colour, black and white infrared and colour
infrared. However, in aerial photography black and white film is normally
used. Photographs may be enlarged to any extent without loosing
information contents or the contrast.

Digital Images: A digital image consists of discrete picture elements

called pixels. Each one of the pixels in an image has an intensity value
and an address in two-dimensional image space. A digital number (DN)
represents the average intensity value of a pixel. It is dependent upon the
electromagnetic energy received by the sensor and the intensity levels
used to describe its range.
In a digital image, the reproduction of the details pertaining to the
images of the objects is affected by the size of the pixel. A smaller size
pixel is generally useful in the preservation of the scene details and digital
representation. However, zooming of the digital image beyond certain 83
extent produces loss of information and the appearance of pixels only.
Using a digital image processing algorithms, the digital numbers
representing their intensity level in an image may be displayed (Fig. 6.12).

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84

Figure 6.12 Digital Image (top) and Part of it zoomed showing Pixel’s brightness (left)
and the associated Digital Numbers (right)

INTERPRETATION OF SATELLITE IMAGERIES

The data obtained from the sensors is used for information extraction
related to the forms, and patterns of the objects and phenomena of the
earth’s surface. We have seen that different sensors obtain photographic
and digital data products. Hence, the extraction of both qualitative and
quantitative properties of such features could be carried out using either
visual interpretation methods or digital image processing techniques.
The visual interpretation is a manual exercise. It involves reading of
the images of objects for the purpose of their identification. On the other
hand, digital images require a combination of hardware and software to
extract the desired information. It would not be possible to deliberate
upon the digital image processing techniques under the constraints of
time, equipments and accessories. Hence, only visual interpretation
methods would be discussed.

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Elements of Visual Interpretation

Whether we are conscious of it or not we use the form, size, location of the
objects and their relationships with the surrounding objects to identify
them in our day-to-day life. These characteristics of objects are termed as
elements of visual interpretation. We can further group the characteristics
of the objects into two broad categories, i.e. image characteristics and
terrain characteristics. The image characteristics include tone or colour
in which objects appear, their shape, size, pattern, texture and the shadow
they cast. On the other hand, location and the association of different
objects with their surrounding objects constitute the terrain
characteristics.
1. Tone or Colour: We know that all objects receive energy in all regions
of spectrum. The interaction of EMR with the object surface leads to the
absorption, transmittance and reflection of energy. It is the reflected
amount of the energy that is received and recorded by the sensor in tones
of grey, or hues of colour in black and white, and colour images
respectively. The variations in the tone or the colour depend upon the
orientation of incoming radiations, surface properties and the composition
of the objects. In other words, smooth and dry object surfaces reflect more
energy in comparison to the rough and moist surfaces. Besides, the
response of the objects also varies in different regions of the spectrum
(Refer para ‘C – Stages in remote sensing data acquisition’). For example,
healthy vegetation reflects strongly in the infrared region because of the
multiple-layered leaf structure and appears in a light tone or bright red

85

6.13 (a) Turbid river 6.13 (b) River with fresh water

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colour in standard false colour composite and the scrubs appear in greyish
red colour). Similarly, a fresh water body absorbs much of the radiations
received by it and appears in dark tone or black colour, whereas the turbid
86 water body appears in light tone or light bluish colour in FCC due to
mixed response shown by the water molecules as well as suspended sand
particles (Figures 6.13 a and b).
The colours in which different features of the earth’s surfaces are recorded
in remote sensing images are given in Table 6.2.

Table 6.2: Colour Signatures on Standard False Colour

Composite of Earth Surface Features

S. No. Earth Surface Feature Colour(In Standard FCC)

1. Healthy Vegetation and

Cultivated Areas
Evergreen Red to magenta
Deciduous Brown to red
Scrubs Light brown with red
patches
Cropped land Bright red
Fallow land Light blue to white

2. Waterbody
Clear water Dark blue to black
Turbid waterbody Light blue

3. Built – up area
High density Dark blue to bluish green
Low density Light blue

4. Waste lands/Rock outcrops

Rock outcrops Light brown
Sandy deserts/River sand/ Light blue to white
Salt affected
Deep ravines Dark green
Shallow ravines Light green
Water logged/Wet lands Motelled black

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2. Texture: The texture refers to the minor variations in tones of grey or

hues of colour. These variations are primarily caused by an aggregation
of smaller unit features that fail to be discerned individually such as high
density and low density residential areas; slums and squatter settlements;
garbage and other forms of solid waste; and different types of crops and
plants. The textural differences in the images of certain objects vary from
smooth to coarse textures (Fig. 6.14 a and b). For example, dense
residential areas in a large city form fine texture due to the concentration
of the houses in a smaller area and the low-density residential areas
produce a coarse texture. Similarly, in high resolution images the
sugarcane or millet plants produce coarse texture in comparison to the
fine texture of rice or wheat plants. One can also notice the coarse texture
in the images of scrubbed lands if compared with the fine texture of lush
green evergreen forests.

Figure 6.14 (a) Coarse texture Figure 6.14 (b) Fine texture
image of of cropped land
mangroves

3. Size: The size of an object as discerned from the resolution or scale of

an image is another important characteristic of individual objects. It helps
in distinctively identifying the industrial and industrial complexes with
residential dwellings (Fig. 6.15), stadium in the heart of the city with the
brick kilns at an urban fringe, size and hierarchy of the settlements, etc.

4. Shape: The general form and configuration or an outline of an

individual object provides important clues in the interpretation of remote
sensing images. The shape of some of the objects is so distinctive that
make them easy to identify. For example, the shape of the Sansad Bhawan 87
is typically distinct from many other built-up features. Similarly, a railway
line can be readily distinguished from a road due to its long continuous
linearity in shape with gradual change in its course (Figure 6.16). The

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88

(a) Parts of Kolkata (b) Parts of Varanasi

Figure 6.15 Variations in size between institutional buildings and

residential areas may be distinctly identified in the images of parts of
Kolkata (a) and Varanasi (b)

shape also plays a deciding role in the identity of

religious places such as mosques and temples as
distinct features.

5. Shadow: Shadow of an object is a function of

the sun’s illumination angle and the height of the
object itself. The shape of some of the objects is
so typical that they could not be identified without
finding out the length of the shadow they cast.
For example, the Qutub Minar located in Delhi,
minarets of mosques, overhead water tanks,
electric or telephone lines, and similar features
can only be identified using their shadow. Shadow
also adversely affects the identifiability of the
objects in city centres as it produces a dark tone,
which dominates the original tone or colour of the
features lying under the shadow of tall buildings.
It may , however, be noted that the shadow as an
element of image interpretation is of less use in
satellite images. However, it serves a useful
Figure 6.16 Curvilinear shape of purpose in large-scale aerial photography.
the Railway Tract is
Distinctly different
from Sharp Bending 6. Pattern: The spatial arrangements of many
Roads. natural and man–made features show repetitive

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appearance of forms and relationships. The arrangements can easily be

identified from the images through the utilisation of the pattern they form.
For example, planned residential areas with the same size and layout
plan of the dwelling units in an urban area can easily be identified if their
pattern is followed (Figure 6.17). Similarly, orchards and plantations
produce arrangements of the same type of plants with uniform inter –
plant distances. A distinction can also be made between various types of
drainage or settlements if their pattern is properly studied and recognised.

Figure 6.17 Planned residential areas are easily identifiable using the
pattern they form

7. Association: The association refers to the relationship between the

objects and their surroundings along with their geographical location. For
example, an educational institution always finds its association with its
location in or near a residential area as well as the location of a playground
within the same premises. Similarly, stadium, race course and golf course
holds good for a large city, industrial sites along highway at the periphery
of a growing city, and slums along drains and railway lines.
89
Internet sources for more information:
• www.isro.gov.in
• www.nrsc.gov.in
• www.iirs.gov.in

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EXERCISE

1. Choose the right answer from the four alternatives given below
90 (i) Remote sensing of objects can be done through various means
such as A. remote sensors, B. human eyes and C. photographic
system. Which of the following represents the true order of their
evolution.
(a) ABC
(b) BCA
(c) CAB
(d) None of the above

(ii) Which of the following regions of Electromagnetic spectrum

is not used in satellite remote sensing.
(a) Microwave region
(b) Infrared region
(c) X - rays
(d) Visible region

(iii) Which of the following is not used in visual interpretation technique ?

(a) Spatial arrangements of objects
(b) Frequency of tonal change on the image
(c) Location of objects with respect to other objects
(d) Digital image processing

2. Answer the following questions in about 30 words.

(i) Why is remote sensing a better technique than other traditional
methods?
(ii) Differentiate between IRS and INSAT series of satellites.
(iii) Describe in brief the functioning of pushbroom scanner.

3. Answer the following questions in about 125 words.

(i) Describe the operation of a whiskbroom scanner with the help of
a diagram. Explain how it is different from pushbroom scanner.
(ii) Identify and list the changes that can be observed in the vegetation
of Himalayas (Fig.6.9).

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ACTIVITY

Identify various features marked on IRS IC LISS III imagery shown below.
Draw clues from the description of the elements of image interpretation
discussed and the colours in which various objects appear on a Standard
False Colour Composite.

91

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